Updated DIP UNIT1

EC 8093 - DIP UNIT-1 DIGITAL IMAGE FUNDAMENTALS
UNIT I - DIGITAL IMAGE FUNDAMENTALS
Steps in Digital Image Processing – Components – Elements of Visual Perception – Image

Sensing and Acquisition – Image Sampling and Quantization – Relationships between pixels -
Color image fundamentals - RGB, HSI models, Two-dimensional mathematical preliminaries,
2D transforms - DFT, DCT.
TWO MARKS
1. What is meant by digital image processing?
Processing of digital image f(x, y)by means of digital computer is known as digital image
processing. It can be defined as the process of analyzing and manipulating images using a
computer.
2. Give any four applications of digital image processing?

Digital image processing can be applied in the following fields:-
1) Gamma – Ray imaging
2) X – ray imaging
3) UV band imaging
4) Imaging in the visible and infrared band
5) Imaging in the microwave band
6) Ultrasound imaging
3. What are light receptors?

When the eye is properly focused, light from an object outside the eye is imaged on the retina.
This “Pattern Vision” to the eye is provided by the light receptors. These receptors are
distributed over the surface of the retina.
Two types of receptors are: 1) Cones and 2) Rods.
4. Differentiate between Rods and Cones.

Cones Rods
1) Number of cones in each eye is Number of Rods in each eye is from 75 – 150
from 6 to 7 million million.
2) They are highly sensitive to color They are sensitive to low levels of illumination and
are not involved in color vision.
3) Each cone is connected with its Many number of rods are connected to a common
own nerve single nerve.
4) Humans can resolve fine details Rods provide only a general, over all picture of the
with the use of cones view.
5) Cone vision is called photopic or Rod vision is called scotopic or dim – light vision.
bright – light vision
5. Define blind spot?(A/M 2021)

The area of eye in which there is no presence of light receptors (i.e.,) Rods and cones is called
the ‘blind spot’.
6. What is meant by focal length of eye?
The distance between the center of the lens and the Retina is called the focal length of the
human eye. It ranges from 14mm to 17mm.
7. Calculate the size of the retinal image for an object of height 3m at a distance 2.5 m
from the eye.
Solution: From the formula,

Focal length = 14mm; 3/2.5 = h/ 14 X 10-3
Size of the retinal image, h = 3 x 14 x 10-3 / 2.5
Ans: - h=16.8mm
8. What is Brightness Adaption? (NOV/DEC- 2012)

In digital image processing, the digital images have various intensities our eye should be able to
discriminate these intensities. The range of intensities to which the human being visual system
adapts is 10˚ degree for any set of conditions; the current sensitivity level of the visual system is
called as brightness Adaptation.
9. Elicidate sampling and quantization? (Nov/DEC- 2010)(N/D-17)(A/M-18)

Sampling is defined as the process of digitizing the co ordinate values (x, y). To be suitable
for computer processing an image function f(x, y) must be digitized both spatially and in
magnitude.
Quantization is defined as the process of digitizing the amplitude values (F).quality of
digital image is determined to a large degree by the number of sampled and discrete gray levels
used in sampling and quantization. These two processes are used to generate a digital image
from a continuous data.
10. Give the characteristics by which colors can be differentiated? Define Hue, saturation,
contrast, brightness (May/June-2010)
The three important characteristics which are used to differentiate one color from other are:-
1) Brightness: Brightness is a subjective descriptor of light perception that is practically

impossible to measure. The subjective brightness is the logarithmic function of light incident on
the eye.
2) Hue – Hue represents the dominant wavelength in a miniature of light waves. It also
represents the dominant color as perceived by the observer.
3) Saturation – Saturation refers to the relative purity (or) amount of white light mixed with
hue.
4) Contrast- the difference in intensity between the highest and lowest intensity levels in an
image.
11. What are tri stimulus values?

The amount of red, green and blue needed to form any color is called as tri stimulus values. It
is denoted by X, Y and Z.
Where x, y, z are tri chromatic coefficients.
12. How an image is represented in RGB color coefficients?

In RGB color model, all the colors appear in their primary spectral components of red, green
and blue. Therefore images represented in RGB color model consist of three component images,
one for each primary color. When these are fed into an RGB monitor. The three images are
combines to produce a composite color image.
13. State some advantage of HIS color model.

The advantages of HIS color model are:
1) It describes colors in terms that are suitable for human interpretation.
2) It allows independent control over the color describing quantities namely hue, saturation
and intensity.
3) It can be used as an ideal tool for describing image processing algorithms based on color
descriptions.
14. What do you mean by color model?

A color model is a specification of 3D – coordinate system and a subspace within that system
where each color is represented by a single point.
15. List color models involved in hardware and their applications? (NOV/DEC-
2011)(A/M-18) (or) List the application of color models (NOV/DEC-2018)
1) RGB model – used for color monitor
2) CMY model – used for color printing
3) HIS model – used for color image
4) YIQ model – used for color picture transmission.
16. Define resolution?

The smallest number of lines per unit distance is known as resolution. The spatial level
resolution of 2W image is known as minute detail of the image. The gray level resolution is the
minute change in the image and represented as 2K.
17. What do you mean by zooming and shrinking in Digital image? (MAY/JUNE-2011)
 Zooming results from oversampling and shrinking results from under sampling.
 Zooming produces large size of image and shrinking produces small size of image.
18. Define image?

An image is defined an s a two dimensional function f(x, y) that carries some information.
Where x, y – spatial coordinates and f is an amplitude at any point.
19. What is meant by pixel?

A digital image is composed of a finite a finite number of pixels. Pixels are small individual
elements of a digital image. It has a particular location and brightness value.
20. What are the steps involved in DIP?

The fundamental steps are as follows:
1) Image acquisition 4) Image compression
2) Image enhancement 5) Image segmentation
3) Image restoration 6) Image representation
21. What are the elements in DIP system?

1) Image sensors. 5) Mass storage
2) Specialized image processing 6) Image display
hardware. 7) Hard copy
3) Computer 8) Network.
4) Image processing software
22. Define Weber ratio?

It is given by Weber ration = ∆Ic/I
Where, ∆Ic= increment of illumination
 This is distinguishable 50% of the time with background illumination I. if the ratio is
small, then there is good brightness discrimination because of small percentage change in
intensity.
 If the ratio is larger, poor brightness discrimination because a large percentage of change
in intensity is needed.
23. What is meant by Mach band effect? (MAY/JUNE-2009)& (May 2015)(Nov/Dec 16)
Mach band effect proved that perceived brightness is not a simple function of intensity.
Although the intensity of strips is constant, we actually perceive a brightness pattern and are
called as Mach band effect. This is known an s Mach band effect.
.
24. What is simultaneous contrast? (NOV/DEC-2012)&(May 2015)

Low contrast images results from poor illumination and back of dynamic range in the imaging
sensors. This is also due to wrong settings of lens aperture during image acquisition. This
method of contrast stretching is to increase the dynamic range of gray levels in the image being
processed. The region reserved brightness not depends on its intensity but also on its
background. All centre squares have same intensity.
25. What are the main parts of eye?

1. Cornea and Sclera 2. Choroid 3. Retina
Receptors – 1. Cones 2. Rods
26. Draw the structure of eye or visual perception?
27. Define Cornea, Cataract and Sclera?

Cornea: It is a tough and transparent tissue which covers the anterior portion of the eye.
Cataract: The excessive clouding of the lens is referred as Cataracts.
Sclera: continuous of cornea which covers the remaining portion of eye.
28. Explain about choroid?

 It is directly below the Sclera.
 It consists of blood vessels which brings nutrition to the eye.
 It is highly pigmented which helps to reduce the amount of light entering into the eye.
 The anterior choroid is divided into ciliary body and eyes.
29. Distinguish between Scotopic and Photopic?(N/D-17) (NOV/DEC-18)

Photopic Scotopic
1. It gives fine details of image It gives low details of image.
2. It is also called as bright light vision. It is also called as dim light vision.
3. It has 6 to 7 millions of cones. It has 75 to 150 million or rods.
30. Define brightness and contrast (NOV 2011)& (May 2015)

Brightness is a subject to describes of light perception (i.e.,) practically impossible to
measure.
31. State the two important properties of unitary transforms [NOV 2013]
i) Energy compaction – few transform coefficients have large magnitude.
ii) Energy conservation – preserve the norm of input vectors.
32. Define dynamic range?

