Indian Classical dance and Other Fine arts

Fine arts in the form of dance, music, painting, sculpture or architecture have a
great power of captivating the attention of human beings of diversified interests
and tastes. What the thousand words cannot communicate, dance hand gestures
or few lines and colours create a great sense of visual impact of everlasting
nature. Many philosophical or religious paradoxes that are found extremely
difficult to touch the minds of people are conveyed with ease through the
medium of art. Every culture in its formative stages have applied the visual and
performing art forms to communicate the complex ways of religion and thereby
brought the followers into the fold of collective consciousness. The art would
take the people to a state of well being which could motivate them furthering
the cause of human progress.

Indian art in the form of dance, music, theatre, poetry, painting, sculpture,
architecture have evolved through the centuries in complementing each other. It
would be unfair to reason out the evolution of these arts in a chronological
manner because it is not possible to say which art came first and which followed
the other. In fact compartmentalisation of art forms as seen in the study of
western art has not been the approach for studying Indian art. It is sure that
certain factors are common to all art forms like rasasutra, the aesthetic delight,
thematic application and following of textual sources etc.
There is a story in the Vishnudharmottara Purana where a disciple approaches
a teacher for instruction in painting: but the teacher directs him first to learn
music and dance before trying to learn painting because the three arts are
intimately interrelated. The common or identical goal of these arts have been
pointed out as mimesis of the affairs of all three worlds namely earth, heaven
and the netherworld. This instance over and again refers to one point that in
India dance cannot be isolated from other arts.
 1. Dance and Temple Architecture:

The exploration of this nature of Indian arts is successfully implied in the

integral formation of Indian temple architecture. When viewed in totality
temples in India can rightly be considered the cradle of Indian art forms and
they stand testimony to our great cultural heritage. When a comparison made
with the Indian temple to the western religious edifices (a building), the essence
of Indian artistic spirit springs up.

Manasara, the manual of Indian temple architecture speaks about the aesthetic
principle of the integral architectural form that was cherished on Indian soil.
The aesthetic values grasped through integrating the other arts along with
architectural principles. When the height is equal to breadth, the category
is santika or restful, when the height is one and one-fourth of the breadth of the
base it is paushtika or strong: when it is one and half times, it is jayada or
triumphantly affirmative, when it is one and three-fourth it is dhanadaka or
affluent rich. The last category is where the height is twice or more of
the breadth is called adbhuta or marvellous or sublime2. The key principle of
eternal creativity is the adbhutarasa. The responsive effect of it is the aesthetic
delight that the creator and the viewer become one in the shared experience.
Unless ‘diversity in unity’ is the directive principle of the creative process
where interrelationship of arts is not realised the Indian artistic expression falls
short to experience the sublimate for which the ethos of temple architecture
stood for millenniums.
The construction of the Buddhist, Jaina and Hindu temples, either structural or
rock cut in highly naturalistic surroundings made these monuments enshrouded
with sculptures more beautiful and meaningful. Though iconographic texts were
the basis for Indian architecture and sculpture, consideration of beauty was the
overriding factor. The artists were given the maximum freedom to render
aesthetic creations encouraged the artists to create sculptures in stone and in
metal to portray the elements of beauty to evoke rasa in the onlookers. But for
the enchanting, beautiful and varied poses of dance, Indian sculptures and their
placement in the architectural space would have become monotonous with the
repetition of the same bhangas. Thus the artist very intelligently made use of
dance in his sculptural art and thereby enriched not only his medium of
expression but also the art of dance. This made Indian architecture and sculpture
inseparable from dance. Indian temple architecture houses hundreds of
sculptures exhibiting the musical instruments and the techniques of dance as
prevalent in the respective period. Any attempt at reconstructing a history of the
classical dance in India, therefore would rely not only on dance texts and
commentaries down from Bharata’s Natyasastra but of necessity delve deep
into what was preserved in the practicing tradition of preceptors as well as
dancers. Continuous cross references to sculptural material would be absolutely
necessary for understanding Indian dance3.

