19

Air Quality and Emission Standards

19.1 Introduction

The preferred sequence of development of air quality standards is given

below:
(a) Prepare air quality criteria which are analyses of the relatíonship
between pollutantconcentrations in the air and the adverse effects associated
therewith. The WHO calls these as 'guides'.
(b) From the air quality criteria develop air quality goals, which are the
concentration of pollutants with which we believe we can live without adverse
effects on health and welfare.
(c) From the air quality criteria, develop air quality standards, which
the concentrations of pollutants that we intend to achieve in the
are
immediate
future but that may fall short of our air quality goals because the
standards
must give consideration to feasibility of achievement within
the immediate
foreseeable future.
(d) In order to develop the above standards, there must be
measurement and
standards for
testing of the ambient air and air pollution effects.
zabs

19.2 Air Quality StandardsB shaq a

19.2.1 Definition
Air Quality Standards are legal limits placed on levels of air pollutants in
the ambient air
during a given period of time. As such, they characterize the
allowable level of a pollutant or a class of pollutants in the
thus define the amount of atmosphere and
exposure permitted to the population and/or to
ecological systems.
Air Quality Standards are
expressions of publicpolicy and thereby require
ments for action. Thus,
they are not based solely on air quality criteria but
are also based on a
broad range of economic, social, technical and political
considerations. Air quality standards have evolved diflerently in different
countries depending on exposure conditions, the
and the
socio-economic situation,
importance of other health related problems.
19.2.2 Single or Multiple Standards
a
major decision that must be taken in the adoption ofair quality standards
256 Air Pollution

is whether there should be one standard for an entire jurisdiction or different

standards for different areas within the jurisdiction. All political jurisdic-
tions within an air quality region would have the same air quality standards,
In general, air quality regions would not be contiguous but would be sepa-
rated by non-urban hinterland. If two separated regions were to expand in
area in- the future until they become contiguous, they would presumably
then be merged into one larger air quality region. Since each air quality
region would adopt its own air quality standards, they could differ among
the several regions. However, there should be a datum below which no
region's air quality standards should drop.
er
19.3 Kinds of Air Quality Standards
19.3.1 Ambient Air Quality Standards
These are the legal limits placed on the concentration of air pollutants in a
community where people and things are exposed. Enforcement of ambient
air quality standards is dificult. To know if the actual concentrations are in
compliance requires an air monitoring programme. Ambient air quality
standards need to be distinguished from threshold limit values (TLV) for
work-room atmospheres, e.g., those published by the American Conference
of Government Industrial Hygienists. These latter values are the
permissible
exposure levels for healthy adult worker for eight hours per day, five days per
week. In contrast, air quality standards are permissible exposures of all
living and non-living things for 24 hours per day, 7 days per week.
19.3.2 Other Air Quality Standards
(a) Quasi-emission standards called 'point of impingement standards'
which are the limit on specific pollutants of the ambient air at ground level
required by national, state, or local regulations to be used in diffusion com
putations to determine limits of emission from specific sources.
(6) Soiling index, which is the measurement of transmitted or reflected
light through or from a spot of particulate matter collected on a filter for a
prescribed period of time. (The darkness of stains produced by drawing pol-
luted air through filter paper has been used to estimate suspended particulate
matter concentration.)
() Odour standards
(d) Visibility standards
() Standards for particulate matter deposited, etc.

19.4 Emission Standards e t a d l o lo cgot s b

Definition Emission standards establish permitted emission levels for specific

groups of emitters and require that all members of these groups emit no
 Alr Quality and Emission Standards 257
more than these permitted emission levels. These standards can be applic
able to any selected group of emitters and can be national, regíonal or local
in application. They can be based on some air quality standards (thus mak
ing them a tactical subsidiary to an air quality management strategy) or can
be entirely independent of any such air quality standards, serving as an
entirely separate and different type of strategy from air qualitymana

19.4.1 Emission Standards for Mobile Sources gnoisog

Generally, mobile sources include aircraft, ships, motor vehicles and railroad
locomotives. Motor vehicles are sub-divided into automobiles, trucks, buses
and motor cycles. Emission standards for motor vehicles have been one of
the most significant developments in the field of air pollution control.
Emission standards prescribe limits of contaminants discharged into the
atmosphere, so that when the standards are met, adverse efects from air
pollution will be minimized or eliminated. Once air quality standards are
established, such standards can be used as the basis for formulating emis
sion standards. The emission standards, therefore, represent emission levels
not to be exceeded if air quality goals are to be achieved.

