FOLK THEATRE – ANDHRA YAKSHAGANAM – ITS TRADITION AND

REFLECTIONS IN THE CLASSICAL DANCE FORM OF KUCHIPUDI

Prof. Maalyada K

Assistant Professor, School of Performing Arts and Indic Studies,

REVA University, Bengaluru, Karnataka

Abstract

India is an amalgamation of diversified cultures and traditions. The Folk arts are the mother from
where the classical forms of art have taken birth. It is the study of the Folk forms that gives a
clear idea about the history of the Classical form. This paper throws light on the Andhra
Yakshaganam folk tradition, its varied varieties, its history and its influence and reflections on
the Classical dance form of Andhra, The Kuchipudi.

Keywords

Yakshaganam, Kuchipudi, Bhagavathar, Folk Theatre, Andhra, Jakkula.

Introduction

Bharat is a land of varied cultures and traditions. With more than 2000 years of history, it stands
as an epitome of unified diversities. Often labeled as an amalgamation of several cultures, Bharat
or India is one of the oldest communities that ever existed. Traditional customs, tales, sayings,
dances or art forms are born, developed and preserved by the people. Folk theatre is a composite
art form with deep roots in the local identity and native culture. Living traditions occupy a
prominent place in the Indian social system. Any living tradition has a natural flow. There can be
no doubt about the fact that traditional art forms reflect the ideals of the society, its determination
to survive, its ethos and its emotions.

Since the ages, theatre has been serving the purpose of an artistic expression of human kind.
Theatre is the most common performing art form, which can be found in every culture. No
society that did not have a theatre of its own in some or the other form has ever existed. Theatre
is a showcase, a forum, a medium through which ideas, fashions, moralities and entertainments
of the people in a society are displayed and at the same time its conflicts, dilemmas and struggles
are negotiated. It is a dais for depicting political revolutions, social propaganda, civil debates,
religious rituals, mass education and even for its own self-criticism.

There must have originally existed all over the country simple forms of dance too. No part of the
world, no class of people can be without its own music and dance. Many indigenous forms of
dance existed and flourished side by side though they were simple folk art forms yet were
absorbed with the techniques of Abhinaya, Music, Rhythm and the appropriate dance patters as
detailed in the Sanskrit Natya Sastra. One such is an old variety of South Indian Dance drama
which was operatic in character and in which the puranic stories were enacted with dancing and
rendering of the musical dramatic themes in the language in the simplest manner with symbolic
gestures which could be easily understandable by the masses.

The folk theatre in Andhra with its multiple forms and techniques has been a major source of
public entertainment and also a medium to make emotional appeal to eradicate social evil
through the centuries. Many references about the Andhra Folk theatre are found in the old
Telugu Literature. 12th century poet Palkuriki Somantha mentions in his text Panditaradhya
Charitra, about the dramatic performances of the then artists in Srisailam during the period of
Mahasivarathri.

Andhra Yakshaganam:

Yakshaganam means Yaksha’s singing. In the Buddist cultures and their literatures we see a lot
of mention of the term Yakshas whom they meant were Neeti Pravaktas or Artists who preach
Good and Rakshaka Shakti or people who protect. The Buddhist influence on the Andhra region
is notable due to many of the Buddhist camps being in the Nagarjunakonda and Amaravathi
regions. May be because of this, the influence of the Buddhist literature and cultures was more in
Andhra. Yakshaganam is the name of a certain kind of musical drama. Yakshas are demi gods
like Gandharvas. In Andhra there flourishes a caste of people devoted to arts of music, dance and
drama called Jakkulavaru that started this Yakshaganam perhaps as a form of devotional singing
in regional meters at religious festivals. The different tribes of the same profession were also
Koravalu, Koyalu, Savaralu, Enadulu and they had their own traditions of art. Their performance
was majorly based on the folklore. Later came the themes which were based on mythology and
presiding deities. Yakshaganam soon developed into a full – fledged dramatic form. The regional
word Jakkula is sanskritised into Yaksha when their performances became elitist.