 The range of values assigned by the gray scale value is known as dynamic range.
 If dynamic range increases, contrast also increases so we bright image.
 If dynamic range decreases, contrast also decreases so we get dull image.
 The bits required it is, b = N2K
33. Define false contouring?[May 2013]

The effect of insufficient number of gray levels in smooth area of an image is known as false
contouring.
34. Define Aliasing?

If the function with unlimited duration is sampled at a rate equal to or greater than twice its
highest frequency then it is possible to recover the original image from its sample. The sampling
not followed the above condition aliasing is produced. Before sampling by reducing the higher
frequency components in the image, the aliasing will be reduced.
35. Define Moire pattern effect?

The effect of aliased frequencies can be seen under the right conditions in the form of moiré
pattern. Consider the two identical pattern of equally spaced vertical sheet. Two patterns are
rotating in opposite direction and superimposed by each other. Then the multiplication of two
images will give a new image.
36. Define nearest neighbor interpolation?
The assignment of gray level to new locations is given by gray level of the previous location.
This process is known as nearest neighbor interpolation.
37. Define pixel Replication?

The gray level is assigned to the enlarged pixel from the old pixel. This process is known as
“Pixel Replication”.
38. Define Chromaticity?

The combination of hue and saturation is known as chromaticity.
39. Draw the structure of RGB model?
In RGB model, each other appears in its primary spectral component of Red, green and Blue.
This model is based on Cartesian coordinates system.
The RGB values are at three corners. Cyan Magenta and Yellow are at other 3 corners. Black
isat the origin.
b Blue
40. Define Pixel depth?

The number of bits used to represent each pixel in RGB space is pixel depth. For example R,
G,and B images is an 8 bit image for each, so pixel depth is 24 bits.
41. Define safe RGB colors?

It is considerable interest to have a subset of colors that are likely to be reproduced faithfully.
This subset of colors is called as safe RGB colors.
In interest applications they are called as safe web colors. In 256 colors, 216 colors are safe
colors.
42. Define dithering? (NOV/DEC-2008)

While printing the image is obtained in dotted form.
Dithering is used to calculate large pattern of dots, so that the pixel values are subjected to
correctly represent the dark and bright pixel value.
43. Define Halftone printing?

Halftone printing means larger or smaller filled circles of blacking for new paper printing. It is
represented in matrix format as,
2X2 matrix form 4X4 matrix form
44. What are the components of digital camera?

The components of digital camera are,
1. Charge coupled device (CCD) 3. Memory or Recordable CDROM
2. A to d converter 4. Input / Output Interface
45. Define Hue and saturation [April 2011]

Hue: It also represents the dominant color perceived by the observer and the dominant
wavelength produced by the mixer of light rays. Red, blue and green color represent as hue.
Saturation: It refers to the relative purity or amount of white light mixed with Hue.
Pink=red+white
46. State 2D sampling theorem [Nov 2010]

A signal can be reconstructed from its samples if the original signal has no frequencies above 1/2
the sampling frequency. fs>=2fm
47. Define optical illusion [May 2013]

An optical illusion (also called a visual illusion) is characterized by visually perceived images that
differ from objective reality. The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give
a perception that does not tally with a physical measurement of the stimulus source.
48. Mention the difference between a monochrome and a grayscale image. [NOV 2013]
Monochrome Image Grayscale Image
Each bit is stored as a single bit as a ‘0’ or a ‘1’ Each pixel is stored as a byte with a value
between 0 and 255
49. Compare RGB and HSI color image models. [NOV 2014]
RGB Model HSI Model
RGB means Red, Green and Blue colour. HSI means Hue, Saturation, intensity of colour.
It represents color. It decides the type of colour.
It’s formed by either additive or subtractive It numerically represents the average of the
model. equivalent RGB value.
It’s subjective process. It’s objective process.
50. How to overcome the effect of false contouring?

False contouring can be held below the level of visibility by using the following two methods.
1. Contrast quantization
2. Pseudo random quantization (dither)
51. Define checker board effect? (Nov/Dec 16)

Checker board pattern or effect is a degradation that results due to the reduction is spatial
resolution. When lower resolution images are replicated to larger size, the pixel values are
replicated to fill the display area leading to checker board effect.
52. Find the intensity component value in HIS color model for Black RGB image.(A/M
2021)
Th e intensity components is given by
𝑅+𝐺+𝐵
I= where R – Red, G – Green, B - Blue
3
53. What is the function of an image sensor? (May/June 17)
 The purpose of the image sensor is to capture the light and convert it to electrical charges and
then to binary data.
 The image sensors employed by most digital cameras, a CCD (Charge Coupled Device) how
ever some cameras use Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) technology
used.
54. When is fine and coarse sampling used? (Or) Define the characteristics of image
sampling. (May/June 17)
To achieve highest visual quality and at the same time the lowest memory requirement, we can
perform fine sampling of an image in the neighborhood of sharp grey level transition and coarse
sampling in the smooth area of an image.
55. Define spatial resolution? How it is represent quantitatively?(APR/MAY-19)

Spatial resolution is a measure of the smallest discernible detail in an image. Suppose we
construct chart with alternating black and white vertical line, each of width W units. The width of
line pair is 2W, and there is %W line pair per unit distance.
56. What is the memory required to store a 512*512 RGB image of 8 bit resolution?
(APR/MAY-19)
Memory size = Horizontal pixels X Vertical pixels X resolution / 8 /1024
Memory Size = 5
PART-B [16 marks]

1. Explain the fundamental steps used in digital image processing.(A/M-18)(A/M-19)
Step 1: Image Acquisition

• In this step, the image is captured by a sensor (such as a monochrome or color TV camera) and
digitized, if the output of the camera or sensor is not already in digital form- an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) digitizes it.
o Camera: Camera consists of 2 parts:
 A lens that collects the appropriate type of radiation emitted from the object of interest and
that forms an image of the real object.
 Semiconductor device – so called charged coupled device or CCD which converts the
irradiance at the image plan into an electrical signal.
o Frame Grabber Frame Grabber only needs circuits to digitize the electrical signal (standard
video signal) from imaging sensor to store the image in the memory (RAM) of the computer.
Step 2: Image Enhancement

• Image Enhancement is the process of manipulating an image so that the result is more suitable
than the original for specific applications. Enhancement techniques are so varied, and use so
many different image processing approaches.
Step 3: Image Restoration

• Improving the appearance of the image.
• Tend to be mathematical or probabilities models of image degradation.
Step 4: Color Image Processing

• Use the color of the image to extract features of interest in an image.
Step 5: Wavelets:
• Used in image data compression and pyramidal representation.
Step 6: Compression
• Techniques Compression for o reducing the storage required to save an image.
o Reducing the size of the image to transmit it ("JPEG Standard"), with suitable bandwidth
required for transmission.
Step 7: Morphological Processing

• Morphological Processing are the tools for extracting image' components that are useful in the
representation and description of shape.
Step 8: Image Segmentation

• Computer tries to separate objects from the image background.
• It is one of the most difficult tasks in DIP.
• Segmentation kinds:
 Autonomous Segmentation.
 Rugged Segmentation (long process to get successful solution).
 Erratic Segmentation.
Step 9: Representation and Description

• Representation makes a decision whether the data should be represented as a boundary or as a
complete region:
o Boundary Representation focuses on external shape characteristics, such as corners and
inflections.
o Region Representation focuses on internal properties, such as texture or skeleton shape.
Step 10. Recognition and Interpretation

• Recognition is the process that assigns label to an object based on the information provided by
its descriptors.
Step 11. Knowledge base

• The Knowledge base also controls the interaction between modules. The knowledge about a
problem is coded into an image processing system in the form of a Knowledge base.
2. Briefly explain the elements or components of image processing system? Explain the
function of each element in details (N/D-12)&(N-14)(May/June 17)(N/D-17)(N/D-18)
1) Image sensors: For sensing digital image 2 elements are required.