Table 19.1 Pollutants from the Crankcase, Fuel System, and Exhaust of an
Uncontrolled Vehicle

Percentage emission
Emission source
CO NOx Hydrocarbons
Crank case 1-2 1-2 25
Fuel system 0 10
Exhaust 98-99 98-99 65

19.4.2 Emission Standards for Stationary Sources

Stationary source emission standards are standards relating to a stationary
site, process, stack, chimney, or vent intended to help achieve the desired air
quality. They include standards for buffer zones, stack height, equipment
design, and fuel composition, and those that directly limit the amount or
concentration of a pollutant emitted from a source. Emission standards may
be derived from process and equipment considerations, air quality consi
derations or both. In some cases, we have the technological ability to control
certain pollutants but are not doing so for economic, sociological or political
reasons.

19.5 Air Quality Standards: A Comparison

consideration in deciding which
The cost to a community is the paramount
control air pollutants will provide
of the devices or techniques available to
258 Air Pollutionin bes elaen

an acceptable atmosphere. To eliminate air pollution entirely would be

excessively expensive. Then, the economics involved demands that some level
of pollutant be permitted in the atmosphere. This permissible level as men
tioned earlier is called 'air quality standards'.
Thus air quality standards imply acceptable pollutant concentration in the
atmosphere enveloping a community.
Several countries in the world which are advanced industrially and which
have an air pollution problem have developed standards for air quality which
they strive to attain by adopting suitable air polution control measures.
Table 19.2 gives the air quality standards adopted by the Environmental
Protection Agency, USA. Table 19.3 gives the standards for suspended
particulate matter for various countries. Table 19.4 gives the standards for
Sulphur dioxide for various countries. Table l 9.5 gives the standards for
dust fall for various countries. Table 19.6 gives the standards for sulphation
rate in Canada.
Original standards expessed in different units in original data have been
converted to suitable units for easy understanding. Due to this change, the
original value may match to the nearest expressed values as mentioned in
the various tables.

Table 19.2 Air Quality Standards Adopted by EPA

Standard concentration
No Parameter
Remarks
148/m2 ppm

1. Suspended particulate 75 Annual geometric mean

matter 260 24 h
2. Sulphur dioxide 80 0.83 Annual mean
365 0.14 24 h
3. Carbon monoxide 10000 9 8 h. Not more than once per
year
40000 35 1h. Not more than
once per
year
4. Nitrogen oxides 100 0.05 Annual mean
5. Ozone 235 G.12 Ih daily maximum.
Not more than once per year
6. Non-methane hydro 160 0.24 6-9 h. Annual mean
carbons
Not more than oncc
7. Lead 1.5 3-month average

In India, on the basis of land use and other

a state may be classified into three
factors, the various areas of
categories by concerned State Pollution
Control Boards:
A. Industrial and mixed-use areas,
B. Residential and rural areas,
C. Sensitive areas.
 Air Quality and
Emission Standards 259
Table 19.3 rdards for Suspended articulate Matter

Country 4B/m
Averaging Time
Bulgaria 150
Czechoslovakia
150 24 hours
East Germany
150
Finland Y50
Poland 200
Israel 150
USA
Delaware-rural
60
Delaware-residential
75
Delaware-commercial 95
Delaware-industrial 125
South Carolina 25
Texas-residential 125
Texas-commercial
150
Texas-industrial
175
Texas-others 200
USSR 150
Canada
Ontario-residential-rural 60 1 Year
Ontario-industrial-cum-
commercial 110
France 60
USA
Missouri 75
Montana 75