Yakshaganam is seen in all three languages of Telugu, Tamil and Kannada. But the emergence
of Yakshaganam in the Telugu Language is considered to be the oldest by the scholars. It dates
back to the 12th century as far as historical evidence is available.

“Keerthithuregani keerthi gandharvulu

Gaandharvamuna Yakshagana sarali”

– 3rd Chapter, 65th stanza, Bheemeshwara purana by Srinathakavi, 12th century AD.

A traditional composite form of Telugu folk Yakshaganam is the musical play sharing the
characteristics of the opera and the ballet combined in one presentation. It originated in Andhra
and was later patronized in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and enjoys an eventful history of more
than seven centuries. More than 800 works were produced by 465 authors. Of these 542 are
available, some in print and the others in manuscript. The Tamil name Teerukothu, Kannada
Bayalata, Telugu Veedhi Natakams were all forms of the Yakshaganam. Yakshaganam, Veedhi
Natakam, Bhagavatham are sometimes used synonymously in the art world. Though at some
points they seem similar, there are a lot of differences that they have from the performance
perspective.

Sourabha Charitam that belonged to the 15th century was written by Proluganti Chenna Suri was
the first Telugu Yakshaganam that was ever composed but unfortunately now unavailable. This
Yakshaganam was patronized by King Narasimha Raya of the Vijayanagara Dynasty. This was
also not performed anywhere. However the earliest Yakshaganam was Sugriva Vijayam of
Kandukuri Rudrakavi belonging to 1568 AD. The first Yakshaganam that was available in the
Karnataka region was “Ganga Gowri Vilasam” by Peddakempa Gowda which was written in
Telugu language between 1513-69 AD. Tamil Yakshaganams belong to 17th century onwards.

Vipranarayana Charita by Chakrapuri Raghvacharya , Akkamahadevi Charitra by Paapamba,

Vishnumaya Vilasam by Kankati Paaparaju, Ambikavaadam by Appakavi were some of the very
first Yakshaganams that gained popularity during those times.
We also see in the Nritta Ratnavali of Jayapasenani that belonged to the Kakatiya period(13th
Century) that the position of the dance or Nritta was much higher than the dramas. Since the
dramas were played by the local men with less Sastra in it, it had to probably stay in the streets
than enter the temples.

Actually speaking, the Yakshaganam has nothing to do with the dance aspects. It was only an art
of singing. Later during the 16th century the flavor of the dance was added. The deterioration of
the Art occurred and the responsibility to uplift it was taken up by the Brahmin Bhagavathars
who added the Sastric flavours to the folk forms. The concept of classicism entered the
repertoire of Yakshaganam after the Brahmin Bhagavathars of Kuchipudi took it seriously. The
dos and the don’ts were clearly defined for a clean presentation. Inscriptions of the 8th, 9th and
10th centuries reveal that in Andhra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, a variety of theatrical diversions
composed of music, dance and drama known as Brahmana Bhagavatha mela existed. The
Brahmin exponents of the Bhagavatha Mela shaped the Yakshaganam into a more stylized form
conforming to the tenets of the Natya Sastra. They gave a new life to the Yakshaganam of the
succeeding generations and were responsible for evolving a new type of Yakshaganam.

Stages in the development of Yakshaganam:

In the history of Yakshaganam there are three stages:

1. Singing stage – the story would be sung by the performers. The aim was to pray either the
Gods or the Mythological heroes or the Local heroes.

Eg: jakkula Purandhari in Kridabhiramam.

2. Samvada Roopakam Stage – All major poets took Yakshaganam seriously. Till then only
individual local people used to compose and sing these.

Eg: Sugriva Vijayam

Padya- Samvada-Dwipada-Geya-Sandhi Vacahana, all these entered the Yashaganam in this

stage only. Burrakadha, Harikadha, where only one performer will sing these lines standing by
showcasing expressions comes under this stage.
 3. Yakshagana Natakam – This came into existence during the 17th century Nayaks rule.
The Yakshaganam took some inspiration from the Veedhi Natakam.