It is clear that the architects and sculptors from ancient times had a thorough
knowledge of Indian classical dance forms and it would be almost impossible to
find defects in the dance poses from the technical point of view. In other words,
the sculptors and painters had a good knowledge of Natyasastra, Sangita
Ratnakara and other texts and they based their artistic creations on these texts,
which speak, of technically superb presentation. However it has to be
emphasised that all these dancing sculptures are not aesthetically similar in
qualitative expression because in this respect they depend upon the capacity of
the sculptor or the painter to express himself in his chosen medium4.
It is interesting to note that an inscription of the 8th century A.D., describes in
glorious terms a famous actor named Achalan. On the rear side of a pillar in

the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal (Early Chalukyan capital of 8th century

A.D., in the northern part of Karnataka), there is an inscription consisting of two
Sanskrit verses in praise of Achalan Bharata5. He had studied
Bharata’s Natyasastra in detail and knew everything about the technique of
drama and acting. He was both a dancer and an actor (Nartaka and Natya). This
inscription throws light on the popularity of Bharata’s Natyasastra in the
southern region. It appears that he was also the author of a work on dramatic
compositions and had his own style of dancing. The Pattadakal male dance
figures were sculpted with the inspiration of Achalan’s performance in the
temple.
 2. Indian Dance and Painting:

Painting is a two dimensional art, expressive because of the colours. In India

early representation of paintings is well documented in the pre-historic sites like
Bhimbedka and surrounding areas. The graffiti on the pottery of Indus valley is
the next developed phase of understanding the sketching of human forms in
action. Human figures in continuous movements are drawn on the walls of the
pre-historic caves indicating dance figures in line drawings.

Paintings as an art form and pictorial statement are the outcome of the aesthetic
temperament of Gupta-Vakata period during 3rd to 5th century A.D. The cave
paintings of Ajanta proved to be one of the greatest phase of significance for the
techniques and vibrancy of expression in the history of world painting. Rhythm
echoes on the walls of Ajanta through chitra starting from chouri bearer to
Bodhistva Padmapani, every figure is coated with the force of the rhythm,
elegant poise and spontainity in movements and emotions. Among the fabulous
paintings, a dancing scene from Cave I, Mahajanaka Jataka draws a special
attention. This is a circular composition where the dancer is the centre of
attraction, she is in a position of intermediary movement and the artist has lent
fluidity in the posture. The head gear, curved hands, angular bending of knee
and waist indicate a circular movement, in all it associated with the present
odissi form of dance. Another depiction of dance in Ajanta painting is in the
scene of the Temptation of Buddha where the dancers have acquired swastika
positions with kapitha hastas. This posture is identified with Baddhachari of
Natyasastra finally emerged as an avahitta sthanka a standing posture
for nayikas, divine beings like Parvati, Lakshmi and other Devanganas.
Followed by Ajanta two dance sequences in Bagh cave paintings of 5th Century
A.D. represent a Hallisaka composition one of the popular form of dances of
those centuries often mentioned by Bharata in his Natyasastra. In both the
groups a set of six female dancers have encircled a male dancer. Bharata
discusses in detail about four vrttis the mood or atmosphere which is
characterized by different kinds of action, viz, Bharati, sattvati,
arabhati and kaisiki. These vrttis are derived from four
Vedas, Bharati from Rig-Veda, Arabhati from Atharvaveda, Sattvati from
Yajurveda and kaisiki from Samaveda. Vasudeva Sharan Agraval feels that
these four styles were connected to four regions namely Bharati belongs to the
region of Bharata, Kurukshetra, Sattvati belongs to the region of yadavas of
Sourashtra, kaisiki to Krathakasika or Vidarbha and arabhati to the
country Arabhatas or the region of south Baluchisthan, inhabited by the people
called arabhatas. This was the border of Bharatavarsha, Abhinavagupta also
follows the view of Bharata and describes the various dance forms existed even
in 9th century A.D. as dombika, Bhana, Prasthana, Bhanika, Prerana,
Ramakrida, Hallisaka and Rasaka. They were considered as nrttatmaka
prabandhas which means dance compositions.
The impetus given for performing and visual arts throughout India during Gupta
age was so strong and so integrated that the principles it established persisted
for a long time and contributed for the flowering of later styles. The cognate
styles are mainly drawn from Gupta idioms in dance and paintings with little
changes due to regional influences. The paintings of court dancers and
musicians adorn the interior wall spaces of Badami Vaishnava and Sittanavasal
caves, Brihadeswara, (Tanjore), Virupaksha and Virabhadara temples (Hampi
and Lepakshi respectively). The miniature schools of paintings epitomised
dance and music in the form of nayikabhava, Gitagovind,
rasaleela and ragamala painting series, eternally depicting the glimpses of
imagery which has finally harmonised all art forms including literature.
The Gita Govinda of Jayadeva and the Ramayana has been illustrated both in
the Basohli and Kangra styles. In all traditions of Indian classical dance Gita
Govinda occupies a significant place and the abhinaya is rendered as depicted in
the paintings. Keshavadas wrote Rasikapriya in A.D 1591 on the theme
of ashtanayikas, the eight types of heroines as discussed in Natyasastra. The
artists of pahadi schools painted this theme so vividly that they are known as
nayika paintings and they have direct parallels to the ashtanayika abhinaya in
dance. The nayika paintings from Kangra bear the inscribed text
from Rasikapriya.