a. A physical device – which is sensitive to the energy radiated by the object we wish to
image.
b. Digitizer:It is a device which is used to convert the output of the physical sensing device
into digital form. Example: In digital video camera, sensors output are electrical output and
digitizer converts it into digital form.
2) Specialized image processing hardware:

It consists of digitizer of hardware. The hardware consists of ALU, which performs the
arithmetic and logical operations on entire image in parallel manner. This type of hardware is
called as front end subsystem.
It special applications are speed, digitizing and averaging video image at 30 frames / sec.
3) Computer:PC or super computer is used. For application purpose, specially designed

computers may be used. The computer performs the image processing task.
4) Image processing software:

Software consists of modules that perform the specific task. It consists of well designed
package where the users write the code.
The system package allows the integration of the modules.
5) Mass storage:
It provides adequate storage of images, 1000 or million of images is stored. For example: if a
image of size 1024X1024 pixels in which the intensity of each pixel is a 8bit quantity, that
requires 1byte of storage space. It is possible in mass storage device.
There are three types of storage used in DIP.
i) Short time storage – for digital processing
ii) Online storage – for relatively fast recall.
iii) Archival storage – used for infrequent access. Example: magnetic tapes and optical disks.
6) Image display: Today image displays are TV color monitors, the monitors are driven by
the output of images. In some cases, it is necessary to have stereo displays.
7) Hard copy: It is used to record images. It includes laser printers, film cameras, heat
sensitive devices, ink jet printers such as optical and CD – ROM disk.
8) Network: It provides the required bandwidth needed for image processing.
3. What is visual perception model and explain. How this is analogous to a DIP
system.(NOV/DEC 2014) (OR)Explain in detail about the elements of visual perception or
elements of human visual system? (A/M 2021)
 Vision is the most advanced human sense. So images play the most important role in
human perception.
 Human visual perception is important because the selection of image processing technique
based on visual judgments.
Structure of the Human eye:

The eye is nearly in spherical shape. Its average diameter is 20mm. Three membranes enclose the
eye. Cornea and sclera outer cover. Choroid, retina.
Cornea: It is a tough and transparent tissue which covers the anterior portion of the eye.
Sclera: Sclera is the continuous of the cornea which covers the remaining portion of the eye.
Choroid:
 The choroid is directly below the sclera. It consists of networks of blood vessels which
bring nutrition to the eye.
 Injury to choroid is highly pigmented and helps to reduce the amount of light entering into
eyes and avoid backscatter into the eye.
 In the anterior of choroid is divided into ciliary body and Iris diaphragm.
 It is diaphragm varies in diameter 2-8 mm.
 The front of Iris has visible pigment of the eye and back contains black pigment.
Eye lens:
 The lens is made up of fibrous cells and it is suspended by fibers of ciliary body.
 The lens contains 60 – 70% water and about 6% of fat and more proteins.
 It is colored by yellow pigmentation that increases the vision of eye.
 Excessive dust deposition in the lens will commonly leads to cataracts. The cataracts lead
to poor color discrimination and loss of clear vision.
 The lens will absorb 8% of light visible spectrum of IR and UV rays are absorbed by
proteins of the lens.
Retina:
 The innermost membrane of the eye is retina.
 It occupies the posterior portion of the eye. When eye focus down the object the image is
formed in the retina.
 The vision is formed in the Retina due to reception in it.
There are 2 forms of receptor:

1) Cones 2) Rods
1) Cones:
 There are 6 to 7 million of cones which are located in the central portion of the Retina
called fovia.
 It is highly sensitive to color and gives fine details of the image because it is directly
connected to the nerve.
 This cone vision is called as photopic vision or bright – light vision.
2) Rods:
There are 75 to 150 million of Rods in the eye.
It gives only low details of the image. Because it is connected to single nerve. It is sensitive to
low levels of illumination. The Rod vision is known as scotopic vision or dim – light vision.
The area in which receptors are not present is known as blind spot.
Distribution of cones and Rods in the Retina:
 The cones are most dense in the center of retina.

 The Rods will increase in density from the centre 20˚ at the axis and decrease at the
extreme of the visual axis.
Image formation in the eye:
 The lens is controlled by ciliary fibers. The muscles of lens become thicker in order to
focus the nearer objects.
 Focal length – The distance between centre of lens and retina is known as focal length. The
focal length varies from 14 to 17mm.
Image formation:
 The eye focus the far objects the lens in the lowest refractive power. When the eye focus
the nearer object then lens has high refractive power.
 Let us take an example; a man is looking at a tree which is 15m height at distance of 100m.
 Let h – height of the object in Retina.

To calculate h:-
Perceiving an object:
Perception is done by the following steps.
1) The retinal image of height ‘h’ is reflected in area of fovea.
2) Then perception is done by excitation of receptors.
3) The receptors transform the radiant energy into electrical impulses.
4) These electrical impulses are decoded by the brain.
Subjective brightness:
The subjective brightness is the logarithmic function of light incident on the eye.
DIP SYSTEM:
In the human eye, the lens has a fixed focal length and focusing at various distance is achieved by
varying the distance between the lens and imaginary plane. The focal length needed to achieve
proper focus is obtained by varying the shape of the lens.
Brightness adaption and discrimination (DEC-2011)
1) Brightness Adaptation: (Adaptation – Adjustable for a new situation).

In digital image processing, the digital images have various intensities. Our eye should be able to
discriminate these intensities. The range of intensities to which the human being visual system
adapts is 10˚ degree. For any set of conditions, the current sensitivity level of the visual system is
called as Brightness Adaptation.
Subjective brightness:
 Brightness is a subjective description of light perception that is practically impossible to
measure.
 It is a key factor in describing color sensation.
 The subjective brightness is the logarithmic function of light incident on the eye.
In fig, the long curve ‘A’ represents the range of intensities that the visual system can adapt.
The short intersecting curve (B—C) represent the range of subjective brightness at that level.
Range of Brightness:
In photopic vision, the range is about 106. The transition from the scotopic to photopic
vision is gradual over the approximate range from 0.001 to 0.1 milliambert.
Brightness discrimination: (Discrimination – treat something in a different way).
The eyes ability to discriminate (i.e.,) differentiate various intensity levels is very
important in presenting image processing.
Experimental setup:
This setup is used to characterize the brightness discrimination.
The setup is a flat area which is a diffuser such an s opaque glass. It is illuminated by a light
source with a variable light intensity, I.
Case (i):
The intensity of the field is increase to an amount ∆I.
The total illumination of the field = I +∆I
Weber ratio: It is given by

 Where, ∆Ic – Increment of illumination which is distinguishable 50% of the time with
background illumination I.
 Small Weber ratio=> Good brightness.
 Large Weber ration => “Poor” brightness.
Let us consider a continuous image f(x, y)
 Where x, y – spatial coordinates, f – amplitude.
Case (ii) – In this case, the background illumination is kept constant and the other source
intensity is increase from very low to high range.
Mach Band effect:

Mach band effect proved that perceived brightness is not a simple function of intensity. Although
the intensity of stripes is constant, we actually perceive the brightness pattern that has strongly
scalloped bands called as Mach band. This effect is called as mach band effect.
The three basic quantities that are used to describe the quality of a chromatic light source.
They are: - 1.Radiance 2. Luminance 3.Brightness
4. With a neat diagram explain image sensing and acquisition and also explain image
acquisition using sensors arrays (Nov/Dec 16)(APR/MAY-18)
• Image creation based on two factors

• Illumination source
• Reflection or absorption of energy from that source by the elements of the “scene” being
imaged
• Imaging sensors
• Single imaging sensor
• Line sensor
• Array sensor
(i) Image Acquisition using a single sensor
 The most common sensor of this type is the photodiode, which is constructed of silicon
materials and whose output voltage waveform is proportional to light.
 The use of a filter in front of a sensor improves selectivity.
 An arrangement used in high precision scanning, where a film negative is mounted onto a
drum whose mechanical rotation provides displacement in one dimension.
 The single sensor is mounted on a lead screw that provides motion in the perpendicular
direction. Since mechanical motion can be controlled with high precision, this method is an
inexpensive (but slow) way to obtain high-resolution images.
(ii) Image Acquisition using Sensor Strips
 . Sensor strips mounted in a ring configuration are used in medical and industrial imaging
to obtain crosssectional (“slice”) images of 3-D objects.
 This is the basis for medical and industrial computerized axial tomography (CAT) imaging.
(iii) Image Acquisition using Sensor Arrays