The golden period for the Yakshaganam was during the rule of Vijaya Raghava Nayaka who
himself also composed some Yakshaganams in the year 1633-73. Kuravanjis also got a lot of
prominence. After the Tallikota War in 1565 AD and the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, the
Andhra kings founded their rule in the Southern parts of India. Tanjavur became the chief centre
of their culture. Naturally scholarship of the Andhras flowed into the Tanjore under the
patronage of the Nayaks. Brahmin Bhagavathars from the Kuchipudi village have migrated to
Tanjavur and settled there in a place called Achyutapuram that was under the rule of Achutappa
Nayaka. This Achyutapuram is now called Melattur. The language was Telugu, rulers were
Maharashtra Nayaks and the land was Tamil. Thus Yakshaganams evolved into as a Triveni
Sangamam of three cultures. The traditional Andhra opera had won great popularity in the South.

Yakshaganam in Andhra and Kuchipudi Bhagavathars:

Meanwhile in the Andhra region the Yakshaganam was deteriorating due to the invasions of the
Muslim rule and the Bhakti movement gained prominence. Narayana teertha who belonged to
the village called Kaza in the Krishna District of Andhra migrated to Tanjavur for the patronage
of the Nayaks and composed a Yakshaganam/Opera called Sri Krishna Leela Tarangini and
started the Krishna Bhakti cult from the Andhra region. The compositions of Narayana teertha
called Tarangams were later used in the Kuchipudi yakshaganams and now also in the solo
repertoire of the Kuchipudi dance form where Tarangam is the most important item.

His disciple Siddendra Yogi came to Andhra with these ambitions and composed another
Yakshaganam in a Kalapam style called Bhama Kalapam that became the one point identity for
the Kuchipudi Brahmin Bhagavathars later. Siddendra Yogi encouraged the Brahmin community
to take up the Yakshaganams to a higher level of perfection. Even the women roles were taken
up by the men for the society to remain uncorrupt. These performances were known as Ata
Bhagavathamulu which were the next stage in the evolution of the opera following that of the
Jakkula and Kuravalu.

The Kuchipudi Brahmin Bhagavathars took this Yakshaganam to another level by adding the
Sastric inputs to the raw presentations of the earlier versions and used the Yakshaganams for
social causes to drive out the evils in the society. The best example for this is the Machupalli
kaifiyat that belonged to the 16th century AD where the Kuchipudi Bhagavathars presented the
Bhama Kalapam for the King Veera Narasimha Raya and along with this also presented the bad
deeds of Sammeta guruava raju, a local head who was torturing people for extra taxes. The king
seeing the play came to know about this and punished the accused. Also in the year 1685 AD the
Kuchipudi Bhagavathars presented the Bhama Kalapam in the presence of the then Golconda
Nawab Abdul Hasan Tanisha and got the village of Kuchipudi as a gift for their families.

Reflections of Yakshaganams in Kuchipudi:

In the North Andhra during the 18th century many troupes emerged that played the
Yakshaganams like the Ghattudesapuvari Melam, Lepakshi vari melam, Vemulapallivari melam,
Swamyrayakavivari Melam, chukkaluruvari melam, Dhenukondavari melam, Santhaveluruvari
melam, Tatikantrivari melam, Bhagavthula raghavyyavari melam. All the performers who
belonged to these melams or troupe were great scholars in both Telugu and Sanskrit and had
great Sastra knowledge. They performed the Yakshaganams by travelling from one place to the
other like nomads.