3. Dance and Sculpture:

Human body is best exposed to express movements and variegated stances in

sculpture by applying dance techniques. The dual arts of dance and sculpture
were put to best use and implied in an awe inspiring way by the architects of
temples up to the 13th century in north and 16th century in south India. The
institution of temple dancing from the earliest times perhaps inspired the
sculptors to create dancing sculptures. They have crystallized the existed forms
of dancing through the enchanting images. The temple sculptures all over India
exhibit the Marga tradition (the early style) adhering to Natyasastra system,
which was in vogue up to 10th century A.D.
The first occurrence of dance in sculptures is visually recorded in the
processional scenes in the panels of Bahruth in 2nd century B.C. where the
dancers are leading a Buddhist procession. In one panel there are two dancers
holding their hands high in pataka hasta as if they are heralding the banner of
Buddhism and the other hand in pataka keeping close to their ears. Their facial
expression and neck positions show that they are singing in a high pitch and
their foot position show kshipta nee in movement. They are supported by
musicians with urdhva drum, a harp like stringed instrument, a cymbal player
and another musician with a string instrument. This panel must be the first again
to consider as source for the study of musical instruments in India. In the other
panel four dancers are in a movement with similar hand gestures and supported
by musicians. In south India the beginning of the plastic arts is attributed to the
Shatavahana period. A pillar medallion of Amaravati is a good example for
the shrnkahala of pindibandha( one of the type of group dance where the
dancers hold their hands or waist and move around by using cross-legged
movement) as
discussed in Bharata’s natyasastra. Here three dancers hold each other dancing
with cross-legged position.
The agamas chant in praise of dancing Shiva, the Nataraja. The sculptors
captivated Shiva, in his elemental state, as the creator of eternal cosmic energy
who was beyond the temporal boundaries of time and space. They visualised
him dancing continuously with perfect balance and ever transcendent in His
creative content. This divine form of dancing Shiva filled the power of ideation
of sculptors, dancers and the devotees alike. He is the source of cosmic
harmony and rhythm animated in three aspects of dance. The destructive –
the tamasa aspect of Bhairava, The Yogic – The divine dance of twilight
performing on the Mount Meru and lastly the gift-giving – here Shiva dances in
the form of Nataraja in the hearts of His bhaktas, by killing their ignorance and
lifting them to the path of Divyajnana, the enlightenment. This is the gift giving
aspect to mankind.
The origin and development of classical dance is strongly associated with the
last two aspects and portrayed in the Shiva Pradosha Stotra as dancing in the
golden hall of a temple. The impact of this concept found in the expression of
the architects in erecting the most magnificent natyamantapas of high artistic
merit in the vast premises of the temple signifying as the abode of Shiva’s
dance. All the divine beings take active part in the blissful moment of the
Lord’s dance picturing vividly as Sarasvati plays on Veena, Indra on flute,
Brahma on cymbals, Vishnu plays on mrdangam while Lakshmi singing. The
gods, demi-gods, apsaras, yakshas, gandharvas stand around to witness the
celestial dance and hear the music of the divine choir of the twilight6. The
faithful rendition of this divine theme opened all the gates of the imagination of
the sthapathis and gushed out in the form of expressive panels
depicting Natyagama both in the rock-cut architecture and also in the grand
edifices of Chalukya, Pallava, Rashtrakoota, Chola, Hoysala, Chandella, Sena,
Kakatiya and Vijayanagar styles. The dancing hall of Veerabhadra Temple
Lepakshi has the individual pillars depicting the life-size figures of the
divinities supporting with musical instruments as mentioned in Shivapradosha