 Illumination source reflected from a scene element
 Imaging system collects the incoming energy and focus it onto an image plane (sensor
array)
 Response of each sensor proportional to the integral of the light energy projected
 Sensor output: analog signal → digitized
CCD cameras: widely used in modern applications: private consumers, industry, astronomy…
CCD: Charge Couple Device
 CCD vs CMOS
 CCD: when exposure complete, transfers each pixel’s charge packet sequentially to a
common output structure, which converts the charge to a voltage, buffers it and sends it off-chip.
 CMOS imager: the charge-to-voltage conversion takes place in each pixel
(iv) A Simple Image Formation Model
 An image is defined by two dimensional function f(x,y). The value or amplitude of f at

spatial coordinates (x,y) is a positive scalar quantity. When an image is generated from a physical
process, its value is proportional to energy radiated by physical source.
 The function f(x,y) may be characterized by two components:

o The amount of source illumination incident on the scene being viewed and
o The amount of illumination reflected by the objects in the scene.
 These are called illumination and reflectance components denoted by i(x,y) and r(x,y)
respectively.
 The two function combine as product to form f(x,y): f(x,y)=i(x,y) r(x,y)
 Where 0 <i(x,y)< ∞ and 0 <r(x,y)< 1 r(x,y)=0 means total absorption r(x,y)=1
5. Explain any one of the Image acquisition devices.

5.1 Describe the working principle of operation of vidicon camera.(NOV/DEC-2014) (OR)
Explain in detail about the working of Vidicon camera? (NOV/DEC-2011)
The Vidicon camera is generally used in early 50’s. It is small in size and easy to operate.
Construction:
 It is made up of a cylindrical glass envelope.
 The envelope has an electron gun at one end and a faceplate at the other end.
 The glass tube is surrounded by a yoke which contains two coils, namely
1) Focusing coil
2) Horizontal and vertical deflection coils.
Working Principle:-
 In the above fig, the target is a thin photoconductive layer of either selenium or antimony
compounds.
 This is deposited on transparent conducting film on the inner surface of face plate. This
conductive coating is known as single electrode connected to DC supply through the load
resistance RL.
 The beam from the electron gun is focused on surface of photoconductive layer by combine’s
action of uniform magnetic field of external coil and electrostatic field of grid no: 3.
 Grid no: 4 provides deaccelerating field on the photoconductive layer so that the electron
becomes low velocity to prevent secondary emission.
 Deflection of beam for scanning target is obtained by vertical and horizontal deflecting coils.
Charge image:
 The photo layer has a thickness of about 0.0001cm.
 Before light falls on it, it behaves like an insulator with resistance of 20MΩ (dark).
 When light is focused the photon energy allows more electrons to go to conduction band.
When the right light falls, the resistance of that portion reduces to 2MΩ. Each point of the
gun side of photolayer varies with potential with respect to DC supply.
Circuit for output signal:
Storage action:
 Even though the light falls continuously on target, each element of photo coating is
scanned at interval equal to frame time.
 This result in storage action and change in resistance at any point of the photoconductive
layer depends on the time between two successive scanning and intensity of incident light.
 The storage time for all point in the target is same and proportional to the light intensity.
Signal current:
 After beam scans, the target plate it encounters the positive potential of gun faced
photolayer.
 Then sufficient numbers of electrons are deposited on the target.
 This sudden change of potential on each element while the beam scans causes a current
flow in the signal electrode of voltage is varied across RL.
 Consequently the output of RL is directly proportional to the light intensity variations.
Light transfer characteristics:

 Each current is for specific value of dark current (no light).
 The output of vidicon is 0.4μA for brightness and 0.02μA for dark current.
Applications:
 It is used in slides, pictures and closed circuit TV etc (fast movement).
 It has wide application in educations, medicine, industry, aerospace and oceanography.
 It is short tube with length 12 – 20cms of diameter 1.5 – 4 cm
 Its lifetime is between 5000 to 20,000 hours.
5.2 Explain in detail about the working principle of digital camera?(Nov/Dec 16)
Components of digital camera:
To use a digital camera, the object and shoot to capture the image is same as conventional
camera.
CCD – Charge Coupled Device

CCD array A to D Memory or Input /
Camera converter Recordable CD Output
lens ROM interface
The big difference is that the digital camera is not containing a role of film instead of it store
capture image in digital form.
The images are stored on a magnetic or optical disk.
Digital camera operation:

 Digital camera operates similar to a conventional camera.
 It has a series of lenses that focuses light to create an image of a scene.
 Instead of focusing this light onto a piece of film, it focuses it onto a semiconductor device
that records light electronically.
Capturing the image:

 The lens of digital camera focuses the image on a sensor.
 The purpose of the image sensor is to capture the light and convert it to electrical charges and
then to binary data.
 The image sensors employed by most digital cameras, a CCD (Charge Coupled Device) how
ever some cameras use Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) technology
used.
 Both CCD and CMOS sensors convert light into electrons. This process is similar to how solar
cells collect and convert sunlight to electrical energy.
Photo sites:-
 The sensor consists of an array of these “tiny solar cells” which are light sensitive spots are
called photo sites.
 Photo sites are usually square in shape and laid out in rows and columns.
 The size of photo sites ranges from 3 to 11.8 microns square.
 Once the sensor converts the light into electron, it reads the value of each cell in the image.
CCD:
A CCD transports the charge across the chip and reads it at one corner of the array.
ADC:
 An analog to digital converter then turns each pixel values into a digital value by
measuring the amount of charge at each photo site and converting the measurement to
binary form.
 The CMOS sensor uses several transistors to amplify and move the charge using more
traditional wires.
 The CMOS signal is digital, it needs no ADC.
Working principle:
 Although the principle may be same as film camera, the inner workings of digital camera
are different.
 The imaging being performed either by a charge coupled device (CCD) or CMOS
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) sensors.
 Each sensor element converts light into a vigil proportional to the brightness which is
passed into an ADC which translates the fluctuations of the CCD into discrete binary code.
 The digital output of ADC is sent to a digital signal processor (DSP) which adjusts contrast
and details, and compresses the image before sending it to storage medium.
 The brighter the light – the higher the voltage of the brighter the resulting computer pixel.
 The more elements – the higher the resolution of greater the detail can be captured.
 The CCD or CMOS sensors are fixed in place and it can go on taking photos for the
lifetime of camera.
Saving photos:
 PC serial port – now – USB mass storage used.
 Common method – used is cellular networks method is MMS (Multimedia service).
 Email attachment – send a picture.
 Card reader – several types of media – high speed transfer data.
Printing photos:
Thermal printer:
File formats:
Joint Photography Experts Group standard (JPEG), tagged image file format (TIFF), AVI, and
DV.
Batteries: Digital cameras have high power requirements, and overtime have become smaller,
resulting in an ongoing need to develop a battery to fit in the camera and to power it for a
reasonable length of time.
Uses:
Digital camera is a camera that takes video or still photographs, or both digitally by recording
images via sensor.
Many compact digital still cameras can record sound and moving video as well as still
photographs.
Digital cameras are of 35 mm film cameras.
Applications:-
With in the constraints of correct exposure various parameters can be changed including
exposure, aperture light metering, white balance and equivalent sensitivity.
Differences between digital and vidicon camera:

Vidicon camera Digital camera
Block diagram parts Block diagram parts
Working principle Working principle
Storage action Image capturing
Use of grids Use of CMOS & CCD
Uses Uses
Applications applications
6. Explain in detail about image sampling and Quantization?(Or)How the continuous image
can be converted into digital image using technique? (Or) Describe how image is digitized
by sampling and quantization & explain about checker board effect and false contouring
with neat sketch. Nov 11(MAY/JUNE-2011) (May 2015)(Nov/Dec 16)(OR) Explain in detail
about the phenomenon of image sampling. Illustrate how aliasing happen if sampling
theorem is violated (N/D-17)(APR/MAY-19)
To convert this continuous image into digital form we have to sample the function in both
coordinates and in amplitude.
Digitizing the amplitude value F is known as Quantization.
Let us consider a following continuous image AB.
The amplitude value of above figure corresponds to the line segment AB as shown below.
To sample above function, take equally spaced squares that is samples each is assigned by a
vertical tip marks.
The generation of digital image from the sensed data is done by converting sensed data into
digital form. This can be done by two processes.
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
To convert the continuous image f(x, y) into digital form a gray level is added to the right side of
the samples. Each sample assigns one gray scale value.
Then continuous image is converted into digital form image with various intensity levels.
The digitized image is given by,

Representation of digital:-
The digital image has ‘H’ rows and ‘N’ columns. The digital image is represented by,
Origin 1 2 3 . . . . . . . . . N–1 y
0
. . . . .
1
. . . . .
2
. . . . .
. One pixel
. . . . .
.
. . . . .
N-1
Image f(x, y)
x
The MxN digital image can be written in matrix form as follows:-
Enhancement of the matrix is called as image element or pixels.

Thus sampling is expressed as mathematical form as z and Quantization is expressed as R
Dynamic range:
 The values given by the gray level scale is known as dynamic range.
 If the dynamic range of pixel is high, then image will have high contrast. The image with
low dynamic range will have low contrast.
Spatial level resolution:
 The spatial level resolution of 2w image is known as minute detail of the image.
 A picture is divided into number of vertical lines. A pair of vertical line width is “1w” and
space between the vertical lines is “w”. Then width of the line pad is “2w”.
Resolution: the smallest number of lines per unit distance
Gray level resolution:-

It is the minute change in the image. The gray level is represented by L. it is given by 2K.
The number of allowed fray level value is 256.
For a 1024x1024 eight bit image, the gray level is not allowed. So the image is subsamples by
deleting the approximate number of rows and columns to get 512x512 image.
Aliasing effect:
 If the function with unlimited duration is sampled at a rate equal or greater than twice its
highest frequency. Then it is possible to recover the original image.
 If the sampling is not satisfied, then the function is under sampled then aliasing is
introduced in the image. The addition of all unwanted frequency components are called aliasing
frequencies.
Moiré pattern effect:
Consider a two identical periodic pattern of equally spaced vertical sheets as shown in the
figure above two patterns are rotating in opposite direction and superimposed by each other.
Then the multiplication of two images will give a new image. Hence the new image will
looks like a thin roof.
Zooming and shrinking:

Zooming results from oversampling, shrinking results from under sampling.
Zooming produces large size of image and shrinking produces small size of image.
Steps in zooming:
1. Nearest neighbor interpolation.
2. Bilinear Interpolation
3. Bicubic interpolation
7. Explain in detail about color image fundamental? (Or)Explain about various color
models in image processing? Write short notes RGB color model. What is HIS color model?
How an RGB image is converted into HIS? Explain(APR/MAY-19)
Color models:-
Definition:-
A color model is a specification of a coordinate system and a subspace within that system
where each color is represented by a single point.
The color model can also be called as color space or color system. It is used to specify the
colors easily in a standard and accepted way.
Classification:
1. Hardware – oriented color models: RGB – (Red, Green, Blue) model for color monitors
and color video cameras
– CMY (Cyan, Magenta, yellow) model.
– HIS (Hue, Saturation, Intensity) model.
2. Application – oriented color models.
– One example is the creation of color graphics for animation. RGB color model, all the colors
appear in their primary spectral components of red, green and blue.
Color image processing is divided into two major areas: full – color and pseudo color processing.
1. RGB model
2. HSI model
 In the first category, the images typically are required with a full – color sensor such as
color TV Camera.
 In the second category, the problem is one of assigning a color to a particular monochrome
intensity or range of intensities.
Chrome light:
Three basic quantities are used to describe the quality of a chromatic light source.
1. Radiance
2. Luminance
3. Brightness.
CIE: for the purpose of standardization, (commission international del’ Eclairage the
international commission on illumination) in 1931.
Valid values of RGB:
Blue = 435.8 nm, Green = 543.1nm, Red = 7.nm.
RGB color cube:
Red, blue green colors are at three corners and cyan, magenta and yellow (CMY) colors are at
three corners.
Black is at the origin. White is at the corner farthest from the origin.
All values of R, G and B are assumed to be normalized in the range [0, 1] and this color cube is a
unit cube.
Pixel depth:
The number of bits used to represent each pixel in the RGB space is called as “Pixel
depth”.
EG: - Pixel depth of each RGB color pixel
= 3x number of bits / plane
= 3x 8 = 24
Safe RGB colors:

 Many applications use only few hundred or fewer colors. Therefore most of the system in
use today is limited to 256 colors.
 Such systems can have a subset of colors which can be reproduced without depending on
the hardware capabilities of the system. This subset of colors is called the set of RGB colors or
the set of all – systems safe colors.
Applications:
The application of RGB color model is: - 1. Color monitors 2. Video color cameras
etc.
2). the HIS model: (May/June 17)

 Hue – A color attribute that describes a pure color.
 Saturation – A measures of the degree to which a pure color is diluted by white light.
 Intensity – A measurable descriptor of monochromatic images which is also called as “gray

level”.
Intensity axis:A vertical line joining the black vertex (0, 0, 0) and white vertex (1, 1, 1) is called
the intensity axis.
To find saturation:
All points on the intensity axis are gray which means that the saturation (i.e.) purity of
points on the axis is zero.
To find the Hue:-
If these points namely black, white and any one color are joined, a triangle is formed. All
points inside the triangle will have the same hue.
HIS color space:-
Green Yellow
white 60
Cyan Red
Blue
Magenta
Hexagonal HIS Color space

In the HIS space,
1. The primary colors are separated by 120°
2. The secondary colors are separated by 120°
3. The angle between the secondaries and primaries are 60°
Image format conversion:

1. Conversion of RGB to HSI:
Given an image in RGB color format, the H – component of each RGB pixel is obtained using,
The saturation component is:-
The intensity components is given by,

2. Conversion of HIS to RGB:
1. RG sector (0≤H≤120˚)
B = I (1-S) HSI Model
And G = 3I – (R+B)
GB sector: (120˚≤H≤240˚)
H = H - 120˚
RGB component is:-
R = I (1-S)
B = 3I – (R+G)
BR Sector: (240˚≤H≤360˚)
H = H - 240˚
G = I (1-S)
R = 3I- (G+B)
Advantages of HSI Model:-
1. They describe color in terms that are suitable for human interpretation.
2. It can be used as an ideal tool for describing image processing algorithms based on color
description.
Dithering:-Or (pseudorandom noise)

While printing the images, the image is obtained in doted form. Dithering is used to
calculate large pattern of dots so that the pixel values are correctly represents the darker and
brighter pixel values.
Replace the pixel value by large pattern

(i.e.,) 2X2 matrix or 4X4 matrix. This is used in Halftone printing.
It means that it uses smaller or larger filled circles of black ink for newspaper printing.
2X2 matrix dark pattern is given by
If pixel value is zero, we print nothing if pixel value is 4, we print all four dots. 4X4 dithered
matrix is given by,
Original image Dithered image
Detailed dithered version
Pseudorandom Noise Quantization:-

v’ (m, n)
u (m,n) + +
Є Quantizer K bits Є u’ (m, n)
+ - Display
Pseudo random Noise

uniform [-A, A]
Another method of suppressing contouring effects to add a small amount of uniformly distributed
pseudorandom noise to the luminance samples before quantization. this pseudorandom noise is
also called as “Dither”.
Hue and Saturation:-