Category (A) becomes self evident by the intensity of industrial activity in

an area and is bound to have somewhat inferior
quality of air compared
to other categories. The
category (C) covers hill stations, tourist resorts,
sanctuaries, national parks, national monuments, health resorts and other
such areas where the nation conserves its clean environment even if that
mplies some curbs on economic activity. All areas not specifically declared
by the concerned State Pollution Control Board to be classifñed in category
(A) or category (C) will be automatically deemed to fall in category (B).
Table 19.7 gives the Indian Ambient Air Quality Standards.
When monitored uniformly over the 12 months of an year with a frequ-
ency of not less than once in a week with a sampling time of eight hours
or any sample and analysed according to procedures specified by the
Central Board, the concentrations for the pollutants shall be 95% of the
time within the limits
prescribed.
nenever and wherever three consecutive measurements spaced at least
week apart, or any three out of ten consecutive measurements space
a s t one week apart are found to exceed limits specified in Table 19.7
respective category it would be considered adequate reason toinstitute
Tegular weekly
monitoring and further investigalno
 260 Air Pollution
is 0

Table 19.4 Standards for Sulphur Dioxidetu

Country 4S/m3 Averaging Time
150 24 hours
Belgium
50
Bulgaria
Canada
Alberta 150
Newfoundland 290
Ontario 290
Czechoslovakia 150
East Germany 150
Finland 250
France
Paris 75
Italy 380
Netherlands 125
Poland 75
Rumania 250
Sweden 250
Switzerland 75
Turkey 150
USA
Colorado 260
Delaware-rural 50
Delaware-residential 80
Delaware-commercial 100
Delaware-industrial 160
Missouri 120
USSR 150
Canada
Alberta 30 I Year
Manitoba 60
Ontario-Industrial-commercial 130
Ontario-Residential-rural
Spain
50
150
Table 19.5 Standards for Dust Fall
Country Dust fall rate
o prsp MT/km/Month
Canada
Ontario-residential-rural
Ontario-industrial--commercial
Federal Republic of
8
15
Poland
Germany-industrial 13
Canada 3
Alberta-residential teog l s0 Ds g
Alberta-industrial-commercial e teta
USA
Missouri--non-residential
Missouri-heavy industrial
Montana--residential 10
Montana-heavy industrial
12
Oregon-residential-commercial 6
Oregon-industrial
12
 Air Quality and Emission Standards
Table 19.6 Standards for 261
Sulphation Rate
Country
Sulphation rate
mg SO/100 cmday
Canada
Manitoba
Ontario
1.00
Saskatchewan
0.40
s m 0.80
Table 19.7 Indian Air Quality
Standards

Category Area Concentrations in pg/m*

SPM SO
A.
NO CO
Industrial and mixed usc
B. 500 120
Residential and rural 200 120 5000
Sensitive 80 80 2000
100 30 30 1000

The World Health

Organisation
effects of sulphur dioxide and (WHO) Technical Report discusses the
chemical oxidants and particulate matter, carbon monoxide, photo
tee that
nitrogen dioxide. It was the opinion of the
commit-
exposure to these pollutants should be
kept
ing into consideration all the evidence available to as low as
possible. Tak
a consensus on it, the committee reached
long-term goals for these pollutants (Table
19.8).e
Table 19.8 Recommended Long-Term Goals
ub
Pollutant Measurement methods Limiting value
Sulphur dioxide* British standard procedure* Annual mean 60 Hg/m
(0.02 ppm) 98% observations
below 200 4g/m (0.060
Suspended particles* British standard procedure** ppm)
Annual mean 40 48/m
(0.016 ppm) 98% observa
tionst below 120 4g/m
Carbon monoxide (0.048 ppm)
Non-dispersi ve infrarcd 8h average 10 mg/m* (9 ppm)
h maximum 40 mg/m
(30 ppm)
Photochemical oxidant Measured by neutral 8 h average 60
buffered KI method
Ag/m
(0.03 ppm)1h maximum
expressed as Ozone 120 H8/m (0.06 ppm)
*
Values for sulphur oxides and suspended
particulates apply only in conjunction
with one another.
**
Methods are not necessarily those recommended but indicate those on
which
these units have been based. Where other methods are used, an
appropriate
adjustment may be necessary,
f The permissible 2% of observations over (his limit may not fall on consecutive
days.