stotra for the dance of Shiva.
The earliest historical illustration of Nataraja, preaching the natyagama in all its
pure form originates in the Chalukyan sanctuaries of Badami and Aihole in
the mid sixth century A.D. The shaiva cave with its open hall offers a
panoramic view, with the rays of the twilight turn the impregnate image of
Shiva into a golden icon, dancing to the drum beats of a sole drummer vibrates
through the stillness of the hilly range. The eighteen armed Shiva dancing on a
lotus platform move all his hands at the right side applying the hand gestures as
specified in Bharata’s Natyashatra. Another set of left hands hold
the veena and other shaivagama attributes. The Aihole Nataraja is in parivrtta
karana and the hand gesture are in a teaching attitude and the disciples of this
great Guru are none other than the Saptamatrukas7.
Between sixth to the early eleventh century, the sculptors caught with the
imagination of dancing Shiva, had portrayed in all possible manner through out
the country. The nadanta pose of Chola Nataraja is the derivation and
experimentation on the concept of Chalukya Nataraja. Rajaraja Chola
immortalised the form of Nataraja, as he fondly called the great Lord
as ‘Adavallavan’, one who knows to dance. The concept of the dance of the
twilight was so mystic and sensational living the imprint on the minds of the
devout, that they erected hundreds and thousands pillared halls for the purpose
of dancing. The round shaped or squire platforms proved as the imaginative
space where the celestials danced for the joy of the bhaktas and energise them
with their blessings. The mythological doctrines promoted the idea
of apsaras who were the representation of a symbolic conception of ecstasy,
dancing to please gods gave a parable picture of the desire to impart to countless
souls on earth that indescribable bliss of being with God. The far reaching effect
of Bhakti movement on the lives of common people, and considering dance as a
means of attaining salvation had pervaded the agamikas to include dance as one
of the prime services of sixteen kinds of offerings to god in a ritualistic manner
as the shodashopachara conducted as the evening worship. In relaxed
mysterious evening atmosphere the enduring mental pictures of divine dance
imagery caught the impulses of artists, connoisseurs and devotees alike. The
common people found their inspiration in such tangible experiences.
The temple rituals of rangabhoga and angabhoga necessitated the physical
presence of women replacing the imaginative celestials, propitiating the gods as
per agamic prescriptions. The allegorical view of dance used for the purpose of
the pleasure of devas and used as a means to divert the attention of
the rishis from austere practices, transformed into a divine service in the
medieval temple traditions. As a result the temples vied with each other in
having the best dancers and musicians in their services. Thus the temple
dancing was institutionalised and the dancing girls were patronised by the kings
and mahajanas and were often respectfully mentioned in many inscriptions of
great temples built in the medieval age. A very early old Kannada inscription
from Pattadakal of Early Chalukyan times (8th century A.D), speaks as “Hail!
The pillars of Challabbe, the harlot of the temple of Sri Vijayeshwara”, she was
the famous Devadasi who got the pillars made as the votive offerings to God.
The great builder Rajaraja Chola (1010 A.D) commissioned a detail inscription
on the walls of Tanjore Brihadishvara temple. The inscription records as, dance
and music was performed every evening when the community assembled for the
worship of the deity amidst the chanting of hymns. Many thousands of acres
around the temple were set aside for the cultivation of the rice, other food
articles, and flowers used in the daily rituals. Cooks, gardeners, flower
gatherers, garland makers, musicians, drummers, dancers, jewellers, dance
masters wood carvers, sculptors, painters, poets, choir groups, accountants,
watchmen and numerous servants and officials were employed on regular basis