Hue represents the dominant wavelength in a mixture of light waves.
It also represents the dominant color as perceived by the observer.
If we call the object as red, orange or yellow means that we are specifying its hue.
Saturation:-
Saturation refers to the relative purity or amount of white light mixed with hue.
Colors such as pink (red + white) and lavender (violet + white) are less saturated. The pure
spectrum colors are fully saturated.
Hue and Saturation together called as chromaticity.
The amount of Red, green and blue needed to form any color is called as Tristimulus values. It is
denoted as x, y and z
Where x, y, z are tri chromatic coefficients.
8. Explain the basic relationships between pixels? (NOV/DEC-2012)(NOV/DEC-18)

The basic relationships between pixels are: Connectivity, Region, Boundary, Edge, Distance
measures, Image operations on a pixel basis, Neighbors of a pixel, Adjacency, Path.
1. Connectivity:
Connectivity between pixels is a fundamental concept of digital image processing.
Conditions:
Two pixels are said to be connected if a) they are neighbors and b) their gray levels satisfy a
specified similarity criterion (Eg: if their gray levels are equal).
Definition:
Let ‘S’ represents a subset of pixels in an image.
Two pixels p& q are said to be connected in ‘S’ if there exists a path between pand q which
consists of all pixels in S.
Connected components:
For any pixel in S, the set of pixel that are connected to P is called as connected components.
Connected set:
If the pixel p has only one connected component then set S is called as connected set.
2. Region:
Let R represents a subset of pixel in an image.
If R is a connected set, it is called a region of the image.
3. Boundary:
Boundary is also known as border or contour.
The boundary of a region is defined as the set of pixels in the region that has one or more
neighbors which are not in the same region.
The boundary of the finite region forms a closed path. Therefore it is called as global
concept.
4. Edge:
Edges are formed by the pixels with derivative values that are higher than a present threshold.
Thus, edges are considered as gray-level or intensity discontinuities. Therefore it is called as local
concept.
5. Distance Measures(Nov/Dec 16)

For pixels p, q and z, with coordinates a distance function or metric if:
D(p,q)≥0, D(p,q) = 0 if p=q
D(p,q) = D(q,p), and
D(p,z)≤D(p,q) + D(q,z)
The following are the differentDistance Measures

1. Euclidean Distance (D
2. D4 distance (city-block distance)
3. D8 distance (chess board distance)
4. Dm distance:
6. Linear operation:
H is said to be a linear operator if, for any two images f and g and any two scalars a and b,
H (af  bg)  aH ( f )  bH (g)
7.Neighbors of a Pixel.
Three types of neighbors are defined for a pixel. They are
1. 4 Neighbors
2. D Neighbors
3. 8 Neighbors
8. Adjacency:
Two pixels are connected if they are neighbors and their gray levels satisfy some specified
criterion of similarity.
For example, in a binary image two pixels are connected if they are 4-neighbors and have same
value (0/1)
1. 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from v are 4-adjacent if q is in the set N4 (p).
2. 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from v are 8-adjacent if q is in the set N8 (p).
3. m-adjacency (mixed): two pixels p and q with values from v are m-adjacent if: q is in N4 (p)
orq is in ND (P)
9. Path:
A digital path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinate (x,y) to pixel q with coordinate (s,t) is a
sequence of distinct pixels with coordinates (x0, y0), (x1, y1), ..., (xn, yn), where (x0, y0)= (x,y),
(xn, yn)= (s,t)
9. Explain in detail about two Dimensional mathematical preliminaries?

An image is generally the output of two dimensional systems and the mathematical concept is
used in study of such system.
1. Notation and definition:-

 The continuous time one dimensional signal is represented as f(x), u(x), s(t).
 For two dimensional signals it is represented as f(x, y)
 One dimensional sampled signals will be written as: un, u (n) . . . . .
 Two dimensional Delta function is defined as,
 Dirac: δ (x, y) = δ (x) δ(y)
 kronecker: δ(m, n) = δ (m) δ (n)
For discrete function,
1. Linear systems and shift Invariance;-

Let x(m, n) and y(m, n) represents the input and output sequences of a 2D system written as,
y(m, n) = X[x(m, n)]
This system is linear if and only if the linear combination of 2 inputs x1(m, n) and x2(m, n)
produces the same combination of their respective outputs y1(m, n) and y2(m, n).
2. Types of impulse response:-

1. FIR 2. IIR
The system is said to be FIR or IIR if its impulse response are finite or infinite region of support.
x (m, n) x (Є) y(m, n)

The output of any linear system can be obtained from its impulse response.
Y (m, n) = X[ x(m, n)]
3. Shift invariant:
A system is called spatially or shift invariant if the translational of input causes translation of
output.
For a shift invariant system:-
4. Fourier Transform and Z – transform:-

Fourier Transform of the f(x) is defined as,
The inverse Fourier transform is given by,
Fourier transform of sequences:-
Z – Transform:-
5. Matrix theory results:

 1D and 2D sequences will be represented by vector and matrix.
 A column vector a containing N elements is denoted as u = {u(n)}
 A matrix ‘a’ of size MXN has M rows and N columns denoted by,
6. Row and column ordering:-

Row order vector is defined as,
Column order vector is defined as,
7. Transposition and conjugation rules:-
8. Teoplitz and Circulant Matrixes:-

The Teoplitz matrix is in the form
9. Circulant matrices:-
A matrix ‘C’ is called as circulant matrix. If each of its row and columns is the circular shift of
previous row.
10. Orthogonal and unitary matrices:-

An orthogonal matrix is such that its inverse is equal to its transpose.
11. Block matrices:-

Any matrix ‘a’ whose element is matrices themselves is called a Block matrix.
10. Describe in detail about the following:

1).2D – DFT (or) How do you obtain the 2D-DFT for a digital image? Discuss about the time
complexities. 2). 2D – DCT (OR) Explain the DFT and DCT 2D transforms in detail. (N/D-
2011) (A/M 2021)
An image is a spatially varying function. To analyze spatial variations is to decompose an image

into a set of orthogonal functions. The Fourier transform is used to transform an intensity image
into the domain of spatial frequency.
Definition:
Image transforms refer to a class of unitary matrices used for representing images. One
dimensional discrete Fourier transform (1D – DFT) .
Discrete fourier transform (DFT)

The differences of DFT over fourier transform are
i) The independent variables are discrete
ii) The discrete transform pair i.e. DFT and its inverse exist always.
The one-dimensional DFT

The fourier transform of a discrete function f(x) of one variable is given by
1 𝑁−1
F (u) = ∑𝑥=0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒−𝑖2𝜋𝑢𝑥/𝑁 for u= 0,1,2,……..N-1-------------------------- > (1)
𝑁
The original function f(x) can be obtained using the inverse DFT,
f(x) = ∑𝑢=0
𝑁−1 𝐹(𝑈)𝑒𝑖2𝜋𝑢𝑥/𝑁 for x= 0,1,2,……..N-1 ---------------------------- > (2)
The equation (1)&(2 )are discrete fourier transform pair.
The Two-dimensional DFT

The discrete fourier transform of a function (image) f(x,y) of size M N is given by

𝑢𝑥 𝑣𝑦
F(U,V) = 1 ∑𝑀−1 ∑𝑁−1 ( ) −𝑖2𝜋(
+ ) for u= 0,1,2...........M-1;
𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑒 𝑀 𝑁
𝑀,𝑁
v=0,1,2,…….N-1 -------------- > (3)
If F(U,V) is given, f(x,y) can be obtained via the inverse DFT, given by the expression
f(x,y) =∑𝑀−1 ∑𝑁−1 ( 𝑢𝑥 𝑣𝑦
𝑖2𝜋( + ) for x= 0,1,2 .......... M-1;
𝑈=0 𝑉=0 𝐹 )
𝑈, 𝑉 𝑒 𝑀 𝑁
y=0,1,2,…….N-1 ------------------ > (4)
When images are sampled in a square array, M=N and the discrete transform pair in equation (3)
& (4) become 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦
)
F(U,V) = ∑
1 𝑁−1 ∑𝑁−1 ( ) −𝑖2𝜋( for u, v= 0,1,2. . . . . .N-1; ----------------- > (5)
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑒 𝑁
𝑁 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
and
f(x,y) =∑𝑁−1 ∑𝑁−1 ( 𝑖2𝜋(
𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦
) for x, y= 0,1,2. . . . . .N-1; --------------------- > (6)
𝑈=0 𝑉=0 𝐹 𝑈, 𝑉 )𝑒 𝑁
The 1/N term is included in equation (6) to compensate for the removal of the same in equation 6)
Fourier spectrum, phase angle and power spectrum:

These are given to the continuous fourier transform as,
Fourier spectrum: |F(U, V)| = √𝑅2(𝑢, 𝑣) + 𝐼2(𝑢, 𝑣)
𝐼(𝑢,𝑣)
Phase angle:∅(u, v) = tan−1 [ ] -------------------- > (7)
𝑅(𝑢,𝑣)
Power spectrum: P(u,v)= |F(U, V)|2 =𝑅2(𝑢, 𝑣) + 𝐼2(𝑢, 𝑣)
Properties of DFT:
The properties are
i. Separablity vi. rotation xi. average value
ii. convolution vii. Periodicity xii. correlation
iii. Linearity viii. Conjugate symmetry xiii. sampling
iv. Translation ix. Distributivity xiv. Laplacian
v. modulation x. scaling
i) Separablity
i) 2-D DFT pair can be expressed in the separable form as F(U,V )
1 for u, v= 0,1,2...........N-1;
F(U,V) = ∑𝑁−1 𝑒−𝑖2𝜋𝑢𝑥/𝑁 ∑𝑦=0
𝑁−1 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑒−𝑖2𝜋𝑣𝑦/𝑁
𝑁 𝑥=0
𝑁−1 𝑒𝑖2𝜋𝑢𝑥/𝑁 ∑𝑁−1 𝐹(𝑈, 𝑉)𝑒𝑖2𝜋𝑣𝑦/𝑁

f(x,y) =∑𝑈=0 for x, y= 0,1,2 .......... N-1;
𝑉=0
ii) Convolution
It is an important fourier transform relationshipthat links the spaial and frequency domains.
Convolution in one domain is the equivalent of multiplication in other domain.
F[f(x,y)* g(x,y)] = F(U,V) G(U,V)
[f(x,y)* g(x,y)] = F-1 [F(U,V) G(U,V)]
[f(x,y)* g(x,y)] =𝐹−1 [F(U,V)* G(U,V)]
iii) Linearity property

F[a f(x,y) + b g(x,y)] = a F(u,v) + bG(u,v)
a f(x,y) + b g(x,y) = 𝐹−1 [a F(u,v) + b G(u,v)]
where a,b are constants
iv) Translation: It states that multiplying f(x,y) by the exponential term .if the image moved
from one place to another place, the resulting fourier spectrum changes with a phase shift but
the magnitude of the image remains same
𝑢𝑥0+𝑣𝑦0
F[f(x-x0, y-y0)] = F(U,V)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋( 𝑁 )
f(x-x y-y ) = −1[F(U,V) −𝑗2𝜋(𝑢𝑥0+𝑣𝑦0)
0, 0 𝐹 )𝑒 𝑁 ]
v) Modulation: If the image is multiplied by a complex, exponential value in a form of a

sinusoidal, its corresponding spectrum is shifted
𝑢 𝑥+𝑣0𝑦
𝑗2𝜋( 0 )
F[f(x,y)𝑒 𝑁 ] = F(u-u0, v-v0)
f(x,y) 𝑗2𝜋(𝑢0𝑥+𝑣0𝑦 −1 [F(u-u v-v ) ]

𝑒 𝑁 )] =𝐹 0, 0
vi) Rotation
This property states that rotating f(x,y) by an angle 𝜃0 rotates F(U,V) by the same angle and
rotating F(U,V) by some angle rotates by the same angle.
r=xcos𝜃, c=xsin𝜃, 𝑢 = 𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑠∅, 𝑣 = 𝑤𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
f(r, 𝜃 + 𝜃0)= [F(w, ∅ + ∅0)]
If the image is rotated by an angle𝜃 then F(U,V) is rotated by the same angle and viceversa.
vii) Periodicity
This property defines the implied symmetry of the fourier spectrum that results from certain
theoretical considerations.
F(U,V) = F(U+N,V)= F(U,V+N)= F(U+N ,V+N)
viii) Conjugate symmetry

The symmetry property shows that magnitude of the fourier transform is centered on the origin.
F(U,V)=F*(-u,-v)
ix) Distributivity
The fourier transform and its inverse are distributive over addition but not over
multiplication
F[f(x,y) +g(x,y)]=F[f(x,y)] +f[g(x,y)]
F[f(x,y) .g(x,y)]≠F[f(x,y)] .f[g(x,y)]
x) Scaling: The scaling properties of DFT when two scalars a and b are used
a f(x,y) =a F(u,v)
f (ax,by)= 1 F(𝑈,𝑉)
𝑎𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
xi) Average value: The average value is f(x,y)=1 𝐹(0,0)

𝑁
xii) Correlation
It is also an important fourier transform relationship which constitute a basic link between
spatial and frequency domains. it s denoted as o
Correlation theorem: It states that the correlation of two functions f(x,y) and g(x,y) in the
spatial domain is equivalent to the multiplication of the complex conjugate of the first function
with the second one in the frequency domain.
f(x,y)og(x,y) =F*(u,v)G(u,v)
And f*(x,y).g(x,y)=F(u,v)oG(u,v)
Types: i) Autocorrelation –if f(x) and g(x) are the same function
ii)Cross correlation-If f(x) and g(x) are different functions.
xiii) Sampling
It is defined as the process of dicretizing a continuous function.
xiv) Laplacian
It is used for outlining the edges of image.
2) 2D – DCT:-
The discrete cosine transform is also called cosine transform.it is mainly used for image
compression
Two dimensional discrete Cosine transform:-
MXN Cosine transform is defined as,
C = {c (u, v)}
The value of Cosine transform is
1 Dimensional Cosine Transform:

(2𝑥+1)𝑢𝜋
C(u) =α(u) ∑𝑁_1 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑠{ }
𝑥=0 2𝑁
Inverse Cosine transform is given by,

(2𝑥+1)𝑢𝜋
f(x) =∑𝑁−1 α(u)C(u)𝐶𝑜𝑠 { }
𝑢=0 2𝑁
2 Dimensional Cosine Transform:

2D sequence C(u,v) the Cosine Transform is given by,
(2𝑥+1)𝑢𝜋 (2𝑦+1)𝑣𝜋
C(u,v) =α(u)α(v) ∑𝑁−1 ∑𝑁−1 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝐶𝑜𝑠{ } Cos{ }
𝑥=0 𝑦=0 2𝑁 2𝑁
The inverse cosine Transform is given by

(2𝑥+1)𝑢𝜋 (2𝑦+1)𝑣𝜋
f(x,y) =∑𝑁−1 ∑𝑁−1 α(u)α(v) C(u, v) 𝐶𝑜𝑠{ } Cos{ }
𝑢=0 𝑣=0 2𝑁 2𝑁
1
α(u) (𝑜𝑟) α(v) = √ for u=0;x=0,………N-1
N
2
=√ for u=1, 2, 3; x=0….N-1
𝑁
Cosine transform is derived from fourier transform by assuming the function asmirrored about
orgin, making it is an even function which means symmetric about orgin
Properties:
1. Orthogonal property:
The cosine transform is real and orthogonal. C = C*, C-1 = CT
2. It is not the real part of unitary DFT. However the Cosine Transform of the sequence is
related to DFT of its symmetric.
3. Fast Fourier Transform:
The Cosine transform is calculated in O (N log 2N) operations.
It requires O (N log 2N) operations for odd and even sequences. But the operations of
summation of odd and even sequence into general sequence requires O (N2 log 2N)
operations.
4. It has excellent energy compaction for highly correlated data.
5. Basis image:The basis vectors of cosine transform are the eigen vectors of the
Symmetric Tridiagonal matrix is denoted by,
11. Find the DFT of N=4.