In folk theatres like Yakshaganam the actors sometimes start describing their own role which is
usually not seen in the classical theatre. This way of the actor describing and introducing is seen
in the Yakshaganam which was adopted by the Kuchipudi dance style. This is a salient feature of
the Yakshaganam and Kuchipudi which is called Daruvu or a Dhruva that is mentioned in the
Natya Sastra’s 23rd and 24th stanzas. Of the 5 types of Dhruvas mentioned in the Natya Sastra the
first one is a Pravesha Dhruva where the character introduces themselves while entering. This is
till date followed in the Kuchipudi Dance tradition.

The real reflections of Yakshaganam characteristics in the Kuchipudi dance is the artha padyas
where half verses are Padyas and the later half song with taala come into existence. Another
important aspect of Yakshaganam was that during the beginning of the play the Ganesha stuti or
the Saraswathi stuti, the performers used to come in the get up of that particular Gods and used
to bless the artists and the audience and leave. This is still followed in the Kuchipudi dance
tradition.
Yakshaganas major emphasis is on group activity which was new to Kuchipudi back then.
Kalapams are usually one man shows with a maximum of three people. There is not much of
physical movement in the Kalapams then. But active stage movements are central to
Yakshaganams. So the new techniques were brought into the Kuchipudi Dance form through
Yakshaganams for more public appeal and entertainment.

Another major inspiration that still exists is that all actors are expected to dance first within the
curtains for some time before they enter, then while entering and thirdly while the song is sung in
the Andhra Yakshaganam tradition. The dance within the curtains that is held by two people for
some time is still seen in the Kuchipudi presentations. There are Sabdams in the Yakshaganams
were the Kings would be praised with the words like Paraku or Salaam(this was used during the
muslim rule). These Sabdams were later used for Solo items in Kuchipudi dance repertoire.

There has been a constant search for newness among the Kuchipudi artists either to better their
existing performance opportunities or to innovate or adopt new art forms to fulfill their creative
and financial urges. This is evident from their compulsive choice of Yakshaganam as a means of
expanding repertoire. Yakshagana Pitamaha Guru Sri Chinta Venkata Ramayya and Hari
Madhvayya together produced eight Yakshaganams in the Kuchipudi style like Prahlada
Charitam, Usha Parinayam, Mohini Rukmangada, Rama Natakam, Gaya Natakam, Sasirekha
Parinayam, Rukmini Parinayam and Harishchandra. With less narrative and descriptive elements
and more dramatizations with several characters taking a story to its climactic conclusion, the
Yakshaganam bought to Kuchipudi by Chinta venkata ramayya and Hari Madhavayya was an
instantaneous success. Taking stories from Mythology and choosing themes that had already
become stunning success on the theatrical stage, Kuchipudi Yakshaganam was different from all
those models since it concentrated more on dance movements, rhythmic jathi variations and
powerful scintillating daruvus and strong character portrayals.

If we look at the ragas of the Yakshaganams, the major ones used are Mohana, Kalyani,
Bhairavi, Nata, Pantuvarali, Thodi etc., which are also the major ragas in the Kuchipudi.

Conclusion:

The Yakshaganams made two types of note worthy contributions to the development of
Kuchipudi. For the first time new plays were being composed and set to music and a thought
process started which provoked the artists to struggle for propriety – both in presenting the
various sequences and also in character portrayals. This naturally resulted in different kinds of
artists specializing in different roles. Secondly, the more or less rigid format of a sringara
oriented play or a philosophical centered play was replaced with short episodes of varying
emotions which in later years led to further relaxation of rigid formulation and eventually to
newer and shorter forms of expression.

The important aspect of the Yakshaganam is their structure which made it adaptable for any form
of Performing Arts. It always seem that the classical arts and the folk forms have a lot of
distinction between them, but, when observed closely, they are the children of the same mother
where in the Folk being the eldest and the Classical being the Younger sibling. The Classical arts
and they becoming more important for the arts to get a respectful seat in the Art pantheon may be
for political obligations or the change in the taste of the audience, it is true that the importance of
the folk arts has decreased, but no matter at what age or period one classical form is, it is always
because of the roots that the folk arts have laid that the classical art forms are enjoying now.

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