and so the inscription tell us, given grants of land. Rajaraja specially constructed
two long streets just to house the four hundred dancing girls attached to the
temple services. They were drawn from different regions and the best dancing
girls were from Karunadu (Karnataka).
An inscription lavishly praises the richness of the Mahadeva Temple (Ittagi
1112 A.D) an insignificant hamlet today but a great city of Kalyana Chalukyan
times. In the verse 68-82 it is mentioned that for the service of the temple
General Mahadeva established a suburb of twenty four houses to dwell in on the
south gate of the town omitting ten cubits of the road as far as the Sheriff’s
house choosing the best dancers resembling the celestials Rambha and Rati in
beauty and the art of dancing. The famous temple of Belur has several epithets
glorifying the Hoysala queen Shantala as Natya Saraswati, Vichitra nartana
Sutradhare, etc. give us an idea that the accomplished women of this region
were
involved in offering their art to the divine service. In times of Vijayanagar entire
South India and parts Orissa came under one rule and by this time
the bhakti movement lost its essence and the temples were the place of grandeur
and celebration of events the dancing girls were more exhibitionistic in their
presentation. The temples of Khajuraho, Bhuvaneshvar and Puri echoed with
the lyrics of poet Jayadeva (whose wife Padmavati was
a Devadasi) the devadasi system in these temples were a living tradition till
recently. Efforts are being made by the priestly class of Jagannath temple to
revive the nartanaseva in reality as against the practice of today chanting
as nartanaseva samarpayami as part of the daily shodashopachara ritual.
In the later days due to economic constrains, tantric practices, the damsels in
the temple service were victimised to become public women and they were
equated with the prostitution. The term devadasi which was used in divine
sense was replaced by the term Bhogastree. The British government in India in
order to uplift the women, their emancipation in education and to protect them
from social evils abolished the Devadasi system. The
present Bharatanatyam style finds its substance from the Dasiattam of colonial
times. If at all we regard Indian dance as the spectacular contribution to human
endeavour we should recall today with great reverence the entire class
of Devadasis who were the repository of delivering the tradition in most
difficult situations from Vedic to colonial times. Let us pay homage to all those
souls for nurturing the roots of our flowering tradition on this fiftieth year of our
independence.
Indian arts in general are based on two basic principles, dynamic and static.
Dance, music, and theatre are the arts dynamic in nature whereas painting;
sculpture and architecture are static in nature. Indian philosophic ramifications
have blended these arts practically and each of these arts found substance with
one another or their diversified approaches in unified substance. The basic
expressive means through which dance and music breathe is rhythm integrated
with the principle of time, painting sculpture and architecture through form
integrated with space. Dance and music are the arts non-permanent in the
context of time and space and the rasika, the spectator is an integral part of the
creative process of rasanubhava be it in the surroundings of divine or mundane
where as painting and sculpture are permanent but do not involve the rasikas in
the process of creation. The rasikas derive their aesthetic experience on the
finished paintings and sculptures. The profundity of the creative dynamism of
dance, far-reaching based on innovations from time to time caught the ever-
searching minds of sculptors and appealed them. They began to use these
fleeting movements and captivating poses in all possible ways allowing them to
transform their rigid forms into the forms of flexibility, dynamism and
improvisation which broken the monotony on the architectural space. Thus
dance sculptures are the embodiment of form, rhythm, unity, synthesis of
structure and harmonized in the architectural space.