Solution:
Given that four samples are taken N=4
Step 1: Find the Discrete Fourier Transform:
The DFT of the function f(x) is given by,
𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒖𝒙
F (u) = 𝟏 ∑𝑵−𝟏 𝒇(𝒙). 𝒆− 𝑵 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒖 = 𝟎, 𝟏, … . 𝑵 − 𝟏
𝑵 𝒙=𝟎
U=0
F (0) =1 ∑3 𝑓(𝑥) [e0=1] =1 [𝑓(0) + 𝑓(1) + 𝑓(2) + 𝑓(3)]
4 𝑥=0 4
U=1
1 3 𝑗2𝜋𝑥
−
F (1) = ∑𝑥=0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒 4
4
1 𝑗0 𝑗2𝜋 𝑗4𝜋 𝑗6𝜋
= [𝑓(0)𝑒− 4 + 𝑓(1)𝑒− 4 + 𝑓(2)𝑒− 4 + 𝑓(3)𝑒− 4 ]
4
=1 [𝑓(0) + 𝑓(1)(0 − 𝑗) + 𝑓(2)(−1 − 0) + 𝑓(3)(0 − (−𝑗)]
4
=1 [𝑓(0) − 𝑗𝑓(1) − 𝑓(2) + 𝑗𝑓(3)]
4
U=2
𝑗4𝜋𝑥
−
F (2) =1 ∑𝑥=0
3 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 4
4
1 𝑗0 𝑗𝜋 𝑗2𝜋 𝑗3𝜋
= [𝑓(0)𝑒− 4 + 𝑓(1)𝑒− 4 + 𝑓(2)𝑒− 4 + 𝑓(3)𝑒− 4 ]
4
=1 [𝑓(0) + 𝑓(1)(−1 − 𝑗) + 𝑓(2)(1 − 𝑗) + 𝑓(3)(−1 − 𝑗)]
4
=1 [𝑓(0) − 𝑓(1) + 𝑓(2) − 𝑓(3)]
4
U=3
𝑗6𝜋𝑥
−
F (3) =1 ∑𝑥=0
3 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 4
4
1 𝑗0 𝑗6𝜋 𝑗12𝜋 𝑗18𝜋
= [𝑓(0)𝑒− 4 + 𝑓(1)𝑒− 4 + 𝑓(2)𝑒− 4 + 𝑓(3)𝑒− 4 ]
4
=1 [𝑓(0) + 𝑗𝑓(1) − 𝑓(2) − 𝑗𝑓(3)]
4
Step 2: The Fourier spectrum of discrete function is given by 4*4 DFT kernel is
𝐹(0) 1 1 1 1 𝑓(0)
1 1 −𝑗 −1 𝑗
(
𝐹(1)
)= ( ) l𝑓(1)
𝐹(2) 4 1 −1 1 −1 𝑓(2)
𝐹(3) 1 𝑗 −1 −𝑗 𝗁𝑓(3))
12. Determine the DCT matrix for N=4. [NOV 2013]
DCT for N=4
(2𝑛+1)𝜋𝑘
X(k) = α(K) ∑𝑁−1 𝑥(𝑛) cos 0≤ 𝐾 ≤N-1 -------------------- > (1)
𝑛=0 2𝑁
1
α(K) = √ if k=0
𝑁
𝛼
=√ if k 0
𝑘
for N=4
(2𝑛+1)𝜋𝑘
X(k)= α(K) ∑3𝑛=0 𝑥(𝑛) cos ---------------- > (2)
8
sub k=0,1,2,3
k=0
1
X (0) =√ ∑3 (𝑛) cos
(2𝑛+1)𝜋𝑘
4 𝑛=0 𝑥 8
= 1 ∑3 𝑥(𝑛)(1)
2 𝑛=0
= 1 [𝑥(0) + 𝑥(1) + 𝑥(2) + 𝑥(3)]
2
X (0) = 0.5 𝑥(0) + 0.5 𝑥(1) + 0.5 𝑥(2) + 0.5 𝑥(3)]
k=1
1
X (1) =√ ∑3 (𝑛) cos
(2𝑛+1)𝜋
2 𝑛=0 𝑥 8
1 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
=√ {𝑥(0) cos + 𝑥(1) cos + 𝑥(2) cos + 𝑥(3) cos
2 8 8 8 8
X (1) = 0.6532𝑥(0) + 0.2706𝑥(1) − 0.2706 𝑥(2) − 0.6532𝑥(3)
k=2
1
X (2) =√ ∑3 𝑥(𝑛) cos
(2𝑛+1)𝜋2
2 𝑛=0 8
1
=√ ∑3 𝑥(𝑛) cos
(2𝑛+1)𝜋
2 𝑛=0 4
1 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
2 4 4 4 4
X (2) = 0.5𝑥(0) − 0.5𝑥(1) − 0.5𝑥(2) − 0.5𝑥(3)
k=3
1
X (3) =√ ∑3 ( )
(2𝑛+1)𝜋3
2 𝑛=0 𝑥 𝑛 cos 8
1
=√ ∑3 (𝑛) cos
(2𝑛+1)3𝜋
2 𝑛=0 𝑥 8
1 3𝜋 9𝜋 15𝜋 21𝜋
2 8 8 8 8
X (3) = 0.2706𝑥(0) − 0.6533𝑥(1) + 0.6533𝑥(2) − 0.2706𝑥(3)
𝑋(3) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 𝑥(0)

𝑋(2) 0.6532 0.2706 −0.2706 −0.6532 𝑥(1)
( ) =( )( )
𝑋(1) 0.5 −0.5 −0.5 0.5 𝑥(2)
𝑋(0) 0.2706 −0.6533 0.6533 −0.2706 𝑥(3)

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EC 8093 - DIP UNIT-1 DIGITAL IMAGE FUNDAMENTALS

UNIT I - DIGITAL IMAGE FUNDAMENTALS

Steps in Digital Image Processing – Components – Elements of Visual Perception – Image

2. Give any four applications of digital image processing?

3. What are light receptors?

4. Differentiate between Rods and Cones.

5. Define blind spot?(A/M 2021)

Solution: From the formula,

8. What is Brightness Adaption? (NOV/DEC- 2012)

9. Elicidate sampling and quantization? (Nov/DEC- 2010)(N/D-17)(A/M-18)

1) Brightness: Brightness is a subjective descriptor of light perception that is practically

11. What are tri stimulus values?

Where x, y, z are tri chromatic coefficients.

12. How an image is represented in RGB color coefficients?

13. State some advantage of HIS color model.

14. What do you mean by color model?

4) YIQ model – used for color picture transmission.

16. Define resolution?

18. Define image?

19. What is meant by pixel?

20. What are the steps involved in DIP?

21. What are the elements in DIP system?

22. Define Weber ratio?

24. What is simultaneous contrast? (NOV/DEC-2012)&(May 2015)

25. What are the main parts of eye?

26. Draw the structure of eye or visual perception?

27. Define Cornea, Cataract and Sclera?

28. Explain about choroid?

29. Distinguish between Scotopic and Photopic?(N/D-17) (NOV/DEC-18)

30. Define brightness and contrast (NOV 2011)& (May 2015)

32. Define dynamic range?

33. Define false contouring?[May 2013]

34. Define Aliasing?

35. Define Moire pattern effect?

37. Define pixel Replication?

38. Define Chromaticity?

40. Define Pixel depth?

41. Define safe RGB colors?

42. Define dithering? (NOV/DEC-2008)

43. Define Halftone printing?

44. What are the components of digital camera?

45. Define Hue and saturation [April 2011]

46. State 2D sampling theorem [Nov 2010]

47. Define optical illusion [May 2013]

50. How to overcome the effect of false contouring?

51. Define checker board effect? (Nov/Dec 16)

55. Define spatial resolution? How it is represent quantitatively?(APR/MAY-19)

PART-B [16 marks]

Step 1: Image Acquisition

Step 2: Image Enhancement

Step 3: Image Restoration

Step 4: Color Image Processing

Step 7: Morphological Processing

Step 8: Image Segmentation

Step 9: Representation and Description

Step 10. Recognition and Interpretation

Step 11. Knowledge base

1) Image sensors: For sensing digital image 2 elements are required.

2) Specialized image processing hardware: