Course Note 3.1 - Part1 (Initial)

CSWIP 3.
1 – Welding Inspector
WIS5
Training and Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL
United Kingdom
Copyright © TWI Ltd
CSWIP 3.1 – Welding Inspector
Contents
Section Subject
1 Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors

1.1 General
2 Terms and Definitions
2.1 Types of weld
2.2 Types of Joints (see BS EN ISO 15607)
2.3 Features of the completed weld
2.4 Weld preparation
2.5 Size of butt welds
2.6 Fillet weld
2.7 Welding position, slope and rotation
2.8 Weaving
3 Welding Imperfections and Materials Inspection
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Cracks
3.3 Cavities
3.4 Solid inclusions
3.5 Lack of fusion and penetration
3.6 Imperfect shape and dimensions
3.7 Miscellaneous imperfections
3.8 Acceptance standards
4 Destructive Testing
4.1 Test types, pieces and objectives
4.2 Macroscopic examination
5 Non-destructive Testing
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Radiographic methods
5.3 Ultrasonic methods
5.4 Magnetic particle testing
5.5 Dye penetrant testing
6 WPS/Welder Qualifications
6.1 General
6.2 Qualified welding procedure specifications
6.3 Welder qualification
7 Materials Inspection
7.1 General
7.2 Material type and weldability
7.3 Alloying elements and their effects
7.4 Material traceability
7.5 Material condition and dimensions
7.6 Summary
8 Codes and Standards
8.1 General
8.2 Definitions
8.3 Summary
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Contents Copyright © TWI Ltd
9 Welding Symbols
9.1 Standards for symbolic representation of welded joints on drawings
9.2 Elementary welding symbols
9.3 Combination of elementary symbols
9.4 Supplementary symbols
9.5 Position of symbols on drawings
9.6 Relationship between the arrow and joint lines
9.7 Position of the reference line and weld symbol
9.8 Positions of the continuous and dashed lines
9.9 Dimensioning of welds
9.10 Complimentary indications
9.11 Indication of the welding process
9.12 Weld symbols in accordance with AWS 2.4
10 Introduction to Welding Processes
10.1 General
10.2 Productivity
10.3 Heat input
10.4 Welding parameters
10.5 Power source characteristics
11 Manual Metal Arc/Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA/SMAW)
11.1 MMA basic equipment requirements
11.2 Power requirements
11.3 Welding variables
11.4 Summary of MMA/SMAW
12 TIG Welding
12.1 Process characteristics
12.2 Process variables
12.3 Filler wires
12.4 Tungsten inclusions
12.5 Crater cracking
12.6 Common applications
12.7 Advantages
12.8 Disadvantages
13 MIG/MAG Welding
13.1 Process
13.2 Variables
13.3 MIG basic equipment requirements
13.4 Inspection when MIG/MAG welding
13.5 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
13.6 Summary of solid wire MIG/MAG
14 Submerged Arc Welding
14.1 Process
14.2 Fluxes
14.4 Storage and care of consumables
14.5 Power sources
15 Thermal Cutting Processes

15.1 Oxy-fuel cutting
15.2 Plasma arc cutting
15.3 Arc air gouging
15.4 Manual metal arc gouging
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16 Welding Consumables
16.1 Consumables for MMA welding
16.2 AWS A 5.1– and AWS 5.5-
16.3 Inspection points for MMA consumables
16.4 Consumables for TIG/GTW
16.5 Consumables for MIG/MAG
16.6 Consumables for SAW welding
17 Weldability of Steels
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Factors that affect weldability
17.3 Hydrogen cracking
17.4 Solidification cracking
17.5 Lamellar tearing
17.6 Weld decay
18 Weld Repairs
18.1 Two specific areas
19 Residual Stresses and Distortions
19.1 Development of residual stresses
19.2 What causes distortion?
19.3 The main types of distortion?
19.4 Factors affecting distortion?
19.5 Prevention by pre-setting, pre-bending or use of restraint
19.6 Prevention by design
19.7 Prevention by fabrication techniques
19.8 Corrective techniques
20 Heat Treatment
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Heat treatment of steel
20.3 Postweld heat treatment (PWHT)
20.4 PWHT thermal cycle
20.5 Heat treatment furnaces
21 Arc Welding Safety
21.1 General
21.2 Electric shock
21.3 Heat and light
21.4 Fumes and gases
21.5 Noise
21.6 Summary
22 Calibration
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Terminology
22.3 Calibration frequency
22.4 Instruments for calibration
22.5 Calibration methods
23 Application and Control of Preheat

23.1 General
23.2 Definitions
23.3 Application of preheat
23.4 Control of preheat and interpass temperature
23.5 Summary
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24 Gauges
Appendix 1 Homework Multiple Choice Questions

Appendix 2 Plate Reports and Questions
Appendix 3 Pipe Reports and Questions
Appendix 4 Welding Crossword
Appendix 5 Macro Practicals
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Examination Contents
30 General multiple choice questions

45 minutes
60 Technology questions
90 minutes
20 Macroscopic questions
45 minutes
20 Plate Butt questions

75 minutes
20 Pipe Butt questions

105 minutes
70% is required in each section
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CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector
WIS5
Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

WIS5-90516b
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector Course Objectives
 To understand factors which influence the quality of

fusion welds in steels.
 To recognise characteristics of commonly used welding
processes in relation to quality control.
 To interpret drawing instructions and symbols to ensure
Introduction that specifications are met.
 To set up and report on inspection of welds,
macrosections and other mechanical tests.
 To assess and report on welds to acceptance levels.
 To confirm that incoming material meets stipulated
requirements and recognise the effects on weld quality
of departure from specification.
 To be in a position to pass the Welding Inspector - Level
2 examinations.
The Course Course Contents
The CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector course  Roles and duties of a  Heat treatments.
provides an introduction to a wide range of Welding Inspector.  Weldability of steels.
topics related to Welding Inspection and Quality.  Welding defects.  Joint design.
 Mechanical testing.  Welding procedures.
 What does it contains?  Main welding  Welder qualification.
processes.  Stress and distortion.
 Welding symbols.  Macro examination.
 Non-destructive  Codes and standards.
testing.
 Welding consumables.
 Inspection reporting.
 Thermal cutting.
 Welding terminology.
 Welding safety.
0-1
Course Assessment CSWIP 3.1 Examination
 Exam after  No continuous Before attempting the examination, you MUST

completion of course assessment provide the following:
 Two passport size photographs, with your name

and signature on reverse side of both.
 Eye test certificate, the certificate must show near
vision and colour tests (N4.5 or Times Roman
numerals standard) and verified enrolment.
 Completed examination form, you can print from
the website www.twitraining.com
 It is the sole responsibility of the candidate to
provide the above. Failure to do so will delay
results and certification being issued.
CSWIP 3.1 Examination CSWIP 3.1 Examination
Multiple Choice Examination  Any standard/code

required for the
 30 x General Multiple Choice Questions 45 Minutes examinations will be
provided on the
 60 x Technology Questions 90 Minutes
examination day.
 24 x Macroscopic Questions 45 Minutes
 20 x Plate Butt Questions 75 Minutes
 20 x Pipe Butt Questions 105 Minutes
Closed book exam
Notification of Examination Results CSWIP 3.1 - 5 Year Prolongation
It is a mandatory
requirement to keep an
70% pass
mark
up to date log book as
documentary evidence
of your activities.
This will be required to

be presented to CSWIP
For every section to be after 5 years to prolong
awarded the certificate your qualification.
2 copies of certificates and an
identity card sent to delegates sponsor.
0-2
CSWIP 3.1 - 10 Year Renewals CSWIP Certification Scheme
 3.0 Visual Welding Inspector.

 10 years Renewal  3.1 Welding Inspector.
examination.  3.2 Senior Welding Inspector.
 Welding Quality Control Coordinator.
 30 General multiple
choice questions.
For further information

 Assessment of a
please see website
welded sample.
www.cswip.com
CSWIP Certificate Scheme TWI Certification Ltd
CSWIP Secretariat
Certificate Scheme for Personnel
TWI Certification Ltd
Granta Park
Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL
United Kingdom
Tel: + 44 (0) 1223 899000

Fax: + 44 (0) 1223 894219
E-mail: [email protected]
Web : www.cswip.com
0-3
Section 1
Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors

1 Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors
1.1 General
Welding inspectors are employed to assist with the quality control (QC)
activities necessary to ensure that welded items meet specified requirements
and are fit for their application.
For employers to have confidence in their work, welding inspectors need to to

understand/interpret the various QC procedures and also have a sound
knowledge of welding technology.
Visual inspection is one of the non-destructive examination (NDE) disciplines

and for some applications may be the only form.
For more demanding service conditions, visual inspection is usually followed by

one or more of the other non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques - surface
crack detection and volumetric inspection of butt welds.
Application Standards/Codes usually specify (or refer to other standards) that

give the acceptance criteria for weld inspection and may be very specific about
the particular techniques to be used for surface crack detection and volumetric
inspection; they do not usually give any guidance about basic requirements for
visual inspection.
Guidance and basic requirements for visual inspection are given by:
ISO 17637 (Non-destructive examination of fusion welds - visual

Examination)
1.1.1 Basic requirements for visual inspection (to ISO 17637)

ISO 17637 provides the following:
 Requirements for welding inspection personnel.

 Recommendations about conditions suitable for visual examination.
 Advice on the use of gauges/inspection aids that may be needed/helpful for
inspection.
 Guidance about information that may need to be in the inspection records.
 Guidance about when inspection may be required during fabrication.
A summary of each of these topics is given in the following sections.
1.1.2 Welding inspection personnel

Before starting work on a particular contract, ISO 17637 states that welding
inspectors should:
 Be familiar with relevant standards, rules and specifications for the

fabrication work to be undertaken.
 Be informed about the welding procedure(s) to be used.
 Have good vision – in accordance with EN 473 and checked every 12
months.
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Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors 1-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
ISO 17637 does not give or make any recommendation about a formal
qualification for visual inspection of welds. However, it has become industry
practice for inspectors to have practical experience of welding inspection
together with a recognised qualification in welding inspection – such as a CSWIP
qualification.
1.1.3 Conditions for visual inspection

Illumination
ISO 17637 states that the minimum illumination shall be 350 lux but
recommends a minimum of 500 lux (normal shop or office lighting).
Access
Access to the surface for direct inspection should enable the eye to be:
 Within 600mm of the surface being inspected.

 In a position to give a viewing angle of not less than 30°.
600mm (max.)
30° (min.)
Figure 1.1 Access for visual inspection.
1.1.4 Aids to visual inspection

Where access for direct visual inspection is restricted, a mirrored boroscope or a
fibre optic viewing system, may be used – usually by agreement between the
contracting parties.
It may also be necessary to provide auxiliary lighting to give suitable contrast

and relief effect between surface imperfections and the background.
Other items of equipment that may be appropriate to facilitate visual

examination are:
 Welding gauges (for checking bevel angles and weld profile, fillet sizing,
measuring undercut depth).
 Dedicated weld gap gauges and linear misalignment (hi-lo) gauges.
 Straight edges and measuring tapes.
 Magnifying lens (if a magnification lens is used it should be X2 to X5).
ISO 17637 shows a range of welding gauges together with details of what they
can be used for and the precision of the measurements.
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1.1.5 Stages when inspection may be required
ISO 17637 states that examination is normally performed on welds in the as-
welded condition. This means that visual inspection of the finished weld is a
minimum requirement.
However, ISO 17637 says that the extent of examination and the stages when
inspection activity is required should be specified by the Application Standard or
by agreement between client and fabricator.
For fabricated items that must have high integrity, such as pressure vessels and
piping or large structures inspection, activity will usually be required throughout
the fabrication process:
 Before welding.
 During welding.
 After welding.
Inspection activities at each of these stages of fabrication can be considered the

duties of the welding inspector and typical inspection checks that may be
required are described in the following section.
1.1.6 Typical duties of a welding inspector

The relevant standards, rules and specifications that a welding inspector should
be familiar with at the start of a new contract are all the documents he will
need to refer to during the fabrication sequence in order to make judgements
about particular details.
Typical documents that may need to be referred to are:
 The Application Standard (or Code): For visual acceptance criteria:

Although most of the requirements for the fabricated item should be
specified by National Standards, client standards or various QC procedures,
some features are not easy to define precisely and the requirement may be
given as to good workmanship standard.
 Quality plans or inspection check lists: For the type and extent of
inspection.
 Drawing: For assembly/fit-up details and dimensional requirements.
 QC procedures: Company QC/QA procedures such as those for document
control, material handling, electrode storage and issue, Welding Procedure
Specifications, etc.
Examples of requirements difficult to define precisely are some shape

tolerances, distortion, surface damage or the amount of weld spatter.
Good workmanship is the standard that a competent worker should be able to

achieve without difficulty when using the correct tools in a particular working
environment.
In practice the application of the fabricated item will be the main factor that
influences what is judged to be good workmanship or the relevant client
specification will determine what the acceptable level of workmanship is.
Reference samples are sometimes needed to give guidance about the

acceptance standard for details such as weld surface finish and toe blend, weld
root profile and finish required for welds that need to be dressed, by grinding or
finishing.
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A welding inspector should also ensure that any inspection aids that will be
needed are:
 In good condition.
 Calibrated as appropriate/as specified by QC procedures.
Safety consciousness is a duty of all employees and a welding inspector should:
 Be aware of all safety regulations for the workplace.

 Ensure that safety equipment that will be needed is available and in suitable
condition.
Duties before welding
Check Action
Material In accordance with drawing/WPS.

Identified and can be traced to a test certificate.
In suitable condition (free from damage and contamination).
WPSs Approved and available to welders (and inspectors).
Welding equipment In suitable condition and calibrated as appropriate.
Weld preparations In accordance with WPS (and/or drawings).
Welder qualifications Identification of welders qualified for each WPS to be used.

All welder qualification certificates are valid (in date).
Welding consumables Those to be used are as specified by the WPSs, are

stored/controlled as specified by the QC procedure.
Joint fit-ups In accordance with WPS/drawings tack welds are to good

workmanship standard and to code/WPS.
Weld faces Free from defects, contamination and damage.
Preheat (if required) Minimum temperature is in accordance with WPS.
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Duties during welding
Check Action
Site/field welding Ensure weather conditions are suitable/comply with Code

(conditions will not affect welding).
Welding process In accordance with WPS.
Preheat (if required) Minimum temperature is being maintained in accordance

with WPS.
Interpass temperature Maximum temperature is in accordance with WPS.
Welding consumables In accordance with WPS and being controlled as procedure.
Welding parameters Current, volts, travel speed are in accordance with WPS.
Root run Visually acceptable to Code before filling the joint (for single
sided welds).
Gouging/grinding By an approved method and to good workmanship standard.
Inter-run cleaning To good workmanship standard.
Welder On the approval register/qualified for the WPS being used.
Duties after welding
Check Action
Weld identification Each weld is marked with the welder's identification and is
identified in accordance with drawing/weld map.
Weld appearance Ensure welds are suitable for all NDT (profile, cleanness,
etc).
Visually inspect welds and sentence in accordance with Code.
Dimensional survey Check dimensions are in accordance with drawing/Code.
Drawings Ensure any modifications are included on as-built drawings.
NDT Ensure all NDT is complete and reports are available for
records.
Repairs Monitor in accordance with the procedure.
PWHT (if required) Monitor for compliance with procedure (check chart record).
Pressure/load test Ensure test equipment is calibrated.

(if required)
Monitor test to ensure compliance with procedure/Code.
Ensure reports/records are available.
Documentation records Ensure all reports/records are completed and collated as

required.
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1.1.7 Examination records
The requirement for examination records/inspection reports varies according to
the contract and type of fabrication and there is frequently no requirement for a
formal record.
When an inspection record is required it may be necessary to show that items

have been checked at the specified stages and have satisfied the acceptance
criteria.
The form of this record will vary, possibly a signature against an activity on an
inspection checklist or quality plan, or it may be an individual inspection report
for each item.
For individual inspection reports, ISO 17637 lists typical details for inclusion
such as:
 Name of manufacturer/fabricator.
 Identification of item examined.
 Material type and thickness.
 Type of joint.
 Welding process.
 Acceptance standard/criteria.
 Locations and types of all imperfections not acceptable (when specified, it
may be necessary to include an accurate sketch or photograph).
 Name of examiner/inspector and date of examination.
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Duties of a WI Objectives
When this presentation has been completed you

will have a greater understanding of the
requirements of a Welding inspector before,
during, and after welding. Where he/she stands
in the hierarchy and the core competencies and
Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors skills required in his/her duties and obligations
to quality whilst trying to facilitate, and not hold
Section 1 up production.
Main Responsibilities Personal Attributes
 Code compliance. Important qualities that good Inspectors

are expected to have are:
 Workmanship control.  Honesty.
 Integrity.
 Documentation control.
 Knowledge.
 Good communicator.
Standard for Visual Inspection

Welding Inspection
Basic Requirements
BS EN ISO 17637 - Non-destructive examination Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637)
of fusion welds - Visual examination.
Illumination:
 350 lux minimum required.
Welding Inspection Personnel should:  (recommends 500 lux - normal shop or office lighting).
 Be familiar with relevant standards, rules and Vision access:

specifications applicable to the fabrication work  Eye should be within 600mm of the surface.
to be undertaken.  Viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less
 Be informed about the welding procedures to be than 30°.
used. 600mm
 Have good vision (which should be checked
every 12 months). 30°
1-1
Welding Inspection Welding Inspectors Equipment
Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637) Measuring devices:

 Flexible tape, steel rule.
 When access is restricted may use:
 Temperature indicating crayons.
 A mirrored borescope.
 A fibre optic viewing system. }
usually by agreement
 Welding gauges.
 Voltmeter.
Other aids:  Ammeter.
 Welding gauges (for checking bevel angles, weld profile,  Magnifying glass
fillet sizing, undercut depth).
 Torch/flash light.
 Dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment
(high-low) gauges.  Gas flowmeter.
 Straight edges and measuring tapes.
 Magnifying lens (if magnification lens used it should
have magnification between X2 to X5).
Welding Inspectors Gauges Welding Inspectors Equipment
5
6
Multi-meter capable of
measuring amperage
HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge
IN
0 1/4 1/2 3/4
and voltage.
TWI Multi-purpose Welding Gauge Misalignment Gauges
Welding Inspection Duties of a Welding Inspector
Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637)  Before welding:

Extent of examination and when required should be  (before assembly).
defined in the application standard or by agreement  (after assembly).

between the contracting parties.
 During welding.
For high integrity fabrications inspection required  After welding.
throughout the fabrication process:
 Before welding.
 During welding.
 After welding.
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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector
Before welding Before welding

Preparation:
Welding procedures:
Familiarisation with relevant documents…
 Are applicable to joints to be welded and
 Application standard/code - for visual acceptance approved.
requirements.  Are available to welders and inspectors.
 Drawings - item details and positions/tolerances etc.
 Quality Control Procedures - for activities such as Welder qualifications:
material handling, documentation control, storage  List of available qualified welders related to WPS’s.
and issue of welding consumables.  Certificates are valid and in-date.
 Quality Plan/Inspection and Test Plan/Inspection
Checklist - details of inspection requirements,
inspection procedures and records required.
Before welding Before welding
Equipment: Consumables:
 All inspection equipment is in good condition and  In accordance with WPS’s.
calibrated as necessary.  Are being controlled in accordance with procedure.
 All safety requirements are understood and
necessary equipment available. Weld preparations:
 Comply with WPS/drawing.
Materials:  Free from defects and contamination.
 Can be identified and related to test certificates.
 Are of correct dimensions. Welding equipment:
 Are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination).  In good order and calibrated as required by
procedure.
Before welding During welding
Fit-up Weather conditions

 Complies with WPS.  Suitable if site/field welding.
 Number/size of tack welds to code/good
workmanship. Welding process(es)
 In accordance with WPS.
Pre-heat
 If specified. Welder
 Minimum temperature complies with WPS.  Is approved to weld the joint.
 Pre-heat (if required).
 Minimum temperature as specified by WPS.
 Maximum interpass temperature as WPS.
1-3
During welding During welding
Welding consumables Inter-run dressing

 In accordance with WPS.  In accordance with an approved method (and back
 In suitable condition. gouging) to good workmanship standard.
 Controlled issue and handling.  Distortion control.
 Welding is balanced and over-welding is avoided.
Welding parameters
 Current, voltage and travel speed – as WPS.
 Root runs.
 If possible, visually inspect root before single-sided
welds are filled up.
After welding After welding
Weld identification Repairs

 Identified/numbered as required.  Monitor repairs to ensure compliance with
 Is marked with welder’s identity. procedure PWHT.
 Monitor for compliance with procedure.
Visual inspection
 Check chart records confirm procedure compliance.
 Ensure weld is suitable for all NDT.
 Visually inspect and sentence to code
Pressure/load test
requirements.
 Ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated.
Dimensional survey  Monitor to ensure compliance with procedure.
 Ensure dimensions comply with code/drawing.  Ensure all records are available.
Other NDT
 Ensure all NDT is completed and reports available.
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector WI Duties Before Welding
After welding Resume:

 Check all documentation.
Documentation  Check all consumables.
 Ensure any modifications are on as-built drawings.  Check materials, dimensions and condition.
 Ensure all required documents are available.  Preheating, method and temperature.
 Collate/file documents for manufacturing records.  Check fit and set-up.
 Sign all documentation and forward it to QC  Ensure no undue stress is applied to the joint.
department.  Check welding equipment.
1-4
WI Duties During Welding WI Duties After Welding
Resume: Resume:
 Check amperage, voltage, polarity.  Post cleaning.
 Ensure the correct technique, run sequence.  Visual inspection of completed welded joint.
 Check run out lengths, time lapses.  Check weld contour and width.
 Cleaning between passes.  PWHT.
 Interpass temperatures.  Dimensional accuracy.
 Consumable control.  Weld reports.
 Maintenance of records and reports.  Tie up with NDT.
 Monitor any repairs.
Summary of Duties Summary of Duties
It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure A Welding Inspector must:

all the welding and associated actions are carried
Observe
out in accordance with the specification and any
 To observe all relevant actions related to weld
applicable procedures. quality throughout production.
Record
 To record, or log all production inspection points
relevant to quality, including a final report showing
all identified imperfections.
Compare
 To compare all recorded information with the
acceptance criteria and any other relevant clauses
in the applied application standard.
Any Questions
?
1-5
Section 2
Terms and Definitions

2 Terms and Definitions
The following definitions are taken from BS 499-1: Welding terms and symbols
– Glossary for welding, brazing and thermal cutting.
Brazing
A process of joining generally applied to metals in which, during or after
heating, molten filler metal is drawn into or retained in the space between
closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined by capillary attraction. In
general, the melting point of the filler metal is above 450C but always below
the melting temperature of the parent material.
Braze welding
The joining of metals using a technique similar to fusion welding and a filler
metal with a lower melting point than the parent metal, but neither using
capillary action as in brazing nor intentionally melting the parent metal.
Joint
A connection where the individual components, suitably prepared and
assembled, are joined by welding or brazing.
Weld
A union of pieces of metal made by welding.
Welding
An operation in which two or more parts are united by means of heat, pressure
or both, in such a way that there is continuity in the nature of the metal
between these parts.
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Terms and Definitions 2-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Table 2.1 Joint types, sketches and definitions.
Type of Sketch Definition
joint
Butt Connection between the ends or edges

of two parts making an angle to one
another of 135-180 inclusive in the
region of the joint.
T Connection between the end or edge of

one part and the face of the other part,
the parts making an angle to one
another of more than 5 up to and
including 90 in the region of the joint.
Corner Connection between the ends or edges

of two parts making an angle to one
another of more than 30 but less than
135 in the region of the joint.
Edge A connection between the edges of two

parts making an angle to one another
of 0-30 inclusive in the region of the
joint.
Cruciform A connection in which two flat plates or

two bars are welded to another flat
plate at right angles and on the same
axis.
Lap Connection between two overlapping

parts making an angle to one another
of 0-5 inclusive in the region of the
weld or welds.
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2.1 Types of weld
2.1.1 From the configuration point of view (as per 2.2)
Figure 2.1 Butt weld. Figure 2.2 Fillet weld.
In a butt joint
Butt weld In a T joint
In a corner joint
Figure 2.3 Configurations of a butt weld.
Autogenous weld
A fusion weld made without filler metal by TIG, plasma, electron beam, laser or
oxy-fuel gas welding.
Slot weld
A joint between two overlapping components made by depositing a fillet weld
round the periphery of a hole in one component so as to join it to the surface of
the other component exposed through the hole.
Figure 2.4 Slot weld.
WIS5-90516b
Plug weld
A weld made by filling a hole in one component of a workpiece with filler metal
so as to join it to the surface of an overlapping component exposed through the
hole (the hole can be circular or oval).
Figure 2.5 A plug weld.
2.1.2 From the penetration point of view

Full penetration weld
A welded joint where the weld metal fully penetrates the joint with complete
root fusion. In the US the preferred term is complete joint penetration (CJP)
weld (see AWS D1.1.).
Figure 2.6 A full penetration weld.
Partial penetration weld

A welded joint without full penetration. In the US the preferred term is partial
joint penetration (PJP) weld.
Figure 2.7 A partial penetration weld.
2.2 Types of joints (see BS EN ISO 15607)

Homogeneous
Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have no significant
differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example:
Two carbon steel plates welded with a matching carbon steel electrode.
Heterogeneous
Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have significant
differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example: A
repair weld of a cast iron item performed with a nickel-based electrode.
WIS5-90516b
Dissimilar/Transition
Welded joint in which the parent materials have significant differences in
mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example: A carbon steel
lifting lug welded onto an austenitic stainless steel pressure vessel.
2.3 Features of the completed weld

 Parent metal
Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding, braze welding or brazing.
 Filler metal
Metal added during welding, braze welding, brazing or surfacing.
 Weld metal
All metal melted during the making of a weld and retained in the weld.
 Heat-affected zone (HAZ)

The part of the parent metal metallurgically affected by the heat of welding
or thermal cutting but not melted.
 Fusion line
Boundary between the weld metal and the HAZ in a fusion weld.
 Weld zone
Zone containing the weld metal and the HAZ.
 Weld face
The surface of a fusion weld exposed on the side from which the weld has
been made.
 Root
Zone on the side of the first run furthest from the welder.
 Toe
Boundary between a weld face and the parent metal or between runs. This
is a very important feature of a weld since toes are points of high stress
concentration and often are initiation points for different types of cracks (eg
fatigue and cold cracks). To reduce the stress concentration, toes must
blend smoothly into the parent metal surface.
 Excess weld metal

Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes. Other non-standard
terms for this feature are reinforcement and overfill.
WIS5-90516b
Weld
Parent zone
Weld
face metal
Parent
metal
Toe
HAZ
Weld
metal Root Fusion
line Excess weld
metal
Penetration
Figure 2.8 Labelled features of a butt weld.
Parent metal
Excess
weld metal
Weld zone
Toe
Fusion
line
Weld face
Root Parent metal

Weld
Metal HAZ
Figure 2.9 Labelled features of a fillet weld.
WIS5-90516b
2.4 Weld preparation
A preparation for making a connection where the individual components,
suitably prepared and assembled, are joined by welding or brazing. The
dimensions below can vary depending on WPS.
2.4.1 Features of the weld preparation

Angle of bevel
The angle at which the edge of a component is prepared for making a weld.
For an MMA weld on carbon steel plates, the angle is:
 25-30 for a V preparation.

 8-12 for a U preparation.
 40-50 for a single bevel preparation.
 10-20 for a J preparation.
Included angle
The angle between the planes of the fusion faces of parts to be welded. For
single and double V or U this angle is twice the bevel angle. In the case of
single or double bevel, single or double J bevel, the included angle is equal to
the bevel angle.
Root face
The portion of a fusion face at the root that is not bevelled or grooved. Its value
depends on the welding process used, parent material to be welded and
application; for a full penetration weld on carbon steel plates, it has a value of
1-2mm (for the common welding processes).
Gap
The minimum distance at any cross-section between edges, ends or surfaces to
be joined. Its value depends on the welding process used and application; for a
full penetration weld on carbon steel plates, it has a value of 1-4mm.
Root radius
The radius of the curved portion of the fusion face in a component prepared for
a single or double J or U, weld.
Land
Straight portion of a fusion face between the root face and the radius part of a J
or U preparation can be 0. Usually present in weld preparations for MIG welding
of aluminium alloys.
WIS5-90516b
2.4.2 Types of preparation
Open square butt preparation
Used for welding thin components from one or both sides. If the root gap is
zero (ie if components are in contact), this preparation becomes a closed
square butt preparation (not recommended due to problems caused by lack of
penetration)!
Figure 2.10 Open square butt preparation.
Single V preparation
One of the most common preparations used in welding and can be produced
using flame or plasma cutting (cheap and fast). For thicker plates a double V
preparation is preferred since it requires less filler material to complete the joint
and the residual stresses can be balanced on both sides of the joint resulting in
lower angular distortion.
Included angle
Angle of
bevel
Root face
Root gap
Figure 2.11 Single V preparation.
Double V preparation
The depth of preparation can be the same on both sides (symmetric double V
preparation) or deeper on one side (asymmetric double V preparation). Usually,
in this situation the depth of preparation is distributed as 2/3 of the thickness of
the plate on the first side with the remaining 1/3 on the backside. This
asymmetric preparation allows for a balanced welding sequence with root back
gouging, giving lower angular distortions. Whilst a single V preparation allows
welding from one side, double V preparation requires access to both sides (the
same applies for all double sided preparations).
WIS5-90516b
Figure 2.12 Symmetric double V preparation.
Single U preparation
U preparations can be produced only by machining (slow and expensive),
however, tighter tolerances give a better fit-up than with V preparations.
Usually applied to thicker plates compared with single V preparation as it
requires less filler material to complete the joint, lower residual stresses and
distortions. Like for V preparations, with very thick sections a double U
preparation can be used.
Included angle
Angle of
bevel
Root
radius
Root face
Root gap
Land
Figure 2.13 Single U preparation.
Double U preparation
Usually this type of preparation does not require a land, (except for aluminium
alloys).
Figure 2.14 Double U preparation.
WIS5-90516b
Single V preparation with backing strip
Backing strips allow production of full penetration welds with increased current
and hence increased deposition rates/productivity without the danger of burn-
through. Backing strips can be permanent or temporary.
Permanent types are made of the same material as being joined and are tack
welded in place. The main problems with this type of weld are poor fatigue
resistance and the probability of crevice corrosion between the parent metal
and the backing strip.
It is also difficult to examine by NDT due to the built-in crevice at the root of
the joint. Temporary types include copper strips, ceramic tiles and fluxes.
Figure 2.15 Single V preparation with backing strip.
Figure 2.16 Single bevel preparation.
Figure 2.17 Double bevel preparation.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 2.18 Single J preparation.
Figure 2.19 Double J preparation.
All these preparations (single/double bevel and J) can be used on T joints as

well. Double preparations are recommended for thick sections. The main
advantage of these preparations is that only one component is prepared
(cheap, can allow for small misalignments).
For further details regarding weld preparations, please refer to Standard BS EN

ISO 9692.
2.5 Size of butt welds
Actual throat Design throat

thickness thickness
Figure 2.20 Full penetration butt weld.
Actual throat Design throat

thickness thickness
Figure 2.21 Partial penetration butt weld.
WIS5-90516b
As a general rule:
Actual throat thickness = design throat thickness + excess weld metal.
Actual throat thickness =

design throat thickness
Figure 2.22 Full penetration butt weld ground flush.
Design throat
Actual throat thickness = maximum thickness =
thickness through the joint thickness of the
thinner plate
Figure 2.23 Butt weld between two plates of different thickness.
Run (pass)
The metal melted or deposited during one pass of an electrode, torch or
blowpipe.
Figure 2.24 Single run weld. Figure 2.25 Multi-run weld.
Layer
A stratum of weld metal consisting of one or more runs.
Types of butt weld (from accessibility point of view)
Figure 2.26Single side weld. Figure 2.27 Double side weld.
WIS5-90516b
2.6 Fillet weld
A fusion weld, other than a butt, edge or fusion spot weld, which is
approximately triangular in transverse cross-section.
2.6.1 Size of fillet welds

Unlike butt welds, fillet welds can be defined using several dimensions.
Actual throat thickness

Perpendicular distance between two lines, each parallel to a line joining the
outer toes, one being a tangent at the weld face and the other being through
the furthermost point of fusion penetration.
Design throat thickness

The minimum dimension of throat thickness used for design purposes, also
known as effective throat thickness. (a on drawings).
Leg length
Distance from the actual or projected intersection of the fusion faces and the
toe of a fillet weld, measured across the fusion face (z on drawings).
Actual throat
thickness
Leg
length
Leg length
Design throat
thickness
Figure 2.28 Fillet weld.
2.6.2 Shape of fillet welds

Mitre fillet weld
A flat face fillet weld in which the leg lengths are equal within the agreed
tolerance. The cross-section area of this type of weld can be considered to be a
right angle isosceles triangle with design throat thickness a and leg length z.
The relation between design throat thickness and leg length is:
a = 0.707  z or z = 1.41  a
WIS5-90516b
Figure 2.29 Mitre fillet weld.
Convex fillet weld

A fillet weld in which the weld face is convex. The above relation between
leg length and design throat thickness for mitre fillet welds is also valid for this
type of weld. Since there is excess weld metal present, the actual throat
thickness is bigger than the design throat thickness.
Figure 2.30 Convex fillet weld
Concave fillet weld

A fillet weld in which the weld face is concave. The relation between leg
length and design throat thickness specified for mitre fillet welds is not valid for
this type of weld. Also, the design throat thickness is equal to the actual throat
thickness.
Due to the smooth blending between the weld face and the surrounding parent
material, the stress concentration effect at the toes of the weld is reduced
compared with the previous type. This is why this type of weld is highly desired
in applications subjected to cyclic loads where fatigue phenomena might be a
major cause for failure.
Figure 2.31 Concave fillet weld.
WIS5-90516b
Asymmetrical fillet weld
A fillet weld in which the vertical leg length is not equal to the horizontal leg
length. The relation between leg length and design throat thickness is not valid
for this type of weld because the cross-section is not an isosceles triangle.
Horizontal leg
size
Vertical leg
size
Throat size
Figure 2.32 Asymmetrical fillet weld.
Deep penetration fillet weld

A fillet weld with a deeper than normal penetration. It is produced using high
heat input welding processes (ie SAW or MAG with spray transfer). This type of
weld uses the benefits of greater arc penetration to obtain the required throat
thickness whilst reducing the amount of deposited metal needed thus leading to
a reduction in residual stress level.
To produce consistent and constant penetration, the travel speed must be kept
constant at a high value. Consequently this type of weld is usually produced
using mechanised or automatic welding processes. Also, the high depth-to-
width ratio increases the probability of solidification centreline cracking. To
differentiate this type of weld from the previous types, the throat thickness is
symbolised with s instead of a.
Figure 2.33 Deep penetgration fillet weld.
2.6.3 Compound of butt and fillet welds

A combination of butt and fillet welds used for T joints with full or partial
penetration or butt joints between two plates with different thickness. Fillet
welds added on top of the groove welds improve the blending of the weld face
towards the parent metal surface and reduce the stress concentration at the
toes of the weld.
WIS5-90516b
Bevel
Fillet
weld weld
Figure 2.34 Double bevel compound weld.
2.7 Welding position, slope and rotation

Welding position
Orientation of a weld expressed in terms of working position, weld slope and
weld rotation (for further details see ISO 6947).
Weld slope
Angle between root line and the positive X axis of the horizontal reference
plane, measured in mathematically positive direction (ie counter-clockwise).
Figure 2.35 Weld slope.
Weld rotation
Angle between the centreline of the weld and the positive Z axis or a line
parallel to the Y axis, measured in the mathematically positive direction (ie
counter-clockwise) in the plane of the transverse cross-section of the weld in
question.
Figure 2.36 Weld rotation.
WIS5-90516b
Table 2.2 Welding position, sketches and definition.
Welding Sketch Definition and symbol
position according to ISO 6947
Flat Welding position in which the

welding is horizontal with the
centreline of the weld vertical.
PA.
Horizontal- Welding position in which the

vertical welding is horizontal (applicable
in case of fillet welds).
PB.
Horizontal Welding position in which the

welding is horizontal, with the
centreline of the weld horizontal.
PC.
Vertical-up Welding position in which the

welding is upwards.
PF.
Vertical-down Welding position in which the

welding is downwards.
PG
PG.
PF
Overhead A welding position in which the

welding is horizontal and
overhead (applicable in fillet
welds).
PE.
Horizontal- Welding position in which the

overhead welding is horizontal and
overhead with the centreline of
the weld horizontal.
PD.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 2.37 Tolerances for the welding positions.
2.8 Weaving
Transverse oscillation of an electrode or blowpipe nozzle during the deposition
of weld metal, generally used in vertical-up welds.
Figure 2.38 Weaving.
Stringer bead
A run of weld metal made with little or no weaving motion.
Figure 2.39 Stringer bead.
WIS5-90516b
Terminology Objective

will have a greater understanding of typical
international language used in joint design and
compilation of welding documentation.
Welding Terminology and Definitions
Section 2
Welding Terminology and Definitions Welding Terminology and Definitions
What is a Weld? What is a Joint?
 A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals  The junction of members or the edges of

produced either by heating the materials to the members that are to be joined or have been
welding temperature, with or without the joined (AWS).
application of pressure, or by the application of
pressure alone (AWS).  A configuration of members (BS EN).
 A permanent union between materials caused by

heat, and or pressure BS EN.
Joint Terminology Butt Preparations
T Edge Cruciform
Square Edge Square Edge

Closed Butt Open Butt
Butt Lap Corner
2-1
Single Sided Butt Preparations Double Sided Butt Preparations
Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker
materials, or when access form both sides is restricted. materials, or when access form both sides is unrestricted.
Single-J Single-U Double-J Double-U
Single Bevel Single V Double-Bevel Double V
Joint Preparation Terminology Joint Preparation Terminology
Included angle Included angle

Angle of bevel Angle of bevel
Angle of Angle
bevel of
bevel
Land
Root
Radius
Root Gap Root Gap Root Face
Root Face
Root Gap Root Radius Root Face
Root Face Land
Root Gap
Single-V butt Single-U butt Single-J Butt Single Bevel Butt
Weld Terminology Welded Butt Joints
Fillet weld Edge weld Compound weld A butt welded butt joint
A fillet welded joint
Butt weld Plug weld Spot weld A compound welded butt joint
2-2
Welded T Joints Welded Lap Joints
A fillet welded lap joint

A fillet welded T joint
A spot welded lap joint

A butt welded T joint
A compound welded lap joint

A compound welded T joint
Welded Closed Corner Joints Weld Zone Terminology
Face
A B
A fillet welded closed corner joint
Weld
metal
A butt welded closed corner joint
Heat
Affected Weld
Zone Boundary
A compound welded closed corner joint

C D A, B, C & D = Weld Toes
Root
Weld Zone Terminology Weld Zone Terminology
Excess Weld width

Cap height
Excess Root
Penetration
2-3
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) Toe Blend
Maximum Solid-liquid Boundary  Most codes quote the weld

Solid
Temperature weld 80° 6mm toes shall blend smoothly.
Grain growth zone
metal  This statement is not
Recrystallised zone quantitative and therefore
open to individual
Partially transformed zone
Poor weld toe interpretation.
Tempered zone
blend angle  The higher the toe blend
Unaffected base material angle the greater the
20° 3mm
amount of stress
concentration.
 The toe blend angle ideally
should be between 20-30°.
Improved weld
toe blend angle
Features to Consider Fillet Weld Profiles
Fillet welds - toe blend

Mitre fillet
Concave fillet
A concave profile is preferred for
joints subjected to fatigue
loading.
Convex fillet
Fillet Weld Leg Length Fillet Weld Features
Excess weld metal

Vertical
a leg
length
Design
b throat
a = Vertical leg length
b = Horizontal leg length
Horizontal
Note: The leg length should be approximately leg length
equal to the material thickness.
2-4
Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features
a
b
a = Design throat thickness
b = Actual throat thickness
Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features Fillet Weld Sizes
Calculating throat thickness from a known leg

length:
Design throat thickness = leg length x 0.7
 Question: The leg length is 14mm.

What is the design throat?
a
b
 Answer: 14mm x 0.7 = 10mm throat thickness.
a = Design throat thickness
b = Actual throat thickness
Fillet Weld Sizes Features to Consider
Calculating leg length from a known design

Throat Throat
throat thickness:
thickness thickness
is larger is smaller
Leg length = design throat thickness x 1.4
60° 120°
 Question: The design throat is 10mm.
What is the leg length?
 Answer: 10mm x 1.4 = 14mm leg length.

Fillet welds connecting parts with fusion faces with an
angle more than 120° or less than 60° should not use the
previous calculations.
2-5
Features to Consider Features to Consider
The design throat thickness of a flat or convex fillet Importance of fillet weld leg length size
weld connecting parts with the fusion faces which
form an angle between 600 and 1200 may be a b
calculated by multiplying the leg length by the
appropriate factors as given below:
Angle between fusion

Factor 4mm 8mm
faces in degrees
60 to 90 0.7
4mm 2mm
91 to 100 0.65
101 to 106 0.6
Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet Welds but the
107 to 113 0.55 effective throat thickness has been altered, reducing
114 to 120 0.5 considerably the strength of weld B.
Fillet Weld Sizes Fillet Weld Sizes
Importance of fillet weld leg length size Importance of fillet weld leg length size
6mm 4mm a 6mm b

4mm
a b
4mm 6mm
4mm 6mm
Area = 4 x 4 = 8mm2 Area = 6 x 6 = 18mm2
Cross Sectional Area 2 2
The CSA of b is over double the area of a without
Question: How much larger is the CSA b comparable to a? the extra excess weld metal being added.
Features to Consider Joint Design and Weld Preparation
Effective Throat Thickness Bevel angle

a = Nominal throat thickness s = Effective throat thickness
Bevel angle must allow:

 Good access to the root.
 Manipulation of electrode to ensure sidewall
a s fusion.
Deep throat fillet welds from FCAW and SAW etc.
2-6
Joint Design and Weld Preparation Joint Design and Weld Preparation
Root face Root gap

Root face size set to: Root gap set to:
 Allow controlled root fusion.  Allow controlled root fusion.
 Reduce the risk of burn-  Reduce the risk of burn-
through. through.
Too large = burn-through Too small = lack of

Too small = burn-through Too large = lack of
root penetration
root penetration
Weld Preparation Weld Preparation
Terminology and typical dimensions: V joints Joint design/weld preparation to reduce

weld volumes
included angle
12 to 15°
bevel angle
35°
root gap For MMA welding of pipe joints

root face
> ~20mm (compound bevel)
55°
~5
Typical dimensions ~6mm °
Bevel angle 30 to 35°
Root face ~1.5 to ~2.5mm
Root gap ~2 to ~4mm For mechanised GMAW of
For double-V joint for SAW pipework
of thicker sections
Welding process impacts upon weld preparation Welding process impacts upon weld preparation
Arc welding EBW
MMA MAG
High heat input process allow a larger root face, less weld
metal required, less distortions, higher productivity.
If the gap is too big risk of possible burn-through, if gap is

too small risk of lack of penetration.
2-7
Weld Preparation Weld Preparations
Preparation method impacts upon weld preparation Access impacts upon weld preparation
 Requires machining  Can be flame/plasma

slow and expensive. cut fast and cheap.
 Tight tolerance easier  Large tolerance set-
set-up. up can be difficult.
Weld Preparations Weld Preparations
Access impacts upon weld preparation Access impacts upon weld preparation
Pipe weld preparation - one side access only!
for wall thickness up to 3mm

for wall thickness 3-20mm
for wall thickness over 20mm
Type of joint impacts upon weld preparation Type of joint impacts upon weld preparation
Corner joints require offset Lap and square edge butt joints do not require
preparation.
offset
Bevel angle = 30° Included angle =

Danger of burn-through Easy set-up no risk
Included angle = 60° Bevel angle = 50°
difficult to set-up of burn-through
2-8
Type of parent material impacts upon weld preparation Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld preparation
To reduce distortions on stainless steels welds, reduce A single bevel groove requires a volume of weld metal
included angle and increase root face. proportional to the square of plate thickness
To avoid lack of side wall fusion problems aluminium Its lack of symmetry lead to distortions
require larger included angles than steel.
60º 70-90º
35-45º Reduce shrinkage by:
30º  Reducing weld volume.
 Using single pass welding.
Steel Aluminium
Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld
preparation preparation
Reduce weld volume by: Reduce weld volume by:

Reduced included angle Increase root face
Reduced root gap Use double bevel weld prep
Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld
preparation preparation
Reduce weld volume by: Reduce distortions by using an asymmetric V prep

Use U prep instead V prep instead of a symmetric V prep.
t/3
t
U prep better than V prep

Weld first into the deeper side after welding to half of
V prep better than U prep the depth, back gouge the root. Complete welding on
the shallow side first.
2-9
Welding position impacts upon weld preparation Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation
60° Static loads - prohibited application of one sided

60° fillet weld.
30°
15°
PF symmetric preparation PC asymmetric preparation
If symmetric preparation is used in the PC position

the weld may spill out of the groove.
Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation
Static loads - equal throat T joints Static loads - equal throat T beams in bending
13mm
13mm
neutral axis neutral axis
60°
Weld area = 160mm2 Weld area = 90mm2 Normal fillet welds Deep penetration
fillet welds
 No preparation required.  Preparation required.
 Danger of lamellar  Reduced distortions. Lower neutral axis is more advantageous (also helps
tearing. to reduce residual distortions!)
Weld Preparation Welding Terminology
Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation
Dynamic loads - full vs. partial penetration welds

Any Questions
?
Cyclic load
Fillet welds Double bevel weld

Lack of penetration promotes cracking!
2-10
Section 3
Welding Imperfections
and Materials Inspection
3 Welding Imperfections and Materials Inspection
3.1 Definitions (see BS EN ISO 6520-1)
Imperfection Any deviation from the ideal weld.
Defect An unacceptable imperfection.
Classification of imperfections according to BS EN ISO 6520-1:
This standard classifies the geometric imperfections in fusion welding dividing

them into six groups:
1 Cracks.
2 Cavities.
3 Solid inclusions.
4 Lack of fusion and penetration.
5 Imperfect shape and dimensions.
6 Miscellaneous imperfections.
It is important that an imperfection is correctly identified so the cause can be

established and actions taken to prevent further occurrence.
3.2 Cracks
Definition
Imperfection produced by a local rupture in the solid state, which may arise
from the effect of cooling or stresses. Cracks are more significant than other
types of imperfection as their geometry produces a very large stress
concentration at the crack tip making them more likely to cause fracture.
Types of crack:
 Longitudinal.
 Transverse.
 Radiating (cracks radiating from a common point).
 Crater.
 Branching (group of connected cracks originating from a common crack).
These cracks can be situated in the:

 Weld metal.
 HAZ.
 Parent metal.
Exception: Crater cracks are found only in the weld metal.
Depending on their nature, these cracks can be:
 Hot (ie solidification or liquation cracks).

 Precipitation induced (ie reheat cracks present in creep resisting steels).
 Cold (ie hydrogen induced cracks).
 Lamellar tearing.
WIS5-90516b
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
3.2.1 Hot cracks
Depending on their location and mode of occurrence, hot cracks can be:
 Solidification cracks: Occur in the weld metal (usually along the centreline
of the weld) as a result of the solidification process.
 Liquation cracks: Occur in the coarse grain HAZ, in the near vicinity of the
fusion line as a result of heating the material to an elevated temperature,
high enough to produce liquation of the low melting point constituents
placed on grain boundaries.
3.2.2 Solidification cracks
Figure 3.1 Solidification crack.
Generally, solidification cracking can occur when:
 Weld metal has a high carbon or impurity (sulphur, etc) content.

 The depth-to-width ratio of the solidifying weld bead is large (deep and
narrow).
 Disruption of the heat flow condition occurs, eg stop/start condition.
The cracks can be wide and open to the surface like shrinkage voids or sub-
surface and possibly narrow.
Solidification cracking is most likely to occur in compositions and result in a

wide freezing temperature range. In steels this is commonly created by a higher
than normal content of carbon and impurity elements such as sulphur and
phosphorus.
These elements segregate during solidification, so that intergranular liquid films

remain after the bulk of the weld has solidified. The thermal shrinkage of the
cooling weld bead can cause these to rupture and form a crack.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 3.2 Diagram of a solidification crack.
It is important that the welding fabricator does not weld on or near metal
surfaces covered with scale or contaminated with oil or grease. Scale can have
a high sulphur content and oil and grease can supply both carbon and sulphur.
Contamination with low melting point metals such as copper, tin, lead and zinc
should also be avoided.
Hydrogen induced cracks
Figure 3.3 Root (underbead) crack. Figure 3.4 Toe crack.
Hydrogen induced cracking occurs primarily in the grain coarsened region of the
HAZ and is also known as cold, delayed or underbead/toe cracking. It lies
parallel to the fusion boundary and its path is usually a combination of inter and
transgranular cracking.
The direction of the principal residual tensile stress can in toe cracks cause the
crack path to grow progressively away from the fusion boundary towards a
region of lower sensitivity to hydrogen cracking. When this happens, the crack
growth rate decreases and eventually arrests.
WIS5-90516b
Four factors are necessary to cause HAZ hydrogen cracking:
Hydrogen level > 15ml/100g of weld metal deposited

Stress > 0.5 of the yield stress
Temperature < 300°C
Susceptible microstructure > 400HV hardness
Figure 3.5 Factors susceptibility to hydrogen cracking.
If any one factor is not satisfied, cracking is prevented, so can be avoided

through control of one or more factors:
 Apply preheat slow down the cooling rate and thus avoid the formation of
susceptible microstructures.
 Maintain a specific interpass temperature (same effect as preheat).
 Postheat on completion of welding to reduce the hydrogen content by
allowing hydrogen to diffuse from the weld area.
 Apply PWHT to reduce residual stress and eliminate susceptible
microstructures.
 Reduce weld metal hydrogen by proper selection of welding
process/consumable (eg use TIG welding instead of MMA, basic covered
electrodes instead of cellulose).
 Use a multi-run instead of a single run technique and eliminate susceptible
microstructures by the self-tempering effect, reduce hydrogen content by
allowing hydrogen to diffuse from the weld area.
 Use a temper bead or hot pass technique (same effect as above).
 Use austenitic or nickel filler to avoid susceptible microstructure formation
and allow hydrogen to diffuse out of critical areas).
 Use dry shielding gases to reduce hydrogen content.
 Clean rust from joint to avoid hydrogen contamination from moisture
present in the rust.
 Reduce residual stress.
 Blend the weld profile to reduce stress concentration at the toes of the weld.
WIS5-90516b
Lamellar tearing
Figure 3.6 Lamellar tearing.
Lamellar tearing occurs only in rolled steel products (primarily plates) and its
main distinguishing feature is that the cracking has a terraced appearance.
Cracking occurs in joints where:
 A thermal contraction strain occurs in the through-thickness direction of

steel plate.
 Non-metallic inclusions are present as very thin platelets, with their
principal planes parallel to the plate surface.
Figure 3.7 Diagram of lamellar tearing.
Contraction strain imposed on the planar non-metallic inclusions results in

progressive decohesion to form the roughly rectangular holes which are the
horizontal parts of the cracking, parallel to the plate surface. With further strain
the vertical parts of the cracking are produced, generally by ductile shear
cracking. These two stages create the terraced appearance of these cracks.
WIS5-90516b
Two main options are available to control the problem in welded joints liable to
lamellar tearing:
 Use a clean steel with guaranteed through-thickness properties (Z grade).

 A combination of joint design, restraint control and welding sequence to
minimise the risk of cracking.
3.3 Cavities
Cavity
Gas cavity: Shrinkage cavity:

formed by Caused by shrinkage
entrapped gas during solidification
Gas pore Interdendritic

shrinkage
Uniformly distributed
porosity Crater pipe
Clustered (localised)
porosity Microshrinkage
Linear porosity
Elongated cavity
Interdendritic Transgranular
microshrinkage microshrinkage
Worm-hole
Surface pore
3.3.1 Gas pore
Figure 3.8 Gas pores.
WIS5-90516b
Description
A gas cavity of essentially spherical shape trapped within the weld metal.
Gas cavities can be present in various forms:
 Isolated.
 Uniformly distributed porosity.
 Clustered (localised) porosity.
 Linear porosity.
 Elongated cavity.
 Surface pore.
Causes Prevention
Damp fluxes/corroded electrode (MMA) Use dry electrodes in good condition
Grease/hydrocarbon/water contamination Clean prepared surface

of prepared surface
Air entrapment in gas shield (MIG/MAG, Check hose connections

TIG)
Incorrect/insufficient deoxidant in Use electrode with sufficient deoxidation

electrode, filler or parent metal activity
Too great an arc voltage or length Reduce voltage and arc length
Gas evolution from priming paints/surface Identify risk of reaction before surface
treatment treatment is applied
Too high a shielding gas flow rate results Optimise gas flow rate
in turbulence (MIG/MAG, TIG)
Comment
Porosity can be localised or finely dispersed voids throughout the weld metal.
3.3.2 Worm holes
Figure 3.9 Worm holes.
WIS5-90516b
Description
Elongated or tubular cavities formed by trapped gas during the solidification of
the weld metal which can occur singly or in groups.
Causes Prevention
Gross contaminated of preparation Introduce preweld cleaning procedures.

surface.
Laminated work surface. Replace parent material with an

unlaminated piece.
Crevices in work surface due to joint Eliminate joint shapes which produce
geometry. crevices.
Comments
Worm holes are caused by the progressive entrapment of gas between the
solidifying metal crystals (dendrites) producing characteristic elongated pores of
circular cross-section. These can appear as a herringbone array on a radiograph
and some may break the surface of the weld.
3.3.3 Surface porosity
Figure 3.10 Surface porosity.
Description
A gas pore that breaks the surface of the weld.
WIS5-90516b
Causes Prevention
Damp or contaminated surface or Clean surface and dry electrodes
electrode
Low fluxing activity (MIG/MAG) Use a high activity flux
Excess sulphur (particularly free-cutting Use high manganese electrodes to

steels) producing sulphur dioxide produce MnS. Note free-cutting steels
(high sulphur) should not normally be
welded
Loss of shielding gas due to long arc or Improve screening against draughts and
high breezes (MIG/MAG) reduce arc length
A shielding gas flow rate that is too high Optimise gas flow rate
results in turbulence (MIG/MAG,TIG)
Comments
The origins of surface porosity are similar to those for uniform porosity.
3.3.4 Crater pipe
Figure 3.11 Crater pipe.
Description
A shrinkage cavity at the end of a weld run usually caused by shrinkage during
solidification.
Causes Prevention
Lack of welder skill due to using Retrain welder.

processes with too high a current.
Inoperative crater filler (slope out) Use correct crater filling techniques.
(TIG).
Comments
Crater filling is a particular problem in TIG welding due to its low heat input. To
fill the crater for this process it is necessary to reduce the weld current (slope
out) in a series of descending steps until the arc is extinguished.
WIS5-90516b
3.4 Solid inclusions
Definition
Solid foreign substances trapped in the weld metal.
Solid
inclusions
Slag Flux Oxide Metallic

inclusion inclusion inclusion inclusion
Tungsten
Copper
Linear Isolated Clustered Other metal
3.4.1 Slag inclusions
Figure 3.12 Slag inclusions.
Description
Slag trapped during welding which is an irregular shape so differs in appearance
from a gas pore.
Causes Prevention
Incomplete slag removal from underlying Improve inter-run slag removal

surface of multi-pass weld
Slag flooding ahead of arc Position work to gain control of slag.

Welder needs to correct electrode angle
Entrapment of slag in work surface Dress/make work surface smooth
WIS5-90516b
Comments
A fine dispersion of inclusions may be present within the weld metal,
particularly if the MMA process is used. These only become a problem when
large or sharp-edged inclusions are produced.
3.4.2 Flux inclusions

Flux trapped during welding which is an irregular shape so differs in appearance
from a gas pore. Appear only in flux associated welding processes (ie MMA,
SAW and FCAW).
Causes Prevention
Unfused flux due to damaged coating Use electrodes in good condition
Flux fails to melt and becomes trapped in Change the flux/wire. Adjust welding
the weld (SAW or FCAW) parameters ie current, voltage etc to
produce satisfactory welding conditions
3.4.3 Oxide inclusions

Oxides trapped during welding which is an irregular shape so differs in
appearance from a gas pore.
Cause Prevention
Heavy millscale/rust on work surface Grind surface prior to welding
A special type of oxide inclusion is puckering, which occurs especially in the

case of aluminium alloys. Gross oxide film enfoldment can occur due to a
combination of unsatisfactory protection from atmospheric contamination and
turbulence in the weld pool.
3.4.4 Tungsten inclusions
Figure 3.13 Tungsten inclusions
Particles of tungsten can become embedded during TIG welding appears as a

light area on radiographs as tungsten is denser than the surrounding metal and
absorbs larger amounts of X-/gamma radiation.
WIS5-90516b
Causes Prevention
Contact of electrode tip with weld pool Keep tungsten out of weld pool; use HF
start
Contact of filler metal with hot tip of Avoid contact between electrode and filler
electrode metal
Contamination of the electrode tip by Reduce welding current; adjust shielding

spatter from the weld pool gas flow rate
Exceeding the current limit for a given Reduce welding current; replace electrode
electrode size or type with a larger diameter one
Extension of electrode beyond the normal Reduce electrode extension and/or

distance from the collet, resulting in welding current
overheating of the electrode
Inadequate tightening of the collet Tighten the collet
Inadequate shielding gas flow rate or Adjust the shielding gas flow rate; protect
excessive draughts resulting in oxidation the weld area; ensure that the post gas
of the electrode tip flow after stopping the arc continues for
at least five seconds
Splits or cracks in the electrode Change the electrode, ensure the correct
size tungsten is selected for the given
welding current used
Inadequate shielding gas (eg use of Change to correct gas composition

argon-oxygen or argon-carbon dioxide
mixtures that are used for MAG welding)
3.5 Lack of fusion and penetration

3.5.1 Lack of fusion
Lack of union between the weld metal and the parent metal or between the
successive layers of weld metal.
Lack of
fusion
Lack of Lack of inter- Lack of root

sidewall fusion run fusion fusion
WIS5-90516b
Figure 3.14 Lack of sidewall fusion.
Lack of union between the weld and parent metal at one or both sides of the
weld.
Causes Prevention
Low heat input to weld Increase arc voltage and/or welding

current; decrease travel speed
Molten metal flooding ahead of arc Improve electrode angle and work
position; increase travel speed
Oxide or scale on weld preparation Improve edge preparation procedure
Excessive inductance in MAG dip transfer Reduce inductance, even if this increases
welding spatter
During welding sufficient heat must be available at the edge of the weld pool to
produce fusion with the parent metal.
Lack of inter-run fusion
Figure 3.15 Lack of inter-run fusion.
WIS5-90516b
Lack of union along the fusion line between the weld beads.
Causes Prevention
Low arc current resulting in low fluidity of Increase current

weld pool
Too high a travel speed Reduce travel speed
Inaccurate bead placement Retrain welder
Lack of inter-run fusion produces crevices between the weld beads and causes
local entrapment of slag.
Lack of root fusion
Figure 3.16 Lack of root fusion.
Lack of fusion between the weld and parent metal at the root of a weld.
Causes Prevention
Low heat input Increase welding current and/or arc

voltage; decrease travel speed
Excessive inductance in MAG dip transfer Use correct induction setting for the
welding, parent metal thickness
MMA electrode too large Reduce electrode size

(low current density)
Use of vertical-down welding Switch to vertical-up procedure
Large root face Reduce root face
Small root gap Ensure correct root opening
Incorrect angle or electrode manipulation Use correct electrode angle.

Ensure welder is fully qualified and
competent
Excessive misalignment at root Ensure correct alignment
WIS5-90516b
3.5.2 Lack of penetration
Lack of
penetration
Incomplete Incomplete root

penetration penetration
Incomplete penetration
Figure 3.17 Incomplete penetration.
The difference between actual and nominal penetration.
Causes Prevention
Excessively thick root face, insufficient Improve back gouging technique and
root gap or failure to cut back to sound ensure the edge preparation is as per
metal when back gouging approved WPS
Low heat input Increase welding current and/or arc

voltage; decrease travel speed
Excessive inductance in MAG dip transfer Improve electrical settings and possibly
welding, pool flooding ahead of arc switch to spray arc transfer
MMA electrode too large Reduce electrode size

(low current density)
Use of vertical-down welding Switch to vertical-up procedure
WIS5-90516b
If the weld joint is not of a critical nature, ie the required strength is low and
the area is not prone to fatigue cracking, it is possible to produce a partial
penetration weld. In this case incomplete root penetration is considered part of
this structure and not an imperfection This would normally be determined by
the design or code requirement.
Incomplete root penetration
Figure 3.18 Incomplete root penetration.
Both fusion faces of the root are not melted. When examined from the root
side, you can clearly see both of the root edges unmelted.
Causes and prevention

Same as for lack of root fusion.
3.6 Imperfect shape and dimensions

3.6.1 Undercut
Figure 3.19 Undercut.
An irregular groove at the toe of a run in the parent metal or previously

deposited weld metal due to welding. Characterised by its depth, length and
sharpness.
WIS5-90516b
Undercut
Continuous Intermittent Inter-run

undercut undercut undercut
Causes Prevention
Melting of top edge due to high welding Reduce power input, especially
current (especially at the free edge) or approaching a free edge where
high travel speed overheating can occur
Attempting a fillet weld in horizontal- Weld in the flat position or use multi-run
vertical (PB) position with leg length techniques
>9mm
Excessive/incorrect weaving Reduce weaving width or switch to multi-

runs
Incorrect electrode angle Direct arc towards thicker member
Incorrect shielding gas selection (MAG) Ensure correct gas mixture for material
type and thickness (MAG)
Care must be taken during weld repairs of undercut to control the heat input. If
the bead of a repair weld is too small, the cooling rate following welding will be
excessive and the parent metal may have an increased hardness and the weld
susceptible to hydrogen cracking.
3.6.2 Excess weld metal
Figure 3.20 Excess weld metal.
WIS5-90516b
Excess weld metal is the extra metal that produces excessive convexity in fillet
welds and a weld thickness greater than the parent metal plate in butt welds. It
is regarded as an imperfection only when the height of the excess weld metal is
greater than a specified limit.
Causes Prevention
Excess arc energy (MAG, SAW) Reduction of heat input
Shallow edge preparation Deepen edge preparation
Faulty electrode manipulation or build-up Improve welder skill

sequence
Incorrect electrode size Reduce electrode size
Travel speed too slow Ensure correct travel speed is used
Incorrect electrode angle Ensure correct electrode angle is used
Wrong polarity used (electrode polarity Ensure correct polarity ie DC+ve

DC-ve (MMA, SAW ) Note DC-ve must be used for TIG
The term reinforcement used to designate this feature of the weld is misleading
since the excess metal does not normally produce a stronger weld in a butt
joint in ordinary steel. This imperfection can become a problem, as the angle of
the weld toe can be sharp leading to an increased stress concentration at the
toes of the weld and fatigue cracking.
3.6.3 Excess penetration
Figure 3.21 Excess penetration.
Projection of the root penetration bead beyond a specified limit, local or

continuous.
WIS5-90516b
Causes Prevention
Weld heat input too high Reduce arc voltage and/or welding current;
increase welding speed
Incorrect weld preparation ie excessive Improve workpiece preparation

root gap, thin edge preparation, lack of
backing
Use of electrode unsuited to welding Use correct electrode for position

position
Lack of welder skill Retrain welder
The maintenance of a penetration bead of uniform dimensions requires a great

deal of skill, particularly in pipe butt welding. This can be made more difficult if
there is restricted access to the weld or a narrow preparation. Permanent or
temporary backing bars can assist in the control of penetration.
3.6.4 Overlap
Figure 3.22 Overlap.
Imperfection at the toe of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface of

the parent metal without fusing to it.
Causes Prevention
Poor electrode manipulation (MMA) Retrain welder
High heat input/low travel speed Reduce heat input or limit leg size to 9mm
causing surface flow of fillet welds maximum for single pass fillets
Incorrect positioning of weld Change to flat position
Wrong electrode coating type Change electrode coating type to a more

resulting in too high a fluidity suitable fast freezing type which is less fluid
WIS5-90516b
For a fillet weld overlap is often associated with undercut, as if the weld pool is
too fluid the top of the weld will flow away to produce undercut at the top and
overlap at the base. If the volume of the weld pool is too large in a fillet weld in
horizontal-vertical (PB) position, weld metal will collapse due to gravity,
producing both defects (undercut at the top and overlap at the base), this
defect is called sagging.
3.6.5 Linear misalignment
Figure 3.23 Linear misalignment.
Misalignment between two welded pieces such that while their surface planes
are parallel, they are not in the required same plane.
Causes Prevention
Inaccuracies in assembly procedures or Adequate checking of alignment prior to

distortion from other welds welding coupled with the use of clamps
and wedges
Excessive out of flatness in hot rolled Check accuracy of rolled section prior to
plates or sections welding
Misalignment is not a weld imperfection but a structural preparation problem.

Even a small amount of misalignment can drastically increase the local shear
stress at a joint and induce bending stress.
WIS5-90516b
3.6.6 Angular distortion
Figure 3.24 Angular distortion.
Misalignment between two welded pieces such that their surface planes are not
parallel or at the intended angle.
Causes and prevention are the same as for linear misalignment.
3.6.7 Incompletely filled groove
Figure 3.25 Incompletely filled groove.
Continuous or intermittent channel in the weld surface due to insufficient

deposition of weld filler metal.
Causes Prevention
Insufficient weld metal Increase the number of weld runs
Irregular weld bead surface Retrain welder
This imperfection differs from undercut, as it reduces the load-bearing capacity

of a weld, whereas undercut produces a sharp stress-raising notch at the edge
of a weld.
WIS5-90516b
3.6.8 Irregular width
Figure 3.26 Irregular width.
Excessive variation in width of the weld.
Causes Prevention
Severe arc blow Switch from DC to AC, keep arc length

as short as possible
Irregular weld bead surface Retrain welder
Although this imperfection may not affect the integrity of the completed weld, it
can affect the width of HAZ and reduce the load-carrying capacity of the joint
(in fine-grained structural steels) or impair corrosion resistance (in duplex
stainless steels).
3.6.9 Root concavity
Figure 3.27 Root concavity.
WIS5-90516b
A shallow groove that occurs due to shrinkage at the root of a butt weld.
Causes Prevention
Insufficient arc power to produce positive Raise arc energy

bead
Incorrect preparation/fit-up Work to WPS
Excessive backing gas pressure (TIG) Reduce gas pressure
Slag flooding in backing bar groove Tilt work to prevent slag

flooding
A backing strip can be used to control the extent of the root bead.
3.6.10 Burn-through
Figure 3.28 Burn-through.
A collapse of the weld pool resulting in a hole in the weld.
Causes Prevention
Insufficient travel speed Increase the travel speed
Excessive welding current Reduce welding current
Excessive grinding of root face More care taken, retrain welder
Excessive root gap Ensure correct fit-up
WIS5-90516b
This is a gross imperfection which occurs due to lack of welder skill but can be
repaired by bridging the gap formed into the joint, but requires a great deal of
attention.
3.7 Miscellaneous imperfections

3.7.1 Stray arc
Figure 3.29 Stray arc.
Local damage to the surface of the parent metal adjacent to the weld, resulting
from arcing or striking the arc outside the weld groove. This results in random
areas of fused metal where the electrode, holder or current return clamp have
accidentally touched the work.
Causes Prevention
Poor access to the work Improve access (modify assembly

sequence)
Missing insulation on electrode holder Institute a regular inspection scheme
or torch for electrode holders and torches
Failure to provide an insulated resting Provide an insulated resting place

place for the electrode holder or torch
when not in use
Loose current return clamp Regularly maintain current return

clamps
Adjusting wire feed (MAG welding) Retrain welder
without isolating welding current
An arc strike can produce a hard HAZ which may contain cracks, possibly
leading to serious cracking in service. It is better to remove an arc strike by
grinding than weld repair.
WIS5-90516b
3.7.2 Spatter
Figure 3.30 Splatter.
Globules of weld or filler metal expelled during welding adhering to the surface
of parent metal or solidified weld metal.
Causes Prevention
High arc current Reduce arc current
Long arc length Reduce arc length
Magnetic arc blow Reduce arc length or switch to AC

power
Incorrect settings for GMAW process Modify electrical settings (but be
careful to maintain full fusion!)
Damp electrodes Use dry electrodes
Wrong selection of shielding gas Increase argon content if possible,

(100%CO2) however if too high may lead to lack of
penetration
Spatter is a cosmetic imperfection and does not affect the integrity of the weld.
However as it is usually caused by an excessive welding current, it is a sign that
the welding conditions are not ideal so there are usually other associated
problems within the structure, ie high heat input.
Some spatter is always produced by open arc consumable electrode welding

processes. Anti-spatter compounds can be used on the parent metal to reduce
sticking and the spatter can then be scraped off.
WIS5-90516b
3.7.3 Torn surface
Surface damage due to the removal by fracture of temporary welded
attachments. The area should be ground off, subjected to a dye penetrant or
magnetic particle examination then restored to its original shape by welding
using a qualified procedure.
Some applications do not allow the presence of any overlay weld on the surface
of the parent material.
3.7.4 Additional imperfections

Grinding mark
Local damage due to grinding.
Chipping mark
Local damage due to the use of a chisel or other tools.
Underflushing
Lack of thickness of the workpiece due to excessive grinding.
Misalignment of opposite runs

Difference between the centrelines of two runs made from opposite sides of the
joint.
Temper colour (visible oxide film)

Lightly oxidised surface in the weld zone, usually occurs in stainless steels.
Figure 3.31 Temper colour of stainless steel.
3.8 Acceptance standards

Weld imperfections can seriously reduce the integrity of a welded structure.
Prior to service of a welded joint, it is necessary to locate them using NDE
techniques, assess their significance and take action to avoid their
reoccurrence.
WIS5-90516b
The acceptance of a certain size and type of defect for a given structure is
normally expressed as the defect acceptance standard, usually incorporated in
application standards or specifications.
All normal weld imperfection acceptance standards totally reject cracks. In

exceptional circumstances and subject to the agreement of all parties, cracks
may remain if it can be demonstrated beyond doubt that they will not lead to
failure. This can be difficult to establish and usually involves fracture mechanics
measurements and calculations.
It is important to note that the levels of acceptability vary between different

applications and in most cases vary between different standards for the same
application. Consequently, when inspecting different jobs it is important to use
the applicable standard or specification quoted in the contract.
Once unacceptable weld imperfections have been found they have to be

removed. If the weld imperfection is at the surface, the first consideration is
whether it is of a type shallow enough to be repaired by superficial dressing.
Superficial implies that after removal of the defect the remaining material
thickness is sufficient not to require the addition of further weld metal.
If the defect is too deep it must be removed and new weld metal added to
ensure a minimum design throat thickness.
Replacing removed metal or weld repair (as in filling an excavation or re-

making a weld joint) has to be done in accordance with an approved procedure.
The rigour with which this procedure is qualified depends on the application
standard for the job.
In some cases it will be acceptable to use a procedure qualified for making new
joints whether filling an excavation or making a complete joint. If the level of
reassurance required is higher, the qualification will have to be made using an
exact simulation of a welded joint, which is excavated then refilled using a
specified method. In either case, qualification inspection and testing will be
required in accordance with the application standard.
WIS5-90516b
Welding Imperfections Objective

will have a greater understanding of the types of
defects during visual inspection. You should be
able to asses the defect against an acceptance
Welding Imperfections and criteria and accept or reject accordingly.
Materials Inspection
Section 3
Features to Consider Features to Consider
Butt welds - size Butt welds - toe blend
x
Weld cap width
Excess weld
metal height
Root bead width

Root
penetration
x x
Welding Defects Welding Defects
Incomplete root penetration

a. Excessively thick root face.
Causes b. Too small a root gap.

 Too small a root gap.
 Arc too long.
 Wrong polarity.
 Electrode too large for joint preparation.
c. Misplaced welds.
 Incorrect electrode angle.
 Too fast a speed of travel for current.
3-1
Too large diameter

d. Power input too low. electrode.
Smaller (correct)
e. Arc (heat) input too low. diameter electrode.
Lack of sidewall fusion

due to arc deflection.
Parallel
magnetic
Deflection
field
of arc
Incomplete root fusion Root concavity
Causes Causes
 Too small a root gap.  Root gap too large.
 Arc too long.  Insufficient arc energy.
 Wrong polarity.  Excessive back purge TIG.
 Electrode too large for joint
preparation.
 Too fast a speed of travel for current.
Excess root penetration Root undercut
Causes
 Excessive amperage during
welding of root. Causes
 Excessive root gap.  Root gap too large.
 Poor fit up.  Excessive arc energy.
 Excessive root grinding.  Small or no root face.
 Improper welding
technique.
3-2
Cap undercut
Overlap
Causes
 Excessive welding current.
 Welding speed too high.
 Excessive weave.
 Electrode too large.
Excess weld
metal
Lack of fusion Incompletely filled groove

and lack of side wall fusion
Causes
 Contaminated weld
preparation.
 Amperage too low.
 Amperage too high (welder Causes
increases speed of travel).  Insufficient weld metal
deposited.
 Improper welding technique.
Inter run incompletely filled groove Incompletely filled groove
Causes
 Insufficient weld metal deposited.
 Improper welding technique.
3-3
Gas pores/porosity Gas pores/porosity
Causes
 Excessive moisture in flux or preparation.
 Contaminated preparation.
 Low welding current.
 Arc length too long.
 Damaged electrode flux.
 Removal of gas shield.
Inclusions - slag Inclusions - slag
Causes
 Insufficient cleaning between passes. Causes
 Contaminated weld preparation.  Insufficient cleaning between passes.
 Welding over irregular profile.  Contaminated weld preparation.
 Incorrect welding speed.  Welding over irregular profile.
 Arc length too long.  Incorrect welding speed.
 Arc length too long.
Inclusions - tungsten Burn through
Causes
Contamination of weld caused by excessive current Causes
through electrode, tungsten touching weld metal or  Excessive amperage during welding of root.
parent metal during welding using the TIG welding  Excessive root grinding.
process.  Improper welding technique.
3-4
Spatter Arc strikes
Causes
 Electrode straying
onto parent metal.
 Electrode holder with
Causes poor insulation.
 Excessive arc energy.  Poor contact of earth
 Excessive arc length. clamp.
 Damp electrodes.
 Arc blow.
Mechanical damage Non-alignment of two abutting edges
Chisel
Chisel Marksmarks
Grinding marks
Chisel Marks
2mm
Also known as: Hi low, mismatch or misalignment.

Linear
Excess weld metal
height lowest plate to
highest point
50mm
3mm
3mm
Excess penetration lowest
plate to highest point Angular
Angular distortion
 Measure the distance to the edge of the plate (50mm).
 Use a straight edge (rule) to find the amount of
distortion then measure the space (3mm). 3mm
 This is reported as angular distortion 3mm in 50mm.
Angular misalignment measured in mm.
3-5
Any Questions
?
3-6
Section 4
Destructive Testing
4 Destructive Testing
Introduction
European Welding Standards require test coupons made for welding procedure
qualification testing to be subjected to non-destructive and then destructive
testing.
The tests are called destructive tests because the welded joint is destroyed
when various types of test piece are taken from it.
Destructive tests can be divided into two groups, those used to:
 Measure a mechanical property – quantitative tests.

 Assess the joint quality – qualitative tests.
Mechanical tests are quantitative because a quantity is measured, a mechanical

property such as tensile strength, hardness or impact toughness.
Qualitative tests are used to verify that the joint is free from defects, of sound
quality and examples of these are bend tests, macroscopic examination and
fracture tests (fillet fracture and nick-break).
4.1 Test types, pieces and objectives

Various types of mechanical test are used by material manufacturers/
suppliers to verify that plates, pipes, forgings, etc have the minimum property
values specified for particular grades.
Design engineers use the minimum property values listed for particular grades
of material as the basis for design and the most cost-effective designs are
based on an assumption that welded joints have properties that are no worse
than those of the base metal.
The quantitative (mechanical) tests carried out for welding procedure

qualification are intended to demonstrate that the joint properties satisfy design
requirements.
The emphasis in the following sub-sections is on the destructive tests and test
methods widely used for welded joints.
4.1.1 Transverse tensile tests

Test objective
Welding procedure qualification tests always require transverse tensile tests to
show that the strength of the joint satisfies the design criterion.
Test specimens
A transverse tensile test piece typical of the type specified by European Welding
Standards is shown below.
Standards, such as EN 895, that specify dimensions for transverse tensile test
pieces require all excess weld metal to be removed and the surface to be free
from scratches.
WIS5-90516b
Destructive Testing 4-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Parallel
length
Figure 4.1 Transverse tensile test piece.
Test pieces may be machined to represent the full thickness of the joint but for
very thick joints it may be necessary to take several transverse tensile test
specimens to be able to test the full thickness.
Method
Test specimens are accurately measured before testing, then fitted into the
jaws of a tensile testing machine and subjected to a continually increasing
tensile force until the specimen fractures.
The tensile strength (Rm) is calculated by dividing the maximum load by the
cross-sectional area of the test specimen, measured before testing.
The test is intended to measure the tensile strength of the joint and thereby
show that the basis for design, the base metal properties, remain the valid
criterion.
Acceptance criteria
If the test piece breaks in the weld metal, it is acceptable provided the
calculated strength is not less than the minimum tensile strength specified,
which is usually the minimum specified for the base metal material grade.
In the ASME IX code, if the test specimen breaks outside the weld or fusion
zone at a stress above 95% of the minimum base metal strength the test result
is acceptable.
4.1.2 All-weld tensile tests
Objective
On occasion it is necessary to measure the weld metal strength as part of
welding procedure qualification, particularly for elevated temperature designs.
The test is to measure tensile strength and also yield (or proof strength) and
tensile ductility.
All-weld tensile tests are regularly carried out by welding consumable

manufacturers to verify that electrodes and filler wires satisfy the tensile
properties specified by the standard to which the consumables are certified.
WIS5-90516b
Specimens
Machined from welds parallel with their longitudinal axis and the specimen
gauge length must be 100% weld metal.
Figure 4.2 Diagram of a tensile specimen.
Round tensile specimen from a Round tensile specimen from an

welding procedure qualification electrode classification test piece.
test piece.
Figure 4.3 Round cross-section tensile specimens.
Method
Specimens are subjected to a continually increasing force in the same way that
transverse tensile specimens are tested.
Yield (Re) or proof stress (Rp) are measured by an extensometer attached to the
parallel length of the specimen that accurately measures the extension of the
gauge length as the load is increased.
Typical load extension curves and their principal characteristics are shown
below.
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Load extension curve for a steel Load-extension curve for a steel (or
that shows a distinct yield point at other metal) that does not show a
the elastic limit. distinct yield point; proof stress is a
measure of the elastic limit.
Figure 4.4 Typical load extension curves.
Tensile ductility is measured in two ways:
 Percent elongation of the gauge length.

 Percent reduction of area at the point of fracture.
The figure below illustrates these two ductility measurements.
Note: The term necking is often

used to describe reduction in
diameter.
Figure 4.5 Two ductility measurements.

To calculate elongation: 100 %

To calculate UTS:
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4.1.3 Impact toughness tests
Objective
Charpy V notch test pieces are the internationally accepted method for
assessing resistance to brittle fracture by measuring the energy to initiate and
propagate a crack from a sharp notch in a standard sized specimen subjected to
an impact load.
Design engineers need to ensure that the toughness of the steel used for a
particular item will be sufficient to avoid brittle fracture in service and so impact
specimens are tested at a temperature related to the design temperature for
the fabricated component.
C-Mn and low alloy steels undergo a sharp change in their resistance to brittle
fracture as their temperature is lowered so that a steel that may have very
good toughness at ambient temperature may show extreme brittleness at sub-
zero temperatures, as illustrated below.
Temperature range Ductile fracture
47 Joules
Transition range Ductile/Brittle

transition
point
28 Joules
Energy absorbed
Brittle fracture
- 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0
Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature
Figure 4.6 Impact toughness tests.
The transition temperature is defined as the temperature midway between the

upper shelf (maximum toughness) and lower shelf (completely brittle). In the
above the transition temperature is -20°C.
Specimens
Test specimen dimensions have been standardised internationally and are
shown below for full size specimens. There are also standard dimensions for
smaller sized specimens, for example 10 x 7.5mm and 10 x 5mm.
Figure 4.7 Charpy V notch test piece dimensions for full size specimens.
WIS5-90516b
Specimens are machined from welded test plates with the notch position
located in different positions according to the testing requirements but typically
in the centre of the weld metal and at positions across the HAZ, as shown
below.
Figure 4.8 Typical notch positions for Charpy V notch test specimens from
double V butt welds.
Method
Test specimens are cooled to the specified test temperature by immersion in an
insulated bath containing a liquid held at the test temperature.
After allowing the specimen temperature to stabilise for a few minutes it is

quickly transferred to the anvil of the test machine and a pendulum hammer
quickly released so that the specimen experiences an impact load behind the
notch.
The main features of an impact test machine are shown below.
Impact specimen on
the anvil showing
the hammer position
at point of impact.
Figure 4.9 Impact testing machine.
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Figure 4.10 Charpy V notch test pieces after and before testing.
The energy absorbed by the hammer when it strikes each test specimen is
shown by the position of the hammer pointer on the scale of the machine.
Energy values are given in Joules (or ft-lbs in US specifications).
Three Impact test specimens are taken for each notch position as there is
always some degree of scatter in the results, particularly for weldments.
Acceptance criteria
Each test result is recorded and an average value calculated for each set of
three tests. These values are compared with those specified by the application
standard or client to establish whether specified requirements have been met.
After impact testing, examination of the test specimens provides additional

information about their toughness characteristics and may be added to the test
report:
 Percent crystallinity: % of the fracture face that has crystalline appearance

which indicates brittle fracture; 100% indicates completely brittle fracture.
 Lateral expansion: Increase in width of the back of the specimen behind the
notch, as indicated below; the larger the value the tougher the specimen.
Non lateral expansion a + b = lateral expansion

brittle fracture ductile fracture
Figure 4.11 After impact testing.
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A specimen that exhibits extreme brittleness will show a clean break, both
halves of the specimen having a completely flat fracture face with little or no
lateral expansion.
A specimen that exhibits very good toughness will show only a small degree of
crack extension, without fracture and a high value of lateral expansion.
4.1.4 Hardness testing
Objective
The hardness of a metal is its’ resistance to plastic deformation, determined by
measuring the resistance to indentation by a particular type of indenter.
A steel weldment with hardness above a certain maximum may be susceptible

to cracking, either during fabrication or in-service and welding procedure
qualification testing for certain steels and applications requires the test weld to
be hardness surveyed to ensure no regions exceed the maximum specified
hardness.
Specimens prepared for macroscopic examination can also be used for taking
hardness measurements at various positions of the weldments, referred to as a
hardness survey.
Methods
There are three widely used methods:
 Vickers - uses a square-based diamond pyramid indenter.

 Rockwell - uses a diamond cone indenter or steel ball.
 Brinell - uses a ball indenter.
The hardness value is given by the size of the indentation produced under a
standard load, the smaller the indentation, the harder the metal.
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The Vickers method of testing is illustrated below.
d1  d2
d
2
Figure 4.12 The Vickers method of testing.
Both the Vickers and Rockwell methods are suitable for carrying out hardness
surveys on specimens prepared for macroscopic examination of weldments.
A typical hardness survey requires the indenter to measure the hardness in the
base metal (on both sides of the weld), the weld metal and across the HAZ (on
both sides of the weld).
The Brinell method gives an indentation too large to accurately measure the
hardness in specific regions of the HAZ and is mainly used to measure the
hardness of base metals.
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A typical hardness survey (using Vickers hardness indenter) is shown below:
Figure 4.13 Typical hardness survey.
Hardness values are shown on test reports as a number followed by letters

indicating the test method, for example:
240HV10 = hardness 240, Vickers method, 10kg indenter load.
22HRC = hardness 22, Rockwell method, diamond cone indenter (scale C).
238HBW = hardness 238, Brinell method, tungsten ball indenter.
4.1.5 Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) testing.
Objective
Charpy V notch testing enables engineers to make judgements about the risk
of brittle fracture occurring in steels, but a CTOD test measures a material
property - fracture toughness.
Fracture toughness data enables engineers to carry out fracture mechanics

analyses such as:
 Calculating the size of a crack that would initiate a brittle fracture under
certain stress conditions at a particular temperature.
 The stress that would cause a certain sized crack to give a brittle fracture at
a particular temperature.
This data is essential for making an appropriate decision when a crack is

discovered during inspection of equipment that is in-service.
Specimens
A CTOD specimen is prepared as a rectangular or square shaped bar cut
transverse to the axis of the butt weld. A V notch is machined at the centre of
the bar, which will be coincident with the test position, weld metal or HAZ.
A shallow saw cut is made at the bottom of the notch and the specimen put into
a machine that induces a cyclic bending load until a shallow fatigue crack
initiates from the saw cut.
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The specimens are relatively large, typically having a cross-section B x 2B and
length ~10B (B = full thickness of the weld). The test piece details are shown
below.
Figure 4.14 A CTOD specimen.
Method
CTOD specimens are usually tested at a temperature below ambient and the
specimen temperature is controlled by immersion in a bath of liquid cooled to
the required test temperature.
A load is applied to the specimen to cause bending and induce a concentrated

stress at the tip of the crack and a clip gauge, attached to the specimen across
the mouth of the machined notch, gives a reading of the increase in width of
the crack mouth as the load is gradually increased.
For each test condition (position of notch and test temperature) it is usual to
carry out three tests.
The figures below illustrate the main features of the CTOD test.
Figure 4.15 The main features of the CTOD test.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 4.15 Cross section of specimen.
Fracture toughness is expressed as the distance the crack tip opens without
initiation of a brittle crack.
The clip gauge enables a chart to be generated showing the increase in width of
the crack mouth against applied load from which a CTOD value is calculated.
Acceptance criteria
An application standard or client may specify a minimum CTOD value that
indicates ductile tearing. Alternatively, the test may be for information so that a
value can be used for an engineering critical assessment (ECA).
A very tough steel weldment will allow the mouth of the crack to open widely by
ductile tearing at the tip of the crack whereas a very brittle weldment will tend
to fracture when the applied load is quite low and without any extension at the
tip of the crack.
CTOD values are expressed in millimetres - typical values might be <<~0.1mm

= brittle behaviour; >~1mm = very tough behaviour.
4.1.6 Bend testing

Objective
Bend tests routinely taken from welding procedure qualification test pieces and
sometimes welder qualification test pieces.
Subjecting specimens to bending is a simple way of verifying there are no

significant flaws in the joint. Some degree of ductility is also demonstrated, it is
not measured but shown to be satisfactory if test specimens can withstand
being bent without fracture or fissures above a certain length.
WIS5-90516b
Specimens
There are four types of bend specimen:
 Face
Taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickness and bent
so that the face of the weld is on the outside of the bend (face in tension).
 Root
Taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickness and bent
so that the root of the weld is on the outside of the bend (root in tension).
 Side
Taken as a transverse slice (~10mm) from the full thickness of butt welds
>~12mm and bent so that the full joint thickness is tested (side in tension).
 Longitudinal bend
Taken with axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of a butt weld; specimen
thickness is ~12mm and the face or root of weld may be tested in tension.
Figure 4.16 Four types of bend specimens.
WIS5-90516b
Method
Guided bend tests are usually used for welding procedure and welder
qualification.
Guided means that the strain imposed on the specimen is uniformly controlled
by being bent around a former with a certain diameter.
The diameter of the former used for a particular test is specified in the code,
having been determined by the type of material being tested and the ductility
that can be expected from it after welding and any PWHT.
The diameter of the former is usually expressed as a multiple of the specimen

thickness (t) and for C-Mn steel is typically 4t but for materials that have lower
tensile ductility the radius of the former may be greater than 10t.
The standard that specifies the test method will specify the minimum bend
angle the specimen must experience and is typically 120-180°.
Acceptance criteria
Bend tests pieces should exhibit satisfactory soundness by not showing cracks
or any signs of significant fissures or cavities on the outside of the bend.
Small indications less than about 3mm in length may be allowed by some
standards.
4.1.7 Fracture tests
Fillet weld fractures

Objective
The quality/soundness of a fillet weld can be assessed by fracturing test pieces
and examining the fracture surfaces.
This method for assessing the quality of fillet welds may be specified by
application standards as an alternative to macroscopic examination.
It is a test method that can be used for welder qualification testing according to
European Standards but is not used for welding procedure qualification.
Specimens
A test weld is cut into short (typically 50mm) lengths and a longitudinal notch
machined into the specimen as shown below. The notch profile may be square,
V or U shape.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 4.17 Longitudinal notch in fillet welds.
Method
Specimens are made to fracture through their throat by dynamic strokes
(hammering) or by pressing, as shown below. The welding standard or
application standard will specify the number of tests (typically four).
Hammer stroke Moving press
Figure 4.18 Hammer stroke and pressing specimens.
Acceptance criteria
The standard for welder qualification, or application standard, will specify the
acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of penetration into the root of
the joint and solid inclusions and porosity that are visible on the fracture
surfaces.
Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture and
location of any imperfection.
Butt weld fractures (nick-break tests)

Objective
The same as for fillet fracture tests.
These tests are specified for welder qualification testing to European Standards
as an alternative to radiography and are not used for welding procedure
qualification testing.
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Specimens
Taken from a butt weld and notched so that the fracture path will be in the
central region of the weld. Typical test piece types are shown below.
Figure 4.19 Notched butt weld.
Method
Test pieces are made to fracture by hammering or three-point bending.
Acceptance criteria
The standard for welder qualification or application standard will specify the
acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of fusion, solid inclusions and
porosity that are visible on the fracture surfaces.
Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture and
location of any imperfection.
4.2 Macroscopic examination

Transverse sections from butt and fillet welds are required by the European
Standards for welding procedure qualification testing and may be required for
some welder qualification testing for assessing the quality of the welds.
This is considered in detail in a separate section of these course notes.
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4.2.1 European Standards for destructive test methods
The following Standards are specified by the European Welding Standards for
destructive testing of welding procedure qualification test welds and for some
welder qualification test welds.
BS EN ISO 9016 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - impact

tests - test specimen location, notch orientation and
examination.
BS EN ISO 4136 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials -

transverse tensile test.
BS EN ISO 5173 +A1 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - bend

tests.
BS EN ISO 17639 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - macro

and microscopic examination of welds.
BS EN ISO 6892-1 Metallic materials - Tensile testing. Part 1: Method of

test at ambient temperature.
BS EN ISO 6892-2 Tensile testing of metallic materials. Part 5: Method of

test at elevated temperatures.
WIS5-90516b
Destructive testing Objective

should be able to recognise a wide range of
mechanical tests and their purpose. You should
also be able to make calculations using
formulae and tables to determine various values
Destructive Testing of strength, toughness, hardness and ductility.
Section 4
Destructive Testing Definitions Destructive Tests
What is destructive testing? Destructive tests include:

3x
The destruction of a welded  Bend test. Toughness
(Charpy V
unit or by cutting out  Impact test. notch)
selected specimens from the
weld, is carried out to check  Tensile test. 2 x Ductile
the mechanical properties of  Hardness test. (Bend test)
the joint materials.
 Macro/micro
examination. 2 x Strength
They can be produced to (transverse
 Approve welding procedures (BS EN 15614). tensile)
 Approve welders (BS EN ISO 9606).

 Production quality control.
Qualitative and Quantitative Tests Definitions
The following mechanical tests have units and are termed Mechanical properties of metals are related to the
quantitative tests to measure mechanical properties of amount of deformation which metals can withstand
the joint.
under different circumstances of force application.
 Tensile tests (transverse welded joint, all weld metal).
 Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD).  Malleability.
 Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers).
 Ductility. Ability of a material to
withstand deformation
 Toughness.
The following mechanical tests have no units and are under static compressive
termed qualitative tests for assessing weld quality.  Hardness. loading without rupture.
 Macro testing.  Tensile Strength.
 Bend testing.
 Fillet weld fracture testing.
 Butt weld nick-break testing.
4-1
Mechanical Test Samples Destructive Testing
Tensile specimens Welding procedure qualification testing

CTOD specimen
Top of fixed pipe
2 Typical positions for test
pieces and specimen
type position
 Macro + hardness. 5
Bend test 3
specimen  Transverse tensile. 2, 4
 Bend tests. 2, 4
Charpy  Charpy impact tests. 3
specimen
 Additional tests. 3
4
Fracture fillet specimen 5
Mechanical Testing Hardness Testing
Definition
 Measurement of resistance of a material against
penetration of an indenter under a constant
load.
Hardness Testing  There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness.
Hardness tests:
 Brinell.
 Vickers.
 Rockwell.
Hardness Testing Hardness Testing
Objectives: Usually the hardest region

 Measuring hardness in different areas of a 1.5 to 3mm
welded joint. Fusion
 Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold line or
HAZ
cracking and corrosion sensitivity. fusion
boundary
Information to be supplied on the test
report:
 Material type. Hardness test methods Typical designations
 Location of indentation.  Vickers 240 HV10
 Type of hardness test and load applied on the  Rockwell Rc 22
indenter.  Brinell 200 BHN-W
 Hardness value.
4-2
Vickers Hardness Test Vickers Hardness Test
Typical location of the indentations Vickers hardness tests:

 Indentation body is a square based diamond
pyramid (136° included angle).
 The average diagonal (d) of the impression is
Butt weld from
converted to a hardness number from a table.
one side only  It is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025.
Adjustable
Diamond Indentation shutters
indentor
Butt weld from

both side
Vickers Hardness Test Machine Brinell Hardness Test
 Hardened steel ball of given diameter is

subjected for a given time to a given load.
 Load divided by area of indentation gives
Brinell hardness in kg/mm2.
 More suitable for on site hardness testing.
30KN
Ø=10mm
steel ball
Rockwell Hardness Test Portable Hardness Test
Rockwell B Rockwell C
1KN
1.5KN
 Dynamic and very portable hardness test.

Ø=1.6mm 120° diamond
 Accuracy depends on the the condition of the
steel ball cone
test/support surfaces and the support of the test
piece during the test.
 For more details, see ASTM E448.
4-3
Mechanical Testing Charpy V-Notch Impact Test
Weld metal Fusion Line (FL) FL+2mm FL+5mm Parent material
Objectives:
Impact Testing  Measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas.
 Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture.
Information to be supplied on the test report:

 Material type.
 Notch type.
 Specimen size.
 Test temperature.
 Notch location.
 Impact strength value.
Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Specimen
Pendulum Specimen dimensions according ASTM E23

Specimen (striker)
Anvil (support)
ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials.
Charpy Impact Test Ductile/Brittle Transition Curve

10 mm
22.5° 100% Brittle Mn < 1.6 % Temperature range
Ductile fracture
2 mm
Machined notch. increases toughness

in steels, and lower
energy input used. 47 Joules
Fracture surface
8 mm
100% bright
crystalline Transition range Ductile/Brittle
brittle fracture.
transition point
100% Ductile
Machined notch. 28 Joules
Large reduction
in area, shear Brittle fracture Energy absorbed
lips. - 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0
Randomly torn,
dull gray Testing temperature - Degrees centigrade
fracture surface.
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature
4-4
Comparison Charpy
Charpy Impact Test
Impact Test Results
Impact energy joules Reporting results
 Location and orientation of notch.
Room Temperature -20°C Temperature
 Testing temperature.
 Energy absorbed in joules.
1. 197 Joules 1. 49 Joules
 Description of fracture (brittle or ductile).
2. 191 Joules 2. 53 Joules
 Location of any defects present.
3. 186 Joules 3. 51 Joules  Dimensions of specimen.
Average = 191 Joules Average = 51 Joules

The test results show the specimens carried out at room
temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried
out at -20°C.
Mechanical Testing Tensile Testing
Tensile Testing
UTS Tensile Test Tensile Tests
Rm
ReH
ReL
4-5
Tensile Test Tensile Tests
Rp 0.2% - Proof stress. Refers to materials Different tensile tests:

which do not have a defined yielding such as  Transverse tensile.
aluminium and some steels.  All-weld metal tensile test.
 Cruciform tensile test.
 Short tensile test (through thickness test).
Tensile Test Transverse Joint Tensile Test
All weld Metal

All-Weld metalTensile
tensile
specimen
Specimen
Objective:
Measuring the overall strength of the weld joint.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
Transverse
TransverseTensile
tensile  Material type.
Specimen
specimen  Specimen type
 Specimen size (see QW-462.1).
 UTS.
 Location of final rupture.
Transverse Joint Tensile Test Transverse Tensile Test
Maximum load applied = 220 kN

Cross sectional area = 25 mm X 12 mm
UTS = Maximum load applied

Weld on plate csa
UTS = 220 000

25mm X 12mm
Multiple cross joint specimens

UTS = 733.33 N/mm2
Weld on pipe
4-6
Transverse Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test
Reporting results: BS 709/BS EN 10002

 Type of specimen eg reduced section. All Weld Metal Tensile Testing
 Whether weld reinforcement is removed.
 Dimensions of test specimen. Direction of the test *
 The ultimate tensile strength in N/mm2, psi or
Mpa.
 Location of fracture.
 Location and type of any flaws present if any.
Tensile test piece cut along weld specimen.
All-Weld Metal Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test
Original gauge length = 50mm Gauge length
Increased gauge length = 64 Object of test:

 Ultimate tensile
strength.
Elongation % = Increase of gauge length X 100  Yield strength.
Original gauge length  Elongation
%(ductility).
Elongation % = 14
X 100
50
Elongation = 28% Increased gauge length
All-Weld Metal Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test
Two marks are made Two marks are made

Gauge length 50mm Gauge length 50mm
During the test, yield and tensile strength are recorded During the test, yield and tensile strength are recorded
The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured
The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured
Force Applied
Increased gauge length 75mm

Increased gauge length 75mm
A measurement of 75mm will give Elongation of 50%. A measurement of 75mm will give Elongation of 50%.
4-7
STRA (Short Transverse
All-Weld Metal Tensile Test
Reduction Area)
Reporting results:
 Type of specimen eg reduced section.
 Dimensions of test specimen.
 The UTS, yield strength in N/mm2, psi or Mpa.
 Elongation %.
 Location and type of any flaws present if any.
STRA Test UTS Calculation
A welded sample has undergone a transverse tensile test.

The specimen before testing 120mm long and after testing
had a length 150mm, the maximum load applied was
140Kn. The cross sectional area before testing was 10mm
in depth and 40mm in width.
Original CSA Please calculate the elongation % and UTS.

Change in
length (150 – 120) = 30
= 0.25 x 100 = 25%
Original 120
length
Reduced CSA Load 140 Kn 14,000 n

= 350 n/mm²
CSA 10 x 40 400
STRA Test Mechanical Testing
Probable freedom from

tearing in any joint type
Some risk in highly restrained

20 joints eg node joint, joints Macro/Micro Examination
between sub-fabs
STRA %
Some risk in moderately
Reduction 15 restrained joints eg box
of CSA columns
Some risk in lightly restrained

10 joints T-joints eg I-beams
4-8
Macro Preparation Macro Preparation
Purpose Specimen preparation

To examine the weld cross-section to give assurance  Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically ~10mm
that: thick).
 Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on
 The weld has been made in accordance with the
both sides plus some unaffected base material.
WPS.
 One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes
 The weld is free from defects. 120 to ~400).
 Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs and all
HAZ.
 Prepared face examined at up to x10 (and usually
photographed for records).
 Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey.
Macro Preparation Macro Preparation
Purpose Specimen preparation

To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ  A small piece is cut from the region of interest (typically
in order to: up to ~20mm x 20mm).
 The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of
 To examine the microstructure.
interest prepared by progressive grinding (to grit size
 Identify the nature of a crack or other 600 or 800).
imperfection.  Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a
mirror finish.
 Prepared face may be examined in as-polished condition
and then lightly etched.
 Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to
~100 – 1000X.
Macro/Micro Examination Macro/Micro Examination
Object: Will reveal:

 Macro/microscopic examinations are used to  Weld soundness.
give a visual evaluation of a cross-section of a  Distribution of inclusions.
welded joint.  Number of weld passes.
 Carried out on full thickness specimens.  Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and
 The width of the specimen should include HAZ, HAZ.
weld and parent plate.  Location and depth of penetration of weld.
 They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a  Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions.
welders approval test.
4-9
Macro Macro/Micro Examination Metallographic Examination
Macro Micro
 Visual examination for  Visual examination for
defects. defects and grain
 Cut transverse from the structure.
weld.  Cut transverse from a
 Ground and polished weld.
P400 grit paper.  Ground and polished P1200
 Acid etch using 5-10% grit paper, 1µm paste.
nitric acid solution.  Acid etch using 1-5% nitric
 Wash and dry. acid solution.
 Visual evaluation under  Wash and dry.
5x magnification.  Visual evaluation under
 Report on results. 100-1000x magnification. Macro examination Micro examination
 Report on results.
Metallographic Examination Metallographic Examination
Objectives: Information to be supplied on the test report:

 Detecting weld defects (macro).  Material type.
 Measuring grain size (micro).  Etching solution.
 Detecting brittle structures, precipitates, etc.  Magnification.
 Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold  Grain size.
cracking and corrosion sensitivity.  Location of examined area.
 Weld imperfections (macro).
 Phase, constituents, precipitates (micro).
Mechanical Testing Bend Tests
Object of test:
To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend testing
can also be used to give an assessment of weld zone
ductility.
Bend Testing There are three ways to perform a bend test:
Root bend Face bend Side bend

Side bend tests are normally carried
out on welds over 12mm in thickness.
4-10
Bending Test Bending Test Methods
Types of bend test for welds

(acc BS EN ISO 5173+A1):
Root/face
t up to 12 mm
bend
Thickness of material - t
t over 12 mm Side bend

Guided bend test Wrap around bend test
Bend Testing Bend Tests
Face bend Side bend Root bend Reporting results:

 Thickness and dimensions of specimen.
 Direction of bend (root, face or side).
 Angle of bend (90°, 120°, 180°).
 Diameter of former (typical 4T).
 Appearance of joint after bending eg type and
location of any flaws.
Defect indication generally this
specimen would be unacceptable.
Acceptance for minor ruptures
on tension surface depends upon
code requirements.
Bend Testing Mechanical Testing
Fillet Weld Fracture Testing
4-11
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests Fillet Weld Fracture Tests
Object of test: Hammer

 To break open the joint through the weld to
permit examination of the fracture surfaces.
 Specimens are cut to the required length.
 A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is 2mm
applied along the fillet welds length. notch
 Fracture is usually made by striking the
specimen with a single hammer blow.
 Visual inspection for defects.
Fracture should break weld saw cut to root
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests

Hammer
2mm
notch
This fracture indicates This fracture has occurred
lack of fusion saw cut to root
Lack of penetration
Fracture should break weld saw cut to root
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests
Hammer
Reporting results:
 Thickness of parent material.
 Throat thickness and leg lengths.
 Appearance of joint after fracture.
 Depth of penetration.
 Defects present on fracture surfaces.
This fracture indicates

lack of fusion
4-12
Mechanical Testing Nick-Break Test
Object of test:
 To permit evaluation of any weld defects across
the fracture surface of a butt weld.
 Specimens are cut transverse to the weld.
Nick-Break Testing  A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is
applied along the welds root and cap.
 Fracture is usually made by striking the
specimen with a single hammer blow.
 Visual inspection for defects.
Nick-Break Test Nick-Break Test
Notch cut by hacksaw

3 mm
19 mm Alternative nick-break test
specimen, notch applied all
3 mm
way around the specimen
Approximately 230 mm
Weld reinforcement
may or may not be
removed Lack of root Inclusions on fracture
penetration or fusion line
Nick-Break Test Summary of Mechanical Testing
Reporting results: We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical

 Thickness of parent material. properties, and soundness of the welded joint
 Width of specimen.
We divide tests into qualitative and quantitative
methods:
 Appearance of joint after fracture.
 Depth of penetration. Quantitative: (Have Qualitative: (Have no
 Defects present on fracture surfaces. units) units)
 Hardness (VPN & BHN).  Macro tests.
 Toughness (Joules &  Bend tests.
ft.lbs).  Fillet weld fracture tests.
 Strength (N/mm2 & PSI,  Butt Nick break tests.
MPa).
 Ductility/Elongation (E%).
4-13
Hydrostatic Test Hydrostatic Test
Under pressure leakage proof test Test procedure:

 Blank off all openings with solid flanges.
Vessel configuration:  Use correct nuts and bolts, not G clamps.
 The test should be done after any stress relief.  Two pressure gauges on independent tapping
 Components that will not stand the pressure test points should be used.
(eg flexible pipes, diaphragms) must be  For safety purposes bleed all the air out.
removed.  Pumping should be done slowly (no dynamic
 The ambient temperature MUST be above 0°C pressure stresses).
(preferably 15-20°C).
 Test pressure - see relevant standards (PD 5500,
ASME VIII). Usually 150% design pressure.
 Hold the pressure for minimum 30 minutes.
Hydrostatic Test
What to look for:

 Leaks (check particularly around seams and
nozzle welds)!
Any Questions
 Dry off any condensation.
?
 Watch the gauges for pressure drop.
 Check for distortion of flange faces, etc.
4-14
Section 5
Non-destructive Testing
5 Non-destructive Testing
5.1 Introduction
Radiographic, ultrasonic, dye penetrant and magnetic particle methods are
briefly described below. Their relative advantages and limitations are discussed
in terms of their applicability to the examination of welds.
5.2 Radiographic methods

In all cases radiographic methods as applied to welds involve passing a beam of
penetrating radiation through the test object. The transmitted radiation is
collected by some form of sensor, capable of measuring the relative intensities
of penetrating radiations impinging upon it. In most cases this sensor is
radiographic film; however the use of various electronic devices is on the
increase. These devices facilitate so-called real-time radiography and examples
may be seen in the security check area at airports. Digital technology has
enabled the storing of radiographs using computers. The present discussion is
confined to film radiography since this is still the most common method applied
to welds.
5.2.1 Sources of penetrating radiation

Penetrating radiation may be generated from high energy electron beams and
(X-rays), or from nuclear disintegrations (atomic fission), in which case they are
termed gamma rays. Other forms of penetrating radiation exist but are of
limited interest in weld radiography.
5.2.2 X-rays
X-rays used in the industrial radiography of welds generally have photon
energies in the range 30keV up to 20MeV. Up to 400keV they are generated by
conventional X-ray tubes which, dependent upon output may be suitable for
portable or fixed installations. Portability falls off rapidly with increasing
kilovoltage and radiation output. Above 400keV X-rays are produced using
devices such as betatrons and linear accelerators, not generally suitable for use
outside of fixed installations.
All sources of X-rays produce a continuous spectrum of radiation, reflecting the

spread of kinetic energies of electrons within the electron beam. Low energy
radiations are more easily absorbed and the presence of low energy radiations
within the X-ray beam, gives rise to better radiographic contrast and therefore
better radiographic sensitivity than is the case with gamma-rays which are
discussed below. Conventional X-ray units are capable of performing high
quality radiography on steel of up to 60mm thickness, betatrons and linear
accelerators in excess of 300mm.
5.2.3 Gamma rays

Early sources of gamma rays used in industrial radiography were in generally
composed of naturally occurring radium. The activity of these sources was not
very high so they were large by modern standards even for quite modest
outputs of radiation and the radiographs produced were not of a particularly
high standard.
Radium sources were also extremely hazardous to the user due to the
production of radioactive radon gas as a product of the fission reaction. Since
the advent of the nuclear age it has been possible to artificially produce
isotopes of much higher specific activity than those occurring naturally which do
not produce hazardous fission products.
WIS5-90516b
Non-Destructive Testing 5-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Unlike X-ray sources gamma sources do not produce a continuous distribution
of quantum energies. Gamma sources produce a number of specific quantum
energies unique for any particular isotope. Four isotopes in common use for the
radiography of welds; are in ascending order of radiation energy: Thulium 90,
ytterbium 169, iridium 192 and cobalt 60.
In terms of steel thulium 90 is useful up to a thickness of about 7mm, it’s

energy is similar to that of 90keV X-rays and due to it’s high specific activity
useful sources can be produced with physical dimensions of less than 0.5mm.
Ytterbium 169 has only fairly recently become available as an isotope for
industrial use, it’s energy is similar to that of 120keV X-rays and is useful for
the radiography of steel up to approximately 12mm thickness.
Iridium 192 is probably the most commonly encountered isotopic source of

radiation used in the radiographic examination of welds. It has a relatively and
high specific activity and output sources with physical dimensions of 2-3mm in
common usage, it’s energy is approximately equivalent to that of 500keV X-
rays and is useful for the radiography of steel of 10-75mm thickness.
Cobalt 60 has an energy approximating that of 1.2MeV X-rays, so suitable

source containers are large and heavy so Cobalt 60 sources are not fully
portable. They are useful for the radiography of steel in 40-150mm of
thickness. The major advantages of using isotopic sources over X-rays are:
 Increased portability.
 No need for a power source.
 Lower initial equipment costs.
Against this the quality of radiographs produced by gamma ray techniques is

inferior to those produced by X-ray the hazards to personnel may be increased
(if the equipment is not properly maintained or if the operating personnel have
insufficient training) and due to their limited useful lifespan new isotopes have
to be purchased on a regular basis so that the operating costs may exceed
those of an X-ray source.
5.2.4 Radiography of welds

Radiographic techniques depend on detecting differences in absorption of the
beam, ie changes in the effective thickness of the test object, to reveal
defective areas. Volumetric weld defects such as slag inclusions (except in
special cases where the slag absorbs radiation to a greater extent than does the
weld metal) and various forms of gas porosity are easily detected by
radiographic techniques due to the large negative absorption difference
between the parent metal and the slag or gas.
Planar defects such as cracks or lack of sidewall or inter-run fusion are much
less likely to be detected by radiography since they may cause little or no
change in the penetrated thickness. Where defects of this type are likely to
occur other NDE techniques such as ultrasonic testing are preferable.
This lack of sensitivity to planar defects makes radiography unsuitable where a

fitness-for-purpose approach is taken when assessing the acceptability of a
weld. However, film radiography produces a permanent record of the weld
condition which can be archived for future reference and provides an excellent
means of assessing the welder’s performance so it is often still the preferred
method for new construction.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 5.1 X-ray equipment. Figure 5.2 Gamma ray equipment.
Figure 5.3 X-ray of a welded seam showing porosity.
WIS5-90516b
5.2.5 Radiographic testing
Advantages Limitations
Permanent record Health hazard. Safety (important)
Good for sizing non-planar defects/ Classified workers, medicals required

flaws
Can be used on all materials Sensitive to defect orientation
Direct image of defect/flaws Not good for planar defect detection
Real-time imaging Limited ability to detect fine cracks
Can be positioned inside pipe Access to both sides required

(productivity)
Very good thickness penetration Skilled interpretation required
No power required with gamma Relatively slow
High capital outlay and running costs

Isotopes have a half-life (cost)
5.3 Ultrasonic methods

The velocity of ultrasound in any given material is a constant for that material
and ultrasonic beams travel in straight lines in homogeneous materials. When
ultrasonic waves pass from a given material with a given sound velocity to a
second material with different velocity, refraction and a reflection of the sound
beam will occur at the boundary between the two materials. The same laws of
physics apply to ultrasonic waves as to light waves.
Ultrasonic waves are refracted at a boundary between two materials having

different acoustic properties so probes may be constructed which can beam
sound into a material at (within certain limits) any given angle. Because sound
is reflected at a boundary between two materials having different acoustic
properties ultrasound is a useful tool for the detection of weld defects.
Since velocity is a constant for any given material and sound travels in a
straight line (with the right equipment) ultrasound can also be used to give
accurate positional information about a given reflector.
Careful observation of the echo pattern of a given reflector and its behaviour as
the ultrasonic probe is moved together with the positional information obtained
above and knowledge of the component history enables the experienced
ultrasonic operator to classify the reflector as slag, lack of fusion or a crack.
WIS5-90516b
5.3.1 Equipment for ultrasonic testing
Equipment for manual ultrasonic testing consists of:
A flaw detector:
 Pulse generator.
 Adjustable time base generator with an adjustable delay control.
 Cathode ray tube with fully rectified display.
 Calibrated amplifier with a graduated gain control or attenuator.
An ultrasonic probe:
 Piezo-electric crystal element capable of converting electrical vibrations into

mechanical vibrations and vice versa.
 Probe shoe, normally a Perspex block to which the crystal is firmly attached
using suitable adhesive.
 Electrical and/or mechanical crystal damping facilities to prevent excessive
ringing.
Such equipment is lightweight and extremely portable. Automated or

semi-automated systems for ultrasonic testing the same basic use equipment
although since in general this will be multi-channel it is bulkier and less
portable.
Probes for automated systems are set in arrays and some form of manipulator
is necessary to feed positional information about them to the computer.
Automated systems generate very large amounts of data and make large
demands upon the RAM of the computer. Recent advances in automated UT
have led to a reduced amount of data being recorded for a given length of weld.
Simplified probe arrays have greatly reduced the complexity of setting-up the
automated system to carry out a particular task. Automated UT systems now
provide a serious alternative to radiography on such constructions as pipelines
where a large number of similar inspections allow the unit cost of system
development to be reduced to a competitive level.
Figure 5.4 Ultrasonic equipment.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 5.5 Compression and a shear wave probe.
Figure 5.6 Example of a scanning technique with a shear wave probe.
Figure 5.7 Typical screen display when using a shear wave probe.
WIS5-90516b
5.3.2 Ultrasonic testing
Portable (no mains power) battery No permanent record
Direct location of defect Only ferritic materials (mainly)

(3 dimensional)
Good for complex geometry High level of operator skill required
Safe operation (can be done next to Calibration of equipment required

someone)
Instant results Special calibration blocks required
High penetrating capability No good for pin pointing porosity
Can be done from one side only Critical of surface conditions (clean
smooth)
Good for finding planar defects Will not detect surface defects
Material thickness >8mm due to dead

zone
5.4 Magnetic particle testing

Surface breaking or very near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials
give rise to leakage fields when high levels of magnetic flux are applied. These
leakage fields attract magnetic particles (finely divided magnetite) to
themselves leading to the formation of an indication.
The magnetic particles may be visibly or fluorescently pigmented to provide

contrast with the substrate or conversely the substrate may be lightly coated
with a white background lacquer to contrast with the particles.
Fluorescent magnetic particles normally provide the greatest sensitivity in a

liquid suspension, usually applied by spraying. In certain cases dry particles
may be applied by a gentle jet of air. The technique is applicable only to
ferromagnetic materials at a temperature below the Curie point (about 650°C).
The leakage field will be greatest for linear discontinuities at right angles to the
magnetic field so for a comprehensive test the magnetic field must normally be
applied in two directions, mutually perpendicular. The test is economical to
carry out in terms of equipment cost and rapidity of inspection and the level of
operator training required is relatively low.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 5.8 Magnetic particle inspection using a yoke.
Figure 5.9 Crack found using magnetic particle inspection.
Inexpensive equipment Only magnetic materials
Direct location of defect May need to demagnetise components
Surface conditions not critical Access may be a problem for the yoke
Can be applied without power Need power if using a yoke
Low skill level No permanent record
Sub-surface defects found 1-2mm Calibration of equipment
Quick, instant results Testing in two directions required
Hot testing (using dry powder) Need good lighting - 500 lux minimum
Can be used in the dark (UV light)
WIS5-90516b
5.5 Dye penetrant testing
Any liquid with good wetting properties will act as a penetrant, which is
attracted into surface-breaking discontinuities by capillary forces. Penetrant
which has entered a tight discontinuity will remain even when the excess is
removed.
Application of a suitable developer will encourage the penetrant within

discontinuities to bleed out. If there is a suitable contrast between the
penetrant and the developer an indication visible to the eye will be formed.
Provided by either visible or fluorescent dyes.
Use of fluorescent dyes considerably increases the sensitivity of the technique.

The technique is not applicable at extremes of temperature as at below 5°C the
penetrant vehicle, normally oil, will become excessively viscous causing an
increase in the penetration time with a consequent decrease in sensitivity.
Above 60°C the penetrant will dry out and the technique will not work.
Figure 5.10 Methods of applying the red dye during dye penetrant inspection.
Figure 5.11 Crack found using dye penetrant inspection.
WIS5-90516b
5.5.1 Dye penetrant
All non porous materials Will only detect defects open to the
surface
Portable Requires careful space preparation
Applicable to small parts with complex Not applicable to porous surfaces

geometry
Simple Temperature dependent
Inexpensive Cannot retest indefinitely
Sensitive Potentially hazardous chemicals
Relatively low skill level No permanent record

(easy to interpret)
Time lapse between application and

results
Messy
5.5.2 Surface crack detection (magnetic particle/dye penetrant)

When considering the relative value of NDE techniques it should not be
forgotten that most catastrophic failures initiate from the surface of a
component, so the value of the magnetic particle and dye penetrant techniques
should not be under-estimated.
Ultrasonic inspection may not detect near-surface defects easily since the
indications may be masked by echoes arising from the component geometry
and should therefore be supplemented by an appropriate surface crack
detection technique for maximum test confidence.
WIS5-90516b
Non Destructive Testing Objective

will have a greater understanding of and
recognise various NDT methods and their
differences ,capabilities and why one particular
method may be chosen based on the advantages
Non-Destructive Testing and disadvantages over other methods. Why we
choose or don’t choose a particular method for a
Section 5 certain material and the potential risks in safety
and production issues.
Non-Destructive Testing Non-Destructive Testing
A welding inspector should have a working Surface crack detection

knowledge of NDT methods and their  Liquid penetrant (PT or dye-penetrant).
applications, advantages and  Magnetic particle inspection (MT or MPI).
disadvantages.
Volumetric inspection
Four basic NDT methods  Ultrasonics (UT).
1. Magnetic particle inspection (MT).  Radiography (RT).
2. Dye penetrant inspection (PT). Each technique has advantages and
3. Radiographic inspection (RT). disadvantages with respect to:
4. Ultrasonic inspection (UT).  Technical capability and cost.
Note: The choice of NDT techniques is based on
consideration of these advantages and disadvantages.
Penetrant Testing
Main features:
 Detection of surface breaking defects only.
 This test method uses the forces of capillary
action.
Penetrant Testing (PT)  Applicable on any material type, as long they are
non porous.
 Penetrants are available in many different types:
 Water washable contrast.
 Solvent removable contrast.
 Water washable fluorescent.
 Solvent removable fluorescent.
 Post-emulsifiable fluorescent.
5-1
Penetrant Testing Penetrant Testing
Step 1: Pre-cleaning Step 2: Apply penetrant

 Ensure surface is very clean normally with the use of a  After the application, the penetrant is normally left on
solvent. the components surface for approximately 15-20
minutes (dwell time).
 The penetrant enters any defects that may be present
by capillary action.
Step 3: Clean off penetrant Step 3: Apply developer

 The penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration  After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin
time (dwell time). layer of developer is applied.
 Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off  The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant
any defects present. and allows for reverse capillary action to take place.
Step 4: Inspection/development time Fluorescent penetrant

 Inspection should take place immediately after the Bleed out viewed under
developer has been applied. a UV-A light source
 any defects present will show as a bleed out during
development time.
 After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning
is generally required.
Bleed out viewed

under white light Colour contrast Penetrant
5-2
Advantages Disadvantages Comparison with magnetic particle inspection

 Simple to use.  Surface breaking defect
 Inexpensive. only. Advantages
 Quick results.  Little indication of  Easy to interpret results.
 Can be used on any non- depths.  No power requirements.
porous material.  Penetrant may
 Portability. contaminate component.
 Relatively little training required.
 Low operator skill  Surface preparation  Can use on all materials.
required. critical.
 Post cleaning required. Disadvantages
 Potentially hazardous  Good surface finish needed.
chemicals.  Relatively slow.
 Can not test unlimited
 Chemicals - health and safety issue.
times.
 Temperature dependant.
Any Questions
?
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic Particle Testing
Main features: Collection

 Surface and slight sub-surface detection. of ink
 Relies on magnetization of component being tested. particles
 Only ferro-magnetic materials can be tested. due to
 A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being leakage
tested. field
 Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke,
permanent magnet, prods and flexible cables. Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC
 Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test
area.
 Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will
create a leakage field, which attracts the particles.
 Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or
in the case of fluorescent particles under UV-A light a
Prods DC or AC
green/yellow indication.
5-3
A crack like
indication
Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be

used for greater sensitivity. These inks require a UV-A
light source and a darkened viewing area to inspect
the component.
Typical sequence of operations to inspect a Advantages Disadvantages

weld  Simple to use.  Surface or slight
 Clean area to be tested.  Inexpensive. sub-surface
 Apply contrast paint.  Rapid results. detection only.
 Apply magnetisism to the component.  Little surface  Magnetic materials
 Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component preparation required. only.
during magnatising.  No indication of
 Possible to inspect
 Iterpret the test area. through thin defects depths.
 Post clean and de-magnatise if required. coatings.  Only suitable for
linear defects.
 Detection is required
in two directions.
Magnetic Particle Testing
Comparison with penetrant testing
Advantages
Any Questions
?
 Much quicker than PT.
 Instant results.
 Can detect near-surface imperfections (by current
flow technique).
 Less surface preparation needed.
Disadvantages
 Only suitable for ferromagnetic materials.
 Electrical power for most techniques.
 May need to de-magnetise (machine components).
5-4
Ultrasonic Testing
Main features:
 Surface and sub-surface detection.
 This detection method uses high frequency sound
waves, typically above 2MHz to pass through a material.
 A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the
signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display.
 The actual display relates to the time taken for the
ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface
and back.
 An interface could be the back of a plate material or a
defect.
 For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen.
Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic Testing
Pulse echo Digital Defect Back wall

signals A UT Set, Initial pulse echo echo
scan
display
Material Thk
defect
0 10 20 30 40 50
Compression probe Checking the material Thickness Compression probe CRT Display
UT set
A scan Initial pulse
display
Defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50
½ Skip CRT Display
initial pulse
defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50
Angle probe
Full Skip CRT Display
5-5
Advantages Disadvantages Comparison with radiography

 Rapid results.  Trained and skilled
 Both surface and sub- operator required. Advantages
surface detection.  Requires high operator  Good for planar defects.
 Safe. skill.
 Good for thick sections.
 Capable of measuring the  Good surface finish
depth of defects. required.  Instant results.
 May be battery powered.  Defect identification.  Can use on complex joints.
 Portable.  Couplant may  Can automate.
contaminate.
 Very portable.
 No permanent record.
 Calibration required.
 No safety problems (parallel working is
 Ferritic Material (mostly).
possible).
 Low capital and running costs.
Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with radiography
Disadvantages
Any Questions
?
 No permanent record (with standard
equipment).
 Not suitable for very thin joints <8mm.
 Reliant on operator interpretation.
 Not good for sizing porosity.
 Good/smooth surface profile needed.
 Not suitable for coarse grain materials (eg,
castings).
 Ferritic materials (with standard equipment).
Radiographic Testing
The principles of radiography

 X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test
object.
 Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material
Radiographic Testing (RT)
through which it is travelling.
 Thinner areas and materials of a less density
show as darker areas on the radiograph.
 Thicker areas and materials of a greater density
show as lighter areas on a radiograph.
 Applicable to metals, non-metals and
composites.
5-6
Radiographic Testing Radiographic Testing
Source
Image quality indicator

Radiation beam
X–rays Gamma rays

Electrically generated. Generated by the decay Test specimen
of unstable atoms. Radiographic film
Source Density - relates to the degree of darkness.

Image quality indicator
Radiation beam
Densitometer
Test specimen Contrast - relates to the degree of difference.

Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness.
Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph.
Radiographic film with latent image after exposure
Radiographic Sensitivity Radiographic Sensitivity
Step/hole type IQI
7FE12
Wire type IQI

Step/Hole type IQI Wire type IQI
5-7
Radiographic Techniques Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)

 Film inside, source outside.
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

 Film outside, source inside (internal exposure).
Film
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
 Film outside, source outside (external
exposure). Film
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

 Film outside, source outside (elliptical
IQI’s should be placed source side
exposure).
Single Wall Single Image Panoramic Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
Film
Film
 IQI’s are placed on the film side.
 IQI’s are placed on the film side.  Source outside film outside (multiple exposure).
 Source inside film outside (single exposure).  This technique is intended for pipe diameters over 100mm.
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI) Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
Identification
 Unique identification.
 IQI placing.
 Pitch marks indicating EN W10
readable film length.
A B
ID MR11
Radiograph
Radiograph
5-8
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI) Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
Identification
 Unique identification. 4 3
 IQI placing.
EN W10
 Pitch marks indicating
readable film length.
Film 1 2
 IQI’s are placed on the source or film side.
ID MR12
 Source outside film outside (multiple exposure).
 A minimum of two exposures.
 This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than Shot A Radiograph
100mm.
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI) Radiography
Penetrating power
4 3 Question: What determines the penetrating power

of an X-ray?
 The kilo-voltage applied (between anode and
cathode).
Question: What determines the penetrating power

of a gamma ray?
1 2  The type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma
rays).
Elliptical radiograph
Radiography Radiographic Testing
Gamma sources Advantages Disadvantages

 Permanent record.  Expensive consumables.
Isotope Typical thickness range  Little surface  Bulky equipment.
 Iridium 192 10 to 50 mm (mostly used) preparation.  Harmful radiation.
 Cobalt 60 > 50mm  Defect identification.  Defect require significant
 No material type depth in relation to the
 Ytterbium < 10mm
limitation. radiation beam (not good
 Thulium < 10mm  Not so reliant upon for planar defects).
 Caesium < 10mm operator skill.  Slow results.
 Thin materials.  Very little indication of
depths.
 Access to both sides
required.
5-9
Comparison with ultrasonic examination Comparison with ultrasonic examination
Advantages Disadvantages
 Good for non-planar defects.  Health and safety hazard.
 Good for thin sections.  Not good for thick sections.
 Gives permanent record.  High capital and relatively high running costs.
 Easier for 2nd party interpretation.  Not good for planar defects.
 Can use on all material types.  X-ray sets not very portable.
 High productivity.  Requires access to both sides of weld.
 Direct image of imperfections.  Frequent replacement of gamma source needed
(half life).
Any Questions
?
5-10
Section 6
WPS/Welder Qualifications
6 WPS/Welder Qualifications
6.1 General
When structures and pressurised items are fabricated by welding, it is essential
that all the welded joints are sound and have suitable properties for their
application.
Control of welding is by WPSs that give detailed written instructions about the
welding conditions that must be used to ensure that welded joints have the
required properties.
Although WPSs are shopfloor documents to instruct welders, welding inspectors

need to be familiar with them because they will refer to them when checking
that welders are working within the specified requirements.
Welders need to be able to understand WPSs, make non-defective welds and

demonstrate these abilities before being allowed to make production welds.
6.2 Qualified welding procedure specifications

It is industry practice to use qualified WPSs for most applications.
A welding procedure is usually qualified by making a test weld to demonstrate

that the properties of the joint satisfy the requirements specified by the
application standard and the client/end user.
Demonstrating the mechanical properties of the joint is the principal purpose of

qualification tests, but showing that a defect-free weld can be produced is also
very important.
Production welds made in accordance with welding conditions similar to those

used for a test weld should have similar properties and therefore be fit for their
intended purpose.
Table 6.1 is a typical WPS written in accordance with the European Welding
Standard format giving details of all the welding conditions that need to be
specified.
WIS5-90516b
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Table 6.1 Typical sequence for welding procedure qualification by means of a
test weld.
The welding engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure Specification

(pWPS) for each test coupon to be welded.
 A welder makes the test coupon in accordance with the pWPS.

 A welding inspector records all the welding conditions used to make the
test coupon (the as-run conditions).
An independent examiner/examining body/third party inspector may be

requested to monitor the procedure qualification.
The test coupon is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods

specified by the Standard – visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT.
 The test coupon is destructively tested (tensile, bend, macro tests).

 The code/application standard client may require additional tests such
as hardness, impact or corrosion tests – depending on the material and
application.
 A WPQR is prepared by the welding engineer giving details of:

– As run welding conditions.
– Results of the NDT.
– Results of the destructive tests.
– Welding conditions allowed for production welding.
 If a third party inspector is involved he will be requested to sign the
WPQR as a true record of the test.
WIS5-90516b
6.2.1 Welding standards for procedure qualification
European and American Standards have been developed to give comprehensive
details about:
 How a welded test piece must be made to demonstrate joint properties.

 How the test piece must be tested.
 Which welding details need to be included in a WPS.
 The range of production welding allowed by a particular qualification test
weld.
The principal European Standards that specify these requirements are:
EN ISO 15614
Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials,
welding procedure test.
Part 1
Arc and gas welding of steels and arc welding of nickel and nickel alloys.
Part 2
Arc welding of aluminium and its alloys.
The principal American Standards for procedure qualification are:
ASME Section IX
Pressurised systems (vessels and pipework).
AWS D1.1
Structural welding of steels.
AWS D1.2
Structural welding of aluminium.
6.2.2 The qualification process for welding procedures

Although qualified WPSs are usually based on test welds made to demonstrate
weld joint properties; welding standards also allow qualified WPSs for some
applications to be written based on other data.
Some alternative ways that can be used for writing qualified WPSs for some
applications are:
 Qualification by adoption of a standard welding procedure - test welds

previously qualified and documented by other manufacturers.
 Qualification based on previous welding experience - weld joints that have
been repeatedly made and proved to have suitable properties by their
service record.
Procedure qualification to European Standards by a test weld (similar in ASME

Section IX and AWS) requires a sequence of actions typified by those shown by
Table 6.1.
A successful procedure qualification test is completed by the production of a

WPQR, an example of which is shown in Figure 6.1.
WIS5-90516b
111:MMA
Manual
17.5 – 70.0
Greater than 500.0
BS EN ISO 2560 46 6 mn 1 ml b12 h5
none
PA,FC,PE,PF
50
200
DC +VE
Multi-pass only
Max 3.2
n/a
n/a
Figure 6.1 Example of WPQR (qualification range) to EN15614 format.
WIS5-90516b
6.2.3 Relationship between a WPQR and a WPS
Once a WPQR has been produced, the welding engineer can write qualified
WPSs for the various production weld joints that need to be made.
The welding conditions that are allowed to be written on a qualified WPS are
referred to as the qualification range and depend on the welding conditions
used for the test piece (as-run details) and form part of the WPQR.
Welding conditions are referred to as welding variables by European and

American Welding Standards and are classified as either essential or non-
essential variables and can be defined as:
 Essential variable
Variable that has an effect on the mechanical properties of the weldment
and if changed beyond the limits specified by the standard will require the
WPS to be re-qualified.
 Non-essential variable
Variable that must be specified on a WPS but does not have a significant
effect on the mechanical properties of the weldment and can be changed
without the need for re-qualification but will require a new WPS to be
written.
Because essential variables can have a significant effect on mechanical

properties they are the controlling variables that govern the qualification range
and determine what can be written in a WPS.
If a welder makes a production weld using conditions outside the range given
on a particular WPS there is a danger that the welded joint will not have the
required properties and there are two options:
1 Make another test weld using similar welding conditions to those used for
the affected weld and subject this to the same tests used for the relevant
WPQR to demonstrate that the properties still satisfy specified
requirements.
2 Remove the affected weld and re-weld the joint strictly in accordance with
the designated WPS.
Most of the welding variables classed as essential are the same in both the
European and American Welding Standards but their qualification ranges may
differ.
Some application standards specify their own essential variables and it is

necessary to ensure these are considered when procedures are qualified and
WPSs written.
Examples of essential variables (according to European Welding Standards) are

given in Table 6. 2.
WIS5-90516b
Table 6.2 Typical examples of WPS essential variables according to EU Welding
Standards.
Variable Range for procedure qualification
Welding process No range – process qualified must be used in production.
PWHT Joints tested after PWHT only qualify PWHT production joints.
Joints tested as-welded only qualify as-welded production joints.
Parent material Parent materials of similar composition and mechanical

type properties are allocated the same Material Group No;
qualification only allows production welding of materials with the
same Group No.
Welding Consumables for production welding must have the same

consumables European designation –general rule.
Material thickness A thickness range is allowed – below and above the test coupon
thickness.
Type of current AC only qualifies for AC; DC polarity (+ve or -ve) cannot be
changed; pulsed current only qualifies for pulsed current
production welding.
Preheat The preheat temperature used for the test is the minimum that
temperature must be applied.
Interpass The highest interpass temperature reached in the test is the

temperature maximum allowed.
Heat input (HI) When impact requirements apply the maximum HI allowed is
25% above test HI.
When hardness requirements apply the minimum HI allowed is
25% below test HI.
6.3 Welder qualification

The use of qualified WPSs is the accepted method for controlling production
welding but will only be successful if the welders understand and work in
accordance with them.
Welders also need to have the skill to consistently produce sound (defect-free)
welds.
Welding Standards have been developed to give guidance on which test welds
are required to show that welders have the required skills to make certain types
of production welds in specified materials.
WIS5-90516b
6.3.1 Welding standards for welder qualification
The principal EU Standards that specify requirements are:
BS EN ISO 9606-1
Qualification test of welders – Fusion welding.
Part 1: Steels.
EN ISO 9606-2
Qualification test of welders – Fusion welding.
Part 2: Aluminium and aluminium alloys.
EN 1418
Welding personnel – Approval testing of welding operators for fusion welding
and resistance weld setters for fully mechanised and automatic welding of
metallic materials.
The principal American Standards that specify requirements for welder

qualification are:
ASME Section IX
Pressurised systems (vessels & pipework).
AWS D1.1
Structural welding of steels.
AWS D1.2
Structural welding of aluminium.
6.3.2 The qualification process for welders

Qualification testing of welders to European Standards requires test welds to be
made and subjected to specified tests to demonstrate that the welder is able to
understand the WPS and produce a sound weld.
For manual and semi-automatic welding tests demonstrate the ability to

manipulate the electrode or welding torch.
For mechanised and automatic welding the emphasis is on demonstrating the

ability to control particular types of welding equipment.
American Standards allow welders to demonstrate they can produce sound

welds by subjecting their first production weld to NDT.
Table 6.3 shows the steps required for qualifying welders in accordance with EU
Standards.
WIS5-90516b
Table 6.3 The stages for qualification of a welder.
The welding engineer writes a WPS for a welder qualification test piece.
 The welder makes the test weld in accordance with the WPS.
 A welding inspector monitors the welding to ensure that the welder is
working in accordance with the WPS.
An independent examiner/examining body/third party inspector may be

requested to monitor the test.
 The test coupon is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods

specified by the Standard (visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT).
 For certain materials, and welding processes, some destructive testing
may be required (bend tests or macros).
 A welder’s Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the welding

conditions used for the test piece and the range of qualification allowed
by the Standard for production welding.
 If a third party is involved they would endorse the Qualification
Certificate as a true record of the test.
Figure 6.2 shows a typical welder qualification certificate in accordance with EU

Standards.
WIS5-90516b
ESAB OK 53.08 Hytuf 1Nl
Yield strength
BS EN ISO 2560 E 46 6 Min 1 Nl B 12 H5
3.25 & 4.0
35
B basic
Figure 6.2 Example of a WPQR document (test weld details) to EN15614

format.
WIS5-90516b
6.3.3 Welder qualification and production welding allowed
The welder is allowed to make production welds within the range of qualification
recorded on his Welder Qualification Certificate.
The range of qualification is based on the limits specified by the Welding

Standard for welder qualification essential variables - defined as:
A variable that if changed beyond the limits specified by the Welding

Standard may require greater skill than has been demonstrated by the
test weld.
Some welding variables classed as essential for welder qualification are the
same types as those classified as essential for welding procedure qualification,
but the range of qualification may be significantly wider.
Some essential variables are specific to welder qualification.
Examples of welder qualification essential variables are given in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4 Typical examples of welder qualification essential variables according

to EU Welding Standards.
Variable Range for welder qualification
Welding process No range – process qualified is the process that a welder can use
in production.
Type of weld Butt welds cover any type of joint except branch welds.
Fillet welds only qualify fillets.
Parent material Parent materials of similar composition and mechanical

type properties are allocated the same Material Group No;
qualification only allows production welding of materials with the
same Group No. but the Groups allow much wider composition
ranges than the procedure Groups.
Filler material Electrodes and filler wires for production welding must be within
the range of the qualification of the filler material.
Material thickness A thickness range is allowed; for test pieces above 12mm allow 
5mm.
Pipe diameter Essential and very restricted for small diameters:

Test pieces above 25mm allow  0.5 x diameter used (minimum
25mm).
Welding positions Position of welding very important; H-L045 allows all positions
except PG.
WIS5-90516b
6.3.4 Period of validity for a Welder Qualification Certificate
A welder’s qualification begins from the date of welding the test piece.
 The welding co-ordinator or other responsible person can confirm that the
welder has been working within the initial range of qualification.
 The Certificate needs to be confirmed every 6 months otherwise the
Certificate(s) become(s) invalid.
 The validity of the Certificate may be extended.
 The chosen method of extension must be stated on the Certificate at the
time of issue.
Retest every three years.
Valid for two years provided that:
- The welder is working for the same manufacturer.
- The manufacturer has a quality system to ISO 3834-2 or ISO 3834-3.
6.3.5 Prolongation of welder qualification

A welder’s qualification certificate can be prolonged by an examiner/examining
body but certain conditions need to be satisfied:
 Records/evidence are available that can be traced to the welder and the
WPSs used for production welding.
 Supporting evidence must relate to volumetric examination of the welder’s
production welds (RT or UT) on two welds made during the six months prior
to the extension date.
 Supporting evidence welds must satisfy the acceptance levels for
imperfections specified by the EU welding standard and have been made
under the same conditions as the original test weld.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 6.3 Example of WPQR document (details of weld test) to EN15614
format.
WIS5-90516b
06/07/2005
3463-001
n/a Rev. 0
WPS – 013 Rev. 0
BS EN ISO 9606-1
Third Party Ltd
TPL/XYZ/3463-1
05/07/2007
111:MMA
Manual
Nb: without backing
BS EN ISO 2560 E 46 6 Min NI B
n/a
B basic
12.70
H-LD45
Figure 6.4 Example of a welder qualification test certificate (WPQ) to EN9606-1

format.
WIS5-90516b
WPS Objective

will have a greater understanding of the
terminology used in welding and welder
documentation and the order in which it should
be completed. This section does not state how to
Welding Procedures write a procedure to a code as this is the duty,
according to international standards as the role
Section 6 of a qualified Welding Engineer and not the role
of a WI. We will however discuss the contents of
WPQR and its associated documentation.
Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification
Question: What is the main reason for carrying According to EN ISO 15614
out a welding procedure qualification test?
(What is the test trying to show?) Preliminary welding procedure specification
Answer: To show that the welded joint has the (pWPS).
properties* that satisfy the design requirements
(fit for purpose).
Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR).
Properties*
 Mechanical properties are the main interest - Welding procedure specification (WPS).
always strength but toughness hardness may
be important for some applications.
 Test also demonstrates that the weld can be
made without defects.
Preliminary welding procedure specification Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR)

(pWPS)  A welder makes a test weld in accordance with the
pWPS.
Welding engineer writes a preliminary Welding  A welding inspector records all the welding conditions
Procedure Specification (pWPS) for each test weld to used for the test weld (referred to as the as-run
be made. conditions).
 An independent examiner/examining body/third party
inspector may be requested to monitor the
qualification process.
The finished test weld is subjected to NDT in accordance

with the methods specified by the EN ISO Standard -
Visual, MT or PT and RT or UT.
6-1
Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR) Welding procedure specification (WPS)

Test weld is subjected to destructive testing (tensile, bend,
macro). The application standard, or client, may require
The welding engineer writes qualified welding
additional tests such as impact tests, hardness tests (and for procedure specifications (WPS) for production
some materials - corrosion tests). welding.
Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR) details:

Production welding conditions must remain within
The welding conditions used for the test weld the range of qualification allowed by the WPQR.
 Results of the NDT.
 Results of the destructive tests.
 The welding conditions that the test weld allows for
production welding.
The Third Party may be requested to sign the WPQR as a true

record.
According to EN Standards According to EN Standards

Welding conditions are called welding variables. Welding essential variables
Welding variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as:
 Essential variables. Question: Why are some welding variables
 Non-essential variables. classified as essential?
 Additional variables.
Note: Additional variables = ASME supplementary essential. Answer: A variable, that if changed beyond
The range of qualification for production welding is based on
certain limits (specified by the Welding Standard)
the limits that the EN ISO Standard specifies for essential may have a significant effect on the properties*
variables*. of the joint.
(* and when applicable - the additional variables) * particularly joint strength and ductility.
According to EN Standards According to EN Standards

Welding additional variables Some typical essential variables
 Welding process.
Question: Why are some welding variables
 Post weld heat treatment (PWHT).
classified as additional?
 Material type.
Answer: A variable, that if changed beyond  Electrode type, filler wire type (classification).
certain limits (specified by the welding standard)  Material thickness.
may have a significant effect on the toughness  Polarity (AC, DC+ve/DC-ve).
and/or hardness of the joint.  Pre-heat temperature.
Some typical additional variables
Note: ASME calls variables that affect toughness as
 Heat input.
supplementary essential variables (but does not refer to
hardness).  Welding position.
6-2
Welding Procedures Welding Procedures
Producing a welding procedure involves: In most codes reference is made to how the
 Planning the tasks. procedure are to be devised and whether approval
of these procedures is required.
 Collecting the data.
 Writing a procedure for use of for trial. The approach used for procedure approval
 Making a test welds. depends on the code:
 Evaluating the results.
Example codes:
 Approving the procedure.
 AWS D.1.1: Structural Steel Welding Code.
 Preparing the documentation.
 BS 2633: Class 1 Welding of Steel Pipe Work.
 API 1104: Welding of Pipelines.
 BS 4515: Welding of Pipelines over 7 Bar.
Other codes may not specifically deal with the Components of a welding procedure
requirement of a procedure but may contain Parent material
information that may be used in writing a weld  Type (grouping).
procedure.  Thickness.
 Diameter (pipes).
 Surface condition.
EN 1011 Process of Arc Welding Steels.
Welding process
 Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW).
 Equipment parameters.
 Amps, volts, travel speed.
Welding consumables
 Type of consumable/diameter of consumable.
 Brand/classification.
 Heat treatments/storage.
Components of a welding procedure Object of a welding procedure test

Joint design To give maximum confidence that the welds
 Edge preparation. mechanical and metallurgical properties meet the
 Root gap, root face. requirements of the applicable code/specification.
 Jigging and tacking.
 Type of baking.
Welding Position Each welding procedure will show a range to which
 Location, shop or site. the procedure is approved (extent of approval).
 Welding position eg 1G, 2G, 3G etc.
 Any weather precaution.
If a customer queries the approval evidence can be
Thermal heat treatments supplied to prove its validity.
 Preheat, temps.
 Post weld heat treatments eg stress relieving.
6-3
Purpose of a WPS
Example:  To achieve specific properties, mechanical
strength, corrosion resistance, composition.
Welding
 To ensure freedom from defects.
procedure
 To enforce QC procedures.
specification  To standardise on methods and costs.
(WPS)  To control production schedules.
 To form a record.
 Application standard or contract requirement.
Monitoring heat input PA 1G/1F Flat/Downhand

As Required by BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004 PB 2F Horizontal-Vertical
In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998.
PC 2G Horizontal
When impact and/or hardness requirements are PD 4F Horizontal-Vertical (Overhead)

specified, impact test shall be taken from the weld
PE 4G Overhead
in the highest heat input position and hardness
tests shall be taken from the weld in the lowest PF 3G/5G Vertical-Up
heat input position in order to qualify for all
PG 3G/5G Vertical-Down
positions.
H-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Upwards)
J-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Downwards)
Welding Procedures
Monitoring heat input

PG As Required by BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012
PA In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998
PF  When impact requirements apply, the upper limit of
PB heat input qualified is 25% greater than that used in
welding the test piece.
PC
 When hardness requirements apply, the lower limit of
PD heat input qualified is 25% lower than that used in
welding the test piece.
PE  Heat input is calculated in accordance with EN1011-1.
 If welding procedure tests have been preformed at
both a high and low heat input level, then all
intermediate heat inputs are also qualified.
6-4
EN 288 PART 2 15614-1-2-3 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 (Replaced BS EN 288-3)

 Does not invalidate previous … approvals made to
former national standards… providing the intent of the
Specifies contents of WPS technical requirements is satisfied… approvals are
Shall give details of how a welding operation is to relevant.
be performed and contain all relevant information.  Where additional tests… make the approval technically
equivalent… only necessary to do the additional tests….
 Approval is valid… in workshops or sites under the same
Definitions technical and quality control of that manufacturer….
 Processes to be designated in accordance with  Service, material or manufacturing conditions may
ISO 4063. require more comprehensive testing….
 Welding positions in accordance with ISO 6947.  Application standard may require more testing.
 Typical WPS form.
Table 5 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 Table 6 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004
Thickness of Range of qualification Thickness of Range of qualification

test piece test piece Throat Thickness
Material
t Single run Multi run t Thickness Single run Multi run
t<3 0.7t to 2t t<3 0.75 a to No

0.7t to 1.3ta 0.7 to 2 t
1.5 a restriction
3<t<12 3 to 2ta
0.5t (3 min) to 1.3ta 0.5t (3 min) 0.75 a to No
3<t<30
to 2 t 1.5 a restriction
0.5t to 2t
12<t<100 0.5t to 1.1t
No
t>30 >5 a
50 to 2t restriction
t>100 Not applicable
BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 (Replaced BS EN 288-3) BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012

Covers arc, gas welding of steels, arc welding of (Replaced BS EN 288-3)
nickel and nickel alloys. Range of approval
111 - MMA 114 - FCAW - no gas shield

12 - SAW 131 - MIG Other quirks
135 - MAG 136 - FCAW - active gas  Approval valid only for process used.
311 – Oxy-Acetylene 141 – TIG  Multi-process - valid for order used…during
15 - Plasma Arc approval test.
 Processes… Processes may be approved
The principle of this European Standard may be separately or in combination….
applied to other fusion welding processes.  Cannot change multi-run to single run or vice
versa.
6-5
BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 Note 1:

(Replaced BS EN 288-3) a is the throat as used for the test piece.
Thickness definitions
Note 2:
 Butt: Parent metal thickness at the joint.
Where the fillet weld is qualified by means of a
 Fillet: Parent metal thickness. butt test, the throat thickness range qualified shall
 Set-on branch: Parent metal thickness. be based on the thickness of the deposited metal.
 Set-in/through branch: Parent metal thickness.
 T-butt: Parent metal thickness. For special applications only. Each fillet weld shall
For branch connections and fillet welds, the range of be proofed separately by a welding procedure test.
qualification shall be applied to both parent
materials independently.
Table 7 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004
Diameter of the test piece Range of Qualification

Da, mm
0.5 D to 2 D Monitoring Heat Input

D<25
D>25 >0.5 D (25 mm min)
NOTE For structural hollow sections D is the dimension of

the smaller side
a D is the outside diameter of the pipe or outside
diameter of the branch pipe
Monitoring Heat Input Monitoring Heat Input
Arc energy and heat input
6-6
Arc energy Heat input

The amount of heat generated in the welding arc  The energy supplied by the welding arc to the
per unit length of weld. Expressed in kilo Joules work piece.
per millimetre length of weld (kJ/mm).  Expressed in terms of; arc energy x thermal
efficiency factor.
 Arc energy (kJ/mm) = Volts x Amps.  Thermal efficiency factor is the ratio of heat
 Welding speed(mm/s) x 1000. energy introduced into the weld to the electrical
energy consumed by the arc.
Thermal efficiency factor k of welding processes Abbreviations and symbols

Process No Process Factor k
121 Submerged arc welding with wire 1.0 I Arc welding current (Amps)
111 Metal-arc welding with covered electrodes 0.8
131 MIG welding 0.8
k Thermal efficiency factor
135 MAG welding 0.8 v Welding speed (mm/min)
114 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding without gas shield 0.8
Q Heat input (kJ/mm)
136 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding with active gas shield 0.8
U Arc voltage (Volts)
137 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding with inert gas shield 0.8
138 Metal-cored wire metal-arc welding with active gas shield 0.8 Q= k U x I x 10-3 = kJ/mm or Amp x volts x time
v ROL x 1000
139 Metal-cored wire metal-arc welding with inert gas shield 0.8
141 TIG welding 0.6

15 Plasma arc welding 0.6
Example
A MAG weld is made and the following conditions
AE (kJ/mm) = Volts x amps
were recorded;
Travel speed(mm/ sec) x 1000
= 24 x 240
 Arc volts = 24
 Welding amperage = 240 (300/60) x 1000
 Travel speed = 300mm/minute. = 5760
5000
What is the arc energy and heat input?
AE = 1.152 or 1.2kJ/mm.
HI = 1.2 x 0.8 = 0.96kJ/mm.
6-7
Monitoring Arc Energy CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspection
Amps Volts Time ROL Input

In secs In mm Kj/mm
110 26 60 100 = 1.7
220 28 90 200 = 2.8 Welder Approval

Example BS EN ISO 9606
120 12 120 90 = 1.9
300 28 60 300 = 1.7
180 12 120 90 = 2.8
110 26 60 300 = 0.57
Welder Qualification Welder Qualification
BS EN ISO 9606 BS EN ISO 9606

Question: What is the main reason for qualifying An approved WPS should be available covering the
a welder? range of qualification required for the welder
approval.
Answer: To show that he has the skill to be able  The welder qualifies in accordance with an approved
to make production welds that are free from WPS.
defects.  A welding inspector monitors the welding to make
sure that the welder uses the conditions specified by
Note: When welding in accordance with a Qualified the WPS.
WPS. EN Welding Standard states that an Independent
Examiner, Examining Body or Third Party Inspector
may be required to monitor the qualification process.

The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the The welder is allowed to make production welds within the
methods specified by the EN Standard - Visual, MT or range of qualification shown on the Certificate.
PT and RT or UT. The range of qualification allowed for production welding is
The test weld may need to be destructively tested - for based on the limits that the EN Standard specifies for the
certain materials and/or welding processes specified by welder qualification essential variables.
the EN Standard or the Client Specification. A Welder’s Qualification Certificate automatically expires if
 A Welder’s Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the welder has not used the welding process for 6 months
the conditions used for the test weld and the range of or longer.
qualification allowed by the EN Standard for production A Certificate may be withdrawn by the Employer if there is
welding. reason to doubt the ability of the welder, for example:
 The Qualification Certificate is usually endorsed by a Third  A high repair rate.
Party Inspector as a true record of the test.
 Not working in accordance with a qualified WPS.
6-8

Essential variables Typical Welder Essential Variables
 Welding Process.
Question: What is a welder qualification essential  Material type.
variable?  Electrode type – Filler Material Classification
(What makes the variable essential?)  Material thickness.
 Pipe diameter
Answer: A variable, that if changed beyond the  Welding position.
limits specified by the EN Standard, may require
more skill than has been demonstrated by the test  Weld Backing (an unbacked weld requires more
weld. skill).
Numerous codes and standards deal with Information that should be included on a
welder qualification, eg BS EN ISO 9606 welders test certificate are:
 Once the content of the procedure is approved the next  Welders name and identification number.
stage is to approve the welders to the approved  Date of test and expiry date of certificate.
procedure.  Standard/code eg BS EN ISO 9606.
 A welders test know as a Welders Qualification Test  Test piece details.
(WQT).
 Welding process.
 Welding parameters, amps, volts.
Object of a welding qualification test:  Consumables, flux type and filler classification
 To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the details.
quality requirements of the approved procedure (WPS).
 The test weld should be carried out on the same
material and same conditions as for the production
welds.
Information that should be included on a The inspection of a welders qualification test

welders test certificate are:  It is normal for a qualified inspectors usually from an
 Sketch of run sequence. independent body to witness the welding.
 Welding positions.  Under normal circumstances only one test weld per
 Joint configuration details. welder is permitted.
 Material type qualified, pipe diameter etc.  If the welder fails the test weld and the failure is not
 Test results, remarks. the fault of the welder eg faulty welding equipment
 Test location and witnessed by. then a re-test would be permitted.
 Extent (range) of approval.  The testing of the test weld is done in accordance
with the applicable code.
 It is not normal to carry out tests that test for the
mechanical properties of welds eg tensile, charpy
and hardness tests.
6-9
Welder Qualification
Any Questions
?
Example:
Welder
Approval
Qualification
Certification
6-10
Section 7
Materials Inspection
7 Materials Inspection
7.1 General
One of the duties of the visual/welding inspector is materials inspection and
there are a number of situations where this will be required:
 At the plate or pipe mill.

 During fabrication or construction of the material.
 After installation of material, usually during a planned maintenance
programme, outage or shutdown.
A wide range of materials can be used in fabrication and welding and include,
but is not limited to:
 Steels.
 Stainless steels.
 Aluminium and its alloys.
 Nickel and its alloys.
 Copper and its alloys.
 Titanium and its alloys.
 Cast iron.
These materials are all widely used in fabrication, welding and construction to
meet the requirements of a diverse range of applications and industry sectors.
There are three essential aspects to material inspection that the Inspector
should consider:
 Material type and weldability.

 Material traceability.
 Material condition and dimensions.
7.2 Material type and weldability

A welding inspector must understand and interpret the material designation to
check compliance with relevant normative documents. For example materials
standards such as BS EN, API, ASTM, the WPS, purchase order, fabrication
drawings, quality plan/contract specification and client requirements.
A commonly used material standard for steel designation is BS EN 10025 –

Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels.
A typical steel designation to this standard, S355J2G3, would be classified as

follows:
S Structural steel.
355 Minimum yield strength: N/mm² at t  16mm.
J2 Longitudinal Charpy, 27Joules 20°C.
G3 Normalised or normalised rolled.
Commonly used materials and most of the alloys can be fusion welded using
various welding processes, in a wide range of thickness and where applicable,
diameters.
Reference to other standards such as ISO 15608 Welding - Guidelines for a

metallic material grouping system and steel producer and welding consumable
data books can also provide the inspector with guidance as to the suitability of a
material and consumable type for a given application.
WIS5-90516b
7.3 Alloying elements and their effects
Iron Fe
Carbon C Strength
Manganese Mn Toughness
Silicon Si < 0.3% deoxidiser
Aluminium Al Grain refiner, <0.008% deoxidiser + toughness
Chromium Cr Corrosion resistance
Molybdenum Mo 1% is for creep resistance
Vanadium V Strength
Nickel Ni Low temperature applications
Copper Cu Used for weathering steels (Corten)
Sulphur S Residual element (can cause hot shortness)
Phosphorus P Residual element
Titanium Ti Grain refiner, used as a micro-alloying element
(strength and toughness)
Niobium Nb Grain refiner, used as a micro-alloying element
(strength and toughness)
7.4 Material traceability

Traceability is defined as the ability to trace the history, application or location
of that which is under consideration. With a welded product, traceability may
require the inspector to consider the:
 Origin of both parent and filler materials.

 Processing history – for example before or after PWHT.
 Location of the product – this usually refers to a specific part or sub-
assembly.
To trace the history of the material, reference must be made to the inspection
documents. BS EN 10204 Metallic products – Types of inspection documents is
the standard which provides guidance on these types of document. According to
BS EN 10204 inspection documents fall into two types:
7.4.1 Non-specific inspection

Carried out by the manufacturer in accordance with his own procedures to
assess whether products defined by the same product specification and made
by the same manufacturing process, comply with the requirements of the order.
 Type 2.1 are documents in which the manufacturer declares that the
products supplied comply with the requirements of the order without
inclusion of test results.
 Type 2.2 are documents in which the manufacturer declares that the
products supplied comply with the requirements of the order and includes
test results based on non-specific inspection.
WIS5-90516b
7.4.2 Specific inspection
Inspection carried out before delivery according to the product specification on
the products to be supplied or test units of which the products supplied are
part, to verify that these products comply with the requirements of the order.
 Type 3.1 are certificates in which the manufacturer declares that the
products supplied comply with the requirements of the order and in which
test results are supplied.
 Type 3.2 are certificates prepared by both the manufacturer’s authorised

inspection representative independent of the manufacturing department and
either the purchaser’s authorised representative or the inspector designated
by the official regulations and in which they declare that the products
supplied comply with the requirements of the order and in which test results
are supplied.
Application or location of a particular material can be carried out through a

review of the WPS, fabrication drawings, quality plan or by physical inspection
of the material at the point of use.
In certain circumstances the inspector may have to witness the transfer of cast
numbers from the original plate to pieces to be used in production.
On pipeline work it is a requirement that the inspector records all the relevant
information for each piece of linepipe. On large diameter pipes this information
is usually stencilled on the inside of the pipe. On smaller diameter pipes it may
be stencilled along the outside of the pipe.
WIS5-90516b
BS EN 10204: Metallic materials
Summary of types of inspection documents.
Non-specific inspection*
May be replaced by specific
inspection if specified in the
material standard or the order.
Inspection document Type 2.1 Inspection document Type 2.2

 Declaration of compliance with  Test report.
the order.  Statement of compliance with
 Statement of compliance with the order, with indication of
the order. results of non-specific
 Validated by manufacturer. inspection.
 Validated by manufacturer.
Specific inspection
Quality management system of the material
manufacturer certified by a competent body
established within the community and having
undergone a specific assessment for materials.
Inspection certificate Type 3.1 Inspection certificate Type 3.2

 Statement of compliance with  Statement of compliance with
the order with indication of the order with indication of
results of specific inspection. results of specific inspection.
 Validated by manufacturer’s  Validated by manufacturer’s
authorised inspection authorised inspection
representative independent of representative independent of
the manufacturing department. the manufacturing department
and either the purchaser’s
authorised inspection
representative or the inspector
designated by the official
regulations.
WIS5-90516b
7.5 Material condition and dimensions
The condition of the material could have an adverse effect on the service life of
the component so is an important inspection point. The points for inspection
must include:
 General inspection.
 Visible imperfections.
 Dimensions.
 Surface condition.
General inspection
This takes account of storage conditions, methods of handling, number of plates
or pipes and distortion tolerances.
Visible imperfections
Typical visible imperfections are usually attributable to the manufacturing
process and include cold laps which break the surface or laminations if they
appear at the edge of the plate. Ultrasonic testing using a compression probe
may be required for laminations which may be present in the body of the
material.
Figure 7.1 Cold lap. Figure 7.2 Plate lamination.
Dimensions
For plates this includes length, width and thickness.
For pipes this includes length and wall thickness and also inspection of diameter
and ovality. At this stage of inspection the material cast or heat number may be
recorded for validation against the material certificate.
Surface condition
The surface condition is important and must not show excessive millscale or
rust, be badly pitted or have unacceptable mechanical damage.
WIS5-90516b
There are four grades of rusting which the inspector may have to consider:
Figure 7.3 Rust Grade A.
Steel surface largely covered with adherent millscale with little or no rust.
Figure 7.4 Rust Grade B.
Steel surface which has begun to rust and from which mill scale has begun to
flake.
Figure 7.5 Rust Grade C.
Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away or from which it can be
scraped. Slight pitting visible under normal vision.
Figure 7.6 Rust Grade D.
Steel surface on which mill scale has rusted away. General pitting visible under
normal vision.
WIS5-90516b
7.6 Summary
Material inspection is an important part of the inspector’s duties and an
understanding of the documentation involved is key to success.
Material inspection must be approached in a logical and precise manner if

material verification and traceability are to be achieved. This can be difficult if
the material is not readily accessible, access may have to be provided, safety
precautions observed and authorisation obtained before material inspection can
be carried out. The quality plan should identify the level of inspection required
and the point at which inspection takes place. A fabrication drawing should
provide information on the type and location of the material.
If material type cannot be determined from the inspection documents available

or the inspection document is missing, other methods of identifying the material
may need to be used.
These methods may include but are not limited to: Spark test, spectroscopic
analysis, chemical analysis, scleroscope hardness test, etc. These types of test
are normally conducted by an approved test house but sometimes on- site and
the inspector may be required to witness them to verify compliance with the
purchase order or appropriate standard(s).
*EN ISO 9000 Quality management systems – Fundamentals and vocabulary.
WIS5-90516b
Material Inspection Objective

should be able to identify key areas for visual
inspection of materials and how manufacturing
defects occur.
Material Inspection
Section 7
Material Inspection Pipe Inspection
All materials arriving on site should be Condition (corrosion, damage, wall thickness, ovality,
inspected for: laminations and seam)
 Size/dimensions.
 Condition.
 Type/specification.
Welded seam
In addition other elements may need to be
considered depending on the materials form or
shape. Specification
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion

tolerance, number of pipes and storage*.
Plate Inspection Rolling Imperfections
Condition (corrosion, mechanical damage, laps,

bands and laminations) Direction of rolling
Specification Cold Laps*
Other checks may need to be made such as: Lamination Segregation

distortion tolerance, number of plates and storage.
7-1
Parent Material Imperfections Lapping
Mechanical damage Lap
Lamination
Segregation line
Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making
process, originating from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low
melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not
fuse to the base material.
Lapping Lapping
Lamination Lamination
Plate lamination
7-2
Any Questions
?
7-3
Section 8
Codes and Standards

8 Codes and Standards
8.1 General
It is not necessary for the inspector to carry a range of codes and standards in
the performance of his duties, normally the contract specification is the only
document required. However this may reference supporting codes and
standards and the inspector should know where to access these normative
documents.
The following is a list of definitions relating to codes and standards the inspector
may come across whilst carrying out his duties.
8.2 Definitions
Normative document
Document that provides rules, guidelines or characteristics for activities or their
results. The term normative document is generic, covering documents such as
standards, technical specifications, codes of practice and regulations.*
Standard
Document established by consensus and approved by a recognised body. A
standard provides, for common and repeated use, guidelines, rules,
characteristics for activities or their results, aimed at achieving the optimum
degree of order in a given context.*
Harmonised standards
Standards on the same subject approved by different standardising bodies, that
establish inter-changeability of products, processes and services, or mutual
understanding of test results or information provided according to these
standards.*
Code of practice
Document that recommends practices or procedures for the design,
manufacture, installation, maintenance and utilisation of equipment, structures
or products. A code of practice may be a standard, part of a standard or
independent of a standard.*
Regulation
Document providing binding legislative rules adopted by an authority.*
Authority
A body (responsible for standards and regulations legal or administrative entity
that has specific tasks and composition) that has legal powers and rights.*
Regulatory authority
Authority responsible for preparing or adopting regulations.*
Enforcement authority
Authority responsible for enforcing regulations.*
WIS5-90516b
Codes and Standards 8-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Specification
A document stating requirements, needs or expectations. A specification could
cover both physical and technical requirements ie Visual Inspection, NDT,
mechanical testing etc., essentially full data and its supporting medium.
Generally implied or obligatory.**
Procedure
Specified way to carry out an activity or process*. Usually a written description
of all essential parameters and precautions to be observed when applying a
technique to a specific application following an established standard, code or
specification.
Instruction
Written description of the precise steps to be followed based on an established
procedure, standard, code or specification.
Quality plan
Document specifying which procedures and associated resources shall be
applied by whom and when to a specific project, product, process or contract.*
* ISO IEC Guide 2 – Standardisation and related activities – General

vocabulary.
** EN ISO 9000 – 2000 – Quality management systems – Fundamentals and
vocabulary.
8.3 Summary
Application standards and codes of practice ensure that a structure or
component will have an acceptable level of quality and be fit-for-purpose.
Applying the requirements of a standard, code of practice or specification can

be a problem for the inexperienced inspector. Confidence in applying the
requirements of one or all of these documents to a specific application only
comes with use.
If in doubt the inspector must always refer to a higher authority in order to

avoid confusion and potential problems.
WIS5-90516b
Comments
Standard Number Year Status AMD = amended
COR = corrected
BS 499-1 2009 Superseded Superseded by:
BS EN ISO 2560:2005
BS 709 1983 Superseded Superseded by:
BS EN ISO 9016:2011
BS EN ISO 5178:2011
BS EN ISO 4136:2011
BS EN ISO 5173:2010 + A1 2011
BS EN ISO 9015-1:2011
BS EN ISO 9015 -2:2011
BS EN 1320:1997
BS EN 1321:1997 AMD 14972
BS EN ISO 9018 : 2003 AMD 15061
BS 1113(1999) 1999 Superseded Superseded By:

BS EN 12952-1:2001 COR 2010
BS EN 12952-2:2011
BS EN 12952-3:2011
BS EN 12952-5:2011
BS EN 12952-6:2011
BS EN 12952-7:2010
BS EN 12952-10:2002 COR 2010
BS EN 12952-11:2002 COR 2010
BS1453 (1972) 1972 (amended 2001) Partly Partly superseded by:

Superseded BS EN 12536:2000
BS 1821 1982 (amended 1998) Cancelled
BS 2493(1985) 1985 Superseded Superseded by:

BS EN ISO 18275:2012 &
BS EN ISO 3580:2011
BS 2633(1987) 1987 (amended 1998) Current
BS 2640(1982) 1982 (amended 1998) Cancelled
BS 2654(1989) 1989 (amended 1997) Superseded Superseded by: BS EN 14015:2005
BS 2901-3(1990) 1990 Superseded Superseded by:

BS EN ISO 24373:2009

BS EN ISO 3581:2012

BS EN 1011-4:2000 AMD 2004
BS 3604-1 (1990) 1990 Superseded Superseded by:

BS EN 10216-2:2002 AMD 2007 &
BS EN 10217-2:2002 AMD 2006
BS 3605 1991 AMD 1997 Superseded Superseded by:

BS EN 10216-5:2004 COR 2008
WIS5-90516b
Comments
COR = corrected
BS 4515-1 (2009) 2009 Current
BS 4570 (1985) 1985 Partly Partly superseded by:
Superseded BS EN 1011-8:2004 AMD
BS 4677 (1984) 1985 Current

BS 4872-1 (1982) 1982 Current
BS 4872-2 (1976) 1976 Current
1982 Superseded There are multiple parts to this

standard, part 1 was superseded
by: BS EN 10305-5:2010
BS EN 10305-1:2010
BS EN 10305-2:2010
BS EN 10305-3:2010
BS EN 10305-4:2011
BS EN 10305-6:2005 AMD 2007
BS EN 10296-1:2003
BS EN 10296-2:2005 AMD 2007
BS EN 10297-1:2003 AMD 2003
BS 6693-1(1986) 1986 Superseded There are multiple parts to this

standard, part 1 was superseded
by: BS EN ISO 3690:2012
BS 6990(1989) 1989 AMD 1998 Current
BS 7191(1989) 1989 AMD 1991 Superseded Superseded By: BS EN 10225:2009
BS 7570(2000) 2000 Superseded Superseded By: BS EN 50504:2009
BS EN 287-1:2011 2011 Superseded Superseded By:

BS EN ISO 9606-1: 2013
BS EN 440:1995 1995 Superseded Superseded By:

BS EN ISO 14341:2011

BS EN ISO 2560:2009
BS EN 383

BS EN ISO 14171:2010

BS EN ISO 14174:2012
WIS5-90516b
Comments
COR = corrected
BS EN 910:1996 1996 Superseded Superseded By: BS EN ISO
5173:2010 + A1 2011

17637:2011

14343:2009
BS EN ISO 18274:2011 2011 Current
BS EN 1011-1:2009 2009 Current
BS EN 1011-2:2001 AMD 2001 Current

2004
2004
2004
BS EN 1320:1997 1997 Current
BS EN 1435:1997 AMD 2004 1997 Current
BS EN 10002-1:2001 2001 Superseded There are multiple parts for this

standard, part one is superseded
by:
BS EN ISO 6892-1:2009
BS EN 10020:2000 2000 Current
BS EN 10027:2005 2005 Current
BS EN 10045-1:1990 1990 Superseded
BS EN 10204:2004 2004 Current
BS EN 22553:1995 1995 Current

4063:2010

5817:2007
BS EN 26520:1992 1992 Superseded Superseded By: BS EN ISO 6520-

1:2007

6848:2004
ISO 857-1:1998 1998 Current
WIS5-90516b
Comments
COR = corrected
BS PD CR ISO 15608:2000 2000 Superseded Superseded By: BS PD CEN ISO/TR
15608:2005
BS EN ISO 15609-1:2004 2004 Current
BS EN ISO 15614-1: 2004 A2 2004 Current

2012
BS EN ISO 15614-2:2005 2005 Current
BS EN ISO 15614-3:2008 2008
BS EN ISO 15614-4:2005 2008

COR 2008
BS EN ISO 15614-5:2004 2004
BS EN ISO 15614-6:2006 2006
BS EN ISO 15614-7:2007 2007
BS EN ISO 15614-8:2002 2002
BS EN ISO 15614-9 None available
BS EN ISO 15614-10:2005 2005
BS EN ISO 15614-11:2002 2002
BS EN ISO 15614-12:2004 2004
BS EN ISO 15614-13:2005 2005
WIS5-90516b
Codes and Standards Objective

will be able to acknowledge what is a code and
standard and recognise their purpose. You
should be able to identify some commonly used
ones by their unique numbers and for what they
Quality in Welding Codes and Standards are used for in industry.
Section 8
Quality in Welding Quality in Welding
Quality assurance manual Quality control manual

Essentially what the QA manual sets out to achieved The QC manual will be the manual most often
is the how the company is organised, to lay down referred to by the SWI as it will spell out in detail
the responsibilities and authority of the various how different departments and operations are
departments, how these departments interlink. The organised and controlled.
manual usually covers all aspects of the company
structure, not just those aspects of manufacture. Typical examples would be
 Production and control of drawings, how
materials and consumables are purchased, how
welding procedures are produced, etc.
 Essentially all operations to be carried out within
the organisation will have control procedures
laid down.
Standard/Codes/Specifications Standard/Codes/Specifications
Specifications Codes Standard

A document that is established by consensus and
Examples: Examples: approved by a recognised body.
 Plate, pipe.  Pressure vessels.

A standard provides, for common and repeated use,
 Forgings, castings.  Bridges. guidelines, rules, and characteristics for activities or
their results, aimed at the achievement of the
 Valves.  Pipelines. optimum degree of order in a given context.
 Electrodes.  Tanks.
8-1
Standard/Codes/Specifications Standard/Codes/Specifications
Specification Examples of specification

A document stating requirements, needs or
expectations. BS 4515
Specification for welding of steel pipelines on land
A specification could cover both physical and and offshore.
technical requirements ie Visual Inspection, NDT,
mechanical testing etc., essentially full data and its
BS EN 26848
supporting medium. Generally implied or
obligatory. Specification for tungsten electrodes for inert gas
shielded arc welding and for plasma cutting and
welding.
Standard/Codes/Specifications
Examples of standards
BS EN ISO 17637
Any Questions
?
Non - destructive examination of fusion welds -
visual examination.
BS EN 440
Wire electrodes and deposits for gas shielded
metal arc of non - alloy and fine grain steels.
8-2
Section 9
Welding Symbols
9 Welding Symbols
A weld joint can be represented on an engineering drawing by a detailed sketch
showing every detail and dimension of the joint preparation, as shown below.
Figure 9.1 Single U preparation.
While this method of representation gives comprehensive information, it can be

time-consuming and overburden the drawing.
An alternative is to use a symbolic representation to specify the required

information, as shown below for the same joint detail.
Figure 9.2 Symbolic representation of the single U preparation.
Advantages of symbolic representation:

 Simple and quick to add to the drawing.
 Does not overburden the drawing.
 No need for an additional view, all welding symbols can be put on the main
assembly drawing.
Disadvantages of symbolic representation:

 Can only be used for standard joints (eg BS EN ISO 9692).
 No way of giving precise dimensions for joint details.
 Some training is necessary to correctly interpret the symbols.
WIS5-90516b
Welding Symbols 9-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
9.1 Standards for symbolic representation of welded joints on drawings
Two principal standards are used for welding symbols:
European Standard
EN 22553 – Welded, brazed & soldered joints, Symbolic representation on
drawings.
American Standard
AWS A2.4, standard symbols for welding, brazing and non-destructive
examination.
These standards are very similar in many respects, but there are also some
major differences that need to be understood to avoid misinterpretation.
Details of the European Standard are given in the following sub-sections with
only brief information about how the American Standard differs.
Elementary welding symbols

Various types of weld joint are represented by a symbol that is intended to help
interpretation by being similar to the shape of the weld to be made.
Examples of symbols used by EN 22553 are shown on the following pages.
WIS5-90516b
9.2 Elementary welding symbols
Designation Illustration of joint preparation Symbol
Square butt weld
Single V butt weld
Single bevel butt weld
Single V butt weld with broad

root face
Single bevel butt weld with

broad root face
Single U butt weld
Single J butt weld
Fillet weld
Surfacing (cladding)
Backing run
(back or backing weld)
Backing bar
WIS5-90516b
9.3 Combination of elementary symbols
For symmetrical welds made from both sides, the applicable elementary
symbols are combined, as shown below.
Double V butt weld (X weld)
Double bevel butt weld

(K weld)
Double U butt weld
Double J butt weld
WIS5-90516b
9.4 Supplementary symbols
Weld symbols may be complemented by a symbol to indicate the required
shape of the weld.
Examples of supplementary symbols and how they are applied are given below.
Flat (flush) single V butt

weld
Convex double V butt

weld
Concave fillet weld
Flat (flush) single V butt

weld with flat (flush)
backing run
Single V butt weld with

broad root face and
backing run
Fillet weld with both

toes blended smoothly
Note: If the weld symbol does not have a supplementary symbol then the
shape of the weld surface does not need to be indicated precisely.
WIS5-90516b
9.5 Position of symbols on drawings
To be able to provide comprehensive details for weld joints, it is necessary to
distinguish the two sides of the weld joint.
This is done, according to EN 22553, by:
 An arrow line.
 A dual reference line consisting of a continuous and a dashed line.
The figure below illustrates the method of representation.
3
2a
1 = Arrow line
2a = Reference (continuous line)
2b 2b = Identification line (dashed line)
3 = Welding symbol (single V joint)
Joint line
Figure 9.3 The method of representation.
9.6 Relationship between the arrow and joint lines

One end of the joint line is called the arrow side and the opposite end is called
other side.
The arrow side is always the end of the joint line that the arrow line points to
(and touches).
It can be at either end of the joint line and it is the draughtsman who decides
which end to make the arrow side.
The figure below illustrates these principles.
Arrow
arrow lineline
Arrow‘arrow
sideside’
Other side
‘other side’
Other side
‘other side’
Arrow side
‘arrow side’ arrow line
Arrow line
‘other side’ ‘arrow side’

Other Arrow side ‘arrow side’ Other
‘other side
side’
Arrow side
side
Arrow
arrow lineline arrow line
Arrow line
Figure 9.4 The relationship between the arrow and joint lines.
WIS5-90516b
There are some conventions about the arrow line:
 It must touch one end of the joint line.

 It joins one end of the continuous reference line.
 In case of a non-symmetrical joint, such as a single bevel joint, the arrow
line must point towards the joint member that will have the weld
preparation put on to it (as shown below).
An example of how a single bevel butt joint should be represented.
Figure 9.5 Single bevel butt joint representation.
9.7 Position of the reference line and weld symbol

The reference line should, wherever possible, be drawn parallel to the bottom
edge of the drawing (or perpendicular to it).
For a non-symmetrical weld it is essential that the arrow side and other side of
the weld are distinguished. The convention for doing this is:
 Symbols for the weld details required on the arrow side must be placed on
the continuous line.
 Symbols for the weld details on the other side must be placed on the dashed
line.
9.8 Positions of the continuous and dashed lines

EN22553 allows the dashed line to be either above or below the continuous line
– as shown below.
or
If the weld is symmetrical it is not necessary to distinguish between the two
sides and EN22553 states that the dashed line should be omitted. Thus, a single
V butt weld with a backing run can be shown by any of the four symbolic
representations shown below.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 9.6 Single V weld with backing run.
Arrow side Other side
Other side Arrow side
Figure 9.7 Symbolic representations of a single V weld with backing run.
This flexibility of the position of the continuous and dashed lines is an interim
measure that EN22553 allows so that old drawings (to the obsolete BS 499 Part
2, for example) can be easily converted to show the EN method of
representation.
9.9 Dimensioning of welds

General rules
Dimensions may need to be specified for some types of weld and EN 22553
specifies a convention for this.
 Dimensions for the cross-section of the weld are written on the lefthand side
of the symbol.
 Length dimensions for the weld are written on the righthand side of the
symbol.
 In the absence of any indication to the contrary, all butt welds are full
penetration welds.
9.9.1 Symbols for cross-section dimensions

The following letters are used to indicate dimensions:
a Fillet weld throat thickness.

Z Fillet weld leg length.
s Penetration depth (applicable to partial penetration butt welds and deep
penetration fillets).
WIS5-90516b
Some examples of how these symbols are used are shown below.
Partial
Partial penetration
penetration s10
single
single VV butt
butt weld
weld
10mm
Fillet weld with 8mm

leg
Fillet weld with 8mm leg Z
8mm
a6
Filletweld
Fillet weldwith
with6mm
6mmthroat
6mm
Figure 9.8 Examples of symbols for cross-section dimensions.
9.9.2 Symbols for length dimensions

To specify weld length dimensions and, for intermittent welds the number of
individual weld lengths (weld elements), the following letters are used:
l Length of weld.
(e) Distance between adjacent weld elements.
n Number of weld elements.
WIS5-90516b
The use of these letters is shown for the intermittent double-sided fillet weld
shown below.
100mm
Plan view End view

150mm End view
z n x l (e)
Z8 3  150 (100)
z n x l (e)
Z8 3  150 (100)
Figure 9.9 Symbols for length dimensions.
Note: Dashed line is not required because it is a symmetrical weld.
The convention for an intermittent double-sided staggered fillet weld is shown

below.
WIS5-90516b
l (e)
Plan view End view
z n L (e)

z n L (e)
Figure 9.10 An intermittent double-sided staggered fillet weld.
9.10 Complimentary indications

Complementary indications may be needed to specify other characteristics of
welds, eg:
Figure 9.11 Field or site welds are indicated by a flag.
Figure 9.12 A peripheral weld to be made all around a part is indicated by a

circle.
WIS5-90516b
9.11 Indication of the welding process
If required, the welding process is symbolised by a number written between the
two branches of a fork at the end of the reference line.
Some welding process designations:
111 = MMA
121 = SAW 111
131 = MIG
135 = MAG
9.11.1 Other information in the tail of the reference line

Information other than the welding process can be added to an open tail such
as the NDT acceptance level, the working position and filler metal type and
EN22553 defines the sequence that must be used for this information.
A closed tail can also be used into which reference to a specific instruction can
be added.
WPS 014
9.12 Weld symbols in accordance with AWS 2.4

Many of the symbols and conventions specified by EN22553 are the same as
those for AWS.
The major differences are:
 Only one reference line is used (a continuous line).

 Symbols for weld details on the arrow side go underneath the reference line.
 Symbols for weld details on the other side go on top of the reference line.
These differences are illustrated by the following example.
Arrow side
Other side
Figure 9.13 Weld symbols in accordance with AWS 2.4.
WIS5-90516b
Welding Symbols Objective

should be able to recognise the differences in
the international standards for symbols and be
able to break down each element of the
representation, on an engineering drawing.
Welding Symbols
Section 9
Weld Symbols on Drawings Weld Symbols on Drawings
Joints in drawings may be indicated: A method of transferring information from the design
office to the workshop is:
By detailed sketches, showing every dimension.
Please weld here
The above information does not tell us much about the wishes
By symbolic representation. of the designer. We obviously need some sort of code which
would be understood by everyone.
Most countries have their own standards for symbols.

Some of them are AWS A2.4 & BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)
Weld Symbols on Drawings Weld Symbols on Drawings
Advantages of symbolic representation: The symbolic representation includes:

 Simple and quick plotting on the drawing.  An arrow line.
 Does not over-burden the drawing.  A reference line.
 No need for additional view.  An elementary symbol.
 Gives all necessary indications regarding the
specific joint to be obtained. The elementary symbol may be completed
by:
Disadvantages of symbolic representation:  A supplementary symbol.
 Used only for usual joints.  A means of showing dimensions.
 Requires training for properly understanding of  Some complementary indications.
symbols.
9-1
Arrow Line Reference Line
(BS EN ISO 22553 and AWS A2.4): (AWS A2.4)

Convention of the arrow line: Convention of the reference line:
 Shall touch the joint intersection.  Shall touch the arrow line.
 Shall not be parallel to the drawing.  Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing.
 Shall point towards a single plate preparation (when only

one plate has preparation).
Reference Line Elementary Welding Symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553) (BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)

Convention of the reference line: Convention of the elementary symbols:
 Various categories of joints are characterised by an
 Shall touch the arrow line. elementary symbol.
 Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing.  The vertical line in the symbols for a fillet weld,
 There shall be a further broken identification line single/double bevel butts and a J-butt welds must
above or beneath the reference line (Not necessary always be on the left side.
where the weld is symmetrical!). Weld type Sketch Symbol
Square edge
or
butt weld
Single-v
butt weld
Elementary Welding Symbols Elementary Welding Symbols
Weld type Sketch Symbol Weld type Sketch Symbol

Single-U
Single V butt
weld with broad butt weld.
root face.
Single-J
Single bevel butt weld.
butt weld.
Surfacing.
Single bevel butt
weld with broad
root face.
Fillet weld.
Backing run.
9-2
Double Side Weld Symbols Dimensions
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4) Convention of dimensions

Convention of the double side weld symbols: In most standards the cross sectional dimensions are given to
the left side of the symbol, and all linear dimensions are give
Representation of welds done from both sides of the on the right side.
joint intersection, touched by the arrow head. BS EN ISO 22553
a = Design throat thickness.
Fillet weld Double bevel Double J s = Depth of penetration, throat thickness.
z = Leg length (min material thickness).
AWS A2.4
 In a fillet weld, the size of the weld is the leg length.
Double V Double U  In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the
depth of the joint preparation.
Supplementary Symbols Supplementary Symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 and AWS A2.4) (BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld Supplementary information such as welding process, weld
profile, NDT and any special instructions. profile, NDT and any special instructions.
Ground flush Toes to be ground

Site Weld smoothly (BS EN only)
111
MR M
Removable Permanent Welding process Concave or Convex

backing strip backing strip numerical BS EN
Weld all round

Further supplementary information, such as WPS number,
or NDT may be placed in the fish tail.
Welding Symbols ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
Reference lines
Arrow line
BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)
9-3
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
Other side
Arrow side
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
a b
Both sides
c d
Both sides
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
Mitre Convex Welding to be carried

Field weld (site weld)
out all round component
(peripheral weld)
NDT WPS
Toes The component Additional information,

Concave shall be requires NDT inspection the reference document
blended is included in the box
9-4
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 Fillet Welds
Peripheral welds
Fillet weld dimensions according BS EN 22553.
z8
or
z8
8
z10 z8 a 5 (z 8)
or
10 8 a 5 (z 8)
5
10 8 8
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
a = Design throat thickness. n = Number of weld elements.

s = Depth of penetration, throat l = Length of each weld element.
thickness. (e) = Distance between each weld element.
z = Leg length(min material
thickness).
a = (0.7 x z). n x l (e)
a4
a Welds to be
z s 4mm Design throat staggered
z6 s6 2 x 40 (50)
111
6mm Actual throat 3 x 40 (50)
6mm leg
Process
Intermittent Fillet Welds ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
Staggered intermittent fillet weld Symbol to BS EN 22553

All dimensions in mm
pitch (e) length (l)
a z8 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
6
z 80 80 80
6
z n×l (e) a n×l (e)
z n×l (e) a n×l (e) 8 90 90
90
or
8
9-5
Intermittent Fillet Welds ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
Chain intermittent fillet weld Symbol to BS EN 22553 All dimensions in mm

pitch (e) length (l) a z5 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
z 5
80 80 80
5
z n×l(e) a n×l(e)
z n×l(e) a n×l(e)
6 90 90
or 90
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
MR
M
Single-V Butt with Single-U Butt with

Single-bevel butt Double-bevel butt
permanent backing strip removable backing strip
Single-bevel butt Single-J butt

Single-V Butt flush cap Single-U Butt with sealing run
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
s10 Square Butt weld

Plug weld
10
15 Resistance spot weld Steep flanked
Single-V Butt
Partial penetration single-V butt S

indicates the depth of penetration. Resistance seam weld Surfacing
9-6
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553
Butt Weld Example Butt Weld Example
1 Welded arrow side: Single-V 3 Welded arrow side: Single-V 10

M
butt weld with permanent butt weld depth of preparation
backing strip, flat weld profile. 10mm. Welded other side:
Backing run. (Plate thickness
15mm.)
4 Welded arrow side: Single-J 12
butt weld, depth of preparation 12

8
2 Welded other side: Single-U 12mm with a 8mm fillet weld
butt weld, flat weld profile. superimposed. (plate thickness
15mm. Welded other side:
12mm leg length fillet weld.
ISO 2553/BS EN 22553 ISO 2553/BS EN 22553

Compound Weld Example Compound Weld Example
Complete the symbol drawing for the welded cruciform Complete the symbol
joint provided below. All welds are welded with the MIG drawing for the welded z10
process and fillet welds with the MMA process. cruciform joint provided 30
below. All welds are welded 135/111
with the MAG process and 20
fillet welds with the MMA 7 10 z10
process.
7 10 20
35
35 20 30
15
30
15 z10 a 7
35
135/111
15
All fillet weld leg lengths 10mm z10 All fillet weld leg lengths 10mm
BS EN 22553 Rules BS EN 22553 Rules - Example
Welds this side of joint, go on the unbroken All leg lengths shall be preceded by z and throat
reference line while welds the other side of the by a or s (in case of deep penetration welds).
joint, go on the broken reference line.
Symbols with a vertical line component must be z 10 3 x 50 (50)
drawn with the vertical line to the left side of the
symbol.
All CSA dimensions are shown to the left of the
symbol. 50
All linear dimensions are shown on the right of
the symbol ie number of welds, length of welds, 50
length of any spaces.
10
Included angle and root opening are shown on top
of the symbol.
9-7
AWS Welding Symbols
Depth of bevel Root opening

AWS A2.4 Welding Symbols
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60°
Groove angle
Effective throat
AWS Welding Symbols AWS Welding Symbols
Welding process
GSFCAW GSFCAW
1(1-1/8) 1(1-1/8)
1/8
60°
Applicable to any
GMAW single groove weld
GTAW
Single bevel
SAW

Welds to be staggered
3 – 10 Sequence of operations 3rd operation

SMAW
3 – 10
2nd operation
Process
3 3 1st operation
FCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60°
10
9-8
Dimensions - Leg length
Sequence of operations RT
6 leg on member A
MT 6/8
MT
FCAW
1(1-1/8) Member A 6
1/8
60°
8
Member B
Fillet Welds Intermittent Fillet Welds
Fillet weld dimensions according AWS A 2.4 Chain intermittent fillet weld
pitch (e) length (l)

8
8
z
5x8
5 leg on z l-e
vertical
z l-e
member
5
8
Symbol to AWS A2.4
Intermittent Fillet Welds AWS A 2.4 Rules
Staggered intermittent fillet weld Welds on arrow side of joint go underneath the
reference line while welds the other side of the
e/2 length (l) joint, go on top of the reference line.
pitch (e)
Symbols with a vertical line component must be
drawn with the vertical line to the left side of the
z symbol.
All CSA dimensions are shown to the left of the
symbol.
z l-e
All linear dimensions are shown on the right of
z l-e
the symbol ie number of welds, length of welds,
Symbol to AWS A2.4 length of any spaces.
Included angle and root opening are shown on top
of the symbol.
9-9
AWS A 2.4 Rules - Example
Any Questions
10 3 x 50 (70)
10
50
70
?
9-10
Section 10
Introduction to Welding Processes

10 Introduction to Welding Processes
10.1 General
Common characteristics of the four main arc welding processes, MMA, TIG,
MIG/MAG and SAW are:
 An arc is created when an electrical discharge occurs across the gap

between the electrode and parent metal.
 The discharge causes a spark to form causing the surrounding gas to ionise.
 The ionised gas enables a current to flow across the gap between the
electrode and base metal thereby creating an arc.
 The arc generates heat for fusion of the base metal.
 With the exception of TIG welding, the heat generated by the arc also
causes the electrode surface to melt and molten droplets can transfer to the
weld pool to form a weld bead or run.
 Heat input to the fusion zone depends on the voltage, arc current and
welding/travel speed.
10.2 Productivity
With most welding processes, welding in the PA (flat or 1G) position results in
the highest weld metal deposition rate and therefore productivity.
For consumable electrode welding processes the rate of transfer of molten

metal to the weld pool is directly related to the welding current density (ratio of
the current to the diameter of the electrode).
For TIG welding, the higher the current, the more energy there is for fusion so
the higher the rate at which filler wire can be added to the weld pool.
10.3 Heat input

Arc energy is the amount of heat generated in the welding arc per unit length of
weld and is usually expressed in kilojoules per millimetre length of weld
(kJ/mm) Heat input (HI) for arc welding is calculated from the following
formula:
Volts x Amps
Arc energy ( kJ / mm) 
Travel speed (mm / sec) x 1000
Heat input is the energy supplied by the welding arc to the workpiece and is
expressed in terms of arc energy x thermal efficiency factor.
The thermal efficiency factor is the ratio of heat energy into the welding arc to
the electrical energy consumed by the arc.
Heat input values into the weld for various processes can be calculated from the
arc energy by multiplying by the following thermal efficiency factors:
SAW (wire electrode) 1.0

MMA (covered electrode) 0.8
MIG/MAG 0.8
FCAW (with or without gas shield) 0.8
TIG 0.6
Plasma 0.6
WIS5-90516b
Introduction to Welding Processes 10-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Example
A weld is made using the MAG welding process and the following welding
conditions were recorded:
Volts: 24
Amps: 240
Travel speed: 300mm per minute
Volts x Amps
Arc energy ( kJ / mm) 
Travel speed (mm / sec) x 1000
24  240
= 300 / 60  1000
5760
= 5000
Arc energy = 1.152 or 1.2kJ/mm
Heat input = 1.2 x 0.8 = 0.96kJ/mm
Heat input is mainly influenced by the travel speed.
Welding position and the process have a major influence on the travel speed
that can be used.
For manual and semi-automatic welding the following are general principles:
 Vertical-up progression tends to give the highest heat input because there is
a need to weave to get a suitable profile and the forward travel speed is
relatively slow.
 Vertical-down welding tends to give the lowest heat input because of the
fast travel speed that can be used.
 Horizontal-vertical welding is a relatively low heat input welding position
because the welder cannot weave in this position.
 Overhead welding tends to give low heat input because of the need to use
low current and relatively fast travel speed.
 Welding in the flat position (downhand) can be a low or high heat input
position because the welder has more flexibility about the travel speed that
can be used.
 Of the arc welding processes, SAW has the potential to give the highest heat
input and deposition rates and TIG and MIG/MAG can produce very low heat
input.
 Typical heat input values for controlled heat input welding will tend to be
~1.0-~3.5kJ/mm.
WIS5-90516b
10.4 Welding parameters
Arc voltage
Arc voltage is related to the arc length. For processes where the arc voltage is
controlled by the power source (SAW, MIG/MAG and FCAW) and can be varied
independently from the current, the voltage setting will affect the profile of the
weld.
As welding current is raised, the voltage also needs to be raised to spread the
weld metal and produce a wider and flatter deposit.
For MIG/MAG, arc voltage has a major influence on droplet transfer across the
arc.
Welding current
Welding current has a major influence on the depth of fusion/penetration into
the base metal and adjacent weld runs.
As a rule, the higher the current the greater the penetration depth.
Penetration depth affects dilution of the weld deposit by the parent metal and it
is particularly important to control this when dissimilar metals are joined.
Polarity
Polarity determines whether most of the arc energy (heat) is concentrated at
the electrode surface or at the surface of the parent material.
The location of the heat with respect to polarity is not the same for all
processes and the effects/options/benefits for each of the main arc welding
processes are summarised below.
WIS5-90516b
Polarity
Process
DC+ve DC-ve AC
Best penetration Less penetration but higher Not suitable for
deposition rate (used for some electrodes.
MMA root passes and weld Minimises arc
overlaying) blow
Rarely used due Used for all metals except Required for Al/Al
to tungsten Al/Al alloys and Mg/Mg alloys to break-up
TIG overheating alloys the refractory
oxide film
Used for all Rarely used Not used

GMAW solid metals and
wires virtually all
(MIG/MAG) situations
Most common Some positional basic Not used

FCAW/MCAW fluxed wires are designed
gas-shielded to run on -ve; some metal
and self- cored wires may also be
shielded cored used on -ve particularly for
wires positional welding
Best penetration Less penetration but higher Used to avoid arc

deposition rate (used for blow, particularly
SAW root passes and overlaying) for multi-electrode
systems
10.5 Power source characteristics

To strike an arc, a relatively high voltage is required to generate a spark
between the electrode and base metal. This is known as the open circuit voltage
(OCV) and is typically ~50-~90V.
Once an arc has been struck and stabilised there is a relationship between the
arc voltage and current flowing through the welding circuit that depends on the
electrical characteristics of the power source.
This relationship is known as the power source static characteristic and power
sources are manufactured to give a constant current or voltage characteristic.
10.5.1 Constant current power source

This is the preferred type of power source for manual welding (MMA and manual
TIG).
The volt-amp relationship for a constant current power source is shown in

Figure 10.1 and shows the no current position (the OCV) and from this point
there are arc voltage/current curves that depend on the power source for the
various current settings.
WIS5-90516b
100
OCV
Voltage, V
Arc voltage variation
50
A
B
C
XYZ
Current, A
Small change in current
Figure 10.1 Typical volt-amp curves for a constant current power source.
For manual welding (MMA and manual TIG) the welder sets the required current
on the power source but arc voltage is controlled by the arc length the welder
uses.
A welder has to work within a fairly narrow range of arc length for a particular
current setting, if it is too long the arc will extinguish, too short and the
electrode may stub into the weld pool and the arc extinguish.
For the operating principle of this type of power source see Figure 10.1.
The welder tries to hold a fairly constant arc length (B in Figure 10.1) for the
current (Y) that has been set. However, he cannot keep the arc length constant
and it will vary over a small working range (A-C) due to normal hand movement
during welding.
The power source is designed to ensure that these small changes in arc voltage
during normal welding will give only small changes in current (X to Z). Thus the
current can be considered to be essentially constant and this ensures that the
welder is able to maintain control of fusion.
The drooping shape of the volt-amp curves has led to constant current power
sources sometimes being said to have a drooping characteristic.
WIS5-90516b
10.5.2 Constant voltage power source
This is the preferred type of power source for welding processes that have a
wire feeder (MIG/MAG, FCAW and SAW).
Wire feed speed and current are directly related so that as the current
increases, so does the feed speed and there is a corresponding increase in the
burn-off rate to maintain the arc length/voltage.
The operating principle of this type of power source is shown in Figure 10.2.
A welder sets voltage B and current Y on the power source. If the arc length is
decreased to C (due to a variation in weld profile or as the welder’s hand moves
up and down during semi-automatic welding) there will be a momentary
increase in welding current to Z. The higher current Z gives a higher burn-off
rate which brings the arc length (and arc voltage) back to the pre-set value.
Similarly, if the arc length increases the current quickly falls to X and the burn-
off rate is reduced so that the arc length is brought back to the pre-set level B.
Thus, although the arc voltage does vary a little during welding the changes in
current that restore the voltage to the pre-set value happen extremely quickly
so that the voltage can be considered constant.
The straight-line relationship between voltage and current and the relatively
small gradient is why this type of power source is often referred to as having a
flat characteristic.
WIS5-90516b
100
Voltage, V
OCV
50
Arc voltage variation
A
B
C
X Y Z
Current, A
Large (momentary) change in current
Figure 10.2 Typical volt-amp curves for a constant voltage power source.
WIS5-90516b
Welding Processes Objective

will have a greater understanding of the differences
in processes and their key characteristics and why
we choose one over another.
Introduction to Welding Processes
Section 10
Welding Processes Welding Processes
Welding is regarded as a joining process in which The four essential factors for fusion welding:
the work pieces are in atomic contact. 1. Fusion is achieved by melting using a high
Pressure welding Fusion welding intensity heat source.
 Forge welding. 2. The welding process must be capable of removing
 Oxy-acetylene.
any oxide and contamination from the joint.
 Friction welding.  MMA (SMAW).
3. Atmosphere contamination must be avoided.
 Resistance Welding.  MIG/MAG (GMAW).
4. The welded joint must possess the mechanical
 TIG (GTAW). properties required by the specification being
 Sub-arc (SAW). adapted.
 Electro-slag (ESW).
 Laser Beam (LBW).
 Electron-Beam (EBW).
Welding Processes Welding Processes
Choice of welding process Choice of welding process

Material Type: Joint properties
 Steels. All processes.  Very high quality. TIG and SAW.
 Reactive metals TIG and MIG.  Very demanding properties. TIG usually best.
(aluminium titanium). (for toughness and
 Nickel-based alloys All processes for most alloys. corrosion resistance).
 Copper-based alloys Mainly TIG and MIG.
Welding Position
Material Thickness:  MMA, TIG, MIG/MAG. All positions.
 MMA All above ~ 3mm.
 SAW. Mainly flat but is used
 TIG (low productivity) Generally thin sections (<~ 10mm).
for girth seams on
 MIG/MAG/FCAW Typically ~ 3 to 30mm. large diameter storage
 SAW Typically ~ 15 to 150mm or tanks.
above.
10-1
Welding Processes Welding Process Comparison
Non-fusion welding processes Process Electrical characteristic Electrode current type

MMA Drooping/constant current DC+ve, DC-ve, AC
Friction welding
TIG Drooping/constant current DC-ve, AC
 Because no fusion - can join wide variety of
dissimilar materials. MIG/MAG Flat/constant voltage DC+ve
 Sound joints produced.
MAG FCAW Flat/constant voltage DC+ve, DC-ve,
 HAZ degradation minimised.
Sub-arc Drooping/constant current DC+ve, DC-ve, AC
 Many variants being developed for different
>1000amp
shapes/applications. Flat/constant voltage
<1000amp
Electro-slag Flat/constant voltage DC+ve
Any Questions
?
10-2
Section 11
Manual Metal Arc/Shielded Metal Arc

Welding
11 Manual Metal Arc/Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA/SMAW)
Manual metal arc (MMA) welding was invented in Russia in 1888 and involved a
bare metal rod with no flux coating to give a protective gas shield. Coated
electrodes weren’t developed until the early 1900s when the Kjellberg process
was invented in Sweden and the quasi-arc method was introduced in the UK.
The most versatile welding process, MMA is suitable for most ferrous and non-
ferrous metals, over a wide range of thicknesses. It can be used in all positions,
with reasonable ease of use and relatively economically. The final weld quality
is primarily dependent on the skill of the welder.
When an arc is struck between the coated electrode and workpiece, both
surfaces melt to form a weld pool. The average temperature of the arc is
approximately 6000°C, sufficient to simultaneously melt the parent metal,
consumable core wire and flux coating. The flux forms gas and slag which
protect the weld pool from oxygen and nitrogen in the surrounding atmosphere.
The molten slag solidifies, cools and must be chipped off the weld bead once
the weld run is complete (or before the next weld pass is deposited). The
process allows only short lengths of weld to be produced before a new electrode
needs to be inserted in the holder.
Electrode angle
75-80o to the horizontal
Consumable electrode
Filler metal core
Flux coating
Direction of electrode
travel
Solidified slag Arc

Gas shield
Molten weld pool
Parent
metal
Weld metal
Figure 11.1 MMA welding.
WIS5-90516b
Manual Metal Arc/Shidlded Metal Arc Welding
(MMA/SMAW) 11-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
11.1 MMA basic equipment requirements
10 1
9 2
3
8
6 5
1 Power source transformer/rectifier (constant current type).

2 Holding oven (holds at temperatures up to 150°C).
3 Inverter power source (more compact and portable).
4 Electrode holder (of a suitable amperage rating).
5 Power cable (of a suitable amperage rating).
6 Welding visor (with correct rating for the amperage/process).
7 Power return cable (of a suitable amperage rating).
8 Electrodes (of a suitable type and amperage rating).
9 Electrode oven (bakes electrodes at up to 350°C).
10 Control panel (on/off/amperage/polarity/OCV).
11.2 Power requirements

MMA welding can be carried out using either DC or AC current. With DC welding
current either positive (+ve) or negative (-ve) polarity can be used, so current
is flowing in one direction. AC welding current flows from negative to positive
and is two directional.
Power sources for MMA welding are transformers (which transform mains AC-AC
suitable for welding), transformer-rectifiers (which rectify AC-DC), diesel or
petrol driven generators (preferred for site work) or inverters (a more recent
addition to welding power sources). A power source with a constant current
(drooping) output must be used.
WIS5-90516b
The power source must provide:
 An OCV.
 Initiate the arc.
 Welding voltage between 20 and 40V to maintain the arc during welding.
 Suitable current range, typically 30-350 amps.
 Stable arc-rapid arc recovery or arc re-ignition without current surge.
 Constant welding current. The arc length may change during welding but
consistent electrode burn-off rate and weld penetration characteristics must
be maintained.
11.3 Welding variables

Other factors or welding variables which affect the final quality of the MMA
weld, are:
Current (amperage)
Voltage
Travel speed Affects heat input
Polarity
Type of electrode
Figure 11.2 Examples of the MMA welding process.
11.3.1 Current (amperage)

The flow of electrons through the circuit is the welding current measured in
amperes (I). Amperage controls burn-off rate and depth of penetration. Welding
current level is determined by the size of electrode and manufacturers
recommend the normal operating range and current.
Amperage too low

Poor fusion or penetration, irregular weld bead shape, slag inclusion unstable
arc, arc stumble, porosity and potential arc strikes.
Amperage too high

Excessive penetration, burn-through, undercut, spatter, porosity, deep craters,
electrode damage due to overheating, high deposition making positional
welding difficult.
WIS5-90516b
11.3.2 Voltage
The welding potential or pressure required for current to flow through the circuit
is the voltage (U). For MMA welding the voltage required to initiate the arc is
OCV, the voltage measured between the output terminals of the power source
when no current is flowing through the welding circuit.
For safety reasons the OCV should not exceed 90V and is usually 50-90V. Arc
voltage that is required to maintain the arc during welding and is usually 20-
40V and is a function of arc length. With MMA the welder controls the arc length
and therefore the arc voltage which in turn controls weld pool fluidity.
Arc voltage too low

Poor penetration, electrode stubbing, lack of fusion defects, potential for arc
strikes, slag inclusion, unstable arc condition, irregular weld bead shape.
Arc voltage too high

Excessive spatter, porosity, arc wander, irregular weld bead shape, slag
inclusions, fluid weld pool making positional welding difficult.
OCV 90V
Normal Normal arc length

arc voltage
range
Welding amperage
Figure 11.3 Constant current (drooping) output characteristic.
Large change in arc voltage = small change in welding amperage.
WIS5-90516b
11.3.3 Travel speed
The rate of weld progression, the third factor that affects heat input and
therefore metallurgical and mechanical conditions.
Travel speed too fast

Narrow thin weld bead, fast cooling, slag inclusions, undercut, poor fusion,
penetration.
Travel speed too slow

Cold lap, excess weld deposition, irregular bead shape undercut.
11.3.4 Polarity (type of current)

Polarity will determine the distribution of heat energy at the welding arc. The
preferred polarity of the MMA system depends primarily on the electrode being
used and the desired properties of the weld.
Direct current (DC)

Direct current is the flow of current in one direction and for MMA welding it
refers to the polarity of the electrode.
Direct current/electrode positive (DCEP/DC+ve)

When the electrode is on the positive pole of the welding circuit, the workpiece
becomes the negative pole. Electron flow direction is from the workpiece to the
electrode.
When the electrode is positively charged (DC+ve) and the workpiece is

negatively charged the two thirds of the available heat energy is at the tip of
the electrode, with the remaining third being generated in the parent material,
resulting in an increase in weld penetration.
Direct current/electrode negative (DCEN/DC-ve)

When the electrode is on the negative pole of the welding circuit, the workpiece
becomes the positive pole, electron flow direction is from the electrode to the
workpiece. The distribution of energy is now reversed. One third of the available
heat energy is generated at the tip of the electrode, the remaining two thirds in
the parent material.
Direct current with a negatively charged electrode (DC-ve) causes heat to build
up on the electrode, increasing the electrode melting rate and decreasing the
depth of the weld penetration depth.
When using DC the welding arc can be affected by arc blow, the deflection of
the arc from its normal path due to magnetic forces.
Alternating current (AC)

The current alternates in the welding circuit, flowing first in one direction then
the other. With AC, the direction of flow changes 100-120 times per second,
50-60 cycles per second (cps). AC is the flow of current in two directions.
Therefore, distribution of heat energy at the arc is equal, 50% at the electrode,
50% at the workpiece.
WIS5-90516b
11.3.5 Type of consumable electrode
For MMA welding there are three generic types of flux covering:
Rutile electrodes
Contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (rutile) in the coating which
promotes easy arc ignition, smooth arc operation and low spatter. These
electrodes are general purpose with good welding characteristics and can be
used with AC and DC power sources and in all positions. The electrodes are
especially suitable for welding fillet joints in the horizontal/vertical (HV)
position.
Features
 Moderate weld metal mechanical properties.
 Good bead profile produced through the viscous slag.
 Positional welding possible with a fluid slag (containing fluoride).
 Easily removable slag.
Basic electrodes
Contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium fluoride
(fluorspar) in the coating, making the slag coating more fluid than rutile
coatings. This is also fast freezing which assists welding in the vertical and
overhead positions. These electrodes are used for welding medium and heavy
section fabrications where higher weld quality, good mechanical properties and
resistance to cracking due to high restraint are required.
Features
 Low hydrogen weld metal.
 Requires high welding currents/speeds.
 Poor bead profile (convex and coarse surface profile).
 Slag removal difficult.
Cellulosic electrodes
Contain a high proportion of cellulose in the coating and are characterised by a
deeply penetrating arc and rapid burn-off rate giving high welding speeds. Weld
deposit can be coarse and with fluid slag, deslagging can be difficult. These
electrodes are easy to use in any position and are noted for their use in the
stovepipe welding technique.
Features
 Deep penetration in all positions.
 Suitable for vertical-down welding.
 Reasonably good mechanical properties.
 High level of hydrogen generated, risk of cracking in the HAZ.
Within these three generic groups sub-groups of covered electrodes provide a

wide range of electrode choice.
MMA electrodes are designed to operate with AC and DC power sources.

Although AC electrodes can be used on DC, not all DC electrodes can be used
with AC power sources.
Operating factor: (O/F) The percentage of arc on time in a given time.
WIS5-90516b
When compared with semi-automatic welding processes MMA has a low O/F of
approximately 30%. Manual semi-automatic MIG/MAG O/F is about 60% with
fully automated in the region of 90%. A welding process O/F can be directly
linked to productivity.
Operating factor should not be confused with the term duty cycle which is a
safety value given as the % of time a conductor can carry a current and is
given as a specific current at 60 and 100% of 10 minutes, ie 350A 60% and
300A 100%.
11.4 Summary of MMA/SMAW

Equipment requirement
 Transformer/rectifier, generator, inverter (constant amperage type).
 Power and power return cable (of a suitable amperage rating).
 Electrode holder (of a suitable amperage rating).
 Electrodes (of a suitable type and amperage rating).
 Correct visor/glass, safety clothing and good extraction.
Parameters and inspection points

 Amperage.
 OCV.
 AC/DC and polarity.
 Speed of travel.
 Electrode type and diameter.
 Duty cycles.
 Electrode condition.
 Connections.
 Insulation/extraction.
 Any special electrode treatment.
Typical welding imperfections

 Slag inclusions caused by poor welding technique or insufficient inter-run
cleaning.
 Porosity from using damp or damaged electrodes or when welding
contaminated or unclean material.
 Lack of root fusion or penetration caused by incorrect settings of the amps,
root gap or face width.
 Undercut caused by amperage too high for the position or by a poor welding
technique. eg travel speed too fast or slow, arc length (therefore voltage)
variations particularly during excessive weaving.
 Arc strikes caused by incorrect arc striking procedure or lack of skill. These
may also be caused by incorrectly fitted/secured power return lead clamps.
 Hydrogen cracks caused by the use of incorrect electrode type or baking
procedure and/or control of basic coated electrodes.
WIS5-90516b
Successful welding with the MMA process is reliant on a number of factors, not
least of which is the skill required to produce a sound weld. This is dependent
on the welder’s ability to match the arc length (distance from the tip of the
electrode to the workpiece), to the burn-off rate (rate at which the electrode is
consumed).
Advantages
 Field or shop use.
 Range of consumables.
 All positional.
 Very portable.
 Simple equipment.
Disadvantages
 High skill factor required.
 Arc strikes/slag inclusions.
 Low operating factor.
 High level of generated fumes.
 Hydrogen control.
WIS5-90516b
Welding Processes Objective

will have a greater understanding of the differences
in processes and their key characteristics and why
we choose one over another.
Welding Processes and Equipment –
Power Source
Sections 11-14
Power Sources MMA - Principle of Operation
FILM MMA
Electrode angle 75-80°
to the horizontal
Consumable electrode
Filler metal core
Manual Metal Arc Welding Flux coating
Direction of
electrode travel
Solidified slag Arc Gaseous shield
Welding Process Film
Molten weld pool
Parent metal
Weld metal
MMA Welding MMA Basic Equipment
Main features:
 Shielding provided by decomposition of flux.
 Consumable electrode. Control panel Power source
 Manual process. (amps, volts)
Electrode Holding oven

Welder controls: oven
 Arc length.
Electrodes Inverter power
 Angle of electrode.
source
 Speed of travel.
Return lead
 Current setting. Electrode holder
Welding visor
filter glass Power cables
11-1
MMA Welding Variables MMA Welding Parameters
Open circuit voltage (OCV) Current

 Value of potential difference delivered by set  Range set by electrode, diameter, material type
with no load. Must be enough for specific and thickness.
electrode.  Approx 35A per mm diameter.
 Electrodes labelled with min OCV, usually ~80V.  Too low – poor start, lack of fusion, slag
inclusions, humped bead shape.
Voltage  Too high – spatter, excess penetration,
 Measure arc voltage close to arc. undercut, burn-through.
 Variable with change in arc length.
 Too low, electrode stubs into weld pool. Polarity
 Too high, spatter, porosity, excess penetration,  Can be DCEP, DCEN, AC.
undercut, burn-through.  Determined by operation and electrode type.
Constant/Drooping
The Effects of Polarity on Penetration
Current Characteristics
DC + DC - AC
Amperage range
OCV
+/- 5 amps
50-90
70% 30% 50%
- Voltage +
Operational Heat Heat Heat

range 20-40V generated generated generated
30% 70% 50%
Dotted line denotes

- Amperage +
As arc length increases - + penetration depth
voltage increases and
= ion greater density (heavier = increased surface impact).
amperage decreases
= electron generates greater heat.
MMA Welding Parameters MMA – Parameter Setting
Travel speed Left to right

 Controlled by welder.  Good conditions.
 Often measured as run-out length as time to  Current too low.
burn single rod fairly standard at constant
current.  Current too high.
 Too low – wide bead, excess penetration, burn-  Arc length too short.
through.  Arc length too long.
 Too high – narrow bead, lack of penetration,  Travel too slow.
lack of fusion, difficult slag removal.  Travel too fast.
11-2
Operating Factor for MMA Typical Welding Defects
 Welder needs time to change electrodes. Most caused by:

 Also has to de-slag weld bead and grind any  Lack of welder skill.
imperfections.  Incorrect settings of equipment.
 May be required to observe interpass  Incorrect use or treatment of electrodes.
temperatures.
 Inspection will be required. Typical defects:
 On long runs welder has to reposition.  Slag inclusions.
 Arc strikes.
 All reduce time weld metal is deposited.
 Porosity.
 Arc time % to total time is operating factor. For  Undercut.
MMA this is rarely above 30%.  Shape defects (overlap, excessive root
penetration, etc).
Advantages and Disadvantages MMA Welding Consumables
Advantages Disadvantages Plastic foil sealed cardboard box

 Field or shop use.  High welder skill.  Rutile electrodes.
 Range of  High levels of fume.  General purpose basic electrodes.
consumables.  Hydrogen control
 All positions. (flux). Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
Tin can
 Portable.  Stop/start problems.  Cellulosic electrodes.
 Simple equipment.  Low productivity.

Vacuum sealed pack
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

 Extra low hydrogen
electrodes.
Cellulosic Electrodes Rutile Electrodes
 Use industrially extracted cellulose powder or  High amount of TiO2, (rutile sand or ilmenite).
wood flour in the formula.  Coatings often coloured.
 Characteristic smell when welding.  AWS type E6012 are DC: E6013 run on AC.
 Slag remains thin and friable.  Many designed for flat position.
 Strong arc action and deep penetration.  Fluid slag, smooth bead, easy slag removal.
 AWS E6010 types DC: E6011 run on AC.  Need some moisture to give gas shield.
 Gas shield principally hydrogen.  Not low hydrogen.
 Only used on C- and C-Mn steels.  Available for ferritic and austenitic steels.
 High arc force allows V-D stovepiping.  Fair mechanical properties.
11-3
Rutile High Recovery Electrodes Basic Electrodes
 High amount Fe powder added.  CaCO3 and CaF2 main ingredients.

 More weld metal laid at the same current.  AWS E7015 first modern basic rods. Ran DC.
 Coating much thicker, forms deep cup.  Superseded by E7016 or E7018 – AC and DC.
 End of coating can rest on workpiece.  E7018 has Fe powder to help stabilise arc.
 Slag easy release, sometimes self-releasing.  E7016 good rooting and all-positional.
 Only for flat position.  Both can give good mechanical properties.
 These AWS E7024 have recovery between 150  Often hybrid; small dia. no Fe powder, larger
and 180%. dia. increasing amounts.
 Recovery = Weld metal wt x100/core wire wt.  Used for ferritic, stainless steels, Ni and Cu.
BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10 Electrodes classified as follows:

 E 35 - Minimum yield strength 350 N/mm2
Covered electrode
Tensile strength 440-570 N/mm2
Yield strength N/mm2
Toughness
Tensile strength 470-600 N/mm2
Chemical composition  E 42 - Minimum yield strength 420 N/mm2
Flux covering Tensile strength 500-640 N/mm2
Weld metal recovery  E 46 - Minimum yield strength 460 N/mm2
and current type Tensile strength 530-680 N/mm2
Welding position  E 50 - Minimum yield strength 500 N/mm2
Hydrogen content Tensile strength 560-720 N/mm2
AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes MMA Welding Consumables
E 60 1 3 TYPES OF ELECTRODES
(for C, C-Mn Steels)
Covered electrode BS EN 2560 AWS A5.1

Tensile strength (p.s.i)  Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
EXX11
Welding position
 Rutile E XX X R EXX12
Flux covering EXX13
 Rutile heavy coated E XX X RR EXX24
 Basic E XX X B EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
11-4
Any Questions
?
TIG Welding
TIG Basics Equipment for TIG
Film TIG
Gas nozzle Power control Transformer/
panel Rectifier
Non-consumable tungsten electrode
Power return
cable
Gas shield
Arc Inverter
Filler rod power source
Weld pool Torch
Weld metal assemblies Power
Parent metal control panel
Tungsten
electrodes Power cable
Flow-meter
Arc Starting Polarity
Scratch start DCEN

 Tungsten touched on workpiece.  Most used.
 Short-circuit starts current.  Tungsten cooled by electron emission.
 Arc established as torch lifted.  Workpiece receives more heat.
 Can leave tungsten inclusions.
DCEP
Lift Arc  Will clean oxide from Al and Mg.
 Electronic control very low short-circuit current.  Heat tends to melt tungsten.
 Builds to operational current as torch lifted.  Can be done with water cooled torch.
HF AC
 Superimposition of HF high voltage spark.  Usual way to weld Al and Mg to get cleaning.
11-5
Constant/Drooping Cathodic Cleaning
Current Characteristics Square Wave Maximum
AC
OCV Amperage range
50-90 +/- 5 amps
- Voltage +
Operational
range 20-40V
Cleaning cycle
70 70
- Amperage +
As arc length increases
30 30
voltage increases and
amperage decreases
Square Wave Maximum Penetration
AC
Penetrating Cycle
30 30
+
-
70 70
Polarity
Current DCEN AC DCEP

type/polarity
Heat balance 70% at work 50% at work 30% at work
30% at electrode 50% at electrode 70% at electrode
Weld profile Deep, narrow Medium Shallow, wide
+ Cleaning action Yes – every Yes
Negative cycle Positive cycle No
half cycle
0
Electrode Excellent Good Poor
- capacity (3.2mm/400A) (3.2mm/225A) (6.4mm/120A)
11-6
Manual TIG Ideal for Root Runs
DC Arc AC Arc
GTAW Torch GTAW Torch
Torch types: Tungsten

electrode
Torch cap / tungsten Electrode
housing collet Collet
holder
Torch
body Ceramic
 Gas cooled: Cheap, simple, large size, short life nozzle
for component parts.
 Water cooled: Recommended over 150A, On/off
expensive, complex, longer life of parts. switch
11-7
TIG Welding Sequence Purpose of These Functions
3 4 5
1
2 4 2
1 5
1. Purges the line, protect weld area, improve ionization.

1. Slope
2.
3.
4.
5. Postwelding
Pre
Main gas
welding
up
down
supply
current
gas
current
current
to
supply
protect 2. Prevent thermal shock to tungsten electrode.
Timeline
molten pool
prevents burn
upon
craterthrough,
cooling
cracks 3. Main welding current.
tungsten inclusions 4. Prevents thermal shock and crater cracking.
5. Protects weld and tungsten electrode from contamination.
Shielding Gas Selection Gas Lens
Argon (Ar) He/Ar mixes Stainless steel

 Suitable for welding  Suitable for welding wire sieve
C-steel, stainless C-steel, stainless
Thread for gas
steel, Al and Mg. steel, Cu, Al and Mg.
ceramic
 Lower cost, lower  High cost, high flow
flow rates. rates. Thread for
torch body
 More suitable for  More suitable for
thinner materials thicker materials and
and positional materials of high  Reduces eddies in gas flow.
welding. thermal conductivity.  Extends length of laminar flow
prevents contamination.
 Highly recommended for reactive
metals (eg Ti, Al).
Commercially Available
Special Shielding Methods
Trailing Shields
Torch trailing shield Welding in protective tent
11-8
Pipe Backing Gas Dams Purging Methods
 There are many ways to purge a pipe or void,

the easiest being to displace all the air with
inert gas by pumping it in and capping the end
of the pipe allowing the heavier inert gas to
push the oxygen up through the top of the
butt.
 Soluble dams and tapes can also be used as
well as the chain and bung method.
 Calibrated purge monitors should record the
oxygen content in the pipe and confirm that
welding can commence.
Tungsten Types Electrode Tip for DCEN
Pure W – green band Penetration

increase
Cheap, but short life. Poor arc start.
electrode diameter
W +ThO2 – yellow (1%), red (2%)

2-2.5 times
 High current carrying but slightly radioactive. Increase

W + CeO2 – grey (Europe), orange (USA) Vertex
Good for low current DC work.

angle
W + La2O3 – black
 Increasing use to replace thoriated. Decrease
W + ZrO2 – white (Europe), brown (USA)
 Used for AC. Bead width
Electrode tip for low increase Electrode tip for high
current welding current welding
Electrode Tip for AC Autogenous Welding and Fillers
 TIG can be used autogenously.

 Can mechanise and use more than one head.
 Can add filler from reel for mechanised.
 Manual filler – 1m rods in 5kg pack.
 Stamped for identity:
Electrode tip ground Electrode tip ground

and then conditioned
11-9
Orbital TIG Orbital TIG
Click for Orbital TIG video….
Orbital TIG Potential Defects
Click to play Tungsten inclusions

 Thermal shock splinters W.
 Touch start fuses spots to workpiece.
 Spitting and melting can throw pieces into pool.
 Very visible on radiograph but not critical defect.
Solidification cracking
 Some compositions inherently crack sensitive.
 Impurities often make eutectics.
 Fillers designed with elements to react with
impurities, eg Mn used to give high MPt MnS.
Potential Defects Advantages of TIG
Oxide inclusions  No spatter, high cleanliness.

 Oxides contribute to lack of fusion.  Good welder easily produces quality welds.
 No fluxing to absorb oxides.  Good for penetration beads in all positions.
 Need to keep good gas cover to avoid oxidation  Wide range metals, including dissimilar.
of reactive metals.  Good protection for reactive.
 Very good for joining thin materials.
 Very low levels of diffusible hydrogen.
11-10
Disadvantages of TIG
 Low deposition rates.



Higher dexterity and co-ordination.
Less economical for thicker sections.
Any Questions
?
 Not good in draughty conditions.
 Low tolerance of contaminants.
 Tungsten inclusions can occur.
MIG/MAG Welding
 Also known as Gas Metal Arc Welding.

 Uses continuous wire electrode.
 Weld pool protected by shielding gas.
 Classified as semi-automatic – may be fully
MIG/MAG Welding automated.
 Wire can be bare or coated solid wire, flux or
metal cored hollow wire.
MIG/MAG - Principle of Operation Process Characteristics
 DCEP from CV power source.

Gas nozzle  Wire 0.6 to 1.6mm diameter. Gas shielded.
Consumable  Wire fed through conduit. Melt rate maintains
flux/metal cored wire constant arc length/arc voltage.
electrode
Contact Tube
 WFS directly related to burn-off rate.
Gas shield
Weld Pool Arc  Burn-off rate directly related to current.
Slag  Semi-automatic – set controls arc length.
Parent Metal Weld Metal
 Can be mechanised and automated.
11-11
MIG/MAG Equipment Wire Feeding
External wire Transformer

feed unit / Rectifier
Internal wire
feed system Power cable &
hose
assembly
Power control
panel
Liner for wire
Separate wire feeder Wire feeder in set
15kg wire spool
Welding gun
Power return assembly
cable
Feeder Drive Rolls Types of Wire Drive System
Internal wire drive system Plain top roller
Two roll Four roll
Half grooved Wire guide

bottom roller
Roll Grooves Liners for MIG/MAG
 Often have plain top roll.

 Bottom, and sometimes top, roll grooved.
 V shape for steel.
 U shape for softer wire, eg Al.
 Knurled for positive feed.
 Care needed on tightness of rolls.
 Too light – rolls skid, wire stalls.
Too tight – rolls deform wire, wire can jam.

Close wound Teflon liner
 If wire stops arc burns back to contact tube. stainless
steel wire
11-12
The Relationship Between
Torch Components
Amps and Volts
Welding gun assembly Welding gun body
(less nozzle) Voltage Dial on
On/Off switch weld machine
Spatter Hose
- Voltage +
protection port
Arc
Length
Nozzles or Spot welding
- Amperage +
shrouds spacer
Gas diffuser Contact tips
Self-Adjusting Arc Self-Adjusting Arc
Arc and wire feed Arc length increased Wire feed rate is Arc and wire feed Arc length is decreased Arc length returns to
rate in equilibrium. momentarily, burn constant so original arc rate in equilibrium. momentarily, burn off original condition.
off reduces. length is re established. increases.
Example: Self-Adjusting Arc Welding Parameters
Wire feed speed:

 Increasing wfs automatically gives more current.
Wire feed at Voltage:
constant speed
 Controls arc length and bead width.
CTWD is increased
which momentarily Current:
increases arc length
 Wire feed sets, Mainly affects penetration.
As wire feed is Inductance:
constant, the original
arc length is re  In dip, controls rise in current. Lowers spatter. Gives
established. hotter or colder welding.
More info on several websites, eg:
www.millerwelds.com/resources/articles/MIG-
GMAW-welding-basics
11-13
The Effect of Increasing Arc Voltage Shielding Gas
Argon:
 OK for all metals weldable by MIG.
 Supports spray transfer, not good for dip.
 Low penetration.
Carbon dioxide:
 Use on ferritic steel.
Arc Length @ Arc Length @  Supports dip and globular, not spray.
28 V – 250A 34 V – 230A
Ar based mixtures:
 Add He, O2, CO2 to increase penetration.
 >20Ar + He, >80Ar + O2, CO2 can spray and
dip.
MIG and MAG Shielding Gases Metal Transfer Modes
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Depending on shielding gas and voltage, metal
 Usually Ar shielding. crosses from wire to work in:
 Can be Ar + He mixture – gives hotter action.  Spray mode – wire tapers to a point and very
fine droplets stream across from the tip.
 Used for non-ferrous alloys, eg Al, Ni.
 Globular mode – large droplets form and drop
Metal Active Gas (MAG) under action of gravity and arc force.
 Has oxidising gas shield.  Short-circuiting (dip) mode – wire touches pool
 Can be 100% CO2 for ferritic steels. surface before arc re-ignition.
 Often Ar + 12 to 20% CO2 for both dip and  Pulsed mode – current and voltage cycled
spray. between no transfer and spray mode.
 Ar + O2 for stainless steel.
Use of Transfer Modes Droplet Growth and Detachment
Spray Transfer: V > 26; i > 220  Current heating wire causes melting and
 Thicker material, flat welding, high deposition. droplet formation.
Globular Transfer: between dip and spray  Droplet held by surface tension and viscosity.
 Mechanised MAG process using CO2.  Droplet detachment by electromagnetic forces
Dip Transfer: V < 24; i < 200 (Lorentz and arc forces), gravity.
 Thin material positional welding.  Electromagnetic forces proportional to current
– hence dip at low current.
Pulse Transfer: spray + no transfer cycle
 Frequency range 50-300 pulses/second.
 Positional welding and root runs.
These values will depend on gas mixture.
11-14
Dip Transfer Dip Transfer
 Droplet stays attached and touches pool causing

short-circuit.
 Current rises very quickly giving energy to
pinch-off droplet violently.
 Akin to blowing a fuse – causes spatter.
 Droplet detaches, arc re-establishes and current
falls.
 Cycle occurs up to 200 times per second.
The Effect of Inductance Practical Effect of Inductance
Controls the rate of current rise Maximum inductance Minimum inductance

 Reduced spatter.  Colder arc used for wide
Current (A)
 Hotter arc more gaps.
Short circuit Excessive current,
current high spatter penetration.  Convex weld, more
 Fluid weld pool flatter, spatter.
No inductance
smoother weld.  Good pool control.
 Good for thicker materials  Recommended on thin
and stainless steels. materials.
Desired current for good

stability, low spatter
Time (sec)
Dip Transfer Attributes Globular Transfer
Advantages  Transfer by gravity or short

 Low energy allows welding in all positions. circuit.
 Good for root runs in single-sided welds.  Requires CO2 shielding.
 Good for welding thin material.  Drops larger than electrode
hence severe spatter.
Disadvantages  Can use low voltage and bury
arc to reduce spatter.
 Prone to lack of fusion.
 High current and voltage, so
 May not be allowed for high-integrity
applications. high distortion.
 Tends to give spatter.
11-15
Gas Metal Arc Welding Spray Transfer
Spray transfer  Continuous transfer

When current and voltage are raised together higher energy of metal.
is available for fusion (typically > ~ 25 volts & ~ 250 amps).  High voltage long
This causes a fine droplets of weld metal to be sprayed from arc.
the tip of the wire into the weld pool.  High heat input.
Transfer-mode advantages  Fluid weld pool.
 High energy gives good fusion.  High deposition.
 High rates of weld metal deposition are given.  No spatter.
 These characteristics make it suitable for welding thicker
joints.
 Transfer-mode disadvantages.
 It cannot be used for positional welding.
Dip, Globular and Spray Transfer Spray Transfer
 Tapered tip as anode

climbs wire.
 Small droplets with free
flight from pinch effect.
Dip, Globular and Spray Film  Requires Ar-rich gas.
 High current and
voltage, high distortion.
 Large pool, not
positional.
 Used for thick material
and flat/horizontal weld.
Pulsed Transfer Pulsed Transfer Attributes
Advantages
 Good fusion.
 Small weld pool allows all-position welding.
Disadvantages
 More complex and expensive power source.
 Difficult to set parameters.
Amps
Back Peak current  But synergic easy to set, manufacturer

Current provides programmes to suit wire type, dia.
and type of gas.
Time
11-16
Pulse Transfer The Effect of Increasing CTWD
The self adjusting arc

quickly re adjusts to
Pulse Transfer Film
establish equilibrium.
AMPS 190 AMPS 170

VOLTS 23 VOLTS 23
Although the arc length remains the same, the current will decrease
due to the increased resistance of lengthening the CTWD.
The Effect of Decreasing CTWD Contact Tip to Nozzle Distance
Metal transfer mode Contact tip to nozzle

Dip +/- 2mm
The self adjusting arc Spray 4-8mm inside
quickly re adjusts to Spray (Al) 6-10mm inside
establish equilibrium.
Contact tip Electrode

Contact tip
Electrode recessed extension
AMPS 170 AMPS 190 extension
(0-3.2mm)
extension (3-5mm) 19-25mm
6-13mm
VOLTS 23 VOLTS 23
Although the arc length remains the same, the current will increase
due to the decreased resistance of shortening the CTWD. Set up for Dip transfer Set up for Spray transfer
Filler Wire Potential Defects
 Similar composition to base material.  Most defects caused by lack of welder skill, or
 Solid, flux cored or metal cored. incorrect settings of equipment.
 FCW run in spray, gives good fusion. FCW  Worn contact tip causes poor power pick up
allows all-positional welding, slag formation. and this causes wire to stub into work.
 Metal cored wires similar to solid wires, but  Silica inclusions build in steels if poor inter-run
better deposition rate. cleaning.
 Some FCW are self-shielded.  Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer).
 Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc).
 Cracking, centerline pipes, crater pipes on
deep narrow welds.
11-17
MIG/MAG Attributes
 High productivity.
 Easily automated.
 Lack of fusion (dip).
 Small range of Any Questions
?
 All positional (dip consumables.
and pulse).  Protection on site.
 Material thickness  Complex equipment.
range.  Not so portable.
 Continuous
electrode.
Gas Shielded Principle of Operation
Flux Core Welding
Self-Shielded Principle of Operation Benefit of Flux
 Flux assists in producing gas cover, more

tolerant to draughts than solid wire.
 Flux creates slag that protects hot metal.
 Slag holds bead when positional welding.
 Flux alloying can improve weld metal
properties.
 Reduced cross-section carrying current gives
increased burn-off at any current, higher
resistance.
11-18
FCAW - Differences from MIG/MAG Self-Shielded Welding Gun
 Usually operate DCEP

but some self-shielded Close wound stainless steel
Handle
24V insulated
spring wire liner (inside switch lead
wires run DCEN. welding gun cable)
 Some hardfacing wires Conductor
are larger diameter – tube
need big power source.
 Don't work in dip. Welding
Trigger
gun cable
 Need knurled feed rolls.
 Self-shielded wires use Thread protector
Hand shield
a different torch.
Contact tip
Backhand (Drag) Technique Forehand (Push) Technique
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages

 Preferred for flat or  Produces higher weld  Preferred method for  Produces low weld
horizontal with profile. vertical up or profile, with coarser
FCAW.  Difficult to follow overhead with ripples.
 Slower travel. weld joint. FCAW.  Fast travel gives low
 Deeper penetration.  Can lead to burn-  Arc gives preheat penetration.
through on thin effect.  Amount of spatter
 Weld hot longer so
gasses removed. sheet.  Easy to follow weld can increase.
joint and control
penetration.
FCAW Advantages Deposition Rate for C-Steel
 Less sensitive to lack of fusion.

 Smaller included angle compared to MMA.
 High productivity, up to 10kg per hour.
 All positional.
 Smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut.
 Basic types produce excellent toughness.
 Good control of weld pool in positional welding
especially with rutile wires.
 Ease of varying alloying constituents gives
wide range of consumables.
 Some can run without shielding gas.
11-19
FCAW Disadvantages
 Limited to steels and Ni-base alloys.

 Slag covering must be removed.
 FCAW wire is more expensive per kg than solid
wires (except some high alloy steels) but note
may be more cost effective. Submerged Arc Welding
 Gas shielded wires may be affected by winds
and draughts like MIG.
 More fume than MIG/MAG.
SAW Principle of Operation SAW FILM
Flux recovery Contact tube
Consumable Weld pool

electrode
Flux feed SAW Film
Weld metal Arc Parent metal
Slag
Process Characteristics Process Characteristics
 Arc between bare wire and parent plate.  Flux fed from hopper in continuous mound
 Arc, electrode end and the molten pool along line of intended weld.
submerged in powdered flux.  Mound is deep to submerge arc. No spatter,
 Flux makes gas and slag in lower layers under weld shielded from atmosphere, no UV light.
heat of arc giving protection.  Un melted flux reclaimed for further use.
 Wire fed by voltage-controlled motor driven  Only for flat and horizontal-vertical positions
rollers to ensure constant arc length. in most cases.
11-20
SAW Basic Equipment Types of Equipment
Transformer/
Power return Rectifier
cable
Power control Welding carriage Hand-held gun
panel control unit
Tractor
Welding carriage
Granulated Electrode wire

flux reel
Granulated
flux
Column and boom Gantry
SAW Equipment Tractor Units
Wire reel  For straight or gently

curved joints.
Slides  Ride tracks alongside
Flux
joint or directly on
hopper workpiece.
Wire feed  Can have guide
Feed roll motor wheels to track.
assembly  Good portability, Courtesy of ESAB AB
used where piece

Torch
assembly cannot be moved.
Tracking
Contact tip
system Courtesy of ESAB AB
Column and Boom Gantry
 Linear travel only.  2D linear movement

 Can move in 3 axes. only.
 Workpiece must be  For large production.
brought to weld  May have more than
station. one head.
 Mostly used in
workshop.
Courtesy of ESAB AB
11-21
Power Sources Constant Voltage Power Supply
Power sources can be:  Most commonly used.

 Transformers for AC.  Can be mechanised or automatic welding.
 Transformer-rectifiers for DC.  Self-regulating arc so simple WFS control.
 WFS controls current, power supply controls
Static characteristic can be: voltage.
 Constant Voltage (flat) – most popular.  DC limited to 1000A by severe arc blow.
 Constant Current (drooping) – used for high
current.
Constant Current Power Wire
 Preferred >1000A.  Usually 2 to 6mm diameter.

 Can be mechanised or automatic welding.  Copper coated to avoid rusting.
 Not self-regulating arc so must have voltage-  25 or 30kg coils.
sensing WFS control.  Can be supplied in bulk 300 to 2000kg.
 More expensive.
 Voltage from WFS control, power source
controls current.
 Not for high-speed welding of thin steel.
Fused Fluxes Bonded or Agglomerated Flux
 Original Unionmelt design – manganese,  Powdered minerals pelletised with silicate.

aluminium and calcium silicates.  Baked to high temperature but hygroscopic.
 Non-hygroscopic, no need to bake.  Flexible composition, can alloy, make basic.
 Good for recycling, composition doesn’t vary.  Can add de oxidants for good properties.
 Some can accept up to 2000A.  Composition can vary as particle breakdown.
 Very limited alloying and property control.  Needs to be filtered when recycling.
 Cannot make basic fused flux.  Can add Mn and Si flux.
11-22
SAW Operating Variables Starting/Finishing the Weld
 Welding current.
 Current type and polarity.
 Welding voltage.
 Travel speed.
 Electrode size.
 Electrode extension why?
 Width and depth of the layer of flux. Extension bars Run off plate Extension bars
simulating
identical joint
preparation
Any Questions
?
11-23
Section 12
TIG Welding
12 TIG Welding
12.1 Process characteristics
In the US the TIG process is also called gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).
Melting is produced by heating with an arc struck between a non-consumable
tungsten electrode and the workpiece. An inert gas shields the electrode and
weld zone to prevent oxidation of the tungsten electrode and atmospheric
contamination of the weld and hot filler wire (as shown below).
Figure 12.1 Manual TIG welding.
Tungsten is used because it has a melting point of 3370°C, well above any
other common metal.

The main variables in TIG welding are:
 Welding current.
 Current type and polarity.
 Travel speed.
 Shape of tungsten electrode tip and vertex angle.
 Shielding gas flow rate.
 Electrode extension.
Each of these is considered in more detail in the following sub-sections.
12.2.1 Welding current

 Weld penetration is directly related to welding current.
 If the welding current is too low, the electrode tip will not be properly
heated and an unstable arc may result.
 If the welding current is too high, the electrode tip might overheat and melt,
leading to tungsten inclusions.
WIS5-90516b
TIG Welding 12-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
12.2.2 Current type and polarity
 Best welding results are usually obtained with DC-ve.
 Refractory oxides such as those of aluminium or magnesium can hinder
fusion but can be removed by using AC or DC electrode positive.
 With a DC positively connected electrode, heat is concentrated at the
electrode tip so the electrode needs to be of greater diameter than when
using DC-ve if overheating of the tungsten is to be avoided. A water cooled
torch is recommended if DC positive is used.
 The current carrying capacity of a DC positive electrode is about one tenth
that of a negative one so it is limited to welding sections.
- +
Ions Electrons Ions Electrons Ions Electrons
(A.C.)
Figure 12.2 Effect of current type and polarity.
Table 12.1 Current type and polarity.

Current DC-ve AC DC+ve
type/polarity
Heat balance 70% at work 50% at work 30% at work

30% at electrode 50% at electrode 70% at electrode
Weld profile Deep, narrow Medium Shallow, wide
Cleaning action No Yes – every half cycle Yes
Electrode Excellent Good Poor

capacity (3.2mm/400A) (3.2mm/225A) (6.4mm/120A)
12.2.3 Travel speed

 Affects both weld width and penetration but the effect on width is more
pronounced.
 Increasing the travel speed reduces the penetration and width.
 Reducing the travel speed increases the penetration and width.
WIS5-90516b
12.2.4 Tungsten electrode types
Different types of tungsten electrodes suit different applications:
 Pure tungsten electrodes are used when welding light metals with AC
because they maintain a clean balled end, but possess poor arc initiation
and stability in AC mode compared with other types.
 Thoriated electrodes are alloyed with thorium oxide (thoria) to improve arc
initiation and have higher current carrying capacity than pure tungsten
electrodes and maintain a sharp tip for longer. Unfortunately, thoria is
slightly radioactive (emitting  radiation) and the dust generated during tip
grinding should not be inhaled. Electrode grinding machines used for
thoriated tungsten grinding should be fitted with a dust extraction system.
 Ceriated and lanthaniated electrodes are alloyed with cerium and lanthanum
oxides, for the same reason as thoriated electrodes and operate successfully
with DC or AC and as cerium and lanthanum are not radioactive, they have
been used as replacements for thoriated electrodes.
 Zirconiated electrodes are alloyed with zirconium oxide with operating
characteristics between the thoriated types and pure tungsten. They are
able to retain a balled end during welding, so are recommended for AC
welding. They have a high resistance to contamination so are used for high
integrity welds where tungsten inclusions must be avoided.
12.2.5 Shape of tungsten electrode tip

 With DC-ve, thoriated, ceriated or lanthanated tungsten electrodes are used
with the end ground to a specific angle (the electrode tip or vertex angle,
shown below).
 As a general rule the length of the ground portion of the electrode tip should
have a length equal to approximately 2-2.5 times the electrode diameter.
 When using AC the electrode tip is ground flat to minimise the risk of it
breaking off when the arc is initiated or during welding (shown on the next
page).
 If the vertex angle is increased, the penetration increases.
 If the vertex angle is decreased, bead width increases.
 Pure or zirconiated tungsten electrodes are used for AC welding with a
hemispherical (balled) end (as shown below). To produce a balled end the
electrode is ground, an arc initiated and the current increased until it melts
the tip of the electrode.
Electrode tip Electrode tip Electrode tip with

(or vertex angle) with flat end a balled end
Figure 12.3 Examples of tungsten electrode tip shapes.
WIS5-90516b
12.2.6 Shielding gases
The following inert gases can be used as shielding gases for TIG welding:
 Argon.
 Helium.
 Mixtures of argon and helium.
Note: For austenitic stainless steels and some cupro-nickel alloys, argon with
up to ~5% hydrogen improves penetration and reduces porosity.
Table 12.2 Characteristics of argon and helium shielding gases for TIG welding.
Argon Performance Helium
item
Lower than with helium Arc voltage Higher than with argon. Arc is
which can be helpful when hotter which is helpful in welding
welding thin sections. Less thick sections and viscous
change in arc voltage with metals, (eg nickel.
variations in arc length.
Lower than with helium Heating power High, advantageous when

which gives reduced of the arc welding metals with high thermal
penetration. conductivity and thick materials.
Argon is heavier than air so Protection Helium is lighter than air and
requires less gas to shield of weld requires more gas to properly
in the flat and horizontal shield the weld. Exception:
positions. Better draught Overhead welding.
resistance.
Obtained from the Availability Obtained by separation from

atmosphere by the and cost natural gas – lower availability
separation of liquefied air – and higher cost.
lower cost and greater
availability.
Shielding gas flow rate

 Too low and the shielding gas cannot remove the air from the weld area
resulting in porosity and contamination.
 Too high and turbulence occurs at the base of the shielding gas column, air
tends to be sucked in from the surrounding atmosphere and this may also
lead to porosity and contamination.
 Typically in the range ~10-~12 l/min.
Flow rate too low Flow rate too high
Figure 12.4 Shielding gas flow rate.
WIS5-90516b
Back purging
It is necessary to protect the back of the weld from excessive oxidation during
TIG welding, achieved by using a purge gas, usually pure argon.
For pipe welding spools it is relatively easy to purge the pipe bore, but for
plate/sheet welding it is necessary to use a purge channel or sometimes
another operator positions and moves a back purge nozzle as the weld
progresses. For purging large systems soluble dams or bungs are required and
can it can be a complex operation.
The initial stage of back purging is to exclude all the air at the back of the weld
and having allowed sufficient time for this the flow rate should be reduced prior
to starting to weld so there is positive flow (typically ~4 l/min).
Back purging should continue until two or more layers of weld have been
deposited.
For C and C-Mn steels it is possible to make satisfactory welds without a back
purge.
12.2.7 Electrode extension

 The distance from the contact tube to the tungsten tip.
 Because the contact tube is recessed inside the gas nozzle this parameter
can be checked indirectly by measuring the stickout length, as shown below.
Electrode
Stickout extension
Figure 12.5 Electrode extension.
 If the electrode extension is too short, the electrode tip will not be
adequately heated leading to an unstable arc.
 If the electrode extension is too long, the electrode tip might overheat,
causing melting and lead to tungsten inclusions.
 As a general rule stickout length should be 2-3 times the electrode
diameter.
WIS5-90516b
12.3 Filler wires
Filler wires usually have a similar composition to the parent metal but contain
small additions of elements that will combine with any oxygen and nitrogen
present.
12.4 Tungsten inclusions

Small fragments of tungsten that enter a weld will always show up on
radiographs because of the relatively high density of this metal and for most
applications will not be acceptable.
Thermal shock to the tungsten causing small fragments to enter the weld pool
is a common cause of tungsten inclusions and is why modern power sources
have a current slope-up device to minimise this risk.
This device allows the current to rise to the set value over a short period so the
tungsten is heated more slowly and gently.
12.5 Crater cracking

One form of solidification cracking which some filler metals are sensitive to.
Modern power sources have a current slope-out device so that at the end of a
weld when the welder switches off the current it reduces gradually and the weld
pool gets smaller and shallower. The weld pool will have a more favourable
shape when it finally solidifies and crater cracking can be avoided.
12.6 Common applications

Include autogenous welding of longitudinal seams in thin walled pipes and tubes
in stainless steel and other alloys on continuous forming mills.
Using filler wires, TIG is used for making high quality joints in heavier gauge
pipe and tubing for the chemical, petroleum and power generating industries.
It is also used in the aerospace industry for items such as airframes and rocket
motor cases.
12.7 Advantages
 Produces superior quality welds with very low levels of diffusible hydrogen
so there is less danger of cold cracking.
 No weld spatter or slag inclusions which makes it particularly suitable for
applications that require a high degree of cleanliness, eg pipework for the
food and drinks industry, manufacturing semiconductors, etc.
 Can be used with filler metal and on thin sections without filler and can
produces welds at relatively high speed.
 Enables welding variables to be accurately controlled and is particularly
good for controlling weld root penetration in all welding.
 Can weld almost all weldable metals including dissimilar joints but welding
in position is not generally used for those with low melting points such as
lead and tin. Especially useful in welding reactive metals with very stable
oxides such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium and zirconium.
 The heat source and filler metal additions are controlled independently so it
is very good for joining thin base metals.
WIS5-90516b
12.8 Disadvantages
 Gives low deposition rates compared with other arc welding processes.
 Need higher dexterity and welder co-ordination than with MIG/MAG or MMA
welding.
 Less economical than MMA or MIG/MAG for sections thicker than ~10mm.
 Difficult to fully shield the weld zone in draughty conditions so may not be
suitable for site/field welding.
 Tungsten inclusions can occur if the electrode contacts the weld pool.
 No cleaning action so low tolerance for contaminants on filler or base
metals.
WIS5-90516b
Section 13
MIG/MAG Welding
13 MIG/MAG Welding
13.1 Process
Known in the US as gas metal arc welding (GMAW), the MIG/MAG welding
process (Figure 13.1) is a versatile technique suitable for both thin sheet and
thick section components in most metallic materials. An arc is struck between
the end of a wire electrode and the workpiece, melting both to form a weld
pool. The wire serves as the source of heat (via the arc at the wire tip) and filler
metal for the joint and is fed through a copper contact tube (also called a
contact tip) which conducts welding current into the wire. The weld pool is
protected from the surrounding atmosphere by a shielding gas fed through a
nozzle surrounding the wire. Shielding gas selection depends on the material
being welded and the application. The wire is fed from a reel by a motor drive
and the welder or machine moves the welding gun or torch along the joint line.
The process offers high productivity and is economical because the consumable
wire is continuously fed.
Figure 13.1 MIG/MAG welding.
The MIG/MAG process uses semi-automatic, mechanised or automatic

equipment. In semi-automatic welding, the wire feed rate and arc length are
controlled automatically, but the travel speed and wire position are under
manual control. In mechanised welding, all parameters are under automatic
control but can be varied manually during welding, eg steering of the welding
head and adjustment of wire feed speed and arc voltage. With automatic
equipment there is no manual intervention during welding. Figure 13.2 shows
equipment required for the MIG/MAG process.
WIS5-90516b
MIG/MAG Welding 13-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Figure 13.2 MIG/MAG welding equipment.
Advantages
 Continuous wire feed.
 Automatic self-regulation of the arc length.
 High deposition rate and minimal number of stop/start locations.
 High consumable efficiency.
 Heat inputs in the range 0.1-2kJ/mm.
 Low hydrogen potential process.
 Welder has good visibility of weld pool and joint line.
 Little or no post-weld cleaning.
 Can be used in all positions (dip transfer).
 Good process control possibilities.
 Wide range of applications.
Disadvantages
 No independent control of filler addition.
 Difficult to set up optimum parameters to minimise spatter levels.
 Risk of lack of fusion when using dip transfer on thicker weldments.
 High level of equipment maintenance.
 Lower heat input can lead to high hardness values.
 Higher equipment cost than MMA welding.
 Site welding requires special precautions to exclude draughts which may
disturb the gas shield.
 Joint and part access is not as good as MMA or TIG welding.
 Cleanliness of base metal, slag processes tolerate greater contamination.
WIS5-90516b
13.2 Primary variables
 Welding current/wire feed speed.
 Voltage.
 Gases.
 Travel speed and electrode orientation.
 Inductance.
 Contact tip to work distance (CTWD).
 Nozzle to work distance.
 Shielding gas nozzle.
 Type of metal transfer.
13.2.1 Wire feed speed

Increasing wire feed speed automatically increases the current in the wire.
Wires are generally produced in 0.6, 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.4 and 1.6mm diameter.
13.2.2 Voltage
The most important setting in spray transfer as it controls the arc length. In dip
transfer it also affects the rise of current and the overall heat input into the
weld. Increase both wire feed speed/current and voltage will increase heat
input. Welding connections need to be checked for soundness as any loose ones
will result in resistance and cause a voltage drop in the circuit and will affect the
characteristic of the welding arc. The voltage will affect the type of transfer
achievable but this is also highly dependent on the type of gas being used.
a 22V b 23V c 24
Figure 13.3 The effect of arc voltage:

a Increasing arc voltage;
b Reduced penetration, increased width;
C Excessive voltage can cause porosity, spatter and undercut.
WIS5-90516b
13.2.3 Gases
Ar Ar-He He CO2
Figure 13.4 Gas composition effect on weld bead profile.
For non-ferrous metals and their alloys (such as Al, Ni and Cu) an inert
shielding gas must be used, usually pure argon or an argon rich gas with a
helium addition. The use of a fully inert gas is why the process is also called
metal inert gas (MIG) welding and for precise use of terminology this should
only be used when referring to the welding of non-ferrous metals.
The addition of some helium to argon gives a more uniform heat concentration
within the arc plasma which affects the shape of the weld bead profile. Argon-
helium mixtures give a hotter arc so are beneficial for welding thicker base
materials, those with higher, thermal conductivity, eg copper or aluminium.
For welding all grades of steels, including stainless steels, a controlled addition
of oxygen or carbon dioxide (CO2) to generate a stable arc and give good
droplet wetting. Because these additions react with the molten metal they are
referred to as active gases, hence metal active gas (MAG) welding is the
technical term when referring to welding steels.
100%CO2
CO2 gas cannot sustain spray transfer as the ionisation potential of the gas is
too high it gives very good penetration but promotes globular droplet transfer
also a very unstable arc and lots of spatter.
Argon +15-20%CO2
The percentage of CO2 or oxygen depends on the type of steel being welded
and the mode of metal transfer used. Argon has a much lower ionisation
potential and can sustain spray transfer above 24 welding volts. Argon gives a
very stable arc, little spatter but lower penetration than CO2. Argon and
5-20%CO2 gas mixtures give the benefit of both gases ie good penetration with
a stable arc and very little spatter. CO2 gas is much cheaper than argon or its
mixtures and is widely used for carbon and some low alloy steels.
Argon +1-5%CO2
Widely used for stainless steels and some low alloy steels.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 13.5 Active shielding gas mixtures for MAG welding of carbon, C-Mn and
low alloy steels. Blue is a cooler and red a hotter mixture gas.
Gas mixtures with helium instead of argon give a hotter arc, more fluid weld
pool and better weld profile. These quaternary mixtures permit higher welding
speeds but may not be suitable for thin sections.
Stainless steels
Austenitic stainless steels are typically welded with argon-CO2/O2 mixtures for
spray transfer or argon-helium-CO2 mixtures for all modes of transfer. The
oxidising potential of the mixtures is kept to a minimum (2-2.5% maximum CO2
content) to stabilise the arc but with minimum effect on corrosion performance.
Because austenitic steels have a low thermal conductivity, the addition of
helium helps to avoid lack of fusion defects and overcome the high heat
dissipation into the material. Helium additions are up to 85%, compared with
~25% for mixtures used for carbon and low alloy steels. CO2-containing
mixtures are sometimes avoided to eliminate potential carbon pick-up.
Figure 13.6 Active shielding gas mixtures for MAG welding of stainless steels.
Blue is a cooler and red a hotter gas mixture.
For martensitic and duplex stainless steels, specialist advice should be sought.
Some Ar-He mixtures containing up to 2.5%N2 are available for welding duplex
stainless steels.
WIS5-90516b
Light alloys (aluminium magnesium, titanium, copper and nickel and
their alloys)
Inert gases are used for light alloys and those sensitive to oxidation. Welding
grade inert gases should be purchased rather than commercial purity to ensure
good weld quality.
Argon
Can be used for aluminium because there is sufficient surface oxide available to
stabilise the arc. For materials sensitive to oxygen, such as titanium and nickel
alloys, arc stability may be difficult to achieve with inert gases in some
applications. The density of argon is approximately 1.4 times that of air so in
the downhand position, the relatively heavy argon is very effective at displacing
air. A disadvantage is when working in confined spaces there is a risk of argon
building up to dangerous levels and asphyxiating the welder.
Argon-helium mixtures
Argon is most commonly used for MIG welding of light alloys but an advantage
can be gained by use of helium and argon/helium mixtures. Helium possesses a
higher thermal conductivity than argon and the hotter weld pool produces
improved penetration and/or an increase in welding speed. High helium
contents give a deep broad penetration profile but produce high spatter levels.
With less than 80% argon a true spray transfer is not possible. With globular-
type transfer the welder should use a buried arc to minimise spatter. Arc
stability can be problematic in helium and argon-helium mixtures, since helium
raises the arc voltage so there is a larger change in arc voltage with respect to
arc length. Helium mixtures require higher flow rates than argon shielding to
provide the same gas protection.
There is a reduced risk of lack of fusion defects when using argon-helium

mixtures particularly on thick section aluminium. Ar-He gas mixtures will offset
the high heat dissipation in material over about 3mm thickness.
Figure 13.7 Inert shielding gas mixtures for MIG welding of aluminium,
magnesium, titanium, nickel and copper alloys. Blue is a cooler and red a hotter
gas mixture.
WIS5-90516b
Table 13.1 Summary of shielding gases and mixtures used for different base
materials for MIG/MAG welding.
Shielding Reaction
Metal gas behaviour Characteristics
Carbon Argon-CO2 Slightly Increasing CO2 content gives hotter arc,

steel oxidising improved arc stability, deeper penetration,
transition from finger-type to bowl-shaped
penetration profile, more fluid weld pool
giving flatter weld bead with good wetting,
increased spatter levels, better toughness
than CO2. Minimum 80% argon for axial
spray transfer. General purpose mixture:
Argon-10-15%CO2.
Argon-O2 Slightly Stiffer arc than Ar-CO2 mixtures minimises

oxidising undercutting, suited to spray transfer mode,
lower penetration than Ar-CO2 mixtures,
finger-type weld bead penetration at high
current levels. General purpose mixture:
Argon-3% CO2.
Ar-He-CO2 Slightly Substituting of helium for argon gives hotter

oxidising arc, higher arc voltage, more fluid weld pool,
flatter bead profile, more bowl-shaped and
deeper penetration profile and higher
welding speeds, compared with Ar-CO2
mixtures. High cost.
CO2 Oxidising Arc voltages 2-3V higher than Ar-CO2

mixtures, best penetration, higher welding
speeds, dip transfer or buried arc technique
only, narrow working range, high spatter
levels, low cost.
Stainless He-Ar-CO2 Slightly Good arc stability with minimum effect on

steels oxidising corrosion resistance (carbon pick-up), higher
helium contents designed for dip transfer,
lower helium contents designed for pulse
and spray transfer. General purpose gas:
He-Ar-2%CO2.
Argon-O2 Slightly Spray transfer only, minimises undercutting

oxidising on heavier sections, good bead profile.
Aluminium, Argon Inert Good arc stability, low spatter and general-
copper, purpose gas. Titanium alloys require inert
nickel, gas backing and trailing shields to prevent
titanium air contamination.
alloys
Ar-He Inert Higher heat input offsets high heat
dissipation on thick sections, lower risk of
lack of fusion defects, higher spatter and
higher cost than argon.
WIS5-90516b
13.2.4 Travel speed and electrode orientation
The faster the travel speed the less penetration, narrower bead width and the
higher risk of undercut.
Figure 13.8 The effect of travel speed. As travel speed increases, reducing
penetration and width, undercut.
Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow

Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum
Undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
Figure 13.9 Effect of torch angle.
13.2.5 Effect of contact tip to workpiece distance

CTWD has an influence over the welding current because of resistive heating in
the electrode extension (Figure 13.10). The welding current required to melt
the electrode at the required rate to match the wire feed speed reduces as the
CTWD is increased. Long electrode extensions can cause lack of penetration, for
example, in narrow gap joints or with poor manipulation of the welding gun.
Conversely, the welding current increases when the CTWD is reduced. This
provides the experienced welder with a means of controlling the current during
welding but can result in variable penetration in manual welding with a constant
voltage power source.
As the electrode extension is increased the burn-off rate increases for a given
welding current due to increased resistive heating. Increasing the electrode
extension, eg in mechanised applications, is therefore one way of increasing
deposition rates, as the wire feed speed is increased to maintain the required
welding current.
WIS5-90516b
Contact tip
Gas nozzle
Contact
tip setback
Electrode
Contact
Nozzle-to- extension
tip to work
work (stand-
Arc length distance
off) distance
Workpiece
Figure 13.10 Contact tip to workpiece distance; electrode extension and nozzle
to workpiece distance.
Resistive heating depends on the resistivity of the electrode, the electrode

extension length and wire diameter so is more pronounced for welding
materials which have high resistivity, such as steels. The electrode extension
should be kept small when small diameter wires are being used to prevent
excessive heating in the wire and avoid the resulting poor bead shape.
Stable condition Sudden change in gun position
Arc length L = 6,4mm

Arc voltage = 24V
Welding current =
250A
Arc length remains

the same, but
19mm welding current
L L’ decreases
Figure 13.11 Effect of increasing the contact tip to workpiece distance. Arc
length remains same length.
Increased extension
Figure 13.12 Effect of increasing electrode extension.
WIS5-90516b
At short CTWDs, radiated heat from the weld pool can cause overheating of the
contact tube and welding torch which can lead to spatter adherence and
increased wear of the contact tube.
The electrode extension should be checked when setting-up welding conditions

or fitting a new contact tube. Normally measured from the contact tube to the
workpiece (Figure 13.13) suggested CTWDs for the principal metal transfer
modes are:
Metal transfer mode CTWD, mm
Dip 10-15
Spray 20-25
Pulse 15-20
Contact
tip
Contact tip Electrode recessed Electrode
extension extension (3-5mm) extension
(0-3.2mm) 6-13mm 19-25mm
Set up for Dip transfer Set up for Spray transfer
Figure 13.13 Suggested contact tip to work distance.
13.2.6 Effect of nozzle to work distance

Nozzle to work distance (Figure 13.13) has a considerable effect on gas
shielding efficiency with a decrease stiffening the column. The nozzle to work
distance is typically 12-15mm. If the CTWD is simultaneously reduced,
however, the deposition rate at a given current is decreased and visibility and
accessibility are affected; so in practice a compromise is necessary. The
following gives suggested settings for the mode of metal transfer being used.
Metal transfer mode Contact tip position relative to nozzle
Dip 2mm inside to 2mm protruding
Spray 4-8mm inside
Spray (aluminium) 6-10mm inside
WIS5-90516b
13.2.7 Shielding gas nozzle
The purpose of the shielding gas nozzle is to produce a laminar gas flow to
protect the weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Nozzle diameters range
from 13-22mm and should be increased in relation to the size of the weld pool.
Therefore, larger diameter nozzles are used for high current, spray transfer
application and smaller diameter for dip transfer. The flow rate must also be
tuned to the nozzle diameter and shielding gas type to give sufficient weld pool
coverage. Gas nozzles for dip transfer welding tend to be tapered at the outlet
of the nozzle.
Joint access and type should also be considered when selecting the required gas
nozzle and flow rate. Too small a nozzle may cause it to become obstructed by
spatter more quickly and if the wire bends on leaving the contact tube, the
shielding envelope and arc location may not coincide.
13.2.8 Types of metal transfer

Arc Voltage, V
Welding Current, A
Figure 13.14 Arc characteristic curve.
Key characteristics of dip transfer

 Metal transfer by wire dipping or short-circuiting into the weld pool.
 Relatively low heat input process.
 Low weld pool fluidity.
 Used for thin sheet metal above 0.8mm and typically less than 3.2mm,
positional welding of thicker section and root runs in open butt joints.
 Process stability and spatter can be a problem if poorly tuned.
 Lack of fusion of poorly set-up and applied.
 Not used for non-ferrous metals and alloys.
Figure 13.15 Dip transfer.
WIS5-90516b
In dip transfer the wire short-circuits the arc 50-200 times/second and this type
of transfer is normally achieved with CO2 or mixtures of CO2 and argon gas +
low amps and welding volts <24V.
Key characteristics of spray transfer

 Free-flight metal transfer.
 High heat input.
 High deposition rate.
 Smooth stable arc.
 Used on steels above 6mm and aluminium alloys above 3mm thickness.
Figure 13.16 Spray transfer.
Spray transfer occurs at high currents and voltages. Above the transition
current, metal transfer is a fine spray of small droplets projected across the arc
with low spatter levels. The high welding current produces strong
electromagnetic forces (pinch effect) that cause the molten filament supporting
the droplet to neck down. Droplets detach from the tip of the wire and
accelerate across the arc gap. The frequency with which the droplets detach
increases with the current. The droplet size equates to the wire diameter at the
threshold level but decreases significantly as the welding current increases. At
very high currents (wire feed speeds), the molten droplets can start to rotate
(rotating transfer). The arc current is flowing during the drop detachment
resulting in maximum penetration and a high heat input. When the correct arc
voltage to give spray transfer is used, the arc is short with the wire tip 1-3mm
from the surface of the plate.
With steels it can be used only in downhand butts and H/V fillet welds but gives
higher deposition rate, penetration and fusion than dip transfer because of the
continuous arc heating. It is mainly used for steel plate thicknesses >3mm but
has limited use for positional welding due to the potential large weld pool
involved.
WIS5-90516b
Key characteristics pulsed transfer
 Free-flight droplet transfer without short-circuiting over the entire working
range.
 Very low spatter.
 Lower heat input than spray transfer.
 Reduced risk of lack of fusion compared with dip transfer.
 Control of weld bead profile for dynamically loaded parts.
 Process control/flexibility.
 Enables use of larger diameter, less expensive wires with thinner plates –
more easily fed (particular advantage for aluminium welding).
Pulsing the welding current extends the range of spray transfer operation well
below the natural transition from dip to spray transfer. This allows smooth,
spatter-free spray transfer at mean currents below the transition level, eg 50-
150A and at lower heat inputs. Pulsing was introduced originally to control
metal transfer by imposing artificial cyclic operation on the arc system by
applying alternately high and low currents.
A typical pulsed waveform and the main pulse welding variables are shown in
Figure 13.17. A low background current (typically 20-80A) is supplied to
maintain the arc, keep the wire tip molten, give stable anode and cathode roots
and maintain average current during the cycle. Droplet detachment occurs
during a high current pulse at current levels above the transition current level.
The pulse of current generates very high electromagnetic forces which cause a
strong pinch effect on the metal filament supporting the droplet the droplet is
detached and projected across the arc gap. Pulse current and current density
must be sufficiently high to ensure that spray transfer (not globular) always
occurs so that positional welding can be used.
Pulse transfer uses pulses of current to fire a single globule of metal across the
arc gap at a frequency of 50-300 pulses/second. It is a development of spray
transfer that gives positional welding capability for steels, combined with
controlled heat input, good fusion and high productivity and may be used for all
sheet steel thickness >1mm, but is mainly used for positional welding of steels
>6mm.
Figure 13.17 Pulsed welding waveform and parameters.
WIS5-90516b
Key characteristics of globular transfer
 Irregular metal transfer.
 Medium heat input.
 Medium deposition rate.
 Risk of spatter.
 Not widely used in the UK can be used for mechanised welding of medium
thickness (typically 3-6mm) steel in the flat (PA) position.
Synergic
Is a term meaning working together and was originally designed to establish
correct pulse parameters in MIG/MAG welding over a range of wire diameters
and gas mixtures. Manually adjusting pulse parameters was problematic with
many variables to adjust; pulse peak, pulse time, background current and
background time. Consequently, to arrive at the correct arc condition was time
consuming and fraught with errors.
With the advancement in electronically controlled power sources and

subsequent CPU inverter controlled systems, it has allowed manufacturers to
produce a one knob control system. Therefore, all parameters previously
mentioned can be controlled via a one knob control operation to establish the
correct arc condition as determined by the manufacturers of the power source.
In essence, as the knob is turned the wire feed increases, possibly voltage (and
all pulse parameters) change to keep a balanced arc condition.
The manufacturers, have predetermined synergic curves based on material

type, wire diameter and gas mixture. To facilitate set up, this information is
programmed in by the user and a unique curve is produced based on the
inputs. The user can then adjust, via one knob control, up and down the
synergic curve. Most machines however have an option to adjust the voltage of
the synergic curve if required. In addition, once an acceptable welding condition
is found, most manufacturers have the ability to save to memory for later re-
call.
The globular transfer range occupies the transitional range of arc voltage
between free-flight and fully short-circuiting transfer. Irregular droplet transfer
and arc instability are inherent, particularly when operating near the transition
threshold. In globular transfer a molten droplet several times the electrode
diameter forms on the wire tip, gravity eventually detaches it when its weight
overcomes surface tension forces and transfer takes place often with excessive
spatter. Before transfer the arc wanders and its cone covers a large area,
dissipating energy.
There is a short duration short-circuit when the droplet contacts with the molten
pool but rather than causing droplet transfer it occurs as a result of it. Although
the short-circuit is of very short duration, some inductance is necessary to
reduce spatter, although to the operator the short-circuits are not discernible
and the arc has the appearance of a free-flight type.
To further minimise spatter levels, it is common to operate with a very short arc
length and in some cases a buried arc technique is adopted. Globular transfer
can only be used in the flat position and is often associated with lack of
penetration, fusion defects and uneven weld beads because of the irregular
transfer and tendency for arc wander.
WIS5-90516b
13.2.9 Inductance
When MIG/MAG welding in the dip transfer mode, the welding electrode touches
the weld pool causing a short-circuit during which the arc voltage is nearly zero.
If the constant voltage power supply responded instantly, very high current
would immediately begin to flow through the welding circuit and the rapid rise
in current to a high value would melt the short-circuited electrode free with
explosive force, dispelling the weld metal and causing considerable spatter.
Inductance is the property in an electrical circuit that slows down the rate of
current rise (Figure 13.18). The current travelling through an inductance coil
creates a magnetic field which creates a current in the welding circuit in
opposition to the welding current. Increasing inductance will also increase the
arc time and decrease the frequency of short-circuiting.
Current
Figure 13.18 Relationship between inductance and current rise.
There is an optimum value of inductance for each electrode feed rate,. Too little
results in excessive spatter, too much and current will not rise fast enough and
the molten tip of the electrode is not heated sufficiently causing the electrode to
stub into the base metal. Modern electronic power sources automatically set
inductance to give a smooth arc and metal transfer.
WIS5-90516b
13.3 MIG basic equipment requirements
1
10
9 2
8
3
6 5
1 Power source-transformer/rectifier (constant voltage type).

2 Inverter power source.
3 Power hose assembly (liner, power cable, water hose, gas hose).
4 Liner.
5 Spare contact tips.
6 Torch head assembly.
7 Power-return cable and clamp.
8 15kg wire spool (copper coated and uncoated wires).
9 Power control panel.
10 External wire feed unit.
WIS5-90516b
The MIG/MAG wire drive assembly
Internal wire drive system.
Flat plain top drive roller.
Groove half bottom drive roller. Wire guide.
2 3
WIS5-90516b
The MIG torch head assembly
4
5
1 Torch body.
2 On/off or latching switch.
3 Spot welding spacer attachment.
4 Contact tips.
5 Gas diffuser.
6 Gas shrouds.
7 Torch head assembly (minus the shroud).
13.4 Inspection when MIG/MAG welding

13.4.1 Welding equipment
Visual check to ensure the welding equipment is in good condition.
WIS5-90516b
13.4.2 Electrode wire
The diameter, specification and quality of wire are the main inspection
headings. The level of de-oxidation of the wire is an important factor with
single, double and triple de-oxidised wires being available.
The higher the level of de-oxidants in the wire, the lower the chance of porosity
in the weld. The quality of the wire winding, copper coating and temper are also
important factors in minimising wire feed problems.
Quality of wire windings and increasing costs
a) Random wound. b) Layer wound. c) Precision layer wound.
13.4.3 Drive rolls and liner

Check the drive rolls are the correct size for the wire and that the pressure is
hand tight or just sufficient to drive the wire. Excess pressure will deform the
wire to an ovular shape making it very difficult to drive through the liner,
resulting in arcing in the contact tip and excessive wear of the contact tip and
liner.
Check that the liner is the correct type and size for the wire. One size of liner
generally fits two sizes of wire, ie 0.6 and 0.8, 1 and 1.2, 1.4 and 1.6mm
diameter. Steel liners are used for steel wires and Teflon for aluminium wires.
13.4.4 Contact tip

Check the contact tip is the right size for the wire being driven and the amount
of wear frequently. Any loss of contact between the wire and contact tip will
reduce the efficiency of current pick. Most steel wires are copper coated to
maximise the transfer of current by contact between two copper surfaces at the
contact tip but this also inhibits corrosion. The contact tip should be replaced
regularly.
13.4.5 Connections
The electric arc length in MIG/MAG welding is controlled by the voltage settings,
achieved by using a constant voltage volt/amp characteristic inside the
equipment. Any poor connection in the welding circuit will affect the nature and
stability of the electric arc so is a major inspection point.
13.4.6 Gas and gas flow rate

The type of gas used is extremely important to MIG/MAG welding, as is the flow
rate from the cylinder which must be adequate to give good coverage over the
solidifying and molten metal to avoid oxidation and porosity.
13.4.7 Other variable welding parameters

Checks should be made for correct wire feed speed, voltage, speed of travel
and all other essential variables of the process given on the approved welding
procedure.
13.4.8 Safety checks

Checks should be made on the current carrying capacity or duty cycle of
equipment and electrical insulation. Correct extraction systems should be used
to avoid exposure to ozone and fumes.
WIS5-90516b
A check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualified to
weld the procedure being used.

 Silica inclusions on ferritic steels only caused by poor inter-run cleaning.
 Lack of sidewall fusion during dip transfer welding of thick section vertically
down.
 Porosity caused by loss of gas shield and low tolerance to contaminants.
 Burn-through from using the incorrect metal transfer mode on sheet metal.
13.5 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)

In the mid-1980s the development of self-and gas-shielded FCAW was a major
step in the successful application of on-site semi-automatic welding and has
enabled a much wider range of materials to be welded.
The cored wire consists of a metal sheath containing a granular flux which can
contain elements normally used in MMA electrodes so the process has a very
wide range of applications.
In addition, gas producing elements and compounds can be added to the flux so
the process can be independent of a separate gas shield, which restricts the use
of conventional MIG/MAG welding in many field applications.
Most wires are sealed mechanically and hermetically with various forms of joint.
The effectiveness of the were joint is an inspection point of cored wire welding
as moisture can easily be absorbed into a damaged or poor seam.
Wire types commonly used are:
 Rutile which give good positional capabilities.

 Basic also positional but good on dirty material.
 Metal-cored higher productivity, some having excellent root run capabilities.
 Self-shielded no external gas needed.
Baking of cored wires is ineffective and will not restore the condition of a
contaminated flux within a wire.
Note: Unlike MMA electrodes the potential hydrogen levels and mechanical
properties of welds with rutile wires can equal those of the basic types.
WIS5-90516b
13.6 Summary of solid wire MIG/MAG
Equipment requirements
 Transformer/rectifier (constant voltage type).
 Power and power return cable.
 Inert, active or mixed shielding gas (argon or CO2).
 Gas hose, flow meter and gas regulator.
 MIG torch with hose, liner, diffuser, contact tip and nozzle.
 Wire feed unit with correct drive rolls.
 Electrode wire to correct specification and diameter.
 Correct visor/glass, safety clothing and good extraction.
Parameters and inspection points

 Wire feed speed/amperage.
 Open circuit and welding voltage.
 Wire type and diameter.
 Gas type and flow rate.
 Contact tip size and condition.
 Roller type, size and pressure.
 Liner size.
 Inductance settings.
 Insulation/extraction.
 Connections (voltage drops).
 Travel speed, direction and angles.

 Silica inclusions.
 Lack of fusion (dip transfer).
 Surface porosity.
High productivity Lack of fusion (dip transfer)
Easily automated Small range of consumables
All positional (dip, pulse and FCAW) Protection for site working
Material thickness range Complex equipment
Continuous electrode High ozone levels
WIS5-90516b
Section 14
Submerged Arc Welding

14 Submerged Arc Welding
14.1 Process
In submerged arc welding (SAW) an arc is struck between a continuous bare
wire and the parent plate. The arc, electrode end molten pool are submerged in
an agglomerated or fused powdered flux, which turns into a gas and slag in its
lower layers when subjected to the heat of the arc thus protecting the weld
from contamination. The wire electrode is fed continuously by a feed unit of
motor driven rollers which are usually voltage-controlled to ensure an arc of
constant length. A hopper fixed to the welding head has a tube which spreads
the flux in a continuous elongated mound in front of the arc along the line of
the intended weld and of sufficient depth to submerge the arc completely so
there is no spatter. The weld is shielded from the atmosphere and there are no
ultraviolet or infrared radiation effects (see below). Unmelted flux is reclaimed
for use. The use of powdered flux restricts the process to the flat and
horizontal-vertical welding positions.
Figure 14.1 SAW.
Submerged arc welding is able to use where high weld currents (owing to the
properties and functions of the flux) which give deep penetration and high
deposition rates. Generally DC+ve is used up to about 1000A because it
produces deep penetration. On some applications (ie cladding operations) DC-
ve is needed to reduce penetration and dilution. At higher currents or with
multiple electrode systems, AC is often preferred to avoid arc blow (when used
with multiple electrode systems, DC+ve is used for the lead arc and AC for the
trail arc).
(A.C.)
Figure 14.2 Effect of electrode polarity on penetration.
WIS5-90516b
Submerged Arc Welding 14-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Difficulties sometimes arise in ensuring conformity of the weld with a pre-
determined line owing to the obscuring effect of the flux. Where possible, a
guide wheel to run in the joint preparation is positioned in front of the welding
head and flux hoppers.
Submerged arc welding is widely used in the fabrication of ships, pressure

vessels, linepipe, railway carriages and where long welds are required. It can be
used to weld thicknesses from 5mm upwards.
Materials joined
 Welding of carbon steels.
 Welding low alloy steels (eg fine grained and creep resisting).
 Welding stainless steels.
 Welding nickel alloys.
 Cladding to base metals to improve wear and corrosion resistance.
14.2 Fluxes
Flux is granular mineral compounds mixed to various formulations.
Welding characteristics: More stable arc, improved weld

appearance, easier slag removal, higher welding speeds.
Weld metal mechanical properties (YS, UTS and CEN)

amount of Mn and Si
Acid Neutral Basic Highly basic
Type of fluxes
Fused Agglomerated
Fused fluxes are produced by the constituents being dry mixed, melted in an
electric furnace then granulated by pouring the molten mixture into water or on
to an ice block. Subsequently these particles are crushed and screened to yield
a uniform glass-like product.
WIS5-90516b
Advantages of fused fluxes
 Good chemical homogeneity.
 Less hygroscopic so handling and storage are easier.
 Fines (fine powders) can be removed without changes in composition.
 Easily recycled through the system without significant change in particle size
or composition.
Disadvantages of fused fluxes

 Limitations in composition as some components, such as basic carbonates
unable to withstand the melting process.
 Difficult to add deoxidisers and ferro-alloys (due to segregation or extremely
high loss).
In agglomerated fluxes constituents may be bonded by mixing the dry

constituents with potassium or sodium silicate and the wet mixture is then
pelletised, dried, crushed and screened to size.
Advantages of agglomerated fluxes

 Deoxidisers and alloying elements can easily be added to the flux to adjust
the weld metal composition.
 Allow a thicker flux layer when welding.
 Can be identified by colour and shape.
Disadvantages of agglomerated fluxes

 Generally more hygroscopic (baking hardly practical).
 Gas may evolve from the slag as it is melted, leading to porosity.
 May be changes in weld metal chemical composition from the segregation of
fine particles produced by the mechanical handling of the granulated flux.

Several variables when changed can have an effect on the weld appearance and
mechanical properties:
 Welding current.
 Type of flux and particle distribution.
 Arc voltage.
 Travel speed.
 Electrode size.
 Electrode extension.
 Type of electrode.
 Width and depth of the layer of flux.
 Electrode angle (leading, trailing).
 Polarity.
 Single, double or multi-wire system.
WIS5-90516b
14.3.1 Welding current
Increasing current increases penetration and wire melt-off rate.
350A 500A 650A
Figure 14.3 Effect of increasing welding current ampage on weld shape and
penetration.
Welding current effect on weld profile (2.4mm electrode diameter, 35V arc
voltage and 61cm/min travel speed).
 Excessively high current produces a deep penetrating arc with a tendency to

burn-through, undercut or a high, narrow bead prone to solidification
cracking.
 Excessively low current produces an unstable arc, lack of penetration and
possibly a lack of fusion.
14.3.2 Arc voltage

Arc voltage adjustment varies the length of the arc between the electrode and
the molten weld metal. As it increases, the arc length increases and vice versa.
Voltage principally determines the shape of the weld bead cross- section and its
external appearance.
25V 35V 45V
Figure 14.4 Effect of increasing arc voltage on weld shape and penetration.
Arc voltage effect on weld profile 2.4mm electrode diameter, 500A welding
current and 61cm/min travel speed.
Increasing the arc voltage with constant current and travel speed will:
 Produce a flatter, wider bead.

 Increase flux consumption.
 Tend to reduce porosity caused by rust or scale on steel.
 Help to bridge excessive root opening when fit-up is poor.
 Increase pick-up of alloying elements from the flux if present.
Excessively high arc voltage will:
 Produce a wide bead shape subject to solidification cracking.

 Make slag removal difficult in groove welds.
 Produce a concave-shaped fillet weld that may be subject to cracking.
 Increase undercut along the edge(s) of fillet welds.
 Over-alloy the weld metal via the flux.
WIS5-90516b
Reducing the arc voltage with constant current and travel speed will produce a
stiffer arc which improves penetration in a deep weld groove and resists arc
blow.
Excessively low arc voltage will:
 Produce a high, narrow bead.

 Cause difficult slag removal along the weld toes.
14.3.3 Travel speed

If travel speed is increased:
 Heat input per unit length of weld decreases.

 Less filler metal is applied per unit length of weld therefore less excess weld
metal.
 Penetration decreases so the weld bead becomes smaller.
305mm/min 610mm/min 1220mm/min
Figure 14.5 Effect of increasing travel speed on weld shape and penetration.
Travel speed effect on weld profile (2.4mm electrode diameter, 500A welding
current and 35V arc voltage).
14.3.4 Electrode size affects
 Weld bead shape and depth of penetration at a given current

A high current density results in a stiff arc that penetrates into the base
metal. Conversely, a lower current density in the same size electrode results
in a soft arc that is less penetrating.
 Deposition rate
At any given amperage setting, a small diameter electrode will have a
higher current density and deposition rate of molten metal than a larger
diameter electrode. However, a larger diameter electrode can carry more
current than a smaller one, so can ultimately produce a higher deposition
rate at higher amperage.
3.2mm 4mm 5mm
Figure 14.6 Effect of increasing electrod size on weld shape and penetration.
Electrode size effect on weld profile (600A welding current, 30V arc voltage and
76cm/min travel speed).
WIS5-90516b
14.3.5 Electrode extension
The electrode extension is the distance the continuous electrode protrudes
beyond the contact tip. At high current densities resistance heating of the
electrode between the contact tip and the arc can be to increase the electrode
melting rate (as much as 25-50%). The longer the extension, the greater the
amount of heating and the higher the melting rate but drecreases penetration
and weld bead width (see below).
30mm 45mm 60mm 80mm
Figure 14.7 Effect of increasing electrode extension on weld shape and

penetration.
14.3.6 Type of electrode

An electrode with low electrical conductivity, such as stainless steel, can with a
normal electrode extension, experience greater resistance heating. Thus for
the same size electrode and current, the melting rate of a stainless steel
electrode will be higher than that of a carbon steel electrode.
14.3.7 Width and depth of flux

The width and depth of the layer of granular flux influence the appearance and
soundness of the finished weld as well as the welding action. If the granular
layer is too deep, the arc is too confined and a rough weld with a rope-like
appearance is likely to result and it may produce local flat areas on the surface
often referred to as gas flats. The gases generated during welding cannot
readily escape and the surface of the molten weld metal is irregularly distorted.
If the granular layer is too shallow the arc will not be entirely submerged in
flux, flashing and spattering will occur and the weld will have a poor appearance
and may show porosity.
14.4 Storage and care of consumables

Care must be taken with fluxes supplied for SAW which, although they may be
dry when packaged, may be exposed to high humidity during storage. In such
cases they should be dried as per the manufacturer's recommendations before
use or porosity or cracking may result.
Ferrous wire coils supplied as continuous feeding electrodes are usually copper-
coated which provides some corrosion resistance, ensures good electrical
contacts and helps in smooth feeding. Rust and mechanical damage should be
avoided in such products as they interrupt smooth feeding of the electrode.
Rust is detrimental to weld quality generally since it is hygroscopic (may
contain or absorb moisture) so can lead to hydrogen induced cracking.
Contamination by carbon-containing materials such as oil, grease, paint and

drawing lubricants, is especially harmful with ferrous metals. Carbon pick-up in
the weld metal can cause a marked and usually undesirable change in
properties. Such contaminants may also result in hydrogen being absorbed in
the weld pool.
WIS5-90516b
Welders should always follow the manufacturer's recommendations for
consumables storage and handling.
14.5 Power sources

In arc welding it is principally the current which determines the amount of heat
generated and this controls the melting of the electrode and parent metal and
also such factors as penetration and bead shape and size. Voltage and arc
length are also important factors with increasing voltage leading to increasing
arc length and vice/versa. Usually in SAW a constant voltage or flat
characteristic power source is used.
Power can be supplied from a welding generator with a flat characteristic or a

transformer/rectifier arranged to give output voltages of approximately 14-50V
and current according to the output of the unit, can be in excess of 1000A.
WIS5-90516b
Section 15
Thermal Cutting Processes

15 Thermal Cutting Processes
15.1 Oxy-fuel cutting
Oxy-fuel cutting cuts or removes metal by the chemical reaction of oxygen with
the metal at elevated temperatures. Temperature is provided by a gas flame
which preheats and brings the material up to the burning temperature
(approximately 850oC). Once this is achieved, a stream of oxygen is released
which rapidly oxidises most of the metal and performs the actual cutting
operation. Metal oxides, together with molten metal, are expelled from the cut
by the kinetic energy of the oxygen stream. Moving the torch across the
workpiece produces a continuous cutting action.
Oxygen
Fuel gas and oxygen
Heating flame
Slag jet
Figure 15.1 Oxy-fuel cutting.
A material must simultaneously fulfil two conditions to be cut by the oxy-fuel

cutting process:
 Burning temperature must be below the parent material melting point.

 Melting temperature of the oxides formed during the cutting process must
be below the parent material melting point.
These conditions are fulfilled by carbon steels and some low alloy steels.
However, the oxides of many of the alloying elements in steels, such as
aluminium and chromium have melting points higher than those of iron oxides.
These high melting point oxides (which are refractory in nature!) may shield the
material in the kerf so that fresh iron is not continuously exposed to the cutting
oxygen stream, leading to a decrease of the cutting speed and ultimately an
unstable process. In practice the process is effectively limited to low alloy steels
containing <0.25%C, <5%Cr, <5%Mo, <5%Mn and <9%Ni.
WIS5-90516b
Thermal Cutting Processes 15-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Advantages
 Steels can generally be cut faster than by most machining methods.
 Section shapes and thicknesses difficult to produce by mechanical means
can be cut economically.
 Basic equipment costs are low compared with machine tools.
 Manual equipment is very portable so can be used on site.
 Cutting direction can be changed rapidly on a small radius.
 Large plates can be cut rapidly in place by moving the torch rather than the
plate.
 Economical method of plate edge preparation.
Disadvantages
 Dimensional tolerances significantly poorer than machine tool capabilities.
 Process essentially limited to cutting carbon and low alloy steels.
 Preheat flame and expelled red hot slag present fire and burn hazards to
plant and personnel.
 Fuel combustion and oxidation of the metal require proper fume control and
adequate ventilation.
 Hardenable steels may require pre and/or post-heat adjacent to the cut
edges to control their metallurgical structures and mechanical properties.
 Special process modifications are needed for cutting high alloy steels and
cast irons (ie iron powder or flux addition).
 Being a thermal process, expansion and shrinkage of the components during
and after cutting must be taken into account.
15.1.1 Requirements for gases

Oxygen for cutting operations should be 99.5% or higher purity: Lower will
result in a decrease in cutting speed and an increase in consumption of cutting
oxygen thus reducing the efficiency of the operation. With purity below 95%
cutting becomes a melt-and-wash action that is usually unacceptable.
The preheating flame has the following functions in the cutting operation:
 Raises the temperature of the steel to the ignition point.

 Adds heat energy to the work to maintain the cutting reaction.
 Provides a protective shield between the cutting oxygen stream and the
atmosphere.
 Dislodges from the upper surface of the steel any rust, scale, paint or other
foreign substance that would stop or retard the normal forward progress of
the cutting action.
Factors to be considered when selecting a fuel gas include:
 Preheating time.
 Effect on cutting speed and productivity.
 Cost and availability.
 Volume of oxygen required per volume of fuel gas to obtain a neutral flame.
 Safety in transporting and handling.
Some of the more common fuel gases used are acetylene, natural gas
(methane), propane, propylene and methylacetylene propadiene (MAPP) gas.
WIS5-90516b
Table 15.1 Fuel gas characteristics and applications.
Fuel gas Main characteristics Applications
Highly focused, high temperature Cutting of thin plates
flame Bevel cuts
Acetylene
Rapid preheating and piercing Short, multi-pierce cuts
Low oxygen requirement
Low temperature flame, high heat Cutting of thicker sections (100-
content 300mm), long cuts
Propane
Slow preheating and piercing
High oxygen requirement
MAPP Medium temperature flame Cutting underwater
Propylene Medium temperature flame Cutting of thicker sections
Methane Low temperature flame Cutting of thicker sections
15.1.2 Oxy-fuel gas cutting quality

Generally, oxy-fuel cuts are characterised by:
 Large kerf (>2mm).

 Low roughness values (Ra <50µm).
 Poor edge squareness (>0.7mm).
 Wide HAZ (>1mm).
Figure 15.2 Cutting quality.
The face of a satisfactory cut has a sharp top edge, drag lines, which are fine
and even, little oxide and a sharp bottom edge. Underside is free of slag.
Figure 15.3 Effects of cutting speed on cut surface (face) quality.
WIS5-90516b
A satisfactory cut is shown in the centre. If the cut is too slow (left) the top
edge is melted, there are deep grooves in the lower portion of the face, scaling
is heavy and the bottom edge may be rough, with adherent dross. If the cut is
too fast (right) the appearance is similar, with an irregular cut edge. Plate
thickness 12mm.
Figure 15.4 Effect of excessive travel speed.
With a very fast travel speed the drag lines are coarse and at an angle to the
surface with an excessive amount of slag sticking to the bottom edge of the
plate, due to the oxygen jet trailing with insufficient oxygen reaching the
bottom of the cut.
Figure 15.5 Effect of changing preheat flame intensity.
A satisfactory cut is shown in the centre. If the preheating flame is too low (left)
the most noticeable effect on the cut edge is deep gouges in the lower part of
the cut face. If the preheating flame is too high (right) the top edge is melted,
the cut irregular and there is an excess of adherent dross. Plate thickness
12mm.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 15.6 Effect of blowpipe nozzle height increase and irregular travel
speed.
A satisfactory cut is shown in the centre. If the blowpipe nozzle is too high
above the work (left) excessive melting of the top edge occurs with much oxide.
If the torch travel speed is irregular (right) uneven spacing of the drag lines can
be observed together with an irregular bottom surface and adherent oxide.
Plate thickness 12mm.
15.2 Plasma arc cutting

Plasma arc cutting uses a constricted arc which removes the molten metal with
a high velocity jet of ionised gas issuing from the constricting orifice. A pilot arc
is struck between a tungsten electrode and a water-cooled nozzle, the arc is
then transferred to the workpiece, thus being constricted by the orifice
downstream of the electrode. As plasma gas passes through this arc, it is
heated rapidly to a high temperature, expands and is accelerated as it passes
through the constricting orifice towards the workpiece. The orifice directs the
super heated plasma stream from the electrode toward the workpiece. When
the arc melts the workpiece, the high velocity jet blows away the molten metal.
The cutting arc attaches or transfers to the workpiece, known as the transferred
arc method. Where materials are non-electrical conductors there is a method
known as non-transferred arc where the positive and negative poles are inside
the torch body creating the arc and the plasma jet stream travels toward the
workpiece.
Advantages
 Not limited to materials which are electrical conductors so is widely used for
cutting all types of stainless steels, non-ferrous materials and non-electrical
conductive materials.
 Operates at a much higher energy level compared with oxy-fuel cutting
resulting in faster cutting speeds.
 Instant start-up is particularly advantageous for interrupted cutting as it
allows cutting without preheat.
WIS5-90516b
Disadvantages
 Dimensional tolerances significantly poorer than machine tool capabilities.
 Introduces hazards such as fire, electric shock (due to the high OCV),
intense light, fumes, gases and noise levels that may not be present with
other processes. However, in underwater cutting the level of fumes, UV
radiation and noise are reduced to a low level.
 Compared with oxy-fuel cutting, plasma arc cutting equipment tends to be
more expensive and requires a fairly large amount of electric power.
 Being a thermal process, expansion and shrinkage of the components during
and after cutting must be taken into consideration.
 Cut edges slightly tapered.
a b
Figure 15.7 Plasma arc cutting:

a Transferred arc;
b Non-transferred.
15.3 Arc air gouging

During arc air gouging the metal to be gouged or cut is melted with an electric
arc and blown away by a high velocity jet of compressed air. A special torch
directs the compressed air stream along the electrode and underneath it. The
torch is connected to an arc welding machine and compressed air line, which
delivers approximately 690MPa (100psi) of compressed air and since pressure is
not critical, a regulator is not necessary. The electrode is made of graphite and
copper-coated to increase the current pick-up and operating life. This process is
usually used for gouging and bevelling, being able to produce U and J
preparations and can be applied to both ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 15.8 Arc air gouging.
Advantages
 Approximately five times faster than chipping.
 Easily controllable, removes defects with precision as they are clearly visible
and may be followed with ease. The depth of cut is easily regulated and slag
does not deflect or hamper the cutting action.
 Low equipment cost no gas cylinders or regulators necessary except on-
site.
 Economical to operate as no oxygen or fuel gas required. The welder may
also do the gouging (no qualification requirements for this operation).
 Easy to operate as the equipment is similar to MMA except the torch and air
supply hose.
 Compact with the torch not much larger than an MMA electrode holder,
allowing work in confined areas.
 Versatile.
 Can be automated.
Disadvantages
 Other cutting processes usually produce a better and quicker cut.
 Requires a large volume of compressed air.
 Increases the carbon content leading to an increase in hardness in of cast
iron and hardenable metals. In stainless steels it can lead to carbide
precipitation and sensitisation so grinding the carbide layer usually follows
arc air gouging.
 Introduces hazards such as fire (due to discharge of sparks and molten
metal), fumes, noise and intense light.
15.4 Manual metal arc gouging

The arc is formed between the tip of the electrode and are required workpiece
and special purpose electrodes with thick flux coatings to generate a strong arc
force and gas stream. Unlike MMA welding where a stable weld pool must be
maintained, this process forces the molten metal away from the arc zone to
leave a clean cut surface.
The gouging process is characterised by the large amount of gas generated to

eject the molten metal. However, because the arc/gas stream is not as powerful
as a gas or a separate air jet, the surface of the gouge is not as smooth as an
oxy-fuel or air carbon arc gouge.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 15.9 Manual metal arc gouging.
Although DC-ve is preferred, an AC constant current power source can also be

used.
MMA gouging is used for localised gouging operations, removal of defects for
example and where it is more convenient to switch from a welding to a gouging
electrode rather than use specialised equipment. Compared with alternative
gouging processes, metal removal rates are low and the quality of the gouged
surface is inferior.
When correctly applied, MMA gouging can produce relatively clean gouged
surfaces. For general applications, welding can be carried out without the need
to dress by grinding, however when gouging stainless steel, a thin layer of
higher carbon content material will be produced which should be removed by
grinding.
WIS5-90516b
Thermal Cutting Objective

will be able to recognise different cutting
methods and their advantages and limitations
over each other in respect to materials and
applicability.
Thermal Cutting Processes
Section 15
Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Process Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Process
A jet of pure oxygen reacts with iron, that has been preheated to The cutting torch
its ignition point, to produce the oxide Fe3O4 by exothermic
reaction. This oxide is then blown through the material by the
velocity of the oxygen stream.
Different types of fuel gases may be used for the pre-heating

flame in oxy fuel gas cutting: ie acetylene, hydrogen, propane
etc.
By adding iron powder to the flame we are able to cut most
metals - Iron Powder Injection.
Neutral cutting flame.
The high intensity of heat and rapid cooling will cause
hardening in low alloy and medium/high C steels - they are
thus pre-heated to avoid the hardening effect. Neutral cutting flame with
oxygen cutting stream.
Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Related Terms Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Quality
Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines, little oxide
and a sharp bottom edge.
Cut too slow - top edge is melted, Cut too fast - pronounced
deep groves in the lower portion, break in the drag line,
heavy scaling, rough bottom edge. irregular cut edge.
15-1
Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Quality Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Quality
Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines, little oxide Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines, little oxide
and a sharp bottom edge. and a sharp bottom edge.
Preheat flame too high - top edge Nozzle is too high above the works Irregular travel speed - uneven
Preheat flame too low -
is melted, irregular cut, excess of - excessive melting of the top space between drag lines, irregular
deep groves in the lower
adherent dross. edge, much oxide. bottom with adherent oxide.
part of the cut face.
Mechanised Oxyfuel Cutting Mechanised Oxyfuel Cutting
 Can use portable carriages or gantry type  Cutting and

machines high productivity. bevelling head.
 Accurate cutting for complicate shapes.
OFW/C Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 No need for power  High skill factor.
supply portable.  Wide HAZ.
 Versatile: preheat,  Safety issues.
brazing, surfacing,  Slow process.
repair, straightening
 Limited range of
 Low equipment cost. consumables.
 Can cut carbon and Oxy Fuel Film
 Not suitable for
low alloy steels. reactive and
 Good on thin refractory metals.
materials.
15-2
Plasma Cutting
 No need to promote
oxidation and no preheat.
 Works by melting and
blowing and/or vaporisation.
 Gases: air, Ar, N2, O2, mix of
Ar + H2, N2 + H2.
Plasma Cutting  Air plasma promotes
oxidation and increased
speed but special electrodes
need.
 Shielding gas – optional.
 Applications: stainless
steels, aluminium and thin
sheet carbon steel.
Plasma Cutting
Arc Air Gouging
Click for Plasma Cutting Video….
Arc Air Gouging Features Arc Air Gouging
 Operate ONLY on DCEP.

 Special gouging copper
coated carbon electrode.
 Can be used on carbon and
low alloy steels, austenitic
stainless steels and non-
ferrous materials.
 Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply.
Click for Arc Air Gouges Video….
 Provides fast rate of metal removal.
 Can remove complex shape defects.
 After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory.
 Gouging doesn’t require a qualified welder!
15-3
Any Questions
?
15-4
Section 16
Welding Consumables
16 Welding Consumables
Welding consumables are defined as all that is used up during the production of
a weld.
This list could include all things used up in the production of a weld; however,
we normally refer to welding consumables as those items used up by a
particular welding process.
These are:
Electrodes Wires Fluxes Gases

E 8018
SAW
F
SAW
FUSED
Flux
Figure 16.1 Welding consumables.
When inspecting welding consumables arriving at site it is important to check

for the following:
 Size.
 Type or specification.
 Condition.
 Storage.
The checking of suitable storage conditions for all consumables is a critical

part of the welding inspector’s duties.
WIS5-90516b
Welding Consumables 16-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
16.1 Consumables for MMA welding
Welding consumables for MMA consist of a core wire typically 350-450mm
length and 2.5-6mm diameter but other lengths and diameters are available.
The core wire is generally of low quality rimming steel as the weld can be
considered a casting so can be refined by the addition of cleaning or refining
agents in the extruded flux coating. This coating contains many elements and
compounds which have a variety of jobs during welding. Silicon is mainly added
as a de-oxidising agent (in the form of ferro-silicon), which removes oxygen
from the weld metal by forming the oxide silica. Manganese additions of up to
1.6% will improve the strength and toughness of steel. Other metallic and non-
metallic compounds are added that have many functions, including:
 Aid arc ignition.

 Improve arc stabilisation.
 Produce a shielding gas to protect the arc column.
 Refine and clean the solidifying weld metal.
 Form a slag which protects the solidifying weld metal.
 Add alloying elements.
 Control hydrogen content of the weld metal.
 Form a cone at the end of the electrode which directs the arc.
Electrodes for MMA/SMAW are grouped by the main constituent in their flux
coating, which in turn has a major effect on the weld properties and ease of
use.
Table 16.1 Common groups of electrodes.

Group Constituent Shield gas Uses AWS A 5.1
Rutile Titania Mainly CO2 General purpose E 6013
Basic Calcium Mainly CO2 High quality E 7018
compounds
Cellulosic Cellulose Hydrogen + CO2 Pipe root runs E 6010
Some basic electrodes may be tipped with a carbon compound which eases arc
ignition.
Figure 16.2 Electrodes tipped with a carbon compound.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 16.3 The electrode classification system of EN ISO 2560.
WIS5-90516b
EN ISO 2560 (supersedes BS EN 499 1994)
Classification of Welding Consumables for Covered Electrodes for

Manual Metal Arc (111) Welding of Non-alloy and Fine Grain Steels.
This standard applies a dual approach to classification of electrodes using

methods A and B as indicated below:
Classification of electrode mechanical properties of an all weld metal

specimen:
Method A: Yield strength and average impact energy at 47J
Figure 16.4 Typical example: ISO 2560 – A- E 43 2 1 Ni RR 6 3 H15.
WIS5-90516b
Method B: Tensile strength and average impact energy at 27J
Figure 16.5 Typical example: ISO 2560-B-E55 16-N7 A U H5.
WIS5-90516b
Classification of tensile characteristics
Table 16.2 Classification of tensile characteristics - Method A.
Symbol Minimum yield Tensile strength, Minimum E% b,

N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
35 355 440-570 22
38 380 470-600 20
42 420 500-640 20
46 460 530-680 20
50 500 560-720 18
Lower yield Rel shall be used. b Gauge length = 5 x 
Table 16.3 Classification of tensile characteristics - Method B.

Symbol Minimum tensile strength, N/mm2
43 430
49 490
55 550
57 570
Other tensile characteristics ie yield strength and elongation % are

contained within a tabular form in this standard (Table 8B) and are determined
by classification of tensile strength, electrode covering and alloying elements, ie
E 55 16-N7.
Classification of impact properties
Table 16.4 Classification of impact properties – Method A.

Symbol Temperature for the minimum
average impact energy of 47J
Z No requirement
A +20
0 0
2 -20
3 -30
4 -40
5 -50
6 -60
Method B
Impact or Charpy V notch testing temperature at 27J temperature in method
B is determined through the classification of tensile strength, electrode covering
and alloying elements (Table 8B) ie E 55 16-N7 which must reach 27J at –
75°C.
WIS5-90516b
Classification of electrode characteristics and electrical requirements varies
between classification methods A and B as follows:
Method A
Uses an alpha/numerical designation from the tables as listed below:
Symbol Electrode covering type Symbol Efficiency, Type of current

%
A Acid 1 < 105 AC or DC
C Cellulosic 2 <105 DC
R Rutile 3 >105-<125 AC or DC
RR Rutile thick covering 4 >105-<125 DC
RC Rutile/cellulosic 5 >125-<160 AC or DC
RA Rutile/acid 6 >125-<160 DC
RB Rutile/basic 7 >160 AC or DC
B Basic 8 >160 DC
Method B
This method uses a numerical designation from the table as listed below
Symbol Covering type Positions Type of current

03 Rutile/basic All AC and DC +/-
10 Cellulosic All DC +
11 Cellulosic All AC and DC +
12 Rutile All AC and DC -
13 Rutile All AC and DC +/-
14 Rutile + Fe powder All AC and DC +/-
15 Basic All DC +
16 Basic All AC and DC +
18 Basic + Fe powder All AC and DC +
19 Rutile + Fe oxide All AC and DC +/-
(Ilmenite)
20 Fe oxide PA/PB AC and DC -
24 Rutile + Fe powder PA/PB AC and DC +/-
27 Fe oxide + Fe powder PA/PB only AC and DC -
28 Basic + Fe powder PA/PB/PC AC and DC +
40 Not specified As per manufacturer’s
recommendations
48 Basic All AC and DC +
All positions may or may not include vertical-down welding
Further guidance on flux type and applications is given in the standard in Annex
B and C.
Hydrogen scales
Diffusible hydrogen is indicated in the same way in both methods, where after
baking the amount of hydrogen is given as ml/100g weld metal ie H 5 =
5ml/100g weld metal.
WIS5-90516b
16.2 AWS A 5.1- and AWS 5.5-
A typical AWS A5.1 and A5.5 Specification E 80 1 8 G
Reference given in box letter: A B C D (A.5 only)
A Tensile + yield strength and E% B Welding position

Code Min yield Min tensile Min E % 1 All positional
PSI x 1000 PSI x 1000 In 2” min 2 Flat butt and H/V fillet
General welds
E 60xx 48,000 60,000 17-22 3 Flat only
E 70xx 57,000 70,000 17-22 Note: Not all Category 1 electrodes
E 80xx 68-80,000 80,000 19-22 can weld in the vertical-down
E 100xx 87,000 100,000 13-16 position.
Specific electrode information for V notch impact Radiographic
E 60xx and 70xx Izod test standard
(ft.lbs)
E 6010 48,000 60,000 22 20 ft.lbs at-20F Grade 2
E 6011 48,000 60,000 22 20 ft.lbs at-20F Grade 2
E 6012 48,000 60,000 17 Not required Not required
E 6013 48,000 60,000 17 Not required Grade 2
E 6022 Not 60,000 Not required Not required Not required
required
E 6027 48,000 60,000 22 20 ft.lbs at-20F Grade 2
E 7015 58,000 70,000 22 20 ft.lbs at-20F Grade 1
E 7016 58,000 70,000 22 20 ft.lbs at-20F Grade 1
E 7018 58,000 70,000 22 20 ft.lbs at-20F Grade 1
E 7028 58,000 70,000 20 20 ft.lbs at 0F Grade 2
C Electrode coating and electrical D AWS A5.5 low alloy steels

characteristic Symbol Approximate alloy
Current deposit
Code Coating
type A1 0.5%Mo
Exx10 Cellulosic/organic DC + only B1 0.5%Cr + 0.5%Mo
Exx11 Cellulosic/organic AC or DC+ B2 1.25%Cr + 0.5%Mo
Exx12 Rutile AC or DC- B3 2.25%Cr + 1.0%Mo
Exx13 Rutile + 30% Fe powder AC or DC+/- B4 2.0%Cr+ 0.5%Mo
Exx14 Rutile + Fe powder AC or DC+/- B5 0.5%Cr + 1.0%Mo
Exx15 Basic DC + only C1 2.5%Ni
Exx16 Basic AC or DC+ C2 3.25%Ni
Exx18 Basic + 25% Fe powder AC or DC+ 1%Ni + 0.35%Mo +
C3
Exx20 High Fe oxide content AC or DC+/- 0.15%Cr
Exx24 Rutile + 50% Fe powder AC or DC+/- 0.25-0.45%Mo +
D1/2
Exx27 Mineral + 50% Fe powder AC or DC+/- 0.15%Cr
Exx28 Basic + 50% Fe powder AC or DC+ 0.5%Ni or/and 0.3%Cr
G or/and 0.2%Mo or/and
0.1%V
For G only 1 element is required
WIS5-90516b
16.3 Inspection points for MMA consumables
Size Wire diameter and length
Condition Cracks, chips and concentricity
All electrodes showing signs of the effects of corrosion should be discarded.
Type (specification)
Correct specification/code
E 46 3 INi
Storage Suitably dry and warm (preferably 0% humidity)
Figure 16.6 Inspection points for MMA consumables.
Checks should also be made to ensure that basic electrodes have been
through the correct pre-use procedure. Having been baked to the correct
temperature (typically 300-350C) for 1 hour then held in a holding oven
(150C max) basic electrodes are issued to welders in heated quivers. Most
electrode flux coatings deteriorate rapidly when damp so care must be taken to
inspect storage facilities to ensure they are adequately dry and that all
electrodes are stored in controlled humidity.
Vacuum packed electrodes may be used directly from the carton only if the
vacuum has been maintained. Directions for hydrogen control are always given
on the carton and should be strictly adhered to. The cost of each electrode is
insignificant compared with the cost of any repair, so basic electrodes left in the
heated quiver after the day’s shift may be rebaked but would normally be
discarded to avoid the risk of H2 induced problems.
WIS5-90516b
16.4 Consumables for TIG/GTAW
Consumables for TIG/GTAW welding consist of a wire and gas, though tungsten
electrodes may also be grouped in this. Though it is considered a non-
consumable electrode process, the electrode is consumed by erosion in the arc
and by grinding and incorrect welding technique. The wire needs to be of a very
high quality as normally no extra cleaning elements can be added to the weld.
The wire is refined at the original casting stage to a very high quality where it is
then rolled and finally drawn down to the correct size. It is then copper-coated
and cut into 1m lengths and a code stamped on the wire with a manufacturer’s
or nationally recognised number for the correct identification of chemical
composition. A grade of wire is selected from a table of compositions and wires
are mostly copper-coated which inhibits the effects of corrosion. Gases for
TIG/GTA are generally inert and pure argon or helium gases are generally used
for TIG welding. The gases are extracted from the air by liquefaction and as
argon is more common in air is generally cheaper than helium.
In the US helium occurs naturally so it is the gas more often used. It produces
a deeper penetrating arc than argon but is less dense (lighter) than air and
needs 2-3 times the flow rate of argon to produce sufficient cover to the weld
area when welding downhand. Argon is denser (heavier) than air so less gas
needs to be used in the downhand position. Mixtures of argon and helium are
often used to balance the properties of the arc and the shielding cover ability of
the gas. Gases for TIG/GTAW need to be of the highest purity (99.99%) so
careful attention and inspection must be given to the purging and condition of
gas hoses as contamination of the shielding gas can occur due to a worn or
withered hose.
Tungsten electrodes for TIG welding are generally produced by powder forging
technology and contain other oxides to increase their conductivity and electron
emission and also affect the characteristics of the arc. They are available off-
the-shelf 1.6-10mm diameter. Ceramic shields may also be considered a
consumable item as they are easily broken, the size and shape depending
mainly on the type of joint design and the diameter of the tungsten.
A particular consumable item that may be used during TIG welding of pipes is
a fusible insert often referred to as an EB insert after the Electric Boat Co
of USA who developed it. The insert is normally made of material matching the
pipe base metal composition and is fused into the root during welding as shown
below.
Before welding Inserted After welding Fused
Figure 16.7 TIG fusible insert before welding and after welding.
WIS5-90516b
16.5 Consumables for MIG/MAG
Consumables for MIG/MAG consist of a wire and gas. The wire specifications
used for TIG are also used for MIG/MAG as a similar level of quality is required
in the wire.
The main purpose of the copper coating of steel MIG/MAG welding wire is to
maximise current pick-up at the contact tip and reduce the level of coefficient of
friction in the liner with protection against the effects of corrosion being
secondary.
Wires are available that have not been copper coated as copper flaking in the
liner can cause many wire feed problems. These wires may be coated in a
graphite compound, which again increases current pick-up and reduces friction
in the liner. Some wires, including many cored wires, are nickel coated.
Wires are available from 0.6-1.6mm diameter with finer wires available on a
1kg reel, though most are supplied on a 15kg drum.
Table 16.5 Common gases and mixtures used for MIG/MAG welding.
Gas type Process Used for Characteristics
Pure argon MIG Spray or pulse welding Very stable arc with poor
aluminium alloys penetration and low spatter
levels.
Pure CO2 MAG Dip transfer welding of Good penetration, unstable arc
steels and high levels of spatter.
Argon + MAG Dip spray or pulse Good penetration with a stable

5-20% CO2 welding of steels arc and low levels of spatter.
Argon + MAG Spray or pulse welding Active additive gives good

1-2% O2 or of austenitic or ferritic fluidity to the molten stainless
CO2 stainless steels only and improves toe blend.
16.6 Consumables for SAW

Consumables for SAW consist of an electrode wire and flux. Electrode wires are
normally high quality and for welding C-Mn steels are generally graded on their
increasing carbon and manganese content level of de-oxidation.
Electrode wires for welding other alloy steels are generally graded by chemical
composition in a table in a similar way to MIG and TIG electrode wires. Fluxes
for SAW are graded by their manufacture and composition of which there are
two normal methods, fused and agglomerated.
Fused fluxes
Mixed together and baked at a very high temperature (>1,000ºC) so all the
components fuse. When cooled the resultant mass resembles a sheet of
coloured glass, which is then pulverised into small particles.
WIS5-90516b
These particles are hard, reflective, irregularly shaped and cannot be crushed in
the hand. It is impossible to incorporate certain alloying compounds, such as
ferro-manganese, as these would be destroyed in the high temperatures of
manufacturing. Fused fluxes tend to be of the acidic type and are fairly
tolerant of poor surface conditions, but produce comparatively low quality weld
metal in terms of tensile strength and toughness. They are easy to use and
produce a good weld contour with an easily detachable slag.
Figure 16.8 Fused flux.
Agglomerated fluxes
A mixture of compounds baked at a much lower temperature and bonded
together by bonding agents into small particles. They are dull, generally round
granules that are friable (easily crushed) and can also be coloured. Many agents
and compounds may be added during manufacture unlike the fused fluxes.
Agglomerated fluxes tend to be of the basic type and produce weld metal of an
improved quality in terms of strength and toughness, at the expense of
usability they are much less tolerant of poor surface conditions and generally
produce a slag much more difficult to detach and remove.
Figure 16.9 Agglomerated flux.
The weld metal properties result from using a particular wire with a particular
flux in a particular weld sequence so the grading of SAW consumables is given
as a function of a wire/flux combination and welding sequence.
WIS5-90516b
A typical grade will give values for:
 Tensile strength.
 Elongation, %.
 Toughness, Joules.
 Toughness testing temperature.
All consumables for SAW (wires and fluxes) should be stored in a dry, humid-
free atmosphere. The flux manufacturer’s handling/storage instruction and
conditions must be very strictly followed to minimise any moisture pick-up. Any
re-use of fluxes is totally dependent on applicable clauses within the application
standard.
On no account should different types of fluxes be mixed.
WIS5-90516b
Welding Consumables
Welding consumables are any products that are

used up in the production of a weld.
Welding consumables may be:

Welding Consumables  Covered electrodes, filler wires and electrode
wires.
 Shielding or oxy-fuel gases.
Section 16
 Separately supplied fluxes.
 Fusible inserts.
Welding Consumable Standards Welding Consumables
MMA (SMAW) MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG (GTAW) TIG/PAW rods

 BS EN 2560: Steel  BS EN ISO 1668: Filler wires . Welding
electrodes.  BS EN ISO 14341: Wire fluxes
 AWS A5.1 Non-alloyed electrodes. (SAW)
steel electrodes.  AWS A5.9: Filler wires.
 AWS A5.4 Chromium  BS EN ISO 14175: Shielding Cored wire
electrodes. gases.
 AWS A5.5 Alloyed steel
electrodes. SAW
 BS EN ISO 14171: Welding SAW strips
consumables; solid wire
MIG/MAG
electrodes, tubular cored solid wire
electrodes and electrode/flux
combinations. Covered
SAW
 BS EN ISO 14174: Fluxes. electrodes
 AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes. solid wire Courtesy of ESAB AB
Welding Consumable Gases Welding Consumables
Welding Gases Each consumable is critical in respect to:

 GMAW, FCAW, TIG, Oxy-Fuel.  Size.
 Supplied in cylinders or storage
 Classification/supplier.
tanks for large quantities.
 Colour coded cylinders to  Condition.
minimise wrong use.  Treatments eg baking/drying.
 Subject to regulations concerned  Handling and storage is critical for consumable
handling, quantities and control.
positioning of storage areas.
 Handling and storage of gases is critical for
 Moisture content is limited to
avoid cold cracking.
safety.
 Dew point (the temperature at
which the vapour begins to
condense) must be checked.
16-1
Quality Assurance Welding Consumables
Welding Consumables:
 Filler material must be stored in an area with
controlled temperature and humidity.
 Poor handling and incorrect stacking may damage
coatings, rendering the electrodes unusable.
MMA Covered Electrodes
 There should be an issue and return policy for
welding consumables (system procedure).
 Control systems for electrode treatment must be
checked and calibrated; those operations must be
recorded.
 Filler material suppliers must be approved before
purchasing any material.
MMA Welding Consumables MMA Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for MMA: Function of the Electrode Covering:

 Consist of a core wire typically between 350-450mm  To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability.
in length and from 2.5-6mm in diameter.  To generate gas for shielding the arc and molten metal
 The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating. from air contamination.
 To de-oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into the
 The core wire is generally of a low quality rimming
slag.
steel.
 To form a protective slag blanket over the solidifying
 The weld quality is refined by the addition of alloying and cooling weld metal.
and refining agents in the flux coating.  To provide alloying elements to give the required weld
 The flux coating contains many elements and metal properties.
compounds that all have a variety of functions  To aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable
during welding. freezing temperature to support the molten weld
metal).
 To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type).
The three main electrode covering types Plastic foil sealed cardboard box
used in MMA welding:  Rutile electrodes.
 General purpose basic electrodes.
1. Cellulosic - deep penetration/fusion. Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
2. Rutile - general purpose.

Tin can
3. Basic - low hydrogen.  Cellulosic electrodes.
Vacuum sealed pack

 Extra low hydrogen
electrodes.
16-2
Cellulosic electrodes: Cellulosic electrodes

 Covering contains cellulose (organic material).
 Produce a gas shield high in hydrogen raising the Disadvantages:
arc voltage.  Weld beads have high hydrogen.
 Deep penetration/fusion characteristics enables  Risk of cracking (need to keep joint hot during
welding at high speed without risk of lack of welding to allow H to escape).
fusion.  Not suitable for higher strength steels - cracking
 Generates high level of fumes and H2 cold risk too high (may not be allowed for Grades
cracking. stronger than X70).
 Forms a thin slag layer with coarse weld profile.  Not suitable for very thick sections (may not be
 Not require baking or drying (excessive heat will used on thicknesses > ~ 35mm).
damage electrode covering).  Not suitable when low temperature toughness is
 Mainly used for stove pipe welding. required (impact toughness satisfactory down to ~
 Hydrogen content is 80-90 ml/100g of weld metal. -20°C).
Cellulosic electrodes Rutile electrodes:

 Covering contains TiO2 slag former and arc stabiliser.
Advantages: Disadvantages:  Easy to strike arc, less spatter, excellent for positional
 Deep  High in hydrogen. welding.
penetration/fusion.  High crack tendency.  Stable, easy-to-use arc can operate in both DC and AC.
 Suitable for welding in  Rough weld  Slag easy to detach, smooth profile.
all positions. appearance.  Reasonably good strength weld metal.
 Fast travel speeds.  High spatter contents.  Used mainly on general purpose work.
 Large volumes of  Low pressure pipework, support brackets.
 Low deposition rates.
shielding gas.  Electrodes can be dried to lower H2 content but cannot
be baked as it will destroy the coating.
 Low control.
 Hydrogen content is 25-30 ml/100g of weld metal.
Rutile electrodes Rutile electrodes
Disadvantages: Advantages: Disadvantages:

 They cannot be made with a low hydrogen  Easy to use.  High in hydrogen.
 Low cost/control.  High crack tendency.
content.
 Smooth weld profiles.  Low strength.
 Cannot be used on high strength steels or  Slag easily detachable.  Low toughness values.
thick joints - cracking risk too high.  High deposition
 They do not give good toughness at low possible with the
temperatures. addition of iron
powder.
 These limitations mean that they are only
suitable for general engineering - low
strength, thin steel.
16-3
High recovery rutile electrodes High recovery rutile electrodes
Characteristics: Disadvantages:
 Coating is bulked out with iron powder.  Same as standard rutile electrodes with
 Iron powder gives the electrode high recovery.
respect to hydrogen control.
 Extra weld metal from the iron powder can mean
that weld deposit from a single electrode can be as  Large weld beads produced cannot be used for
high as 180% of the core wire weight. all-positional welding.
 Give good productivity.  The very high recovery types usually limited to
 Large weld beads with smooth profile can look PA and PB positions.
very similar to SAW welds.
 More moderate recovery may allow PC use.
Basic covering: Basic electrodes

 Produce convex weld profile and difficult to detach slag.
 Very suitable for for high pressure work, thick section Disadvantages:
steel and for high strength steels.  Careful control of baking and/or issuing of electrodes is
 Prior to use electrodes should be baked, typically 350°C essential to maintain low hydrogen status and avoid risk
for 2 hour plus to reduce moisture to very low levels of cracking.
and achieve low hydrogen potential status.  Typical baking temperature 350°C for 1 to 2hours.
 Contain calcium fluoride and calcium carbonate  Holding temperature 120-150°C.
compounds.  Issue in heated quivers typically 70°C.
 Cannot be rebaked indefinitely!  Welders need to take more care/require greater skill.
 Low hydrogen potential gives weld metal very good  Weld profile usually more convex.
toughness and YS.
 Deslagging requires more effort than for other types.
 Have the lowest level of hydrogen (less than 5ml/100g
of weld metal).
Basic Electrodes BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 High toughness  High cost. Compulsory
values.  High control.
 Low hydrogen  High welder skill
contents. required.
 Low crack tendency.  Convex weld
profiles.
 Poor stop/start
properties.
Optional

Copyright © 2004 TWI Ltd
16-4
BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10 Electrodes classified as follows:

Covered electrode Tensile strength 440 - 570 N/mm2
Yield strength N/mm2
Toughness Tensile strength 470 - 600 N/mm2
Chemical composition
Flux covering Tensile strength 500 - 640 N/mm2
Weld metal recovery  E 46 - Minimum yield strength 460 N/mm2
and current type Tensile strength 530 - 680 N/mm2
Welding position
Hydrogen content Tensile strength 560 - 720 N/mm2
BS EN 2560 Electrode Designation AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes
Recovery and type of Welding position E 60 1 3

current designation designation
Symbol Weld Type of Symbol Welding position
metal current
recovery 1 All positions Covered electrode
(%)
2 All positions Tensile strength (p.s.i)
1 105 AC/DC except vertical Welding position
2 105 DC down
3 >105 125 AC/DC 3 Flat butt/fillet,
Flux covering
4 >105 125 DC horizontal fillet
5 >125 160 AC/DC 4 Flat butt/fillet
6 >125 160 DC 5 Flat butt/fillet,
7 >160 AC/DC horizontal fillet,
8 >160 DC vertical down
AWS A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes MMA Welding Consumables
E 70 1 8 M G Types of electrodes (for C, C-Mn Steels)

BS EN 2560 AWS A5.1
 Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
Covered Electrode EXX11
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)  Rutile E XX X R EXX12
Welding Position EXX13
 Rutile Heavy Coated E XX X RR EXX24
Flux Covering
 Basic E XX X B EXX15
Moisture Control EXX16
Alloy Content EXX18
16-5
AWS A5.1 and A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes Moisture Pick-Up
Example AWS electrode flux types:

 Cellulosic: Flux-ends in 0 - 1
Examples: E6010, E6011, E7010, E8011
 Rutile: Flux-ends in 2 - 3 - 4
Examples: E5012, E6012, E6013, E6014
 Basic: Flux-ends in 5 - 6 - 7 - 8
Examples: E6016, E7017, E8018, E9018 Moisture pick-up as a function of:
 Temperature.
 Humidity.
Electrode Efficiency Covered Electrode Treatment
Baking oven:
up to 180% for iron powder electrodes  Need temperature control.
 Requires calibration.
Mass of weld metal deposited

Electrode Efficiency =
Heated quivers:
Mass of core wire melted  For maintaining moisture
out of electrodes when
removed from the holding
oven ie on site.
75-90% for usual electrodes
Covered Electrode Treatment Covered Electrode Treatment
Use straight from the Baking in oven 2

Cellulosic box - No Basic electrodes
electrodes hours at 350°C!
baking/drying!
If necessary, dry up
Rutile electrodes to 120°C- No baking! Limited number of After baking, maintain in
rebakes! oven at 150°C
Vacuum packed Use straight from the

If not used within
basic electrodes pack within 4 hours - Use from quivers
4 hours, return to Weld
No rebaking! at 75°C
oven and rebake!
16-6
Covered Electrode Treatment
1. Electrode size (diameter and length).
Any Questions
?
2. Covering condition: adherence, cracks, chips and
concentricity.
3. Electrode designation.
EN 2560-E 51 3 B
Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!)

See BS EN ISO 544 for further information
Welding Consumables TIG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for TIG:

 Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten
electrodes (non-consumable).
 Filler wires of different materials composition
TIG Consumables and variable diameters available in standard
lengths, with applicable code stamped for
identification.
 Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with
copper coating to resist corrosion.
 Shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium,
usually of highest purity (99.9%).
TIG Welding Consumables Fusible Inserts
Welding rods: Pre-placed filler material

 Supplied in cardboard/plastic tubes.
Before Welding After Welding

Other terms used include:
 Must be kept clean and free from oil and dust.  EB inserts (Electric Boat Company).
 Might require degreasing.  Consumable socket rings (CSR).
16-7
Fusible Inserts Fusible Inserts
Consumable inserts: Application of consumable inserts

 Used for root runs on pipes.
 Used in conjunction with TIG welding.
 Available for carbon steel, Cr-Mo steel, austenitic
stainless steel, nickel and copper-nickel alloys.
 Different shapes to suit application.
Radius
Shielding Gases for TIG Welding Shielding Gases for TIG Welding
Argon Helium
 Low cost and greater availability.  Costly and lower availability than Argon.
 Heavier than air - lower flow rates than Helium.  Lighter than air - requires a higher flow rate
 Low thermal conductivity - wide top bead profile. compared with argon (2-3 times).
 Low ionisation potential - easier arc starting,  Higher ionisation potential - poor arc stability
better arc stability with AC, cleaning effect. with AC, less forgiving for manual welding.
 For the same arc current produce less heat than  For the same arc current produce more heat
helium - reduced penetration, wider HAZ. than argon - increased penetration, welding of
 To obtain the same arc power, argon requires a metals with high melting point or thermal
higher current - increased undercut. conductivity.
 To obtain the same arc power, helium requires a
lower current - no undercut.
Shielding Gases for TIG Welding Shielding Gases for TIG Welding
Hydrogen Nitrogen
 Not an inert gas - not used as a primary  Not an inert gas.
shielding gas.  High availability – cheap.
 Increase the heat input - faster travel speed and  Added to argon (up to 5%) - only for back purge
increased penetration. for duplex stainless, austenitic stainless steels
 Better wetting action - improved bead profile. and copper alloys.
 Produce a cleaner weld bead surface.  Not used for mild steels (age embrittlement).
 Added to argon (up to 5%) - only for austenitic  Strictly prohibited in case of Ni and Ni alloys
stainless steels and nickel alloys. (porosity).
 Flammable and explosive.
16-8
Welding Consumables
Any Questions
?
MIG/MAG Consumables
MIG/MAG Welding Consumables MIG/MAG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for MIG/MAG Welding wires:

 Spools of Continuous electrode wires and shielding  Supplied on wire/plastic spools or coils.
gases.  Random or line winding.
 variable spool size (1-15Kg) and Wire diameter
(0.6-1.6mm) supplied in random or orderly layers.
 Basic Selection of different materials and their
alloys as electrode wires.
 Some Steel Electrode wires copper coating
purpose is corrosion resistance and electrical pick-
up.
 Gases can be pure CO2, CO2+Argon mixes and Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
Argon+2%O2 mixes (stainless steels).

Plastic spool Wire spool Coil
Welding wires: Wire designation acc BS EN 14341:

 Carbon and low alloy wires may be copper coated.
Type of shielding gas
 Stainless steel wires are not coated.
Tensile properties
Standard number
BS EN 14341 - G 46 3 M G3Si1
Weld deposit produced

by gas shielded metal
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of ESAB AB
arc welding
 Wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust. Impact properties
 Flux cored wires does not require baking or drying. Type of wire electrode
16-9
Wire designation acc AWS A-5.18: How to check the quality of welding wires:
Chemical composition of the solid Cast diameter
wire or of the weld metal in case Helix size - limited to 25mm
of composite electrodes to avoid problems with arc
Minimum UTS of weld metal (ksi)
wandering!
Standard number
Cast diameter improves the contact force and defines the contact
AWS A-5.18 ER 70 S-6 point; usually 400-1200mm.
Designate an electrode/rod (ER)
or only an electrode (E)
Solid (S) or composite (C) wire

Contact point close to Contact point remote from
contact tip end - GOOD! contact tip end - POOR!
MIG/MAG Shielding Gases MIG/MAG Shielding Gases
Gas shielded Ar Ar-He He CO2

metal arc welding
MIG process (131) MAG process (135) Argon (Ar):

Higher density than air; low thermal conductivity - the arc
has a high energy inner cone; good wetting at the toes;
BS EN 14175 low ionisation potential.
Helium (He):
Lower density than air; high thermal conductivity -
uniformly distributed arc energy; parabolic profile; high
Group I - Ar, He Group R - Group M - Ar + Group C - ionisation potential.
and Ar-He Ar + H2 CO2/O2 CO2, CO2 + Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
mixtures (<35%) (<50/15%) O2 (<30%) Cheap; deep penetration profile; cannot support spray
transfer; poor wetting; high spatter.
MIG/MAG Shielding Gases MIG/MAG Shielding Gases
Gases for dip transfer: Gases for spray transfer

 CO2: Carbon steels only; deep penetration; fast  Ar + (5-18)% CO2: Carbon steels; minimum
welding speed; high spatter levels. spatter; good wetting and bead contour.
 Ar + up to 25% CO2: Carbon and low alloy  Ar + 2% O2: Low alloy steels; minimise undercut;
steels; minimum spatter; good wetting and bead provides good toughness.
contour.  Ar + 2% O2 or CO2: Stainless steels; improved
 90% He + 7,5% Ar + 2,5% CO2: Stainless arc stability; provides good fusion.
steels; minimises undercut; small HAZ.  Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni, Ti and their alloys.
 Ar: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on thin  Ar + He mixtures: Al, Cu, Ni and their alloys;
sections. hotter arc than pure Ar to offset heat dissipation.
 Ar + He mixtures: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys  Ar + (25-30)% N2: Cu alloys; greater heat input.
on thicker sections (over 3mm).
16-10
Welding Consumables
Any Questions
?
Flux Core Wire Consumables
Flux Core Wire Consumables Types of Cored Wire
Seamless cored wire Butt joint cored wire Overlapping cored wire
Functions of metallic Function of the  Not sensitive to  Good resistance to  Sensitive to moisture
moisture pick-up. moisture pick-up. pick-up.
sheath: filling powder:  Can be copper coated -  Can be copper coated.  Cannot be copper
better current transfer.  Thick sheath. coated.
 Provide form stability  Stabilise the arc.  Difficult to seal the
 Thick sheath  good  Thin sheath.
to the wire.  Add alloy elements. sheath.
form stability - 2 roll  Easy to manufacture.
 Serves as current  Produce gaseous drive feeding possible.
transfer during shield.  Difficult to
welding.  Produce slag. manufacture.
 Add iron powder.
Cored Wire Manufacturing Process Core Elements and Their Function
Strip reel  Aluminium - deoxidize and denitrify.

Flux input  Calcium - provide shielding and form slag.
 Carbon - increase hardness and strength.
 Manganese - deoxidize and increase strength and
toughness.
Closing rollers  Molybdenum - increase hardness and strength.
Thin sheet
metal  Nickel - improve hardness, strength, toughness
and corrosion resistance.
Draw die Forming rollers
 Potassium - stabilize the arc and form slag.
 Silicon - deoxidize and form slag.
 Sodium - stabilize arc and form slag.
 Titanium - deoxidize, denitrify and form slag.
16-11
FCAW Wire Designation FCAW Wire Designation
Wire designation acc. BS EN 17632: Wire designation acc AWS A-5.20:

Diffusible hydrogen content (optional) 27J at -40°C requirement (optional)
Shielding gas Electrode usability (polarity, shielding
Light alloy additions and KV); can range from 1 to 14
Tensile properties Welding position (0 - F/H only;
1- all positions)
Standard number
Designates an electrode
BS EN 17632 - T 46 3 1Ni B M 4 H5 E 71 T-6 M J H8

Minimum UTS of weld metal (ksi x 10)
Tubular cored electrode Flux cored electrode
Impact properties Shielding gas for classification
Type of electrode core Diffusible hydrogen content (optional);
Welding position (optional) can be 4, 8 or 16
Welding Consumables
Any Questions
?
SAW Consumables
SAW Filler Material SAW Filler Material
Wire/flux combination designation acc. BS EN 14171: Wire/flux combination designation acc. AWS A-5.17:
Type of welding flux Temperature for impact test
Tensile properties Minimum UTS of weld metal (10 ksi)

Standard number
Standard number
BS EN 14171 S46 3 AB S2 AWS A-5.17 F 6 A 2-EM12K
SAW welding flux

Wire electrode and/or
wire/flux combination
Heat treatment conditions
Impact properties
Chemical composition
Chemical composition of wire electrode
of wire electrode
16-12
Welding wires Welding wires can be used to weld:

 Supplied on coils, reels or drums.  Carbon steels.
 Random or line winding.  Low alloy steels.
 Creep resisting steels.
 Stainless steels.
 Nickel-base alloys.
 Special alloys for surfacing applications.
Welding wires can be:
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of ESAB AB
 Solid wires.
Coil (approx. Reel (approx. Drum (approx.  Metal-cored wires.
25 kg) 300 kg) 450 kg)
Welding wires: Copper coating functions:

 Carbon and low alloy wires are copper coated.  To assure a good electric contact between wire
 Stainless steel wires are not coated. and contact tip.
 To assure a smooth feed of the wire through the
guide tube, feed rolls and contact tip (decrease
contact tube wear).
 To provide protection against corrosion.
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
 Wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust.
SAW Consumables SAW Consumables
Welding fluxes: Welding flux:

 Are granular mineral compounds mixed  Supplied in bags/pails (approx. 25kg) or bulk
according to various formulations. bags (approx. 1200kg).
 Shield the molten weld pool from the
 Might be fused, agglomerated or mixed.
atmosphere.
 Clean the molten weld pool.
 Can modify the chemical composition of the weld
metal.
 Prevents rapid escape of heat from welding
zone.
 Influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting
action).
 Can be fused, agglomerated or mixed.
 Must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity. Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
16-13
Welding flux: SA Welding flux:

 Might be fused or agglomerated.  Must be kept warm and dry.
 Handling and stacking requires care.
 Supplied in bags. Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but
 Must be kept warm and dry. particles can hold surface moisture.
 Only drying.
 Handling and stacking requires care. Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded
 Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles water.

can hold surface moisture so only drying.  Similar treatment as basic electrodes.
 For high quality, agglomerated fluxes can be
 Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded water. recycled with new flux added.
Similar treatment as basic electrodes.
 If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly.
 If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly. It  Cannot be recycled indefinitely.
cannot be recycled indefinitely.
Fused flux Fused welding fluxes

 Flaky appearance. Components
 Lower weld quality. Components are melted in Charge is
are dry mixed. an electric cooled by:
 Low moisture intake.
furnace.
 Low dust tendency.
 Good re-cycling.
 Very smooth weld profile. Shooting the
melt through a
Fused flux: Product is stream of water.
Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and black in crushed and
colour, cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture screened for
absorbent and tends to be of the acidic type. size. Pouring melt onto
large chill blocks.
Fused fluxes advantages: Agglomerated flux

 Good chemical homogeneity.  Granulated appearance.
 Easy removal of fines without affecting flux
 High weld quality.
composition.
 Normally not hygroscopic  easy storage and  Addition of alloys.
handling.  Lower consumption.
 Readily recycled without significant change in  Easy slag removal.
particle size or composition.  Smooth weld profile
Fused fluxes disadvantages: Agglomerated flux:
 Difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys (due to Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly
segregation or extremely high loss). shaped, friable, (easily crushed) can easily add
 High temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit alloying elements, moisture absorbent and tend to be
the range of flux compositions. of the basic type.
16-14
Agglomerated welding fluxes Agglomerated fluxes advantages:

Components  Easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements.
Components The wet
are powdered  Usable with thicker layer of flux when welding.
are bonded. mix is
and dry mixed.  Colour identification.
pelletized.
Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:

 Tendency to absorb moisture.
Pellets are broken  Possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading
Pellets are
up and screened to porosity.
baked.
for size.  Possible change in flux composition due to
segregation or removal of fine mesh particles.
SAW Consumables Ceramic Backing
Mixed fluxes Ceramic backing:

Two or more fused or bonded fluxes are mixed in any  Used to support the
ratio necessary to yield the desired results. weld pool on root
Mixed fluxes advantages: runs.
Several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly
 Usually fitted on an
critical or proprietary welding operations.
aluminium self
Mixed fluxes disadvantages: adhesive tape.
 Segregation of the combined fluxes during shipment,  Allow increased welding current without danger
storage and handling. of burn-through  increased productivity,
 Segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery consistent quality.
systems during welding.
 Different profiles to suit different applications.
 Inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix.
 No backing/drying required.
Questions CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector
Welding consumables:
 QU 1: Why are basic electrodes used mainly on high
strength materials and what controls are
required when using basic electrodes?
 QU 2: What standard is the following electrode
classification taken from and briefly discuss
each separate part of the coding? E 80 18 M Inspection and Validation
 QU 3: Why are cellulose electrodes commonly used
for the welding of pressure pipe lines?
 QU 4: Give a brief description of fusible insert and
state two alterative names given for the
insert?
 QU 5: What standard is the following electrode
classification taken from, and briefly discuss
each separate part of the coding?
E 42 3 1Ni B 4 2 H10
16-15
Inspection of Consumables BS EN 10204 - Type of Documents
Why? To assess whether the products are in compliance Non-specific

with the requirements of the order or not - see BS
inspection
EN 10204. documents
How?
Type 2.1 Type 2.2
Non-specific inspection Specific inspection
 Name: Declaration of  Name: Test report.
 Carried out by the  Carried out before delivery
compliance with the  Content: statement of
manufacturer in accordance in accordance to product
order. compliance with the
with its own procedures. specification.
 Content: statement of order (include test
 The products inspected are  Inspection is performed on compliance with the results!)
NOT necessarily the the products to be supplied order (doesn’t include  Who validate it - the
products supplied! or on test units of which the test results!) manufacturer.
products supplied are part.  Who validate it - the
manufacturer.
BS EN 10204 - Type of Documents
Specific
inspection
documents
Any Questions
Type 3.1 Type 3.2
?
 Name: Inspection certificate  Name: Inspection certificate
3.1. 3.2
 Content: statement of  Content: statement of
compliance with the order compliance with the order
(include specific test results!) (include specific test results!)
 Who validate it - the  Who validate it - the
manufacturer inspection manufacturer inspection
(independent of (independent of
manufacturing department!) manufacturing department!)
+ purchaser’s/official
designated authorised
inspector.
16-16
Section 17
Weldability of Steels
17 Weldability of Steels
17.1 Introduction
Weldability simply means the ability to be welded and many types of weldable
steel have been developed for a wide range of applications.
The ease or difficulty of making a weld with suitable properties and free from
defects determines whether steels are considered as having good or poor
weldability. A steel is usually said to have poor weldability if it is necessary to
take special precautions to avoid a particular type of imperfection. Another
reason for poor weldability may be the need to weld within a very narrow range
of parameters to achieve properties required for the joint.
17.2 Factors that affect weldability

A number of inter-related factors determine whether a steel has good or poor
weldability:
 Actual chemical composition.

 Weld joint configuration.
 Welding process to be used.
 Properties required from the weldment.
For steels with poor weldability it is particularly necessary to ensure that:
 WPSs give welding conditions that do not cause cracking but achieve the
specified properties.
 Welders work strictly in accordance with the specified welding conditions.
 Welding inspectors regularly monitor welders to ensure they are working
strictly in accordance with the WPSs.
Having a good understanding of the characteristics, causes and ways of

avoiding imperfections in steel weldments should enable welding inspectors to
focus attention on the most influential welding parameters when steels with
poor weldability are used.
17.3 Hydrogen cracking

During fabrication by welding, cracks can occur in some types of steel due to
the presence of hydrogen, the technical name is hydrogen induced cold cracking
(HICC) but is often referred to by names that describe various characteristics of
hydrogen cracks:
Cold cracking Cracks occur when the weld has cooled down.
HAZ cracking Cracks occur mainly in the HAZ.
Delayed cracking Cracks may occur some time after welding has
finished (possibly up to ~72h).
Underbead cracking Cracks occur in the HAZ beneath a weld bead.
Although most hydrogen cracks occur in the HAZ, there are circumstances when
they may form in weld metal.
WIS5-90516b
Weldability of Steels 17-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Figure 17.1 Typical locations of hydrogen induced cold cracks.
Figure 17.2 Hydrogen induced cold crack that initiated at the HAZ at the toe of
a fillet weld.
WIS5-90516b
17.3.1 Factors influencing susceptibility to hydrogen cracking
Hydrogen cracking in the HAZ of a steel occurs when four conditions exist at the
same time:
Hydrogen level >15ml/100g of weld metal deposited

Stress >0.5 of the yield stress
Temperature <300C
Susceptible microstructure >400HV hardness
Figure 17.3 Factors susceptibility to hydrogen cracking.
These four factors are mutually interdependent so the influence of one condition
(its active level) depends on how active the other three are.
17.3.2 Cracking mechanism

Hydrogen (H) can enter the molten weld metal when hydrogen-containing
molecules are broken down into H atoms in the welding arc.
Because H atoms are very small they can move about (diffuse) in solid steel
and while weld metal is hot can diffuse to the weld surface and escape into the
atmosphere.
However, at lower temperatures H cannot diffuse as quickly and if the

weldment cools down quickly to ambient temperature H will become trapped,
usually in the HAZ.
If the HAZ has a susceptible microstructure, indicated by being relatively hard

and brittle and there are also relatively high tensile stresses in the weldments,
then H cracking can occur.
The precise mechanism that causes cracks to form is complex but H is believed
to cause embrittlement of regions of the HAZ so that high localised stresses
cause cracking rather than plastic straining.
WIS5-90516b
17.3.3 Avoiding HAZ hydrogen cracking
Because the factors that cause cracking are interdependent and each must be
at an active level at the same time, cracking can be avoided by ensuring that at
least one of the factors is not active during welding.
Methods to minimise the influence of each of the four factors are considered in
the following sub-sections.
Hydrogen
The main source of hydrogen is moisture (H2O) and the principal source is being
welding flux. Some fluxes contain cellulose and this can be a very active source
of hydrogen.
Welding processes that do not require flux can be regarded as low hydrogen
processes.
Other sources of hydrogen are moisture present in rust or scale and oils and
greases (hydrocarbons).
Reducing the influence of hydrogen is possible by:
 Ensuring that fluxes (coated electrodes, flux-cored wires and SAW fluxes)
are low in H when welding commences.
 Either baking then storing low H electrodes in a hot holding oven or
supplying them in vacuum-sealed packages.
 Basic agglomerated SAW fluxes in a heated silo until issue to maintain their
as-supplied, low moisture, condition.
 Checking the diffusible hydrogen content of the weld metal (sometimes
specified on the test certificate).
 Ensuring that a low H condition is maintained throughout welding by not
allowing fluxes to pick up moisture from the atmosphere.
 Issuing low hydrogen electrodes in small quantities and limiting exposure
time; heated quivers do this.
 Covering or returning flux covered wire spools that are not seamless to
suitable storage condition when not in use.
 Returning basic agglomerated SAW fluxes to the heated silo when welding is
not continuous.
 Checking the amount of moisture present in the shielding gas by checking
the dew point (must be below -60C).
 Ensuring the weld zone is dry and free from rust/scale and oil/grease.
Tensile stress
There are always tensile stresses acting on a weld because there are always
residual stresses from welding.
The magnitude of the tensile stresses is mainly dependent on the thickness of

the steel at the joint, heat input, joint type and the size and weight of the
components being welded.
Tensile stresses in highly restrained joints can be as high as the yield strength
of the steel and this is usually the case in large components with thick joints
and is not a factor that can easily be controlled.
WIS5-90516b
The only practical ways of reducing the influence of residual stresses may be
by:
 Avoiding stress concentrations due to poor fit-up.

 Avoiding poor weld profile (sharp weld toes).
 Applying a stress relief heat treatment after welding.
 Increasing the travel speed as practicable to reduce the heat input.
 Keeping weld metal volume as low as possible.
These measures are particularly important when welding some low alloy steels
that are particularly sensitive to hydrogen cracking.
Susceptible HAZ microstructure

A susceptible HAZ microstructure is one that contains a relatively high
proportion of hard brittle phases of steel, particularly martensite.
The HAZ hardness is a good indicator of susceptibility and when it exceeds a

certain value that steel is considered susceptible. For C and C-Mn steels this
value is ~350HV and susceptibility to H2 cracking increases as hardness
increases above this value.
The maximum hardness of an HAZ is influenced by:
 Chemical composition of the steel.

 Cooling rate of the HAZ after each weld run.
For C and C-Mn steels a formula has been developed to assess how the
chemical composition will influence the tendency for significant HAZ hardening –
the carbon equivalent value (CEV) formula.
The CEV formula most widely used (and adopted by IIW) is:
% Mn %Cr  % Mo  %V % Ni  %Cu
CEVIIW  %C   
6 5 15
The CEV of a steel is calculated by inserting the material test certificate values
shown for chemical composition into the formula. The higher the CEV the
greater its susceptibility to HAZ hardening therefore the greater the
susceptibility to H2 cracking.
The element with most influence on HAZ hardness is carbon. The faster the rate
of HAZ cooling after each weld run, the greater the tendency for hardening.
Cooling rate tends to increase as:
 Heat input decreases (lower energy input).

 Joint thickness increases (bigger heat sink).
WIS5-90516b
Avoiding a susceptible HAZ microstructure (for C and C-Mn steels) requires:
 Procuring steel with a CEV at the low end of the range for the steel grade
(limited scope of effectiveness).
 Using moderate welding heat input so that the weld does not cool quickly
and give HAZ hardening.
 Applying preheat so that the HAZ cools more slowly and does not show
significant HAZ hardening; in multi-run welds maintain a specific interpass
temperature.
The CEV formula is not applicable to low alloy steels, with additions of elements
such as Cr, Mo and V. The HAZ of these steels will always tend to be relatively
hard regardless of heat input and preheat and so this is a factor that cannot be
effectively controlled to reduce the risk of H cracking. This is why some of the
low alloy steels have a greater tendency to show hydrogen cracking than in
weldable C and C-Mn steels which enable HAZ hardness to be controlled.
Weldment at low temperature

Weldment temperature has a major influence on susceptibility to cracking
mainly by influencing the rate at which H can move (diffuse) through the weld
and HAZ. While a weld is relatively warm (>~300°C) H will diffuse quite rapidly
and escape into the atmosphere rather than be trapped and cause
embrittlement.
The influence of low weldment temperature and risk of trapping H in the

weldment can be reduced by:
 Applying a suitable preheat temperature (typically 50 to ~250°C).

 Preventing the weld from cooling down quickly after each pass by
maintaining the preheat and specific interpass temperatures during welding.
 Maintaining the preheat temperature (or raising it to ~250°C) when welding
has finished and holding the joint at this temperature for a minimum of two
hours to facilitate the escape of H (post-heat).
 Post-heat in accordance with specification, (not to be confused with PWHT)
at a temperature ~600°C.
17.3.4 Hydrogen cracking in weld metal

Hydrogen cracks can form in steel weld metal under certain circumstances. The
mechanism of cracking and identification of all the influencing factors is less
clearly understood than for HAZ cracking but can occur when welding conditions
cause H to become trapped in weld metal rather than in HAZ. It is recognised
that welds in higher strength materials, thicker sections and using large beads
are the most common problem areas.
Hydrogen cracks in weld metal usually lie at 45° to the direction of principal
tensile stress in the weld metal, usually the longitudinal axis of the weld (Figure
17.4).
WIS5-90516b
X
Transverse
cracks
Y
a
Weld layers with cracks

45° to X-Y axis
Figure 17. 4:
a Plan view of a plate butt weld showing subsurface transverse cracks;
b Longitudinal section X-Y of the above weld showing how the transverse
cracks lie at 45o to the surface. They tend to remain within an individual
weld run and may be in weld several layers.
Their appearance in this orientation gives the name chevron cracks (arrow-
shaped cracks). There are no well defined rules for avoiding weld metal
hydrogen cracks apart from:
 Use a low hydrogen welding process.

 Apply preheat and maintain a specific interpass temperature.
BS EN 1011-2 Welding - Recommendations for welding of metallic materials -

Part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels gives in Annex C practical guidelines about
how to avoid H cracking. These are based principally on the application of
preheat and control of potential H associated with the welding process.
WIS5-90516b
17.4 Solidification cracking
The technical name for cracks that form during weld metal solidification is
solidification cracks but other names are sometimes used:
 Hot cracking: Occur at high temperatures while the weld is hot.

 Centreline cracking: Down the centreline of the weld bead.
 Crater cracking: Small cracks in weld craters are solidification cracks.
A weld metal particularly susceptible to solidification cracking may be said to

show hot shortness because it is short of ductility when hot so tends to crack.
Figure 17.5 shows a transverse section of a weld with a typical centreline

solidification crack.
Figure 17.5:
a Solidification crack at the weld centre where columnar dendrites have
trapped some lower melting point liquid;
b The weld bead does not have an ideal shape but has solidified without the
dendrites meeting end-on and trapping lower melting point liquid thereby
resisting solidification cracking.
17.4.1 Factors influencing susceptibility to solidification cracking

Solidification cracking occurs when three conditions exist at the same time:
 Weld metal has a susceptible chemical composition.

 Welding conditions used give an unfavourable bead shape.
 High level of restraint or tensile stresses present in the weld area.
WIS5-90516b
All weld metals solidify over a temperature range and since solidification starts
at the fusion line towards the centreline of the weld pool, during the last stages
of weld bead solidification there may be enough liquid to form a weak zone in
the centre of the bead. This liquid film is the result of low melting point
constituents being pushed ahead of the solidification front.
During solidification, tensile stresses start to build up due to contraction of the

solid parts of the weld bead and these stresses can cause the weld bead to
rupture. These circumstances result in a weld bead showing a centreline crack
as soon as the bead has been deposited.
Centreline solidification cracks tend to be surface-breaking at some point in

their length and can be easily seen during visual inspection because they tend
to be relatively wide.
17.4.3 Avoiding solidification cracking

Avoiding solidification cracking requires the influence of one of the factors to be
reduced to an inactive level.
Weld metal composition

Most C and C-Mn steel weld metals made by modern steelmaking methods do
not have chemical compositions particularly sensitive to solidification cracking.
However, they can become sensitive to this type of cracking if they are
contaminated with elements or compounds that produce relatively low melting
point films in weld metal.
Sulphur and copper can make steel weld metal sensitive to solidification
cracking if present in the weld at relatively high levels. Sulphur contamination
may lead to the formation of iron sulphides that remain liquid when the bead
has cooled down as low as ~980°C, whereas bead solidification started above
1400°C.
The source of sulphur may be contamination by oil or grease or it could be

picked up from the less refined parent steel being welded by dilution into the
weld.
Copper contamination in weld metal can be similarly harmful because it has low
solubility in steel and can form films that are still molten at ~1100°C.
Avoiding solidification cracking (of an otherwise non-sensitive weld metal)

requires the avoidance of contamination with potentially harmful materials by
ensuring:
 Weld joints are thoroughly cleaned immediately before welding.

 Any copper containing welding accessories are suitable/in suitable condition,
such as backing-bars and contact tips used for GMA, FCA and SAW.
Unfavourable welding conditions

Encourage weld beads to solidify so that low melting point films become
trapped at the centre of a solidifying weld bead and become the weak zones for
easy crack formation.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 17.6 shows a weld bead that has solidified under unfavourable welding
conditions associated with centreline solidification cracking.
D W/D1:2
Direc tion o
direction off
ttravel
ravel
Figure 17.6 Weld bead with an unfavourable width-to-depth ratio. This is

responsible for liquid metal being pushed into the centre of the bead by the
advancing columnar dendrites and becoming the weak zone that ruptures.
The weld bead has a cross-section that is quite deep and narrow – a width-to-
depth ratio greater than 1:2 and the solidifying dendrites have pushed the
lower melting point liquid to the centre of the bead where it has become
trapped. Since the surrounding material is shrinking as a result of cooling, this
film would be subjected to tensile stress, which leads to cracking.
In contrast, Figure 17.7 shows a bead with a width-to-depth ratio less than 1:2.
This bead shape shows lower melting point liquid pushed ahead of the
solidifying dendrites but it does not become trapped at the bead centre, thus,
even under tensile stresses resulting from cooling, this film is self-healing and
cracking avoided.
Direction
of travel
Figure 17.7 Weld bead with favourable width-to-depth ratio. The dendrites
push the lowest melting point metal towards the surface at the centre of the
bead centre so it does not form a weak central zone.
WIS5-90516b
SAW and spray-transfer GMA are the arc welding processes most likely to give
weld beads with an unfavourable width-to-depth ratio. Also, electron beam and
laser welding processes are extremely sensitive to this kind of cracking as a
result of the deep, narrow beads produced.
Avoiding unfavourable welding conditions that lead to centreline solidification

cracking (of weld metals with sensitive compositions) may require significant
changes to welding parameters, such as reducing:
 Welding current (give a shallower bead).

 Welding speed (give a wider weld bead).
Avoiding unfavourable welding conditions that lead to crater cracking of a

sensitive weld metal requires changes to the technique used at the end of a
weld when the arc is extinguished, such as:
 TIG welding when using a current slope-out device so that the current and
weld pool depth gradually reduce before the arc is extinguished (gives more
favourable weld bead width-to-depth ratio). It is also a common practice to
backtrack the bead slightly before breaking the arc or lengthen the arc
gradually to avoid the crater cracks.
 Modify weld pool solidification mode by feeding the filler wire into the pool
until solidification is almost complete and avoiding a concave crater.
 When MMA welding modify the weld pool solidification mode by reversing
the direction of travel at the end of the weld run so that the crater is filled.
17.5 Lamellar tearing

A type of cracking that occurs only in steel plate or other rolled products
underneath a weld.
Characteristics of lamellar tearing are:
 Cracks only occur in the rolled products eg plate and sections.

 Most common in C-Mn steels.
 Cracks usually form close to but just outside, the HAZ.
 Cracks tend to lie parallel to the surface of the material and the fusion
boundary of the weld having a stepped aspect.
WIS5-90516b
Fusion
boundary
HAZ
Crack propagation by
tearing of ligaments between
Through-thickness De-cohesion of
de-cohesion inclusion stringers
residual stresses
- inclusion stringers
from welding
Inclusion
stringer
Figure 17.8 Typical lamellar tear located just outside the visible HAZ leading to
step-like crack a characteristic of a lamellar tear.
17.5.1 Factors influencing susceptibility to lamellar tearing

Lamellar tearing occurs when two conditions exist at the same time:
 Susceptible rolled plate is used to make a weld joint.

 High stresses act in the through-thickness direction of the susceptible
material (known as the short-transverse direction).
Susceptible rolled plate

A material susceptible to lamellar tearing has very low ductility in the through-
thickness (short transverse) direction and is only able to accommodate the
residual stresses from welding by tearing rather than by plastic straining.
Low through-thickness ductility in rolled products is caused by the presence of

numerous non-metallic inclusions in the form of elongated stringers. The
inclusions form in the ingot but are flattened and elongated during hot rolling of
the material.
Non-metallic inclusions associated with lamellar tearing are principally

manganese sulphides and silicates.
WIS5-90516b
High through-thickness stress
Weld joints that are T, K and Y configurations end up with a tensile residual
stress component in the through-thickness direction.
The magnitude of the through-thickness stress increases as the restraint

(rigidity) of the joint increases. Section thickness and size of weld are the main
influencing factors and lamellar tearing is more likely to occur in thick section,
full penetration T, K and Y joints.

High stresses in the through-thickness direction present as welding residual
stresses cause the inclusion stringers to open-up (de-cohese) and the thin
ligaments between individual de-cohesed inclusions then tear and produce a
stepped crack.
17.5.3 Avoiding lamellar tearing

Lamellar tearing can be avoided by reducing the influence of one or both of the
factors.
Susceptible rolled plate

EN 10164 (Steel products with improved deformation properties perpendicular
to the surface of the product, Technical delivery conditions) gives guidance on
the procurement of plate to resist lamellar tearing.
Resistance to lamellar tearing can be evaluated by tensile test pieces taken with
their axes perpendicular to the plate surface (through-thickness direction).
Through-thickness ductility is measured as the % reduction of area (%R of A)
at the point of fracture of the tensile test piece (Figure 17.9).
Plate surface
Through-
thickness
tensile test
piece
Reduction of
diameter at
point of
fracture
Plate surface
Figure 17.9 Round tensile test piece taken with its axis in the short-transverse
direction (through-thickness of plate) to measure the %R of A and assess
resistance to lamellar tearing.
WIS5-90516b
The greater the measured %R of A, the greater the resistance to lamellar
tearing. Values in excess of ~20% indicate good resistance even in very highly
constrained joints.
Reducing the susceptibility of rolled plate to lamellar tearing can be achieved by

ensuring that it has good through-thickness ductility by:
 Using clean steel that has low sulphur content (<~0.015%) and
consequently relatively few inclusions.
 Procuring steel plate that has been subjected to through-thickness tensile
testing to demonstrate good through-thickness ductility (as EN 10164).
Through-thickness stress
Through-thickness stress in T, K and Y joints is principally the residual stress
from welding, although the additional service stress may have some influence.
Reducing the magnitude of through-thickness stresses for a particular weld joint

would require modification to the joint so may not be practical because of the
need to satisfy design requirements. However, methods that could be
considered are:
Reducing the size of the weld by:

 Using a partial butt weld instead of full penetration.
 Using fillet welds instead of a full or partial penetration butt weld (Figure
17.11).
 Applying a buttering layer of weld metal to the surface of a susceptible plate
so that the highest through-thickness strain is located in the weld metal and
not the susceptible plate (Figure 17.10).
 Changing the joint design, such as using a forged or extruded intermediate
piece so that the susceptible plate does not experience through-thickness
stress (Figure 17.12).
Susceptible plate Susceptible plate
Figure 17.10 Reducing the effective size of a weld will reduce the through-
thickness stress on the susceptible plate and may be sufficient to reduce the
risk of lamellar tearing.
WIS5-90516b
susceptible plate extruded section
Figure 17.11 Lamellar tearing can be avoided by changing the joint design.
Weld metal
buttering
Susceptible plate
Figure 17.12 Two layers of weld metal applied usually by MMA to susceptible
plate before the T butt is made.
17.6 Weld decay

Occurance
Service failure problem, caused by corrosion, may be long time in service
(associated with welding but is not a fabrication defect, like H cracking, etc).
Appearance
Called weld decay because a narrow zone in the HAZ can be severely corroded
but surrounding areas (weld and parent metal) may not be affected.
Only affects certain types of austenitic stainless steels.
Requires two factors at the same time:
 Sensitive HAZ.
 Corrosive liquid in contact with the sensitive HAZ, in service.
WIS5-90516b
17.6.1 Avoiding weld decay
Characteristics of sensitive HAZ and failure mechanism
 Occurs in stainless steels which are not low carbon grades (L grades) eg 304
and 316.
 HAZ becomes sensitive to preferential corrosion because chromium carbides
form at grain boundaries in HAZ thereby locally reducing the corrosion
resistance of the HAZ.
 More prone to HAZ degradation the more weld runs put in the joint, thicker
sections (more thermal cycles and HAZ spends more time in temperature
range where carbides form).
To reduce sensitivity of HAZ

 Use low C grades of austenitic stainless steel (304 and 316L) not enough
carbon to form a large number of Cr carbides during welding, corrosion
resistance thus not degraded.
 Use stabilised grades of stainless steel (321 and 347) which contain titanium
321 and niobium 347 which combine with carbon rather than Cr so no local
reduction in corrosion resistance).
 If welding higher carbon grades use low heat input welding and fewest weld
runs possible (less time available in temperature range when Cr carbides
form).
 It is possible to remove HAZ sensitivity by solution heat treatment of the
welded item. As this requires temperature of 1050-1100oC (this has
practical difficulties).
Service environment
 Corrosion of HAZ determined by service conditions, type of chemicals and
temperature.
 Problem not solved by trying to address service conditions but by selection
of material, taking account of effects of welding/welding parameters.
Weld decay, also called sensitisation or intercrystalline corrosion, occurs within

the susceptible temperature range of approximately 600-850oC, ie in the HAZ
or during high temperature service. At this temperature, carbon diffuses to the
grain boundaries and combines with chromium to form carbides, leaving a Cr-
depleted layer susceptible to corrosion along the grain boundaries, therefore
corrosion cracking occurs along grain boundaries in the HAZ. Weld decay can be
avoided by keeping the carbon low, eg using low carbon grades like 304L and
the heat input low by avoiding preheat or PWHT. It is also possible to use
grades with added elements which combine with the carbon eg 321 (which
contains Ti) or 347 (which contains Nb).
When heated to 600-850°C Grain boundaries become

carbides form at the grain depleted of chromium and lose
boundaries their corrosion resistance
Chromium migrates
to the site of
growing carbide
WIS5-90516b
Weldability Objective

will have a greater understanding of what this
term means and have a better understanding of
cracking mechanisms and how steels and alloys
are defined.
Weldability of Steels
Section 17
Weldability of Steels Weldability of Steels
Definition  The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on

It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to carbon and other alloying elements content.
be welded with mechanical soundness by most  If a material has limited weldability, we need
of the common welding processes. The resulting to take special measures to ensure the
welded joint retain the properties for which it maintenance of the properties required.
has been designed is a function of many inter-  Poor weldability normally results in the
related factors but these may be summarised occurrence of cracking.
as:  A steel is considered to have poor weldability
 Composition of parent material. when:
 Joint design and size.  An acceptable joint can only be made by using very
narrow range of welding conditions.
 Process and technique.  Great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (eg
 Access. high pre-heat etc).
The Effect of Alloying on Steels Steel Alloying Elements
 Elements may be added to steels to produce Iron (Fe):

the properties required to make it useful for Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft,
ductile, with low strength.
an application. Carbon (C):
 Most elements can have many effects on the Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element
properties of steels. with major influence on HAZ hardness. Decreases
weldability typically < ~ 0.25%.
 Other factors which affect material properties Manganese (Mn):
are: Secondary only to carbon for strength, toughness and
 The temperature reached before and during welding. ductility, secondary de-oxidiser and also reacts with
 Heat input. sulphur to form manganese sulphides typically < ~0.8% is
residual from steel de-oxidation. Up to ~1.6% (in C-Mn
 The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT.
steels) improves strength and toughness.
Silicon (Si):
Residual element from steel de-oxidation typically to
~0.35%.
17-1
Steel Alloying Elements Steel Alloying Elements
Phosphorus (P): Nickel (Ni):

 Residual element from steel-making minerals. Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion from acids,
 Difficult to reduce below < ~ 0.015% brittleness. increases strength and toughness.
Sulphur (S):
Molybdenum (Mo):
 Residual element from steel-making minerals.
 Typically < ~ 0.015% in modern steels < ~ 0.003% in Affects hardenability. Steels containing molybdenum are less
susceptible to temper brittleness than other alloy steels.
very clean steels.
Increases the high temperature tensile and creep strengths of
Aluminium (Al): steel. typically ~ 0.5 to 1.0%.
 De-oxidant and grain size control.
 Niobium (Nb):
 Typically ~ 0.02 to ~ 0.05%.
 Vanadium (V): a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Chromium (Cr):
 Titanium (Ti) :
 For creep resistance and oxidation (scaling) resistance for
elevated temperature service. Widely used in stainless  Copper (Cu):
steels for corrosion resistance, increases hardness and Present as a residual, (typically < ~ 0.30%) added to weathering
strength but reduces ductility. steels (~ 0.6%) to give better resistance to atmospheric
corrosion.
 Typically ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels.
Materials Classification of Steels
Iron
Carbon
Fe
C is for Strength
Steels are classified into groups as follows:
Manganese Mn is for Toughness  Plain carbon steels.
Silicon Si < 0.3% Deoxidiser
Aluminium Al Grain refiner, <0.008% Deoxidiser +  Alloy steels.
Toughness
Chromium Cr Corrosion resistance
Molybdenum Mo 1% is for Creep resistance
Vanadium V Strength
Nickel Ni Low temperature applications
Copper Cu Used for weathering steels (Corten)
Sulphur S Residual element (can cause hot
shortness)
Phosphorous P Residual element
Titanium Ti Grain refiner, Used a micro alloying
element (S&T)
Niobium Nb Grain refiner, Used a micro alloying
element (S&T)
(S&T) = Strength & Toughness
Carbon – The Key Element in Steel Classification of Steels
Plain carbon steels:

 Low Carbon Steel 0.01 – 0.3% Carbon.
It affects:
 Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 – 0.6% Carbon.
1. Strength.  High Carbon Steel 0.6 – 1.4% Carbon.
 Plain carbon steels contain only iron and carbon
2. Hardness. as main alloying elements, but traces of Mn, Si,
Al, S and P may also be present.
3. Ductility.
17-2
Classification of Steels Classification of Steels
Alloy steels: Types of weldable C, C-Mn and low alloy

 Low Alloy Steels <7% alloying elements. steels
 High Alloy Steels >7% alloying elements.
Carbon steels
Alloy steels are considered the type of steels that  Carbon contents up to about ~ 0.25%.
predominantly contain extra alloying elements  Manganese up to ~ 0.8%.
other than iron and carbon.  Low strength and moderate toughness.
Carbon-manganese steels
 Manganese up to ~ 1.6%.
 Carbon steels with improved toughness due to
additions of manganese.
Types of weldable C, C-Mn and low alloy Types of weldable low alloy steels
steels low alloy steels Steels for Elevated Temperature Service
 Chromium (Cr) and Molybdenum (Mo) additions give
Strength and toughness raised even higher by improved strength at high temperature and good creep
very small additions of grain refining elements resistance.
like aluminium, niobium, vanadium.  Typical steels are:
 2.25% Cr +1% Mo.
Higher strength grades may be referred to as  9%Cr + 1%Mo.
HSLA steels (high strength low alloy steels, eg Steels for Low Temperature Service
API 5L X65 and higher).  Ni additions give good toughness at low temperatures.
 Steels may be referred to as cryogenic steels.
Typical examples are:
 3.5%Ni steel.
 9%Ni steels.
Types of Stainless Steels Types of stainless steels

Austenitic Grades Ferritic and Martensitic Grades
 Alloyed with Chromium & Nickel.  Alloyed with chromium (but have no or low nickel
 Examples - 304 & 316 (18%Cr + 8%Ni). content).
 Main phase is austenite.  Examples - 13% Cr (ferritic) 13%Cr +4%Ni.
 Very wide range of applications:  Ferritic grades have ferrite as main phase and so can be
 Very low temperature service (cryogenic).
magnetised.
 High temperature service.  Martensitic grades have martensitic as main phase
 Moderate corrosion resistance.  Similar characteristics to C and Mn steels but with
 Non-magnetic. improved corrosion resistance.
 Low thermal conductivity (hold the heat during  Not suitable for very low temperatures but some ferritic
welding). grades used for good resistance to scaling at high
temperatures.
 High coefficient of expansion - more distortion during
welding.
17-3
Classification of Steels Carbon Equivalent Formula
Types of stainless steels  The weldability of the material will also be

Duplex grades affected by the amount of alloying elements
 Alloyed with Chromium & some Nickel. present.
 Examples - 22%Cr + 5%Ni & 25%Cr + 7%Ni.  The carbon equivalent of a given material also
 Called duplex because there are 2 phases - 50% ferrite depends on its alloying elements.
+ 50% austenite.
 The presence of ferrite means that the steels can be  The higher the CE, higher the susceptibility to
magnetised. brittleness, and lower the weldability.
 Stronger than 304 and 316 and good resistance to  The CE or CEV is calculated using the following
certain types of corrosion. formula:
 Not suitable for very low temperature service or very CEV = %C + Mn + Cr + Mo + V + Cu + Ni
high temperature service.
6 5 15
Classification of Steels Process Cracks
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)  Hydrogen induced HAZ cracking (C/Mn
 Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low steels).
hydrogen processes or electrodes are used.
 Hydrogen induced weld metal cracking (HSLA
 Preheat may be required when welding thick section
material, high restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen steels).
being generated.  Solidification or hot cracking (all steels).
C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)  Lamellar tearing (all steels).
 Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker  Re-heat cracking (all steels, very susceptible
sections will require low preheat levels and low hydrogen Cr/Mo/V steels).
processes or electrodes should be used.
 Inter-crystalline corrosion or weld decay
Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5) (stainless steels).
 Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld
heating and slow cooling may be required.
Cracking Cracks
When considering any type of cracking mechanism,

*four elements must always be present:
Stress
 Residual stress is always present in a weldment,
through unbalanced local expansion and contraction.
Restraint Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
 Restraint may be a local restriction, or through plates
being welded to each other.
Susceptible microstructure
 The microstructure may be made susceptible to
cracking by the process of welding.
*Temperature (only applicable to certain types of
cracking).
17-4
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Also known as HCC, hydrogen, toe, underbead, Crack type:

delayed, chevron cracking. Hydrogen HAZ and weld metal cracking.
Location:
Occurs in: HAZ (longitudinal) weld metal (transverse).
 Carbon steels.
 Carbon-manganese. Steel types:
 Low, medium and high alloy steels: All hardenable steels.
 Mainly in ferritic or martensitic steels.
Including:
 Very rarely in duplex stainless steels.
HSLA (high strength low alloy) steels. Quench and
 Never in nickel or copper alloys.
tempered steels TMCP (thermal mechanically controlled
processed) steels.
Susceptible microstructure: Martensite.
There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of

the 4 factors occur together:
Hydrogen: Susceptible
More than 15ml/100g of weld metal. Tensile stress microstructure
Cracking
Stress: (at room
More than ½ the yield stress. temperature)
Temperature:
Below 300°C. High hydrogen
Susceptible Microstructure: concentration
Hardness Greater than 400HV Vickers (Martensite).
May occur:  Hydrogen is the smallest atom known.

 Up to 72hrs after completion.  Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc.
 In weld metal, HAZ, parent metal.  Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture
 At weld toes. pick-up on the electrodes coating, welding
 Under weld beads. fluxes or from the consumable gas.
 At stress raisers.
Water vapour in the air Moisture on the electrode

or in the shielding gas H2 or grease on the wire
H2
H2
Oxide or grease H2 H2
on the plate
17-5
Atomic
Steel in expanded condition
hydrogen
(H) Hydrogen Above 300oC
diffusion
Molecular
hydrogen
(H2)
Steel in expanded condition Steel under contraction

Above 300°C Below 300°C
Cellulosic electrodes Susceptible microstructure:

produce hydrogen as Hard brittle structure – Martensite promoted by:
a shielding gas Hydrogen absorbed in a High carbon content, carbon equivalent (CE)
a long or unstable arc CEV = %C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu
Hydrogen introduced in 6 5 15
weld from consumable, b High alloy content.
oils or paint on plate Hydrogen crack
c Fast cooling rate:
 Inadequate pre-heating.
 Cold material.
 Thick material.
H22
H  Low heat input.
Heat input (Kj/mm) = Amps x Volts x arc time
Martensite forms H2 diffuses in to HAZ Run out length x 103 (1000)
Effect of Carbon in the

Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Properties of Iron
Increasing the carbon content will increase the strength,
Typical locations for cold cracking
but will also increase greatly the risk of formation of
martensite.
0.83 % Carbon
(Eutectoid)*
Tensile
Hardness
Strength
Ductility
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
%Carbon
17-6
Micro alloyed steel Carbon manganese steel Under bead cracking Toe cracking
Hydrogen induced weld Hydrogen induced HAZ

metal cracking cracking
Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking

 Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint
preparations, and slows down the cooling rate.
 Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from
contamination.
 The use of a low hydrogen welding process and
correct arc length.
 Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under
controlled environmental conditions.
 Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress.
 The use of a PWHT.
 Avoid poor weld profiles.
Toe cracking in MMA fillet weld
Hydrogen Scales Potential Hydrogen Level Processes
List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011: Part 2. List of welding processes in order of potential
Hydrogen content per 100 grams of weld metal lowest hydrogen content with regards to 100
deposited. grams of deposited weld metal.
 Scale A High: >15ml

 TIG < 3ml
 Scale B Medium: 10-15ml
 Scale C Low: 5-10ml  MIG < 5ml
 Scale D Very low: 3-5ml  ESW < 5ml
 Scale E Ultra-low: <3ml  MMA (Basic Electrodes) < 5ml
 SAW < 10ml
 FCAW < 15ml
17-7
Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance
To eliminate the risk of hydrogen cracking how do Reduce Hydrogen Level

you remove the following:  Select lower hydrogen potential process eg:
 BASIC vs RUTILE.
 MAG vs MMA.
Hydrogen: MMA (basic electrodes). MAG
 Increase hydrogen diffusion with increased
cleaning weld prep etc. preheat.
Stress: Design, balanced welding.  Maintain preheat after welding allowing diffusion
from weld.
Temperature: Heat to 300°C (wrap and cool  Bake basic MMA electrodes/SAW fluxes -
slowly). manufacturers recommendations!
 Cleanliness/dryness of consumables and weld
Hardness: Preheat-reduces cooling rate preparations eg rust scale grease cutting fluids.
which reduces the risk of  Use austenitic or nickel fillers (if acceptable).
susceptible microstructure.
Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance Residual Stress
Prevention Residual stress will be increased by:

 Slow the cooling rate.  Increasing plate thickness.
 Reduce hydrogen level.  Restraint - rigid fixtures
 Reduce residual stress.  Weld volume.
 Insert in plate.
 Multi-pass vs single pass.
 Small weld beads vs large weld beads.
Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance Pre-Heat Application
How to reduce residual stress Application of preheat

 Ensure good fit-up: Minimum root gap and  Heat either side of joint.
misalignment.  Measure temp 2mins after heat removal.
 Avoid restraints: Preset the join.  Always best to heat complete component rather
 Preheat may help: To slow down cooling rate. than local if possible to avoid distortion.
 Large weld passes: Higher deposition rate.  Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds
 Minimise volume of weld metal: Less residual due to different combined thicknesses and chill
stress. effect factors.
 PWHT from preheat temperature.
 Dress weld toes at preheat temperature.
17-8
Combined Thickness Combined Thickness
Combined chilling effect of joint type and The chilling effect of the joint
thickness.
t3
Heat flow
t1 t2 t1 t2
t = t1+t2 t = t1+t2+t3
Heat flow
Combined Thickness The Chill Effect of the Material
The chilling effect of the joint
Two dimensional heat flow
Three dimensional heat flow
Pre-Heat Application Pre-Heat Application
Furnace:
 Heating entire component - best.
Electrical elements:
 Controllable; portable; site use; clean; component cannot be
moved.
Gas burners:
 Direct flame impingement; possible local overheating; less
controllable, portable, manual operation possible, component
can be moved.
Radiant gas heaters:
 Capable of automatic control, no flame impingement, no
contact with component, portable. Electrical heated Manual gas
Induction heating: elements operation
 Controllable, rapid heating (mins not hours), large power
supply, expensive equipment.
17-9
Heating Temperature Control Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance
 Tempilsticks - crayons, melt at set temps. Will Slow cooling rate

not measure max temp.  Apply or increase preheat - BS EN 1011 Part 2
 Pyrometers - contact or remote, measure actual Gives recommendations on suitable preheat
temp. levels.
 Thermocouples - contact or attached, very  Recommendations in specifications eg
accurate, measure actual temp. BS 2633, ASME VIII, ASME B31.3.
 Increase process heat input complying with
toughness requirements.
Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance Heat Input
 Maintain calculated preheats, and never allow the High heat input - slow cooling.
inter-pass temperature to go below the pre-heat  Low toughness (grain growth).
value.
 Reduction in yield strength.
 Use Low Hydrogen processes with short arcs and
ensure consumables are correctly baked and
stored as required. Low heat input - fast cooling.
 If using a cellulosic E 6010 for the root run, hot  Increased hardness.
pass as soon as possible. (Before HAZ < 300°C).  Hydrogen entrapment.
 Remove any paint, oil or moisture from the plate  Lack of fusion.
or pipe.
 Carry out any specified PWHT as soon as possible.
 Avoid any restraint, and use high ductility weld
metal.
Cracks Solidification Cracking
Solidification Cracking
Usually Occurs in Weld Centerline
17-10
Solidification Cracking Solidification Cracking
Also referred as hot cracking  Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the
weld metal to form iron sulphides (low strength,
Crack type: low melting point compounds).
 Solidification cracking.  During weld metal solidification, columnar
Location: crystals push still liquid iron sulphides in front to
 Weld centreline (longitudinal). the last place of solidification, weld centerline.
Steel types:  The bonding between the grains which are
themselves under great stress. may now be very
 High sulphur and phosphor concentration in poor to maintain cohesion and a crack will
steels. result, weld centerline.
Susceptible microstructure:
 Columnar grains In direction of solidification.
Solidification Cracking Solidification Cracking in Fe Steels
Factors for solidification cracking

 Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld
metal (sulphur, phosphor and carbon). Liquid iron sulphide films
 The amount of stress/restraint.
 Joint design high depth to width ratios.
 Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying Solidification crack
grains.
 High contractional strains are present. *
 High dilution processes are being used.
 There is a high carbon content in the weld metal.
 Most commonly occurring in sub-arc welded Contractional strain
joints.
Intergranular liquid film Precautions for controlling solidification cracking

Columnar The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to
grains Columnar choose a low dilution process, and change the joint design.
HAZ grains HAZ
Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further

dilution?
 Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S
which form between the grain and maintain grain
cohesion.
Shallow, wider weld bead Deep, narrower weld bead  As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content %
On solidification the bonding On solidification the bonding
should be a minimised by careful control in electrode
between the grains may be between the grains may now
and dilution.
adequate to maintain be very poor to maintain
 Limit the heat input, hence low contraction and
cohesion and a crack is cohesion and a crack may
minimise restraint.
unlikely to occur. result.
17-11
Precautions for controlling solidification Add Manganese to weld metal

cracking
Spherical Mn Sulphide balls
 The use of high manganese and low carbon form between solidified grains
content fillers.
 Minimise the amount of stress/restraint acting
on the joint during welding. Cohesion and strength between
 The use of high quality parent materials, low grains remains
levels of impurities (phosphor and sulphur).
 Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil,
grease, paints and any other sulphur containing
product).
 Joint design selection depth to width ratios. Contractional strain
Solidification Cracking Cracks
Solidification cracking in austenitic stainless steel

 Particularly prone to solidification cracking.
 Large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain
boundary area with high concentration of impurities.
 Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants
(sulphur, phosphorous and other impurities).
Lamellar Tearing
 High coefficient of thermal expansion/low coefficient
of thermal conductivity, with high resultant residual
stress.
 Same precautions against cracking as for plain
carbon steels with extra emphasis on thorough
cleaning and high dilution controls.
Lamellar Tearing Lamellar Tearing
 Location: Parent metal just below the HAZ.

 Steel Type: Any steel type possible.
 Susceptible Microstructure: Poor through thickness
ductility.
 Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due to the

solid inclusions in the parent material (eg sulphides and
Step like appearance
silicates) linking up under the influence of welding
stresses.
 Low ductile materials (often related to thickness) in the
short transverse direction containing high levels of
impurities are very susceptible to lamellar tearing.
 It forms when the welding stresses act in the short
transverse direction of the material (through thickness
direction). Cross section
17-12
Susceptible joint types Critical area Critical area
Critical area
T fillet weld T butt weld Corner butt weld

(double-bevel) (single-bevel)
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur Assessment of susceptibility to lamellar

 Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities tearing:
there is a high sulfur content in the base metal.
 Carry out through thickness tensile test.
 Joint design, direction of stress 90° to the rolling
direction, the level of stress acting across the joint  Carry out cruciform welded tensile test.
during welding.
 Note: Very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing
under very low levels of stress.
 High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction.
 There is low through thickness ductility in the base
metal.
 There is high restraint on the work.
Short Tensile (Through

Lamellar Tearing
Thickness) Test
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing The short tensile test or through thickness test is a test to
determine a materials susceptibility to lamellar tearing
 The use of high quality parent materials, low
levels of impurities. Friction welded
Plate material extension stubs
 The use of buttering runs.
 A gap can be left between the horizontal and Short tensile specimen
vertical members enabling the contraction
movement to take place. Sample of 6.4mm
parent material DIA
 Joint design selection.
 Minimise the amount of stress/restraint acting
Final short transverse
on the joint during welding. tensile specimen
 Hydrogen precautions.
The results are given as a STRA value
Short Transverse Reduction in Area
17-13
Methods of avoiding lamellar tearing:* Modifying a T joint to avoid lamellar tearing

1 Avoid restraint*. Non-susceptible Susceptible Improved
2 Use controlled low sulfur plate*.

3 Grind out surface and butter*. Susceptible
4 Change joint design*.
5 Use a forged T piece (critical applications)*. Non-susceptible Susceptible Less susceptible
Prior buttering of the joint with

a ductile layer of weld metal
Use a forged T piece may avoid lamellar tearing
Lamellar Tearing Cracks
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar

tearing
Susceptible Non-Susceptible
Weld Decay
An open corner joint

may be selected to
avoid lamellar tearing
Inter-Granular Corrosion Inter-Granular Corrosion
Crack type: Inter-granular corrosion

Location: Weld HAZ. (longitudinal)
Steel types: Stainless steels
Microstructure: Sensitised grain boundaries*
Occurs when:  During the welding of stainless steels, a small

An area in the HAZ has been sensitised by the formation of grain area in the HAZ, parallel to the weld will
chromium carbides. This area is in the form of a line form chromium carbide at the grain boundaries.
running parallel to and on both sides of the weld. This
This depletes this grain of the corrosion
depletion of chromium will leave the effected grains low in
chromium oxide which is what produces the corrosion resisting chrome oxide
resisting effect of stainless steels. If left untreated  We say that the steel has become sensitised or
corrosion and failure will be rapid* has become sensitive to corrosion*
17-14
1. Use stabilized stainless steels*. Also known as weld decay

2. Use low carbon stainless steels (Below 04%)*.  Location: Weld HAZ. (longitudinal).
3. A sensitized stainless steel may be de-sensitized  Steel type: Austenitic stainless steels.
by heating it to above 1100°C where the chrome  Susceptible microstructure: Sensitised HAZ
carbide will be dissolved. The steel is normally grain boundaries.
quenched from this temperature to stop re-
association*.
 Weld decay, intergranular corrosion or knife line Sensitisation range where peak temperatures in
attack, may occur in austenitic stainless steels. the HAZ reaches about 600°C to 850°C.
 At the critical range of 600-850°C chromium
carbide precipitation at the grain boundaries
takes place.
 At this temperature range chromium is absorbed
by the carbon at the grain boundaries, which
causes a local depletion of chromium content in
the adjacent areas.
 The depletion of chromium content in the
affected areas results in lowering the materials
resistance to corrosion attack, allowing rusting
to occur.
When heated in the range Grain boundary adjacent areas become depleted of
600°C to 850°C Chromium chromium and lose their corrosion resistance.
Carbides form at the grain
boundaries
Areas depleted of
Chromium below
Chromium migrates to site 12.5%.
of growing carbide
17-15
Inter-Granular Corrosion Weld Decay
Precautions against weld decay

 Using low carbon grade stainless steel eg 304L,
316L, as the amount of free carbon in solution is
sufficiently low to ensure that Cr carbide
formation is minimal and therefore that
sensitisation is not usually of practical
significance during welding.
 Stabilized grade stainless steel eg 321, 347, 348
recommended for severe corrosive conditions
and high temperature operating conditions
containing Ti or Nb, to form carbides
preferentially to Cr.
Weld Decay Basic Atomic Structure of Steels
Precautions against weld decay A most important function in the metallurgy of steels, is the
ability of iron to dissolve carbon in solution*.
 Standard austenitic grades may require PWHT,
this involves heating the material to a The carbon atom is very much smaller than the iron atom and
temperature over 1100°C and quench the does not replace it in the atomic structure but fits between it*.
material, this restores the chromium content at
the grain boundary, a major disadvantage of this
heat treatment is the high amount of distortion.
Iron Carbon
atoms atoms*
Iron is an element that can exist in 2 types of cubic structures,

depending on the temperature. This is an important feature*.
Basic Atomic Structure of Steels Basic Atomic Structure of Steels
At temperatures below Ac/r 1, (LCT) iron exists like this* At temperatures above the Ac/r 3, (UCT) iron exists like this*
α Alpha iron γ Gamma iron

This structure occurs below 723°C and is This structure occurs above the UCT in
body centred or BCC in structure Plain Carbon Steels and is FCC in
It can only dissolve up to 0.02% Carbon structure.
Also known as Ferrite or BCC iron* It can dissolve up 2.06% Carbon

Also called Austenite or FCC iron*
*
*
Compressed representation could appear like this
Compressed representation could appear like this
17-16
Basic Atomic Structure of Steels Basic Atomic Structure of Steels
 If steel is heated and then cooled slowly in Some steels if cooled quickly their structure looks like this*
equilibrium, then exact reverse atomic changes
take place*. Martensite can be defined as:
 If a steel that contains more than 0.3% carbon is A supersaturated solution of carbon
cooled quickly, then the carbon does not have in BCT iron (Body Centred
time to precipitate out of solution, hence
Tetragonal)
trapping the carbon in the BCC form of iron.
 This now distorts the cube to an irregular cube, or It is the hardest structure we can
tetragon*. produce in steels*
 This supersaturated solution is called martensite *
and is the hardest structure that can be produced Compressed representation could appear
in steels*. like this
The Important Points of

Summary of Steel Microstructures
Steel Microstructures
Solubility of Carbon in BCC & FCC phases of steels*  To summarize the effect of increasing the
hardness of steels by thermal treatment, it can
Ferrite: a Low carbon solubility. Maximum 0.02%* be said that the formation of Martensite is
caused by the entrapment of carbon in
Austenite: g High carbon solubility. Maximum 2.06%* solution, produced by rapid cooling from
temperatures above the Upper Critical*
Martensite: The hardest phase in steels, which is  In plain carbon steels there must be sufficient
produced by rapid cooling from the carbon to trap. In low alloy steels however, the
Austenite phase: alloying elements play a significant part in the
thermal hardening of steels*
It mainly occurs below 300°C*
Any Questions
?
17-17
Section 18
Weld Repairs
18 Weld Repairs
18.1 Two specific areas
 Production.
 In-service.
The reasons for making a repair are many and varied, from the removal of weld
defects induced during manufacture to a quick and temporary running-repair to
an item of production plant. The subject of welding repairs is also wide and
varied and often confused with maintenance and refurbishment where the work
can be scheduled.
With planned maintenance and refurbishment, sufficient time enables the tasks
to be completed without production pressures being applied. In contrast,
repairs are usually unplanned and may result in shortcuts being taken to allow
production to continue so it is advisable for a fabricator to have an established
policy on repairs and to have repair methods and procedures in place.
The manually controlled welding processes are the easiest to use, particularly if
it is a local repair or carried out onsite. Probably the most frequently used is
MMA as it is versatile, portable and readily applicable to many alloys because of
the wide range of off-the-shelf consumables. Repairs almost always result in
higher residual stresses and increased distortion compared with first time
welds. With C-Mn and low/medium alloy steels, pre- and postweld heat
treatments may be required.
A number of key factors need to be considered before any repair, the most
important being it is financially worthwhile. Before this judgement can be made,
the fabricator needs to answer the following questions:
 Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired?

 Are there any alternatives to welding?
 What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again?
 How is the defect to be removed and which welding process is to be used?
 Which NDT method is required to ensure complete removal of the defect?
 Will the welding procedures require approval/re-approval?
 What will be the effect of welding distortion and residual stress?
 Will heat treatment be required?
 What NDT is required and how can acceptability of the repair be
demonstrated?
 Will approval of the repair be required, if yes, how and by whom?
Weld repairs may be relatively straightforward or quite complex and various

engineering disciplines may need to be involved to ensure a successful
outcome.
It is recommended that ongoing analysis of the types of defect is carried out by

the QC department to discover the likely reason for their occurrence
(material/process or skill related).
WIS5-90516b
Weld Repairs 18-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
In general terms, a welding repair involves:
 Detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the defect possibly using a
surface or sub-surface NDT method.
 Cleaning the repair area (removal of paint grease, etc).
 Once established the excavation site must be clearly identified and marked
out.
 An excavation procedure may be required (method used ie grinding, arc/air
gouging, preheat requirements, etc).
 NDT to locate the defect and confirm its removal.
 A welding repair procedure/method statement with the appropriate (suitable
for the alloys being repaired and may not apply in specific situations.)
welding process, consumable, technique, controlled heat input and interpass
temperatures, etc will need to be approved.
 Use of approved welders.
 Dressing the weld and final visual.
 NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out to ensure that the defect
has been successfully removed and repaired.
 Any post repair heat treatment requirements.
 Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out after heat
treatment requirements.
 Applying protective treatments (painting, etc as required).
Production repairs
Repairs are usually identified during production inspection. Evaluation of the
reports is by the Welding Inspector or NDT operator. Discontinuities in the
welds are only classed as defects when they are outside the range permitted by
the applied code or standard.
Before any repair a number of elements need to be fulfilled.
Analysis
As this defect is surface-breaking and at the fusion face the problem could be
cracking or lack of sidewall fusion. The former may be to do with the material or
welding procedure, if it is done the latter can be apportioned to the welder’s
lack of skill.
Assessment
As the defect is open to the surface, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) or dye
penetrant inspection (DPI) may be used to gauge the length of the defect and
ultrasonic testing (UT) to gauge the depth.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 18.1 A typical defect.
Figure 18.2 Plan view of defect.
Excavation
If a thermal method of excavation is to be used, ie arc/air gouging it may be a
requirement to qualify a procedure as the heat generated may affect the
metallurgical structure, resulting in the risk of cracking in the weld or parent
material.
Figure 18.3 Thermal excavation using arc/air gouging.
To prevent cracking it may be necessary to apply a preheat. Depth to width

ratio shall not be less than 1 (depth) to 1 (width), ideally depth 1 to width 1.5.
WIS5-90516b
W
Figure 18.4 Side view of excavation for slight sub-surface defect
Figure 18.5 Side view of excavation for deep defect.
Figure 18.6 Side view of excavation for full root repair.
Cleaning the excavation

At this stage grinding the repair area is important due to the risk of carbon
becoming impregnated into the weld metal/parent material and it should be
ground back typically 3-4mm to bright metal.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 18.7 Cleaned excavations.
Confirmation of excavation
NDT must confirm that the defect has been completely excavated from the
area.
Rewelding of the excavation

Prior to rewelding a detailed repair welding procedure/method statement shall
be approved.
WIS5-90516b
Typical side view of weld repair
Figure 18.8 Weld repair and typical side view.
NDT confirmation of successful repair

After the excavation has been filled the weldment should undergo a complete
retest using the NDT techniques previously used to establish the original repair
to ensure no further defects have been introduced by the repair welding
process. NDT may need to be further applied after any additional PWHT.
In-service repairs
Most in-service repairs are very complex as the component is likely to be in a
different welding position and condition than during production. It may have
been in contact with toxic or combustible fluids so a permit to work will be
needed prior to any work. The repair welding procedure may look very different
to the original production procedure due to changes.
Other factors may be taken into consideration such as the effect of heat on
surrounding areas of the component, ie electrical components, or materials that
may be damaged by the repair procedure. This may also include difficulty in
carrying out any required pre- or post-welding heat treatments and a possible
restriction of access to the area to be repaired. For large fabrications it is likely
that the repair must also take place on-site without a shutdown of operations
which may bring other considerations.
Repair of in-service defects may require consideration of these and many other
factors so are generally considered more complicated than production repairs.
Joining technologies often play a vital role in the repair and maintenance of
structures. Parts can be replaced, worn or corroded parts can be built up and
cracks repaired.
When a repair is required it is important to determine two things: The reason

for failure and, can the component be repaired? The latter infers that the
material type is known. For metals, particularly those to be welded, chemical
composition is vitally important. Failure modes often indicate the approach
required to make a sound repair. When the cause-effect analysis, is not
followed through the repair is often unsafe, sometimes disastrously so.
WIS5-90516b
In many instances, the Standard or Code used to design the structure will
define the type of repair that can be carried out and give guidance on the
methods to be followed. Standards imply that when designing or manufacturing
a new product it is important to consider a maintenance regime and repair
procedures. Repairs may be required during manufacture and this situation
should also be considered.
Normally there is more than one way of making a repair, for example, cracks in
cast iron might be held together or repaired by pinning, bolting, riveting,
welding or brazing. The choice will depend on factors such as the reason for
failure, material composition and cleanliness, environment and the size and
shape of the component.
It is very important that repair and maintenance welding are not regarded as
activities which are simple or straightforward. A repair may seem undemanding
but getting it wrong can result catastrophic failure with disastrous
consequences.
Is welding the best method of repair?

If repair is needed because a component has a local irregularity or a shallow
defect, grinding out any defects and blending to a smooth contour might be
acceptable. It is if the steel has poor weldability or fatigue loading is severe. It
is often better to reduce the so-called factor of safety slightly than risk putting
defects, stress concentrations and residual stresses into a brittle material.
Brittle materials, including some steels (particularly in thick sections) as well as

cast irons, may not withstand the residual stresses imposed by heavy weld
repairs, particularly if defects are not totallyl removed, leaving stress
concentrations to initiate cracking.
Is the repair like earlier repairs?

Repairs of one sort may have been routine for years but it is important to check
that the next one is not subtly different, the section thickness may be greater;
the steel to be repaired may be different and less weldable or the restraint
higher. If there is any doubt, answer the remaining questions.
What is the composition and weldability of the base metal?

The original drawings usually give some idea of the steel involved although the
specification limits may then have been less stringent and the specification may
not give enough detail to be helpful. If sulphur-bearing free-machining steel is
involved, it could give hot cracking problems during welding.
If there is any doubt about the composition, a chemical analysis should be

carried out, to analyse for all elements which may affect weldability (Ni, Cr, Mo,
Cu, V, Nb and B) as well as those usually, specified (C, S, P, Si and Mn).
The small cost of analysis could prevent a valuable component being ruined by
ill-prepared repairs or save money by reducing or avoiding the need for preheat
if the composition is leaner than expected. Once the composition is known, a
welding procedure can be devised.
WIS5-90516b
What strength is required from the repair?
The higher the yield strength of the repair weld metal the greater the residual
stress level on completion of welding, risk of cracking, clamping needed to
avoid distortion and more difficulty in formulating the welding procedure. The
practical limit for the yield strength of conventional steel weld metals is about
1000N/mm2.
Can preheat be tolerated?

A high level of preheat makes conditions more difficult for the welder and the
parent steel can be damaged if it has been tempered at a low temperature. The
steel being repaired may contain items damaged by excessive heating. Preheat
levels can be reduced by using consumables of ultra-low hydrogen content or
non-ferritic weld metals. Of these, austenitic electrodes may need some
preheat, but the more expensive nickel alloys usually do not but may be
sensitive to high sulphur and phosphorus contents in the parent steel if diluted
into the weld metal.
Can softening or hardening of the HAZ be tolerated?

Softening of the HAZ is likely in very high strength steels, particularly if they
have been tempered at low temperatures. It cannot be avoided but its extent
can be minimised. Hard HAZs are particularly vulnerable where service
conditions can lead to stress corrosion. Solutions containing H2S (hydrogen
sulphide) may demand hardness below 248HV (22HRC) although fresh aerated
seawater appears to tolerate up to about 450HV. Excessively hard HAZs may,
require PWHT to soften them provided cracking has been avoided.
Is PWHT practicable?
Although desirable, PWHT may not be possible for the same reasons preheating
is not. For large structures local PWHT may be possible but care should be
taken to abide by the relevant codes because it is easy to introduce new
residual stresses by improperly executed PWHT.
Is PWHT necessary?
PWHT may be needed for several reasons and the reason must be known before
considering whether it can be avoided.
Will the fatigue resistance of the repair be adequate?

If the repair is in an area highly stressed by fatigue and particularly if it is of a
fatigue crack, inferior fatigue life can be expected unless the weld surface is
ground smooth and no surface defects left. Fillet welds in which the root cannot
be ground smooth are not tolerable in areas of high fatigue stress.
Will the repair resist its environment?

Besides corrosion it is important to consider the possibility of stress corrosion,
corrosion fatigue, thermal fatigue and oxidation in-service.
Corrosion and oxidation resistance usually requires filler metal to be at least as

noble or oxidation resistant as the parent metal for corrosion fatigue the repair
weld profile may need to be blended.
To resist stress corrosion, PWHT may be necessary to restore the correct

microstructure, reduce hardness and the residual stress left by the repair.
WIS5-90516b
Can the repair be inspected and tested?
For onerous service, radiography and/or ultrasonic examination are often
desirable, but problems are likely if stainless steel or nickel alloy filler is used.
Such repairs cannot be assessed by MPI as it is very important to carry out the
procedural tests very critically, to ensure there is no risk of cracking nor
likelihood of serious welder-induced defects.
For all repair welds it is vital to ensure that welders are properly motivated and
carefully supervised.
As-welded repairs
Repair without PWHT is, normal where the original weld was not heat treated
but some alloy steels and many thick-sectioned components require PWHT to
maintain a reasonable level of toughness, corrosion resistance, etc. However,
PWHT of components in-service is not always easy or even possible and local
PWHT may cause more problems than it solves except in simple structures.
WIS5-90516b
Weld Repairs Objective

will be able to establish effective methods of
repair when required and methods of excavation.
Weld Repairs
Section 18
Weld Repairs Weld Repairs
A weld repair can be a relatively straight forward  Is welding the best method of repair?
activity, but in many instances it is quite complex,  Is the repair really like earlier repairs?
and various engineering disciplines may need to be  What is the composition and weldability of the
involved to ensure a successful outcome. base metal?
 What strength is required from the repair?
 Can preheat be tolerated?
Analysis of the defect types may be carried out by  Can softening or hardening of the HAZ be
the Q/C department to discover the likely reason tolerated?
for their occurrence, (material/process or skill  Is PWHT necessary and practicable?
related).  Will the fatigue resistance of the repair be
adequate?
In general terms, a welding repair involves what!  Will the repair resist its environment?
 Can the repair be inspected and tested?
Weld Repair Related Problems Weld Repairs
 Heat from welding may affect dimensional  Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint, grease, etc).
stability and/or mechanical properties of  A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the
repaired assembly. defect. This may involve the use of a surface or sub
surface NDE method.
 Due to heat from welding, YS goes down =
 Once established the excavation site must be clearly
danger of collapse. identified and marked out.
 Filler materials used on dissimilar welds may  An excavation procedure may be required (method used
lead to galvanic corrosion. ie grinding, arc-air gouging, preheat requirements etc).
 Local preheat may induce residual stresses.  NDE should be used to locate the defect and confirm its
removal.
 Cost of weld metal deposited during a weld joint
repair can reach up to 10 times the original weld  A welding repair procedure/method statement with the
appropriate* welding process, consumable, technique,
metal cost! controlled heat input and interpass temperatures etc will
need to be approved.
18-1
A weld repair may be used to improve weld In the event of repair, it is required:
profiles or extensive metal removal:  Authorisation and procedure for repair.
 Repairs to fabrication defects are generally  Removal of material and preparation for repair.
easier than repairs to service failures because  Monitoring of repair weld.
the repair procedure may be followed.
 Testing of repair - visual and NDT.
 The main problem with repairing a weld is the
maintenance of mechanical properties.
 During the inspection of the removed area prior
to welding the inspector must ensure that the
defects have been totally removed and the
original joint profile has been maintained as
close as possible.
The specification or procedure will govern how Weld repairs can be divided into 2 specific areas:
the defective areas are to be removed. The 1. Production repairs.
method of removal may be: 2. In service repairs.
 Grinding.
 Chipping.
 Machining.
 Filing.
 Oxy-Gas gouging.
 Arc air gouging.
Production Weld Repairs Production Weld Repairs
Production repairs Before the repair can commence, a number of

 Are usually identified during production elements need to be fulfilled:
inspection.  If the defect is surface breaking and has occurred
at the fusion face the problem could be cracking or
 Evaluation of the reports is usually carried out lack of sidewall fusion.
by the Welding Inspector or NDT operator.  If the defect is found to be cracking the cause may
be associated with the material or the welding
procedure.
 If the defect is lack of sidewall fusion this can be
apportioned to the lack of skill of the welder.
 In this particular case as the defect is open to the
surface, MPI or DYE-PEN may be used to gauge
the length of the defect and U/T inspection used to
gauge the depth.
18-2
In Service Weld Repairs In Service Weld Repairs
Service repairs Other factors to be taken into consideration:

 Can be of a very complex nature, as the Effect of heat on any surrounding areas of the
component is very likely to be in a different component ie electrical components, or materials that
welding position and condition than it was during may become damaged by the repair procedure.
production.
This may also include difficulty in carrying out any
 It may also have been in contact with toxic, or
required pre or post welding heat treatments and a
combustible fluids hence a permit to work will
possible restriction of access to the area to be
need to be sought prior to any work being
repaired.
carried out.
 The repair welding procedure may look very For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must
different to the original production procedure also take place on site and without a shut down of
due to changes in these elements. operations, which may bring other elements that need
to be considered.
There are a number of key factors that need to be  What will be the effect of welding distortion and
considered before undertaking any repair: residual stress?
 The most important - is it financially worthwhile?
 Will heat treatment be required?
 Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is
repaired?  What NDE is required and how can acceptability
 Are there any alternatives to welding?
of the repair be demonstrated?
 What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again?  Will approval of the repair be required – if yes,
 How is the defect to be removed and what welding how and by whom?
process is to be used?
 What NDE is required to ensure complete removal of the
defect?
 Will the welding procedures require approval/re-
approval?
Weld Repairs Weld Repair Decision Tree
 Use of approved welders. Has nature of NO NDE + Determine the Determine welding
the defect been Destructive filler material standards
 Dressing the weld and final visual. determined? tests
 A NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried YES Train the Qualify the
welder welder
out to ensure that the defect has been successfully Is repair the Replace
removed and repaired. right decision? NO the part NO
 Any post repair heat treatment requirements. Is welder

qualified?
Establish repair
procedure
Determine base Choose the
 Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and metal weldability welding process YES
carried out after heat treatment requirements.
Perform welding Prepare the
Inspection
 Applying protective treatments (painting etc as repair defect area
required). Has repair been NO
Procedure problem Fix problem
successful?
 (*Appropriate’ means suitable for the alloys being
YES
repaired and may not apply in specific situations) Protect and
return to service Welder problem
18-3
Weld Repairs Production Weld Repairs
Side View of defect excavation

W
Plan View of defect

Side View of repair welding
Costs of Weld Repairs
Original weld Cost Repair weld Extra cost
Cut, prep, tack weld
Welder time
£
£
Inspector Repair report (NCR etc)
Inspector Identify repair area

££
££ Any Questions
Consumable & gas £ Inspector Mark out repair area ££
?
Visual inspection £ Welder Remove defect ££
NDT ££ Inspector Visual inspection of excavation ££
Documentation £ Inspector NDT area of excavation ££
Inspector Monitor repair welding ££
Welder time £
Consumable & gas £
Inspector Visual inspection ££
NDT ££
Extra repair Documentation £
Penalty % NDT ££
18-4
Section 19
Residual Stresses and Distortions

19 Residual Stresses and Distortions
19.1 Development of residual stresses
Because welding involves highly localised heating of joint edges to fuse the
material, non-uniform stresses are set up in the components being joined,
generated because of expansion and contraction of the heated material.
Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent metal
when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot metal
HAZ adjacent to the weld pool. Tensile stresses occur on cooling when
contraction of the weld metal and the immediate HAZ is resisted by the bulk of
the cold parent metal.
As long as these stresses are above the yield point of the metal at the
prevailing temperature, they continue to produce permanent deformation, but
in so doing are relieved and fall to yield-stress level so cease to cause further
distortion. But, if at this point we could release the weld from the plate by
cutting along the joint line, it would shrink further because, even when
distortion has stopped, the weld contains an elastic strain equivalent to the
yield stress. Visualise the completed joint as weld metal being stretched
elastically between two plates.
b c
Figure 19.1 Shrinkage of a weld metal element during cooling:

a The entire length of weld is hot and starts to cool;
b If unfused to the parent metal, the weld will shrink, reducing its dimensions
on all three directions;
c Since the weld is fused to the parent metal under combined cooling residual
stresses will occur.
The stresses left in the joint after welding are referred to as residual stresses.
From the above it can be seen there will be both longitudinal and transverse
stresses (in the case of a very thick plate there is a through-thickness
component of residual stress as well).
WIS5-90516b
Residual Stresses and Distortions 19-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
19.1.1 Distribution of residual stresses
The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by the
volume change in the weld area on solidification and subsequent cooling to
room temperature. For example, when welding C-Mn steel the molten weld
metal volume will be reduced by approximately 3% on solidification and the
volume of the solidified weld metal/ HAZ will be reduced by a further 7% as its
temperature falls from the melting point of steel to room temperature.
Perpendicular to the weld, in the transverse direction, the stresses in the weld
are more dependent on the clamping condition of the parts. Transverse residual
stresses are often relatively small although transverse distortion is substantial.
The distribution of transverse residual stresses in a butt joint is shown below.
Tensile stress of a relatively low magnitude is produced in the middle section
while compressive stress is generated at both ends of the joint. It must be
noted that the longer the weld, the higher the tensile residual stress until yield
stress is reached.
Tension
Compression
Figure 19.2 The pattern of residual stresses on transverse direction.
In longitudinal stresses the weld and some of the plate which has been heated
are at or near yield-stress level. Moving out into the plate from the HAZ, the
stresses first fall to zero (the tensile stress region extends beyond the weld and
HAZ into the parent plate) and beyond this there is a region of compressive
stress. The width of the band where tensile residual stresses are present
depends on the heat input during welding, the higher the heat input the wider
the band where these tensile residual stresses occur.
Tension Compression
Figure 19.3 The pattern of residual stresses in the longitudinal direction in the
as-welded conditions.
The maximum level of tensile residual stress is equal to the value of the yield
strength of the weld metal at room temperature.
WIS5-90516b
All fusion welds which have not been subjected to postweld treatments, the
vast majority of welded joints, contain residual stresses. Procedures developed
to minimise distortion may alter the distribution of the residual stresses but do
not eliminate them or even reduce their peak level.
One method of reducing the level of residual stress in a welded joint is to

perform PWHT to relieve these stresses. So once the temperature is raised the
yield stress starts to drop. As a result of this the peak residual stresses which
were up to the value of yield stress at room temperature, cannot be carried
over any more by the material and are relaxed by plastic deformation (usually,
this plastic deformation is confined at the level of grains but in some situations
can lead to significant deformation of the welded component). This process
ends when the material has reached the soaking temperature. So the level of
residual stresses will be reduced by the difference between the value of the
yield stress at room temperature (at the beginning of PWHT) at the soaking
temperature. As can be seen from the following figure, this can reduce the level
of tensile residual stresses up to a quarter of its initial level but compressive
residual stresses are left unchanged. It must be pointed out that PWHT does
not completely eliminate these residual stresses.
Tension Compression
Maximum residual
stress before PWHT Maximum residual
stress after PWHT
Figure 19.4 Pattern of residual stresses on longitudinal direction after PWHT.
19.1.2 Effect of residual stresses

Since formation of residual stresses cannot be avoided, it is appropriate to ask
if their presence is a concern. As with many engineering situations the answer
is not a simple yes or no. There are numerous applications where the existence
of residual stresses would have little or no influence on the service behaviour of
the joint, storage tanks, building frames, low pressure pipework and domestic
equipment examples where the joints can be used in the as-welded condition
without detriment.
WIS5-90516b
Residual stresses are considered detrimental because they:
 Lead to distortion and an out-of-shape welded structure is not fit-for-

purpose.
 Affect dimensional stability of the welded assembly. When machining welded
components, removing layers of metal near the joint may disturb the
balance between the tensile and compressive residual stresses and further
deformation or warping can occur. This can make it difficult to hold critical
machining tolerances and it may be desirable to stress-relieve to achieve
dimensional stability.
 Enhance the risk of brittle fracture. When residual stresses are present in a
welded component, a small extra stress added may initiate a brittle fracture,
providing other conditions are met (ie low temperature).
 Can facilitate certain types of corrosion. Some metals in certain
environments corrode rapidly in the presence of tensile stress, ie stress
corrosion cracking. In these cases, a joint in the as-welded condition
containing residual stresses suffers excessive attack; retarded if the joint is
stress-relieved.
If the service requirements indicate that residual stresses are undesirable, the
designer must take them into account when selecting materials and deciding
upon a safe working stress. This can be seen in the design of ships, where the
combination of low temperatures and residual stress could lead to brittle
fracture. The designer selects a material not susceptible to this mode of failure
even at the low temperatures which may be experienced during the working life
of the ship; the presence of residual stresses is then not important. Similarly, in
many structures subjected to loads which fluctuate during service, for example,
bridges, earthmoving equipment and cranes, the designer recognises the
existence of residual stresses by choosing a working stress range which takes
account of the role these stresses play in the formation and propagation of
fatigue cracks. There are some specific applications where it is essential to
reduce the level of residual stresses in the welded joint: With pressure vessels
because of the risk of a catastrophic failure by brittle fracture, stress-relieving is
often a statutory or insurance requirement.
19.1.3 Factors affecting residual stresses

Can be grouped into five categories:
1 Material properties.
2 Amount of restraint.
3 Joint design.
4 Fit-up.
5 Welding sequence.
19.2 Causes of distortion

Welding involves highly localised heating of joint edges to fuse the material and
non-uniform stresses are set up in the component because of expansion and
contraction of the heated material.
Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent metal
when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot metal
(HAZ) adjacent to the weld pool. Tensile stresses occur on cooling when the
contraction of the weld metal and immediate HAZ is resisted by the bulk of the
cold parent metal.
WIS5-90516b
The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by the
volume change in the weld area on solidification and subsequent cooling to
room temperature. For example, when welding C-Mn steel, the molten weld
metal volume will be reduced by approximately 3% on solidification and the
volume of the solidified weld metal/HAZ will be reduced by a further 7% as its
temperature falls from the melting point of steel to room temperature.
If the stresses generated from thermal expansion/contraction exceed the yield

strength of the parent metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal occurs,
causing a permanent reduction in the component dimensions and distorts the
structure.
19.3 The main types of distortion

 Longitudinal shrinkage.
 Transverse shrinkage.
 Angular distortion.
 Bowing and dishing.
 Buckling.
Contraction of the weld area on cooling results in both transverse and

longitudinal shrinkage.
Non-uniform contraction (through-thickness) produces angular distortion as

well as longitudinal and transverse shrinking.
For example, in a single V butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal
and transverse shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to
rotate using the first weld deposit as a fulcrum so balanced welding in a double-
sided V butt joint can produce uniform contraction and prevent angular
distortion.
In a single-sided fillet weld, non-uniform contraction will produce angular

distortion of the upstanding leg so double-sided fillet welds can be used to
control distortion in the upstanding fillet but because the weld is only deposited
on one side of the base plate, angular distortion will now be produced in the
plate.
Longitudinal bowing in welded plates happens when the weld centre is not
coincident with the neutral axis of the section so that longitudinal shrinkage in
the welds bends the section into a curved shape. Clad plate tends to bow in two
directions due to longitudinal and transverse shrinkage of the cladding,
producing a dished shape.
Dishing is also produced in stiffened plating. Plates usually dish inwards

between the stiffeners, because of angular distortion at the stiffener attachment
welds.
In plating, long range compressive stresses can cause elastic buckling in thin
plates, resulting in dishing, bowing or rippling, Figure 19.5.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 19.5 Examples of distortion.
Increasing the leg length of fillet welds, in particular, increases shrinkage.
19.4 Factors affecting distortion

If a metal is uniformly heated and cooled there would be almost no distortion
but because the material is locally heated and restrained by the surrounding
cold metal, stresses are generated higher than the material yield stress causing
permanent distortion. The principal factors affecting the type and degree of
distortion are:
 Parent material properties.

 Amount of restraint.
 Joint design.
 Part fit-up.
 Welding procedure.
19.4.1 Parent material properties

Parent material properties which influence distortion are coefficient of thermal
expansion, thermal conductivity and to a lesser extent, yield stress and Young’s
modulus. As distortion is determined by expansion and contraction of the
material so the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material plays a
significant role in determining the stresses generated during welding and the
degree of distortion. For example, as stainless steel has a higher coefficient of
expansion and lesser thermal conductivity than plain carbon steel, it generally
has significantly more distortion.
19.4.2 Restraint
If a component is welded without any external restraint, it distorts to relieve the
welding stresses. Methods of restraint such as strongbacks in butt welds, can
prevent movement and reduce distortion. Restraint produces higher levels of
residual stress in the material, so there is a greater risk of cracking in weld
metal and HAZ especially in crack-sensitive materials.
WIS5-90516b
19.4.3 Joint design
Both butt and fillet joints are prone to distortion. It can be minimised in butt
joints by adopting a joint type which balances the thermal stresses through the
plate thickness, eg double-sided in preference to a single-sided weld. Double-
sided fillet welds should eliminate angular distortion of the upstanding member
especially if the two welds are deposited at the same time.
19.4.4 Part fit-up

Fit-up should be uniform to produce predictable and consistent shrinkage.
Excessive joint gap can increase the degree of distortion by increasing the
amount of weld metal needed to fill the joint. The joints should be adequately
tacked to prevent relative movement between the parts during welding.
19.4.5 Welding procedure

This influences the degree of distortion mainly through its effect on heat input.
As welding procedures are usually selected for reasons of quality and
productivity, the welder has limited scope for reducing distortion. As a general
rule weld volume should be kept to a minimum. Also, the welding sequence and
technique should balance the thermally induced stresses around the neutral
axis of the component.
19.5 Prevention by pre-setting, pre-bending or use of restraint

Distortion can often be prevented at the design stage, eg by placing the welds
about the neutral axis, reducing the amount of welding and depositing the weld
metal using a balanced welding technique. Where this is not possible, distortion
may be prevented by one of the following:
 Pre-setting of parts.
 Pre-bending of parts.
 Use of restraint.
The technique chosen will be influenced by the size and complexity of the
component or assembly, the cost of any restraining equipment and the need to
limit residual stresses.
Figure 19.6 Pre-setting of parts to produce correct alignment after welding:

a Fillet joint to prevent angular distortion;
b Butt joint to prevent angular distortion.
19.5.1 Pre-setting
The parts are pre-set and left free to move during welding, see Figure 19.6. The
parts are pre-set by a pre-determined amount so that distortion occurring
during welding is used to achieve overall alignment and dimensional control.
WIS5-90516b
The main advantages compared with restraint are there is no expensive
equipment needed and it gives lower residual stress in the structure.
As it is difficult to predict the amount of pre-setting needed to accommodate

shrinkage, a number of trial welds will be required. For example when MMA or
MIG/MAG welding butt joints the joint gap will normally close ahead of welding;
whereas with SAW the joint may open up during welding. When carrying out
trial welds it is essential that the test structure is reasonably representative of
the full size structure to generate the level of distortion likely to occur. So pre-
setting is more suitable for simple components or assemblies.
19.5.2 Pre-bending
Pre-bending or pre-springing parts before welding pre-stresses the assembly to
counteract shrinkage during welding. As shown in Figure 19.7, pre-bending
using strongbacks and wedges can pre-set a seam before welding to
compensate for angular distortion. Releasing the wedges after welding will
allows the parts to move back into alignment.
The figure below shows the diagonal bracings and centre jack used to pre-bend
the fixture, not the component, counteracting the distortion introduced through
out-of-balance welding.
Figure 19.7 Pre-bending using strongbacks and wedges to accommodate

angular distortion in thin plates.
19.5.3 Use of restraint

Because of the difficulty in applying pre-setting and pre-bending restraint is the
more widely used technique. The basic principle is that the parts are placed in
position and held under restraint to minimise any movement during welding.
When removing the component from the restraining equipment a relatively
small amount of movement will occur due to locked-in stresses which can be
cured by applying a small amount of pre-set or stress-relieving before removing
the restraint.
When welding assemblies all the component parts should be held in the correct
position until completion of welding and a suitably balanced fabrication
sequence used to minimise distortion.
Welding with restraint will generate additional residual stresses in the weld
which may cause cracking. When welding susceptible materials a suitable
welding sequence and the use of preheating will reduce this risk. Restraint is
relatively simple to apply using clamps, jigs and fixtures.
WIS5-90516b
Welding jigs and fixtures
Used to locate the parts and ensure that dimensional accuracy is maintained
whilst welding, can be of a relatively simple construction as shown in Figure
19.8a but the welding engineer will need to ensure that the finished fabrication
can be removed easily after welding.
Flexible clamps
Can be effective in applying restraint but also in setting up and maintaining the
joint gap (can also be used to close a gap that is too wide), Figure 19.8b.
A disadvantage is that as the restraining forces in the clamp will be transferred

into the joint when the clamps are removed, the level of residual stress across
the joint can be quite high.
a b
c d
Figure 19.8 Restraint techniques to prevent distortion:

a Welding jig;
b Flexible clamp;
c Strongbacks with wedges;
d Fully wedged strongbacks.
Strongbacks and wedges

A popular way of applying restraint especially for site work, wedged
strongbacks (Figure 19.8c), will prevent angular distortion in plate and help
prevent peaking in welding cylindrical shells. As they allow transverse shrinkage
the cracking risk will be greatly reduced compared with fully welded
strongbacks.
WIS5-90516b
Fully welded (welded on both sides of the joint) strongbacks (Figure 19.8d) will
minimise both angular distortion and transverse shrinkage. As significant
stresses can be generated across the weld which will increase any tendency for
cracking, care should be taken in their use.
19.5.4 Best practice

Adopting the following assembly techniques will help control distortion:
 Pre-set parts so that welding distortion will achieve overall alignment and
dimensional control with the minimum of residual stress.
 Pre-bend joint edges to counteract distortion and achieve alignment and
dimensional control with minimal residual stress.
 Apply restraint during welding using jigs and fixtures, flexible clamps,
strongbacks and tack welding but consider the cracking risk which can be
quite significant, especially for fully welded strongbacks.
 Use an approved procedure for welding and removal of welds for restraint
techniques which may need preheat to avoid inperfections forming in the
component surface.
19.6 Prevention by design

Design principles
At the design stage welding distortion can often be prevented or restricted by
considering:
 Elimination of welding.
 Weld placement.
 Reducing the volume of weld metal.
 Reducing the number of runs.
 Use of balanced welding.
19.6.1 Elimination of welding

As distortion and shrinkage are an inevitable result of welding, good design
requires that welding is kept to a minimum and the smallest amount of weld
metal is deposited. Welding can often be eliminated at the design stage by
forming the plate or using a standard rolled section, as shown in Figure 19.9.
Figure 19.9 Elimination of welds by:

a Forming the plate;
b Use of rolled or extruded section.
WIS5-90516b
If possible the design should use intermittent welds rather than a continuous
run to reduce the amount of welding. For example in attaching stiffening plates,
a substantial reduction in the amount of welding can often be achieved whilst
maintaining adequate strength.
19.6.2 Weld placement

Placing and balancing of welds are important in designing for minimum
distortion. The closer a weld is to the neutral axis of a fabrication, the lower the
leverage effect of the shrinkage forces and the final distortion. Examples of
poor and good designs are shown in Figure 19.10.
Figure 19.10 Distortion may be reduced by placing the welds around the
neutral axis.
As most welds are deposited away from the neutral axis, distortion can be
minimised by designing the fabrication so the shrinkage forces of an individual
weld are balanced by placing another weld on the opposite side of the neutral
axis. Where possible welding should be carried out alternately on opposite sides
instead of completing one side first. In large structures if distortion is occurring
preferentially on one side it may be possible to take corrective action, for
example, by increasing welding on the other side to control the overall
distortion.
19.6.3 Reducing the volume of weld metal

To minimise distortion as well as for economic reasons the volume of weld
metal should be limited to the design requirements. For a single-sided joint, the
cross-section of the weld should be kept as small as possible to reduce the level
of angular distortion, as illustrated in Figure 19.11.
Figure 19.11 Reducing the amount of angular distortion and lateral shrinkage.
WIS5-90516b
Ways of reducing angular distortion and lateral shrinkage:
 Reducing the volume of weld metal.

 Using single pass welds.
 Ensure fillet welds are not oversize.
Joint preparation angle and root gap should be minimised providing the weld
can be made satisfactorily. To facilitate access it may be possible to specify a
larger root gap and smaller preparation angle. By reducing the difference in the
amount of weld metal at the root and face of the weld the degree of angular
distortion will be correspondingly reduced. Butt joints made in a single pass
using deep penetration have little angular distortion, especially if a closed butt
joint can be welded (Figure 19.11). For example thin section material can be
welded using plasma and laser welding processes and thick section can be
welded in the vertical position using electrogas and electroslag processes.
Although angular distortion can be eliminated there will still be longitudinal and
transverse shrinkage.
In thick section material, as the cross-sectional area of a double V joint

preparation is often only half that of a single V, the volume of weld metal to be
deposited can be substantially reduced. The double V joint preparation also
permits balanced welding about the middle of the joint to eliminate angular
distortion.
As weld shrinkage is proportional to the amount of weld metal both poor joint
fit-up and over-welding will increase the amount of distortion. Angular
distortion in fillet welds is particularly affected by over-welding. As design
strength is based on throat thickness, over-welding to produce a convex weld
bead does not increase the allowable design strength but will increase the
shrinkage and distortion.
19.6.4 Reducing the number of runs

There are conflicting opinions on whether it is better to deposit a given volume
of weld metal using a small number of large weld passes or a large number of
small passes. Experience shows that for a single-sided butt joint, or fillet weld,
a large single weld deposit gives less angular distortion than a weld made with
a number of small runs. Generally in an unrestrained joint the degree of angular
distortion is approximately proportional to the number of passes.
Completing the joint with a small number of large weld deposits results in more
longitudinal and transverse shrinkage than using in a larger number of small
passes. In a multi-pass weld, previously deposited weld metal provides
restraint, so the angular distortion per pass decreases as the weld is built up.
Large deposits also increase the risk of elastic buckling particularly in thin
section plate.
19.6.5 Use of balanced welding

Balanced welding is an effective means of controlling angular distortion in a
multi-pass butt weld by arranging the welding sequence to ensure that angular
distortion is continually being corrected and not allowed to accumulate during
welding. Comparative amounts of angular distortion from balanced welding and
welding one side of the joint first are shown in Figure 19.12. Balanced welding
can also be applied to fillet joints.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 19.12 Balanced welding to reduce the amount of angular distortion.
If welding alternately on either side of the joint is not possible or if one side has
to be completed first, an asymmetrical joint preparation may be used with more
weld metal being deposited on the second side. The greater contraction
resulting from depositing the weld metal on the second side will help counteract
the distortion on the first side.

The following design principles can control distortion:
 Eliminate welding by forming the plate and using rolled or extruded

sections.
 Minimise the amount of weld metal.
 Do not over-weld.
 Use intermittent welding in preference to a continuous weld pass.
 Place welds about the neutral axis.
 Balance the welding about the middle of the joint by using a double rather
than a single V joint.
Adopting best practice principles can have cost benefits. For example, for a
design fillet leg length of 6mm, depositing an 8mm leg length will result in the
deposition of 57% additional weld metal. Besides the extra cost of depositing
weld metal and the increased risk of distortion, it is costly to remove this extra
weld metal later. Designing for distortion control may incur additional
fabrication costs, for example, the use of a double V joint preparation is an
excellent way to reduce weld volume and control distortion but extra costs may
be incurred in production through manipulation of the workpiece for the welder
to access the reverse side.
19.7 Prevention by fabrication techniques

19.7.1 Assembly techniques
In general, the welder has little influence on the choice of welding procedure
but assembly techniques can often be crucial in minimising distortion. The
principal assembly techniques are:
 Tack welding.
 Back-to-back assembly.
 Stiffening.
WIS5-90516b
Tack welding
Ideal for setting and maintaining the joint gap but can also be used to resist
transverse shrinkage. To be effective, thought should be given to the number of
tack welds, their length and the distance between them. Too few risks the joint
progressively closing up as welding proceeds. In a long seam using MMA or
MIG/MAG the joint edges may even overlap. When using the submerged arc
process the joint might open up if not adequately tacked.
The tack welding sequence is important to maintain a uniform root gap along
the length of the joint. Three alternative tack welding sequences are shown:
 Straight through to the end of the joint (Figure 19.13a). It is necessary to

clamp the plates or use wedges to maintain the joint gap during tacking.
 One end then use a back stepping technique for tacking the rest of the joint
(Figure 19.13b).
 Centre and complete the tack welding by back stepping (Figure19.13c).
Figure 19.13 Alternative procedures used for tack welding to prevent

transverse shrinkage.
Directional tacking is useful for controlling the joint gap, for example closing a
joint gap which is or has become too wide.
When tack welding it is important that tacks to be fused into the main weld are
produced to an approved procedure using appropriately qualified welders. The
procedure may require preheat and an approved consumable as specified for
the main weld. Removal of the tacks also needs careful control to avoid causing
defects in the component surface.
Back-to-back assembly
By tack welding or clamping two identical components back-to-back, welding of
both components can be balanced around the neutral axis of the combined
assembly (see Figure 19.14a). It is recommended that the assembly is stress-
relieved before separating the components or it may be necessary to insert
wedges between the components (Figure 19.14b) so when the wedges are
removed the parts will move back to the correct shape or alignment.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 19.14 Back-to-back assembly to control distortion when welding two
identical components:
a Assemblies tacked together before welding;
b Use of wedges for components that distort on separation after welding.
Stiffening
Figure 19.15 Longitudinal stiffeners prevent bowing in butt welded thin plate
joints.
Longitudinal shrinkage in butt welded seams often results in bowing, especially

when fabricating thin plate structures. Longitudinal stiffeners in the form of flats
or angles, welded along each side of the seam (Figure 19.15) are effective in
preventing longitudinal bowing. Stiffener location is important unless located on
the reverse side of a joint welded from one side they must be placed at a
sufficient distance from the joint so they do not interfere with welding.
19.7.2 Welding procedure

A suitable procedure is usually determined by productivity and quality
requirements rather than the need to control distortion. The welding process,
technique and sequence do influence the distortion level.
Welding process
General rules for selecting a welding process to prevent angular distortion:
 Deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible.

 Use the least number of runs possible to fill the joint.
Unfortunately, selecting a suitable welding process based on these rules may

increase longitudinal shrinkage resulting in bowing and buckling.
WIS5-90516b
In manual welding, MIG/MAG, a high deposition rate process, is preferred to
MMA. Weld metal should be deposited using the largest diameter electrode
(MMA), or the highest current level (MIG/MAG) without causing lack-of-fusion
imperfections. As heating is much slower and more diffuse, gas welding
normally produces more angular distortion than the arc processes.
Mechanised techniques combining high deposition rates and welding speeds

have the greatest potential for preventing distortion. As the distortion is more
consistent, simple techniques such as pre-setting are more effective in
controlling angular distortion.
Welding technique
General rules for preventing distortion are:
 Keep the weld (fillet) to the minimum specified size.

 Use balanced welding about the neutral axis.
 Keep the time between runs to a minimum.
Figure 19.16 Angular distortion of the joint as determined by the number of

runs in the fillet weld.
Without restraint angular distortion in both fillet and butt joints is due to joint
geometry, weld size and the number of runs for a given cross-section. Angular
distortion, measured in degrees as a function of the number of runs for a 10mm
leg length fillet weld is shown.
If possible, balanced welding around the neutral axis should be done, for
example on double-sided fillet joints, by two people welding simultaneously. In
butt joints, the run order may be crucial as balanced welding can be used to
correct angular distortion as it develops.
Welding sequence
The welding sequence or direction is important and should be towards the free
end of the joint. For long welds the whole of the weld is not completed in one
direction. Short runs, for example using the back-step or skip welding
technique, are very effective in distortion control (Figure 19.16).
WIS5-90516b
Figure 19.17 Use of welding direction to control distortion:
a Back-step welding;
b Skip welding.
Back-step welding involves depositing short adjacent weld lengths – the

appropriate direction to the general progression, Figure19.17a.
Skip welding is laying short weld lengths in a predetermined, evenly spaced,

sequence along the seam (Figure 19.17b). Weld lengths and the spaces
between them are generally equal to the natural run-out length of one
electrode. The direction of deposit for each electrode is the same, but it is not
necessary for the welding direction to be opposite to the direction of general
progression.

The following fabrication techniques are used to control distortion:
 Tack welds to set-up and maintain the joint gap.

 Identical components welded back-to-back so welding can be balanced
about the neutral axis.
 Attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in butt
welds of thin plate structures.
 Where there is a choice of welding procedure, process and technique should
aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible; MIG/MAG in preference
to MMA or gas welding and mechanised rather than manual welding.
 In long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one direction;
back-step or skip welding techniques should be used.
19.8 Corrective techniques

Distortion should be avoided at the design stage and by using suitable
fabrication procedures. As it is not always possible to avoid distortion during
fabrication, several well-established corrective techniques can be used.
Reworking to correct distortion should not be undertaken lightly as it is costly
and needs considerable skill to avoid damaging the component.
General guidelines are provided on best practice for correcting distortion using
mechanical or thermal techniques.
WIS5-90516b
19.8.1 Mechanical techniques
The principal techniques are hammering which may cause surface damage and
work hardening.
With bowing or angular distortion the complete component can often be

straightened on a press without the disadvantages of hammering. Packing
pieces are inserted between the component and the platens of the press. It is
important to impose sufficient deformation to give over-correction so that the
normal elastic spring-back will allow the component to assume its correct
shape.
Figure 19.18 Use of press to correct bowing in a T butt joint.
Pressing to correct bowing in flanged plate in long components distortion is

removed progressively in a series of incremental pressings; each one acting
over a short length. With flanged plate, the load should act on the flange to
prevent local damage to the web at the load points. As incremental point
loading will only produce an approximately straight component, it is better to
use a former to achieve a straight component or to produce a smooth
curvature.
Best practice for mechanical straightening

The following should be adopted when using pressing techniques to remove
distortion:
 Use packing pieces which will over-correct the distortion so that the spring-
back will return the component to the correct shape.
 Check that the component is adequately supported during pressing to
prevent buckling.
 Use a former or rolling to achieve a straight component or produce a
curvature.
 As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the following safe
practices must be adopted:
- Bolt the packing pieces to the platen.
19.8.2 Thermal techniques

The basic principle is to create sufficiently high local stresses so that on cooling
the component is pulled back into shape.
WIS5-90516b
Achieved by locally heating the material to a temperature where plastic
deformation will occur as the hot, low yield strength material tries to expand
against the surrounding cold, higher yield strength metal. On cooling to room
temperature the heated area will attempt to shrink to a smaller size than before
heating. The stresses generated pull the component into the required shape
(Figure 19.19).
Figure 19.19 Localised heating to correct distortion.
Local heating is a relatively simple but an effective means of correcting welding

distortion. Shrinkage level is determined by size, number, location and
temperature of the heated zones. Thickness and plate size determine the area
of the heated zone, number and placement of heating zones are largely a
question of experience and for new jobs, tests will often be needed to quantify
the level of shrinkage.
Spot, line, or wedge-shaped heating techniques can be used in thermal

correction of distortion.
Spot heating
Figure 19.20 Spot heating for correcting buckling.
Spot heating is used to remove buckling, for example when a relatively thin
sheet has been welded to a stiff frame. Distortion is corrected by spot heating
on the convex side. If the buckling is regular, the spots can be arranged
symmetrically, starting at the centre of the buckle and working outwards.
WIS5-90516b
Line heating
Figure 19.20 Line heating to correct angular distortion in a fillet weld.
Heating in straight lines is often used to correct angular distortion, for example,
in fillet welds, Figure 19.20. The component is heated along the line of the
welded joint but on the opposite side to the weld so the induced stresses will
pull the flange flat.
Wedge-shaped heating
To correct distortion in larger complex fabrications it may be necessary to heat
whole areas in addition to using line heating. The pattern aims at shrinking one
part of the fabrication to pull the material back into shape.
Apart from spot heating of thin panels, a wedge-shaped heating zone should be
used; Figure 19.21 from base to apex and the temperature profile should be
uniform through the plate thickness. For thicker section material it may be
necessary to use two torches, one on each side of the plate.
Figure 19.21 Use of wedge-shaped heating to straighten plate.
As a general guideline, to straighten a curved plate wedge dimensions should

be:
 Length of wedge - two-thirds of the plate width.

 Width of wedge (base), one sixth of its length (base to apex).
The degree of straightening will typically be 5mm in a 3m length of plate.

Wedge-shaped heating can be used to correct distortion in a variety of
situations, Figure 19.22.
WIS5-90516b
a b
Figure 19.22 Wedge-shaped heating to correct distortion:

a Standard rolled section which needs correction in two planes;
b Buckle at edge of plate as an alternative to rolling;
c Box section fabrication distorted out of plane.
General precautions
The dangers of using thermal straightening techniques are over-shrinking too
large an area or causing metallurgical changes by heating to too high a
temperature. When correcting distortion in steels the temperature of the area
should be restricted to approximately 600-650°C, dull red heat. If the heating is
interrupted or the heat lost, the operator must allow the metal to cool then
begin again.
Best practice for distortion correction by thermal heating

The following should be adopted when using thermal techniques to remove
distortion:
 Use spot heating to remove buckling in thin sheet structures.

 Other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped heating
technique.
 Use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate.
 Restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrinking the component.
 Limit the temperature to 600-650°C (dull red heat) in steels to prevent
metallurgical damage.
 In wedge-shaped heating, heat from the base to the apex of the wedge,
penetrate evenly through the plate thickness and maintain an even
temperature.
WIS5-90516b
Residual Stress and
Distortion Objective
should be able to identify the reasons and
preventions of residual stress and distortion.
Residual Stress and Distortion
Section 19
Residual Stress Residual Stress
In case of a heated bar, the resistance of the

surrounding material to the expansion and
At room temperature
contraction leads to formation of residual stress.
On heating to 400°C
On cooling to room
200mm 1mm temperature
Residual Stress Residual Stress
Cool with
restraint
Ambient temperature.
present Heat to 400°C.
Cool with restraint present.
200mm
Cool with
restraint
removed The resistance of the surrounding material to the
expansion and contraction leads to formation of
residual stress.
199mm 1
19-1
Residual Stress Types of Residual Stress
Origins of residual stress in welded joints Transverse residual stress after welding
Maximum stress = YS at room temperature
Tension
Cold weld unfused
Compression
Hot weld
Cold weld fused The longer the weld, the higher the tensile stress!
Types of Residual Stress Types of Residual Stress
Longitudinal residual stress after welding Compression Tension
Compression Tension
Residual stress
after PWHT
YS at room
temperature
YS at PWHT YS at room
temperature temperature
The higher the heat input the wider the tensile zone! After PWHT, peak residual stress is less than a quarter of its initial level!
Residual Stress Types of Distortion
Residual stresses are undesirable because: Transverse shrinkage

 They lead to distortion.
 They affect dimensional stability of the welded
assembly.
 They enhance the risk of brittle fracture.
19-2
Distortion Distortion
Origins of distortion in welded joints:
Hot weld and HAZ.
400mm
5mm
Separate cooling.
398mm
Combined cooling.
400mm
Residual Stress
Heating and cooling

causes expansion
and contraction.
Distortion Prevention Distortion Prevention
Distortion prevention by restraint techniques. Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques
Tack welding
Use of fully welded strongbacks. a Tack weld straight through
to end of joint.
7
1 5
2 3
3 41 25 4
6 6
7
b Tack weld one end, then
use back-step technique
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
for tacking the rest of the
joint.
c Tack weld the centre, then
complete the tack welding
by the back-step
Use of strongbacks with wedges. technique.
19-3
Distortion Factors Affecting Distortion
Factors affecting distortion: Parent material properties:

 Parent material properties.  Thermal expansion coefficient - the greater the
 Amount of restrain. value, the greater the residual stress.
 Joint design.  Yield strength - the greater the value, the
 Fit-up. greater the residual stress.
 Welding sequence.  Thermal conductivity - the higher the value, the
lower the residual stress.
Factors Affecting Distortion Factors Affecting Distortion
Joint design: Welding sequence:

 Weld metal volume.  Number of passes - every pass adds to the
 Type of joint - butt vs. fillet, single vs double side. total contraction.
Amount of restrain:  Travel speed - the faster the welding speed,
 Thickness - as thickness increases, so do the the less the stress.
stresses.  Build-up sequence.
 High level of restrain lead to high stresses.
 Preheat may increase the level of stresses.
Fit-up:
 Root gap - increase in root gap increases
shrinkage.
Types of Distortion Distortion Prevention
Angular distortion Distortion prevention by design

Consider eliminating the welding!!
Transverse shrinkage
producing angular
distortion.
Transverse
shrinkage
producing a. By forming the plate.
distortion. b. By use of rolled or extruded sections.
19-4
Distortion prevention by design Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques

Consider weld placement. Back to back assembly
Neutral
axis a. Assemblies tacked
Neutral
axis
together before
welding.
Reduce weld metal volume
and/or number of runs. b. Use of wedges for
components that
distort on separation
after welding.
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques

 Control welding techniques by use balanced
welding about the neutral axis.
Reduce the number
of runs required to  Control welding techniques by keeping the time
make a weld (eg between runs to a minimum.
a angular distortion
a
as a function of
number of runs for
a 10mm leg length
10mm
weld).
Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques Distortion - Best practice for fabrication

corrective techniques
Control welding techniques by:  Using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap.
 Identical components welded back to back so welding
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
can be balanced about the neutral axis.
1 4 2 5 3 6
 Attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent
longitudinal bowing in butt welds of thin plate structures.
 Where there is choice of welding procedure, process and
technique should aim to deposit the weld metal as
a. Back-step welding. b. Skip welding. quickly as possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas
welding and mechanised rather than manual welding.
 In long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in
one direction; back-step or skip welding techniques
should be used.
19-5
Section 20
Heat Treatment
20 Heat Treatment
20.1 Introduction
The heat treatment given to a particular grade of steel by the steelmaker/
supplier should be shown on the material test certificate and may be referred to
as the supply condition.
Welding inspectors may need to refer to material test certificates so must be

familiar with the terminology used and have some understanding of the
principles of some of the most commonly applied heat treatments.
Welded joints may need to be subjected to heat treatment after welding

(PWHT) and the tasks of monitoring the thermal cycle and checking the heat
treatment records are often delegated to welding inspectors.
20.2 Heat treatment of steel

The main supply conditions for weldable steels are:
As-rolled, hot roller and hot finished

Plate is hot rolled to finished size and allowed to air cool; the temperature at
which rolling finishes may differ from plate to plate and so strength and
toughness properties vary and are not optimised.
Applied to
Relatively thin, lower strength C-steel.
Thermomechanical controlled processing (TMCP), control-rolled,

thermomechanically rolled
Steel plate given precisely controlled thickness reductions during hot rolling
within carefully controlled temperature ranges; final rolling temperature is also
carefully controlled.
Applied to
Relatively thin, high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels and some steels with good
toughness at low temperatures, eg cryogenic steels.
Normalised
After working (rolling or forging) the steel to size, it is heated to ~900°C then
allowed to cool in air to ambient temperature; which optimises strength and
toughness and gives uniform properties from item to item for a particular grade
of steel (Figure 20.1).
Applied to
C-Mn steels and some low alloy steels.
WIS5-90516b
Heat Treatment 20-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Normalising:
 Rapid heating to soak temperature (100% austenite)
 Short soak time at temperature
 Cool in air to ambient temperature
Temperature, °C
~ 900°C
Time
Figure 20.1 Typical normalising heat treatment applied to C-Mn and some low
alloy steels.
Quenched and tempered

After working the steel (rolling or forging) to size it is heated to ~900°C then
cooled as quickly as possible by quenching in water or oil. After quenching, the
steel must be tempered (softened) to improve the ductility of the as-quenched
steel (Figure 20.2).
Applied to
Some low alloy steels to give higher strength toughness or wear resistance.
Quenching and tempering:

 Rapid heating to soak temperature (100%
austenite).
 Short soak time at temperature.
 Rapid cooling by quenching in water or oil.
Temperature, °C
~ 900°C  Reheat to tempering temperature, soak and air cool.
Quenching Tempering
cycle cycle
Time
Figure 20.2 A typical quenching and tempering heat treatment applied to some
low alloy steels.
WIS5-90516b
Solution annealed
Hot or cold working to size, steel heated to ~1100°C after.
Slab heating temperature > ~ 1050°C
Austenite Rolling period

()
Temperature, °C.
~ 900°C
Austenite + ferrite
( 
Ferrite + pearlite As-rolled or Control-rolled

() iron carbide hot rolled or TMCP
Time
Figure 20.3 Comparison of the control-rolled (TMCP) and as-rolled (hot rolling)
conditions.
Solution heat treated

Rapidly cooled by quenching in water to prevent any carbides or other phases
forming (Figure 20.4).
Solution heat treatment:

 Rapid heating to soak temperature (100% austenite).
 Rapid cool cooling by quenching in water or oil.
Temperature, °C
> ~ 1050°C
Quenching
Time
Figure 20.4 Typical solution heat treatment (solution annealing) applied to

austenitic stainless steels.
WIS5-90516b
Applied to
Austenitic stainless steels such as 304 and 316 grades.
Annealed
After working the steel (pressing or forging, etc) to size, it is heated to ~900°C
then allowed to cool in the furnace to ambient temperature; this reduces
strength and toughness but improves ductility (Figure 20.5).
Annealing:
 Rapid heating to soak temperature (100% austenite).
 Slow cool in furnace to ambient temperature.
Temperature, °C
~ 900°C
Time
Figure 20.5 Typical annealing heat treatment applied to C-Mn and some low
alloy steels.
Applied to
C-Mn steels and some low alloy steels.
Figures 20.1-20.5 show thermal cycles for the main supply conditions and
subsequent heat treatment that can be applied to steels.
20.3 Postweld heat treatment (PWHT)

Postweld heat treatment has to be applied to some welded steels to ensure that
the properties of the weldment is suitable for the intended applications.
The temperature at which PWHT is usually carried out well below the
temperature where phase changes can occur (see Note), but high enough to
allow residual stresses to be relieved quickly and to soften (temper) any hard
regions in the HAZ.
Note There are circumstances when a welded joint may need to be normalised
to restore HAZ toughness, these are relatively rare and it is necessary to ensure
that welding consumables are carefully selected because normalising will
significantly reduce weld metal strength.
WIS5-90516b
The major benefits of reducing residual stress and ensuring that the HAZ
hardness is not too high for steels for particular service applications are:
 Improves the resistance of the joint to brittle fracture.

 Improves the resistance of the joint to stress corrosion cracking.
 Enables welded joints to be machined to accurate dimensional tolerances.
Because the main reason for and benefit of PWHT is to reduce residual stresses,
PWHT is often called stress-relief.
20.4 PWHT thermal cycle

The Application Standard/Code will specify when PWHT is required to give the
first two benefits above and also give guidance about the thermal cycle that
must be used.
To ensure that a PWHT cycle is carried out in accordance with a particular Code,
it is essential that a PWHT procedure is prepared and the following parameters
are specified:
 Maximum heating rate.

 Soak temperature range.
 Minimum time at the soak temperature (soak time).
 Maximum cooling rate.
20.4.1 Heating rate

Must be controlled to avoid large temperature differences, (large thermal
gradients) within the fabricated item. Which will produce large stresses and
may be high enough to cause distortion or even cracking.
Application Standards usually require control of the maximum heating rate

when the temperature of the item is above ~300°C because steels start to
show significant loss of strength above this temperature and are more
susceptible to distortion if there are large thermal gradients.
The temperature of the fabricated item must be monitored during the thermal
cycle by thermocouples attached to the surface at locations representing the
thickness range of the item.
By monitoring furnace and item temperatures the rate of heating can be

controlled to ensure compliance with Code requirements at all positions
within the item.
Maximum heating rates specified for C-Mn steel depend on the thickness of the
item but tend to be in the range ~60 to ~200°C/h.
20.4.2 Soak temperature

The soak temperature specified by the Code depends on the type of steel and
thus the temperature range required reducing residual stresses to a low level.
C and C-Mn steels require a soak temperature of ~600°C whereas some low
alloy steels (such as Cr-Mo steels used for elevated temperature service)
require higher temperatures, typically in the range ~700-~760°C.
WIS5-90516b
Soak temperature is an essential variable for a WPQR, so it is very important it
is controlled within the specified limits otherwise it may be necessary to carry
out a new WPQ test to validate the properties of the item and at worst it may
not be fit-for-purpose.
20.4.3 Soak time

It is necessary to allow time for all the welded joints to experience the specified
temperature throughout the full joint thickness.
The temperature is monitored by surface contact thermocouples and it is the

thickest joint of the fabrication that governs the minimum time for temperature
equalisation.
Typical specified soak times are 1h per 25mm thickness.
20.4.4 Cooling rate

It is necessary to control the rate of cooling from the PWHT temperature for the
same reason that heating rate needs to be controlled, to avoid distortion or
cracking due to high stresses from thermal gradients.
Codes usually specify controlled cooling to ~300°C. Below this temperature the
item can be withdrawn from a furnace and allowed to cool in air because steel is
relatively strong and unlikely to suffer plastic strain by any temperature
gradients that may develop.
PWHT (C-Mn steels):

 Controlled heating rate from 300°C to soak temperature.
 Minimum soak time at temperature.
 Controlled cooling to ~ 300°C.
Temperature,°C
~ 600°C
Controlled heating
and cooling rates
~300°C
Soak
time Air cool
Time
Figure 20.6 Typical PWHT applied to C-Mn steels.
WIS5-90516b
20.5 Heat treatment furnaces
Oil- and gas-fired furnaces used for PWHT must not allow flame contact with
the fabrication as this may induce large thermal gradients.
It is also important to ensure that the fuel particularly for oil-fired furnaces does
not contain high levels of potentially harmful impurities, such as sulphur.
20.5.1 Local PWHT

For a pipeline or pipe spool it is often necessary to apply PWHT to individual
welds by local application of heat.
For this, a PWHT procedure must specify the previously described parameters
for controlling the thermal cycle but it is also necessary to specify the following:
 Width of the heated band (must be within the soak temperature range).
 Width of the temperature decay band (soak temperature to ~300°C).
Other considerations are:
 Position of the thermocouples in the heated band width and the decay band.
 If the item needs support in a particular way to allow movement/
avoid distortion.
The commonest method of heating for local PWHT is by insulated electrical

elements (electrical mats) attached to the weld.
Gas-fired, radiant heating elements can also be used.
Figure 20.7 shows typical control zones for localised PWHT of a pipe butt weld.
Weld seam
Figure 20.7 Local PWHT of a pipe girth seam.
WIS5-90516b
Heat Treatment Objective

will have a greater understanding of the different
types of heat treatment and their purposes in
material manufacture and welding operations.
Heat Treatment of Welded Structures
Section 20
Heat Treatment Heat Treatment Methods
Why? Gas furnace heat treatment

 Improve mechanical properties.
Advantages:
 Change microstructure.  Easy to set up.
 Reduce residual stress level.  Good portability.
 Change chemical composition.  Repeatability and
temperature
How?
uniformity.
 Flame oven.
 Electric oven/electric heating blankets. Disadvantages:
 induction/HF heating elements.  Limited to size of
parts.
Global Where? Local
Heat Treatment Methods Heat Treatment Methods
Local heat treatment using electric heating HF local heat treatment

blankets
Advantages:
Advantages:  High heating rates.
 Ability to vary heat.  Ability to heat a
 Ability to continuously narrow band.
maintain heat.
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:  High equipment
 Elements may burn out cost.
or arcing during heating.  Large equipment,
less portable.
20-1
Heat Treatments Heat Treatment Cycle
The inspector, in general, should ensure Variables for heat treatment process must be carefully controlled.
that: Temperature
 Equipment is as specified.
Soaking temperature
 Temperature control equipment is in good and time at the Cooling rate
condition. attained temperature
 Procedures as specified, is being used eg.
 Method of application.
 Rate of heating and cooling.
 Maximum temperature.
 Soak time. Heating rate
Time
 Temperature measurement (and calibration).
 Documentation and records. Heating Soaking Cooling
Heat Treatment Heat Treatments
Recommendations Many metals must be given heat treatment before

 Provide adequate support (low YS at high and after welding.
temperature). The inspector’s function is to ensure that the
 Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal treatment is given correctly in accordance with the
expansions. specification or as per the details supplied.
 Control soak time to equalise temperatures. Types of heat treatment available:
 Control temperature gradients - No direct flame  Preheat.
impingement.  Annealing.
 Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling.  Normalising.
 Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure  Quench hardening.
formation.  Temper.
 Stress relief.
Heat Treatments Heat Treatments
Pre-heat treatments Preheat:

 Are used to increase weldability, by reducing  We can preheat metals and alloys when welding for a
sudden reduction of temperature, and control number of reasons. Primarily we use most pre-heats to
expansion and contraction forces during welding. achieve one or more of the following:
 To control the structure of the weld metal and HAZ on
cooling.
Post weld heat treatments  To improve the diffusion of gas molecules through an
 Are used to change the properties of the weld atomic structure.
metal, controlling the formation of crystalline  To control the effects of expansion and contraction.
structures.  Preheat controls the formation of un-desirable
microstructures that are produced from rapid cooling of
certain types of steels. Martensite is an undesirable grain
structure very hard and brittle it is produced by rapid
cooling form the austenite region.
20-2
Preheat temperatures are arrived by taking Pre-heat requirements

into consideration the following:  The welding heat input Increased – Reduced.
 The heat input.  Carbon Equivalent Increased – Increased.
 The carbon equivalent (CE).  Hydrogen content Increased – Increased.
 The combined material thickness.  Combined material thickness Increased -
 The hydrogen scale required (A, B, C, D). Increased.
The temperatures mentioned are for steels: Advantages of preheat:

 Process: Pre-heat for welding.  Slows down the cooling rate, which reduces the
risk of hardening.
 Temperature: 50-2500C higher by
exception.  Allows absorbed hydrogen a better opportunity
of diffusing out, thereby reducing the risk of
 Cooling: Hold during welding.
cracking.
 Result: Prevents cracking and hard
 Removes moisture from the material being
zones.
welded.
 Improves overall fusion characteristics.
 Lowers stresses between the weld metal and
parent material by ensuring a more uniform
expansion and contraction.
Preheat Comparison Chart Methods of Measuring Preheat

175 150 125 100 75 50 20 0
200  Temperature indicating crayons (tempil sticks).
180  Thermocouples or touch pyrometers.
 At intervals along of around the joint to be welded.
Combined material
160
140  The number of measurements taken must allow the

inspector to be confident that the required temperature
thickness
120
has been reached.
100
 In certain cases the preheat must be maintained a
80 certain distance back from the joint faces.
60  If a gas flame is being used for preheat application the
40 temperature should be taken form the opposite side to
A B C D E the heat source.
20 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.53 0.55
 If this is not possible time must be allowed before
0 taking the preheat temperature eg 2 mins for 25mm
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
Heat input thickness.
20-3
Post Weld Heat Treatment Post Weld Heat Treatment
Question: Removal of residual stress

What is the main reason for carrying out PWHT (to
 At PWHT temp. the yield
steel joints)? Cr-Mo steel - typical
Strength (N/mm2 )
500 strength of steel is
reduced so that it is not
Answer:
400 strong enough to give
 To reduce residual stresses. C-Mn steel - typical
restraint.
300
Supplementary question:  Residual stress reduced
to very low level by
 What is the benefit for reduce residual 200
rearrangement of the
stresses?
Yield
atomic structure.
100
Supplementary answer: 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

 To improve resistance to brittle fracture. Temperature (°C)
Post Weld Heat Treatment Heat Treatments
PWHT Procedures - Basic Requirements Annealing (steels)

Maximum heating rate
Usually from 300 or 400°C - need to avoid large temperature  Temperature: 920°C hold for sufficient
gradients that may cause distortion/cracking. time (full austenitization).
Max rate depends on thickness but typically up to ~ 200°C/h.  Cooling: Hold, slow cooling in furnace.
Soak temperature depends on steel type - usually specified by
 Result: Produces a very soft, low
code (~550 to ~710°C).
Minimum soak time hardness material suitable
Need to make sure and whole item/full thickness reaches for cold working or
specified temp. machining operations.
Codes typically specify 1h per 25mm related to maximum Decreases toughness and l
joint thickness. owers yield stress
Maximum cooling rate
homogenising annealing.
Usually down to 400 or 300°C - for same reasons as
controlled heating rate.
Stress relief (steels) Post Hydrogen Release (according to BS EN1011-2)

 Temperature: 550-650°C no phase  Temperature: Approximately 250°C hold up
transformation. to 3 hours.
 Cooling: Hold, furnace or controlled  Cooling: Slow cool in air.
cooling.  Result: Relieves residual hydrogen
 Result: Relieves residual stresses,  Procedure: Maintaining pre-heat/
improves stability during interpass temperature after
machining, reduces hydrogen completion of welding for 2
levels, prevents stress to 3 hours.
corrosion cracking.
20-4
Any Questions
?
20-5
Section 21
Arc Welding Safety

21 Arc Welding Safety
21.1 General
Working in a safe manner, whether in the workshop or on-site, is an important
consideration in any welding operation. Responsibility for safety is on the
individuals, not only for their own but also for other people’s. The
visual/welding inspector has an important function in ensuring that safe working
legislation is in place and safe working practices implemented. The inspector
may be required to carry out safety audits of welding equipment prior to
welding, implement risk assessment/permit to work requirements or monitor
the safe working operations for a particular task during welding.
The inspector may refer to a number of documents for guidance:
 Government legislation – The Health & Safety at Work Act.

 Health & Safety Executive – COSHH Regulations, Statutory instruments.
 Work or site instructions – permits to work, risk assessment documents,
etc.
 Local Authority requirements.
There are four aspects of arc welding safety that the visual/welding inspector
must consider:
1 Electric shock.
2 Heat and light.
3 Fumes and gases.
4 Noise.
21.2 Electric shock

One of the most serious and immediate risks facing personnel involved in the
welding operation. Contact with metal parts, which are electrically hot can
cause injury or death because of the effect of the shock on the body or a fall as
a result of the reaction to electric shock.
The electric shock hazard associated with arc welding may be divided into two
categories:
1 Primary voltage shock – 230 or 460V.

2 Secondary voltage shock – 60-90V.
Primary voltage shock is very hazardous because it is much greater than the
secondary voltage of the welding equipment. Electric shock from the primary
(input) voltage can occur by touching a lead inside the welding equipment with
the power to the welder switched on while the body or hand touches the
welding equipment case or other earthed metal. Residual circuit devices (RCDs)
connected to circuit breakers of sufficient capacity will help protect the welder
and other personnel from primary electric shock.
Secondary voltage shock occurs when touching a part of the electrode circuit,
perhaps a damaged area on the electrode cable and another part of the body
touches both sides of the welding circuit (electrode and work or welding earth)
at the same time.
Most welding equipment is unlikely to exceed OCVs of 100V, but electric shock,
even at this level can be serious, so the welding circuit should be fitted with low
voltage safety devices to minimise the potential of secondary electric shock.
WIS5-90516b
Arc Welding Safety 21-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
A correctly wired welding circuit should contain three leads:
1 Welding lead from one terminal of the power source to the electrode holder
or welding torch.
2 Welding return lead to complete the circuit from the work to the other
terminal of the power source.
3 Earth lead from the work to an earth point. The power source should also
be earthed.
All three leads should be capable of carrying the highest welding current
required.
To establish whether the capacity of any piece of current carrying equipment is

adequate for the job, the visual/welding inspector can refer to the duty cycle of
the equipment. All current carrying welding equipment is rated in terms of:
Duty cycle
All current carrying conductors heat up when welding current is passed through
them. Duty cycle is a measure of the capability of the welding equipment in
terms of the ratio of welding time to total time which can be expressed as:
W
e
l
d
i
n a
g t
t
i m
m e
e
D
u
t
y
c
y
c
l
e
x
1
0
0
T
o
t
l
i
By observing this ratio the current carrying conductors will not be heated above
their rated temperature. Duty cycles are based on a total time of 10 minutes.
For example: a power source has a rated output of 350A at 60% duty cycle.
This particular power source will deliver 350A (it’s rated output) for six minutes
out of every ten minutes without overheating.
Failure to carefully observe the duty cycle of equipment can over-stress the part
and with welding equipment cause overheating leading to instability and the
potential for electric shock.
21.3 Heat and light

21.3.1 Heat
In arc welding electrical energy is converted into heat and light energies, both
of which can have serious health consequences.
The welding arc creates sparks with the potential to cause flammable materials
near the welding area to ignite and cause fires. The welding area should be
clear of all combustible materials and the inspector should know where the
nearest fire extinguishers are and the correct type to use if a fire does break
out.
Welding sparks can cause serious burns so protective clothing, such as welding
gloves, flame retardant coveralls and leathers must be worn around any
welding operation to protect against heat and sparks.
WIS5-90516b
21.3.2 Light
Light radiation is emitted by the welding arc in three principal ranges:
Type Wavelength, nanometres

Infrared (heat) >700
Visible light 400-700
Ultraviolet radiation <400
Ultraviolet radiation (UV)

All arc processes generate UV and excess exposure causes skin inflammation
and possibly skin cancer or permanent eye damage. The main risk amongst
welders and inspectors is inflammation of the cornea and conjunctiva,
commonly known as arc eye or flash.
Arc eye is caused by UV radiation which damages the outmost protective layer
of cells in the cornea. Gradually the damaged cells die and fall off the cornea
exposing highly sensitive nerves in the cornea to the comparatively rough inner
part of the eyelid, causing intense pain, usually described as sand in the eye
which becomes even more acute if the eye is then exposed to bright light.
Arc eye develops some hours after exposure, which may not even have been
noticed. The sand in the eye symptom and pain usually lasts for 12-24 hours
but can be longer in more severe cases. Fortunately it is almost always a
temporary condition. In the unlikely event of prolonged and frequently repeated
exposures permanent damage can occur.
Treatment of arc eye is simply: rest in a dark room. A qualified person or

hospital casualty department can administer various soothing anaesthetic eye
drops which can provide almost instantaneous relief. Prevention is better than
cure and wearing safety glasses with side shields will considerably reduce the
risk of this condition.
Ultraviolet effects upon the skin

The UV from arc processes does not produce the browning effect of sunburn but
results in reddening and irritation caused by changes in the minute surface
blood vessels. In extreme cases, the skin may be severely burned and blisters
form. The reddened skin may die and flake off in a day or so. With intense
prolonged or frequent exposure skin cancers can develop.
Visible light
Intense visible light particularly approaching UV or blue light wavelengths
passes through the cornea and lens and can dazzle and, in extreme cases,
damage the network of optically sensitive nerves on the retina. Wavelengths of
visible light approaching infrared have slightly different effects but can produce
similar symptoms. Effects depend on the duration and intensity of exposure and
to some extent the individual's natural reflex action to close the eye and
exclude the incident light. Normally this dazzling does not produce a long-term
effect.
WIS5-90516b
Infrared radiation
Infrared radiation is of longer wavelength than the visible light frequencies and
is perceptible as heat. The main hazard to the eyes is that prolonged exposure
(over years) causes a gradual but irreversible opacity of the lens. Fortunately,
the infrared radiation emitted by normal welding arcs causes damage only
within a comparatively short distance from the arc. There is an immediate
burning sensation in the skin surrounding the eyes should they be exposed to
arc heat and the natural reaction is to move or cover up to prevent the skin
heating, which also reduces eye exposure.
BS EN 169 specifies a range of permanent filter shades of gradually increasing

optical density which limit exposure to radiation emitted by different processes
at different currents. It must be stressed that shade numbers indicated in the
standard and the corresponding current ranges are for guidance only.
21.4 Fumes and gases

21.4.1 Fumes
Because of the variables involved in fume generation from arc welding and
allied processes (the welding process and electrode, base metal, coatings on
the base metal and other possible contaminants in the air), the dangers of
welding fume can be considered in a general way. Although health
considerations vary according to the type of fume composition and individual
reactions the following holds true for most welding fume.
The fume plume contains solid particles from the consumables, base metal and
base metal coating. Depending on the length of exposure to these fumes, most
acute effects are temporary and include symptoms of burning eyes and skin,
dizziness, nausea and fever. Zinc fumes can cause metal fume fever, a
temporary illness similar to flu. Chronic, long-term exposure to welding fumes
can lead to siderosis (iron deposits in the lungs) and may affect pulmonary
function. Cadmium, is a toxic metal found on steel as a coating or in silver
solder. Cadmium fumes can be fatal even under brief exposure, with symptoms
much like those of metal fume fever. These two should not be confused. Twenty
minutes of welding in the presence of cadmium can be enough to cause
fatalities, with symptoms appearing within an hour and death five days later.
21.4.2 Gases
The gases resulting from arc welding present a potential hazard. Most of the
shielding gases (argon, helium and carbon dioxide) are non-toxic when
released, but displace oxygen in the breathing air, causing dizziness,
unconsciousness and death the longer the brain is denied oxygen.
Some degreasing compounds such as trichlorethylene and perchlorethylene can

decompose from the heat and UV radiation to produce toxic gases. Ozone and
nitrogen oxides are produced when UV radiation hits the air and can cause
headaches, chest pains, irritation of the eyes and itchiness in the nose and
throat.
WIS5-90516b
To reduce the risk of hazardous fumes and gases, keep the head out of the
fume plume. As obvious as this sounds it is a common cause of fume and gas
over-exposure because the concentration of fumes and gases is greatest in the
plume. In addition, use mechanical ventilation or local exhaust at the arc to
direct the fume plume away from the face. If this is not sufficient, use fixed or
moveable exhaust hoods to draw the fume from the general area. Finally, it
may be necessary to wear an approved respiratory device if sufficient
ventilation cannot be provided. As a rule of thumb, if the air is visibly clear and
the welder is comfortable, the ventilation is probably adequate.
To identify hazardous substances, first read the material safety data sheet for
the consumable to see what fumes can be reasonably expected from use of the
product. Refer to the Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) as defined in the
COSHH regulations which gives maximum concentrations to which a healthy
adult can be exposed to any one substance. Second, know the base metal and
determine if a paint or coating would cause toxic fumes or gases. Particular
attention should also be made to the dangers of asphyxiation when welding in
confined spaces. Risk assessment, permits to work and gas testing are some of
the necessary actions required to ensure the safety of all personnel.
Noise
Exposure to loud noise can permanently damage hearing, cause stress and
increase blood pressure. Working in a noisy environment for long periods can
contribute to tiredness, nervousness and irritability. If the noise exposure is
greater than 85 decibels averaged over an 8 hour period then hearing
protection must be worn and annual hearing tests carried out.
Normal welding operations are not associated with noise level problems with
two exceptions: Plasma arc welding and air carbon arc cutting. If either of these
is to be performed then hearing protectors must be worn. The noise associated
with welding is usually due to ancillary operations such as chipping, grinding
and hammering. Hearing protection must be worn when carrying out or when
working in the vicinity of these operations.
21.5 Summary
The best way to manage the risks associated with welding is by implementing
risk management programmes. Risk management requires the identification of
hazards, assessment of the risks and implementation of suitable controls to
reduce the risk to an acceptable level.
It is essential to evaluate and review a risk management programme.

Evaluation involves ensuring that control measures have eliminated or reduced
the risks and review the aims to check that the process is working effectively to
identify hazards and manage risks.
It is quite likely that the visual/welding inspector will be involved in managing

the risks associated with welding as part of their duties.
WIS5-90516b
Welding Safety Objective

should be very aware of the risks posed in
welding and cutting operations.
Welding Safety
Section 21
Welding Related Risks Fire and Explosion
 Fire and explosion. Weld away flammable

 Fume and gases. materials
 Electrical shock.  Secure gas cylinders.
 Eye injuries.
 Skin burns.
 Mechanical hazards. Use flashback arrestors
 Protect the floor - layer
of sand or fire retardant
sheets.
Fire and Explosion Fire and Explosion Hazard Onsite
Gas cylinders must be

correctly secured,
otherwise:
1. May cause direct injury.
2. May snatch hoses and
blowpipe.
3. Regulator may break off
escape of gas.
4. Valve may break off escape of gas.
5. Valve may break off cylinder accelerating by
rocket action.
21-1
Checking Gas Cylinder for Leaks Welding Fume and Gases
Effect of welding fume and gasses on health:

 Fume - particulate and toxic: irritation of nose, throat,
lungs, asphyxiation.
 Ozone - irritation of nose, throat lungs; excess mucous
 Leak testing. secretion, coughing.
 Nitrous oxide, hydrogen chloride, phosgene - delayed
irritation and toxic effect on upper respiratory tract;
 Acetylene screws are
excess fluid in lungs.
left handed!
 Carbon monoxide - oxygen deficiency, drowsiness,
headache, nausea; fatal oxygen starvation.
 Carbon dioxide - oxygen deficiency, asphyxiation.
 Argon, helium, nitrogen – asphyxiation.
 Hydrogen, other fuel gases - explosion, fire, asphyxiation.
Welding Fume Welding Fume
Welding fume Things to be addressed:

sources: • Composition of the fume.
 Parent material. • Concentration of the fume.
(Cr6 thought to be
• Duration of exposure.
carcinogenic!)
 Welding consumables.
(filler, flux, gas).
 Action of heat/UV on air: Fume health effects:
Nitrous oxide and ozone.
 Surface treatments. Respiratory Metal fume Systemic Chronic
(paint, plating, tract irritation fever poisoning effects
coatings).
 Cleaning fluids.
Control of substances hazardous to health COSHH regulations requires fume

(COSHH) regulations set occupational measurement:
exposure limits
a. In workshop.
8hr TWA 10min TWA
b. In breathing zone.
mg/m³ mg/m³
Iron 5 10 c. Regular monitoring.
Cr6 0.5 d. Regular auditing.
Ozone 0.2 0.6
Cadmium 0.05 0.05
Weld fume 5 Note: COSHH regulations covers also noise
Aluminum 5 exposure.
TWA - Time waited average
21-2
How to avoid welding How to avoid welding fume exposure:

fume exposure:  Use fresh air welding helmets.
 Keep head out of fume.  Use respirators as second line of defense.
 Work upwind of weld.
 Use local fume
extraction.
Respiratory Protective Equipment

Electrical Shock
(RPE) Requirements
 Must be suitable for purpose. Points to be considered:
 Must be approved by relevant organisations. O.C.V. : for AC - 80V; for DC - 70V.
 Must be fully maintained.
Modern equipment: 50V.
 Must be safely stored.
 Must be correctly fitted. Plasma cutting: over 100V.
 Selection, maintenance and fitting require TIG uses HF: round 20,000V.
trained staff.
 Users must be trained in its use.
RPE can adversely affect:
 Communication.  Visibility.
 Work rate.  Use of other PPE.
 Mobility.  Tool use.
Electrical Shock Electrical Shock
Points to be considered: Welding current flows in

crane hook, wire rope,
Check weld connections and cable insulation.
crane bearings weakens
and damage them.
Possibly burning out the

crane electrics!
Bad! Good!
21-3
Electrical Shock Eye Injuries and Skin Burns
Welding return lead Electric arc produces ultra violet/infra red light
runs directly to the Gives arc eye and skin burns!
work: No damage. Measures to be taken:
 Wear PPE.
Earth lead divert  Choose shade of filter according to welding process.
current from the
crane:
Supplementary
safeguard.
Eye Injuries and Skin Burns Skin Burns
 Wear safety goggles and visor during grinding. Do NOT leave flame
 Wear ear defenders. unattended!
Warning
notice
Fire extinguisher (if

any combustible
material nearby!)
Work in Confined Spaces Summary
Definition: Any place by virtue of its enclosed  Be aware of health and safety regulations for each specific
nature, there is a foreseeable risk of any specified application!
 Are the cables the right size for your job?
occurrence.
 Are they spread out or run neatly to prevent overheating?
Example: chambers, tanks, silos, pits, pipes, etc.  Is the work lead connected securely?
 Is there enough insulation between your body and the
Specified occurrence:
work piece?
 Fire or explosion.  Are all connections tight, including the earth ground?
 Loss of consciousness or asphyxiation due to  Are electrode holder and welding cable in good
gas, fumes, vapour or lack of oxygen. conditions?
 Do not operate with power source covers removed!
 Drowning.  Disconnect input power before servicing!
 Asphyxiation due to free flowing solid.  Do not touch electrically live parts or electrode with skin
or wet clothing!
 Loss of consciousness due to high temperature.
 Insulate yourself from work and ground!
21-4
Any Questions
?
21-5
Section 22
Calibration
22 Calibration
22.1 Introduction
BS EN 50504 - Code of practice for validation of arc welding equipment, is a
standard that gives guidance to:
 Manufacturers about the accuracy required from output meters fitted to

welding equipment to show welding current, voltage, etc.
 End users who need to ensure that output meters provide accurate
readings.
The Standard refers to two grades of equipment, standard and precision:
 Standard: Suitable for manual and semi-automatic welding processes.
 Precision: Intended for mechanised or automatic welding because there is

usually a need for greater precision for all welding variables as well as the
prospect of the equipment being used for higher duty cycle welding.
22.2 Terminology
BS EN 50504 defines the terms it uses, such as:
Calibration Operations for the purpose of determining the magnitude of errors of a

measuring instrument, etc.
Validation Operations for the purpose of demonstrating that an item of welding
equipment, or a welding system, conforms to the operating specification
for that equipment or system.
Accuracy Closeness of an observed quantity to the defined, or true, value.
When considering welding equipment, those with output meters for welding
parameters (current, voltage, travel speed, etc) can be calibrated by checking
the meter reading with a more accurate measuring device and adjusting the
readings appropriately.
Equipment that does not have output meters (some power sources for MMA,
MIG/MAG) cannot be calibrated but can be validated to see the controls are
functioning properly.
22.3 Calibration frequency

BS EN 50504 recommends re-calibration/validation at:
 Yearly intervals (following an initial consistency test at three monthly

intervals) for standard grade equipment.
 Six monthly intervals for precision grade equipment.
The Standard also recommends that re-calibration/validation may be necessary

more frequently. Factors that need to be considered are:
 Equipment manufacturer’s recommendations.

 User’s requirements.
 If the equipment has been repaired re-calibration should always be carried
out.
 If there is a reason to believe the performance of the equipment has
deteriorated.
WIS5-90516b
Calibration 22-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
22.4 Instruments for calibration
Instruments used for calibration should:
 Be calibrated by a recognised calibrator using standards traceable to a

national standard.
 Be at least twice and preferably five times more accurate than the accuracy
required for the grade of equipment.
 For precision grade equipment it will be necessary to use instruments with
much greater precision must be used for checking output meters.
22.5 Calibration methods

The Standard gives details about the characteristics of power source types, how
many readings should be taken for each parameter and guidance on
precautions that may be necessary.
For the main welding parameters, recommendations from the Standard are as
follows:
Current
Details are given about the instrumentation requirements and how to measure
pulsed current but there are requirements given, specified, or recommendations
made, about where in the circuit current measurements should be made.
The implication is that current can be measured at any position in the circuit –
the value should be the same.
Voltage
The standard emphasises that for processes where voltage is pre-set (on
constant voltage the power sources) the connection points used for the voltage
meter incorporated into the power source may differ from the arc voltage,
which is the important parameter.
To obtain an accurate measure of arc voltage, the voltage meter should be

positioned as near as practical to the arc.
This is illustrated by Figure 22.1 which shows the power source voltage meter
connected across points 1 and 7.
WIS5-90516b
Power
source
2 3
77 1 Wire
feeder
4
Arc voltage
{ 5
5
6
6
Figure 22.1 A welding circuit (for MIG/MAG).
However because there will be some voltage drops in sections 1-2, 3-4 and 6-7
due to connection points introducing extra resistance into the circuit, the
voltage meter reading on the power source will tend to give a higher reading
than the true arc voltage.
Even if the power source voltage meter is connected across points 3 and 7
(which it may be) the meter reading would not take account of any significant
voltage drops in the return cable, section 6-7.
WIS5-90516b
The magnitude of any voltage drops in the welding circuit will depend on cable
diameter, length and temperature and the Standard emphasises the following:
 It is desirable to measure the true arc voltage between points 4-5 but for
some welding processes it is not practical to measure arc voltage so close to
the arc.
 For MMA it is possible to take a voltage reading relatively close to the arc by
connecting one terminal of the voltmeter through the cable sheath as close
as ~2m from the arc and connect the other terminal to the workpiece (or to
earth).
 For MIG/MAG the nearest practical connection points have to be 3-5 but a
change from an air to a water-cooled torch or vice versa may have a
significant effect on the measured voltage.
 Voltage drops between points 5-6 will be insignificant if there is a good
connection of the return cable at point 6.
The Standard gives guidance about minimising any drop in line voltage by
ensuring that the:
 Current return cable is as short as practical and is heavy, low resistance,

cable.
 Current/return connector is suitably rated and firmly attached so does not
overheat due to high resistance.
The Standard gives data for line voltage drops (DC voltage) according to
current, cable cross-section and length (for both copper and aluminium cables).
Wire feed speed

For constant voltage (self-adjusting arc) processes such as MIG/MAG the
standard recognises that calibration of the wire feeder is generally not needed
because it is linked to current.
If calibration is required it is recommended that the time is measured (in

seconds) for ~1m of wire to be delivered (using a stopwatch or an electronic
timer). The length of wire should then be measured (with a steel rule) to an
accuracy of 1mm and the feed speed calculated.
Travel speed
Welding manipulators, such as rotators and robotic manipulators, as well as the
more conventional linear travel carriages, influence heat input and other
properties of a weld and should be checked at intervals. Most of the standard
devices can be checked using a stopwatch and measuring rule but more
sophisticated equipment, such as a tacho-generator, may be appropriate.
WIS5-90516b
Calibration Objectives

will have a greater understanding of why we
need calibration and validation to monitor in
process operations.
Calibration
Section 22
Calibration/Validation Calibration/Validation
BS 7570: Covers the calibration and validation Calibration can only be done on equipment with
of welding equipment. meters or gauges as theses can be adjusted.
Grade 1 (general purpose equipment) all Validation can be done on equipment with and
parameters should be +/- 10%. without meters or gauges.
Grade 2 (Automatic or automated equipment) Oil fill transformers etc.

parameters should be +/- 2.5% for current and
+/- 5% for all other parameters. All equipment can be Validated but not all
equipment can be Calibrated.
Measuring in Welding Welding Current Measurement
The purposes Definition: The current delivered by a welding

of measuring power source during welding.
 Measured with an ammeter.
Demonstration of
Welding process  Measured in A.
conformance to specified
requirements control  The ammeter may be connected at any point in
the circuit.
 Due to its sensitivity, a shunt is needed.
Parameters to be measured:  Indirect measurement: Tachogenerator and tong
tester.
 Welding current.  Preheat/inter-pass
 Arc voltage. temperature.
 Travel speed.  Force/pressure.
 Shielding gas flow rate.  Humidity.
22-1
The Tong Tester Arc Voltage Measurement
 Used for AC current Definition: The potential difference across the

 No need to insert the welding arc.
meter into the circuit.  Varies with the arc length.
 Measured with a voltmeter.
 Measured in V.
 The voltmeter may be connected only across the
circuit (to the workpiece and as close as possible
to the electrode).
 If the voltmeter is connected at the welding power
source, a higher voltage will be recorded (due to
potential drops across cables).
 Usually not required for MMA and TIG.
Travel Speed Measurement Gas Flow Rate Measurement
Definition: The rate of weld progression. Definition: The rate at which gas is caused to
 Measured in case of mechanised and automatic flow.
welding processes.
 In case of MMA can be determined using ROL and Set with a gas regulator Can be checked with a flowmeter
arc time.
Welding Temperatures Definitions Welding Temperatures - Where?
Preheat  Is the temperature of the workpiece in Point of measurement -

temperature the weld zone immediately before any see BS EN ISO 13916
welding operation (including tack
welding).
Interpass  Normally expressed as a minimum.  If t  50mm - A = 4 x t
temperature  Is the temperature in a multirun weld but max. 50mm.
and adjacent parent metal immediately
prior to the application of the next run.  The temperature shall
 Normally expressed as a maximum. be measured on the
surface of the
Minimum interpass temperature = Preheat temperature
workpiece facing the
 Is the minimum temperature in the weld welder.
Preheat zone which shall be maintained if
Maintenance welding is interrupted.
temperature  Shall be monitored during interruption.
22-2
Welding Temperatures - Where? Welding Temperatures - How?
Point of measurement - Test equipment

see BS EN ISO 13916
 If t > 50mm - A = min. 75mm. Thermocouple
 Where practicable, the (TE)
temperature shall be measured
on the face opposite to that
Temperature
sensitive Thermistor
being heated.
materials (CT)
 Allow 2 min per every 25 mm of
parent metal thickness for (TS)
temperature equalisation. Optical/electrical
 Interpass temperature shall be devices for
measured on the weld metal or Contact contactless
immediately adjacent parent thermometer measurement (TB)
metal. (CT)
Temperature Test Equipment Temperature Test Equipment
Temperature Thermocouple
sensitive materials:  Based on measuring the thermoelectric potential
difference between a hot junction (on weld) and
 Crayons, paints and pills.
a cold junction.
 Cheap.
 Convenient, easy to use.  Accurate method.
 Measures over a wide range of temperatures.
 Gives the actual temperature.
 Need calibration.
Doesn’t measure the
actual temperature!
Temperature Test Equipment Temperature Test Equipment
Thermistors Devices for contactless

 Are temperature-sensitive measurement
resistors whose resistance  IR radiation and optical
varies inversely with pyrometer
temperature.  Measure the radiant
 Used when high sensitivity is energy emitted by the
required. hot body.
 Gives the actual temperature.  Contactless method -
can be used for remote
 Need calibration. measurements.
 Can be used up to 320°C.  Very complex.
 For measuring high
temperatures.
22-3
PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System) PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System)
PAMS UNIT What does a PAMS unit measure?

The purposes Gas flow rate
of PAMS (heating
Welding
current (Hall element
effect device) sensor)
For measuring For calibrating
and recording and validating
the welding the welding
Wire feed speed
parameters equipment
(tachometer)
Arc voltage
(connection
leads) Temperature (thermocouple)
Use of PAMS Use of PAMS
Wire feed speed Shielding gas flow

monitoring rate monitoring
Incorporated pair of
rolls connected to a
tachogenerator Heating element
sensor
Calibration, Validation and Monitoring Calibration and Validation
Definitions: When is it required?

 Measurement = set of operations for determining a  Measurement = set of operations for determining a value of
value of a quantity. a quantity.
 Repeatability = closeness between successive  Repeatability = closeness between successive measuring
measuring results of the same instrument carried out results of the same instrument carried out under the same
under the same conditions. conditions.
 Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that  Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that are
are intended to keep the errors within specified limits. intended to keep the errors within specified limits.
 Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or  Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or measuring
measuring device. device.
 Validation = checking the control knobs and switches  Validation = checking the control knobs and switches
provide the same level of accuracy when returned to a provide the same level of accuracy when returned to a pre-
pre-determined point. determined point.
 Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and  Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and other
other items) are in accordance with the procedure or items) are in accordance with the procedure or specification.
specification.
 See BS EN ISO 17662 for details!
22-4
Calibration and Validation Calibration and Validation
When it is not required? When it is not required?

 When verification of the process is not required.  In case of mass production when all the following
 In case of small series and single piece conditions are fulfilled:
production when all the following conditions are □ Production is controlled by pre-production testing,
fulfilled: followed by testing of samples from production at
 Procedures are approved by procedure testing. regular intervals.
 production is carried out by the same welding □ A statistical quality control system is used.
machine used during procedure testing. □ The process is stable between testing of samples.
□ Pre-production testing and sampling are
performed separately for each production line
(robotic cells).
Welding Parameter Example 1 -

Calibration/Validation MMA Elementary Monitoring
Which parameters need calibration/validation? In theory any MMA operation could require
 Depends on the welding process. monitoring of:
 See BS EN ISO 17662 and BS 7570 for details.
How accurate?  Welding current.
 Arc voltage.
 Depends on the application.
 R.O.L.
 Welding current - ±2.5%.  Preheat/interpass temperature.
 Arc voltage - ±5%.  Electrode treatment and storage.
 Wire feed speed - ±2.5%.
 Gas flow rate - ±20% (±25% for backing gas In practice (depending on the application) only the
flow rate). welding current could require monitoring with a
 Temperature (thermocouple) - ±5%. tongue test ammeter.
Example 2 - Example 3 -
High Integrity MMA Operation MIG/MAG Welding With a Robot
In theory, this might require monitoring of all the In theory, the following would require monitoring:
activities previously mentioned.  Wire feed speed.
The equipment thus required:  Amperage.
 Ammeter.  Voltage.
 Voltmeter.  Travel speed.
 Stop watch. Or a PAMS  Gas flow rate.
 Tape measure.  Repeatability of the controls.
 Thermometer. In practice, a data logger would be preferred to
 Calculator. monitor all the parameters; also a PAMS would be
All of the above equipment would require calibration; required to check the repeatability of the control
any meters fitted to the power source or electrode knobs.
ovens would also require calibration.
22-5
Summary
 A welding power source can only be calibrated if

it has meters fitted.
 The inspector should check for calibration
Any Questions
stickers, dates etc.
?
 A welding power source without meters can only
be validated that the control knobs provide
repeatability.
 The main role is to carryout in process
monitoring to ensure that the welding
requirements are met during production.
22-6
Section 23
Application and Control of Preheat

23 Application and Control of Preheat
23.1 General
Preheat is the application of heat to a joint immediately prior to welding and
usually applied by a gas torch or induction system, although other methods can
be used.
Preheat is used when welding steels for a number of reasons and it helps to
understand why. One of the main reasons is to assist in removing hydrogen
from the weld. Preheat temperatures for steel structures and pipework are
calculated by taking into account the carbon equivalent (CEV) and thickness of
the material and the arc energy or heat input (kJ/mm) of the welding process.
Standards such as BS EN 1011: Recommendations for welding of metallic

materials for guidance on selection of preheat temperature ranges based on
CEV, material thickness, arc energy/heat input and the lowest level of diffusible
hydrogen required.
The welding inspector would normally find the preheat temperature for a
particular application from the relevant WPS. In general, thicker materials
require higher preheat temperatures, but for a given CEV and arc energy/heat
input, they are likely to remain similar for wall thickness up to approximately
20mm.
23.2 Definitions
Preheat temperature
 Temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone immediately before any
welding operation (including tack welding).
 Normally expressed as a minimum but can also be specified as a range.
Interpass temperature
 Temperature of the weld during welding and between passes in a multi-run
weld and adjacent parent metal immediately prior to the application of the
next run.
 Normally expressed as a maximum but should not drop below the minimum
preheat temperature.
Preheat maintenance temperature

 Minimum temperature in the weld zone which should be maintained if
welding is interrupted.
 Should be monitored during interruption.
WIS5-90516b
Application and Control of Preheat 23-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
23.3 Application of preheat
Local Global
 Less energy required.  More energy required.

 Possible stresses due  Uniform heating – no
to non-uniform. Preheat additional stresses.
Heating.
Gas/electric Resistive heating HF heating

oven elements elements
Flame applied
preheat
WIS5-90516b
Gas/electric ovens
Generally used for PWHT but can be used for large sections of material to give a
controlled and uniform preheat.
Resistive heating elements

Heating using electric current flowing through resistance coils.
High frequency heating elements

Heating effect is produced electrostatically providing uniform heating through a
mass of material. Heat is generated by the agitation of the molecules in the
material when subjected to a high frequency field.
Flame applied preheat

Probably the most common method of applying preheat using either torches or
burners. Oxygen is an essential part of the preheating flame as it supports
combustion but the fuel gases can be acetylene, propane or methane (natural
gas).
With flame applied preheating sufficient time must be allowed for the
temperature to equalise throughout the thickness of the components to be
welded, otherwise only the surface temperature will be measured. The time
lapse depends on the specification requirements.
23.4 Control of preheat and interpass temperature

When?
Immediately before passage of the arc.
Where?
Work piece thickness, t
t  50mm t > 50mm
 A = 4 x t but maximum 50mm.  A = minimum 75mm.

 Temperature shall be measured  Where practicable temperature
on the surface of the work is measured on the face
piece facing the welder. opposite that being heated.
 Allow 2min per 25mm of parent
metal thickness for
temperature equalisation.
WIS5-90516b
Figure 23.1 HAZ on the weld metal and parent metal.
Interpass temperature is measured on the weld metal or immediately adjacent

parent metal.
Why?
Applying preheat has the following advantages:
 Slows down the cooling rate of the weld and HAZ, reducing the risk of
hardened microstructures forming; allowing absorbed hydrogen more
opportunity of diffusing out, thus reducing the potential for cracking.
 Removes moisture from the region of the weld preparation.
 Improves overall fusion characteristics during welding.
 Ensures more uniform expansion and contraction, lowering stresses between
weld and parent material.
WIS5-90516b
Heat flow
Heat flow
Figure 23.2 Two dimensional heat flow. Figure 23.3 Three dimensional heat flow.
Heat flow
Figure 23.4 Head flow.
WIS5-90516b
23.4.1 Temperature sensitive materials
 Made of a special wax that melts at a specific temperature (Tempilstik TM)
or irreversible colour change (Thermochrome TM).
 Cheap, easy to use.
 Do not measure the actual temperature.
Figure 23.5 Examples of temperature indicating crayons and paste.
23.4.2 Contact thermometer

 Use either a bimetallic strip or a thermistor (ie a temperature-sensitive
resistor whose resistance varies inversely with temperature).
 Accurate, gives the actual temperature.
 Need calibration.
 Used for moderate temperatures (up to 350C).
Figure 23.6 Examples of a contact thermometer.
23.4.3 Thermocouple
 Based on measuring the thermoelectric potential difference between a hot
junction (placed on the weld) and a cold junction (reference junction).
 Measures a wide range of temperatures.
 Accurate, gives the actual temperature.
 Can be used for continuous monitoring.
 Need calibration.
WIS5-90516b
Thermister
Figure 23.7 Examples of thermocouples.
23.4.4 Optical or electrical devices for contactless measurement

 Can be infrared or optical pyrometers.
 Measure the radiant energy emitted by the hot body.
 Can be used for remote measurements.
 Very complex and expensive.
 Normally used for measuring high temperatures.
Figure 23.8 Example of contactless temperature measuring equipment.
WIS5-90516b
23.5 Summary
The visual/welding inspector should refer to the WPS for both preheat and
interpass temperature requirements. If in any doubt as to where the
temperature measurements should be taken, the senior welding inspector or
welding engineer should be consulted for guidance.
Both preheat and interpass temperatures are applied to slow down the cooling
rate during welding, avoiding the formation of brittle microstructures (ie
martensite) and thus preventing cold cracking.
Preheat temperatures can be calculated using different methods as described in

various standards (eg BS EN 1011-2, AWS D1.1, etc) and are validated during
the qualification of the welding procedure. According to BS EN ISO 15614 and
ASME IX both preheat and interpass temperatures are considered essential
variables hence any change outside the range of qualification requires a new
procedure qualification.
WIS5-90516b
Section 24
Gauges
24 Gauges
Specialist gauges
Measure the various elements that need to be measured in a welded fabrication
including:
 Hi-lo gauges for measuring mismatch and root gap.

 Fillet weld profile gauges for measuring fillet weld face profile and sizes.
 Angle gauges for measuring weld preparation angles.
 Multi-functional weld gauges for measuring many different weld
measurements.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Figure 24.1 Hi-lo gauge used to measure linear misalignment.
Figure 24.2 Hi-lo gauge can also be used to measure the root gap.
WIS5-90516b
Gauges 24-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Adjustable fillet gauge
Measures fillet welds from 3-25mm
(⅛-1 inch) with ±0.8mm (1/32 inch)
accuracy. Uses an offset arm, which slides
at 45 degrees to give fillet weld length
measurements. Also measures weld throat
thickness upto 1.5mm (1/16 inch).
Fillet weld gauge

Measures weld sizes from 3-25mm
(⅛ to 1 inch).
Multi-purpose welding gauge

Rugged gauge fabricated in stainless steel
measures the important dimensions of weld
preparations and of completed butt and fillet
welds. Intended for general fabrication work
it rapidly measures the angle of preparation,
excess weld metal, fillet weld leg length and
throat size and misalignment in both metric
and imperial.
Digital multi-purpose welding gauge

Measures the important dimensions of weld
preparations and completed butt and fillet
welds. Intended for general fabrication work
and rapidly measures angle of preparation,
excess weld metal, fillet weld leg length and
throat size in both metric and imperial.
WIS5-90516b
TWI Cambridge multi-purpose welding gauge
Angle of preparation
Scale reads 0-60 degree in 5
degree steps.The angle is read
against the chamfered edge of the
plate or pipe.
Linear misalignment
Can be used to measure
misalignment of members by
placing the edge of the gauge on
the lower member and rotating the
segment until the pointed finger
contacts the higher member.
Excess weld metal

root penetration
Scale used to measure excess weld
metal height or root penetration
bead height of single-sided butt
welds by placing the edge of the
gauge on the plate and rotating the
segment until the pointed finger
contacts the excess weld metal or
root bead at its highest point.
Pitting/mechanical damage, etc

The gauge can measure defects by
placing the edge of the gauge on
the plate and rotating the segment
until the pointed finger contacts the
lowest depth.
The reading is taken on the scale to

the left of the zero mark in metric
or imperial.
WIS5-90516b
Fillet weld actual throat
thickness
The small sliding pointer reads up
to 20mm (¾ inch). When
measuring the throat it is supposed
that the fillet weld has a nominal
design throat thickness as an
effective design throat thickness
cannot be measured in this
manner.
Fillet weld leg length

The gauge can measure fillet weld
leg lengths up to 20mm (1 inch),
as shown on the left.
Excess weld metal can be easily calculated by measuring the leg length, and
multiplying it by 0.7. This value is then subtracted from the measured throat
thickness = excess weld metal.
Example: For a measured leg length of 10mm and a throat thickness of 8mm,
10 x 0.7 = 7 (throat thickness 8) - 7 = 1mm of excess weld metal.
WIS5-90516b

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CSWIP 3.

Training and Examination Services

1 Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors

15 Thermal Cutting Processes

23 Application and Control of Preheat

Appendix 1 Homework Multiple Choice Questions

30 General multiple choice questions

20 Plate Butt questions

20 Pipe Butt questions

70% is required in each section

CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector

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CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector Course Objectives

 To understand factors which influence the quality of

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The Course Course Contents

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 Exam after  No continuous Before attempting the examination, you MUST

 Two passport size photographs, with your name

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CSWIP 3.1 Examination CSWIP 3.1 Examination

Multiple Choice Examination  Any standard/code

Closed book exam

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Notification of Examination Results CSWIP 3.1 - 5 Year Prolongation

This will be required to

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 3.0 Visual Welding Inspector.

For further information

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CSWIP Certificate Scheme TWI Certification Ltd

Tel: + 44 (0) 1223 899000

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Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors

For employers to have confidence in their work, welding inspectors need to to

Visual inspection is one of the non-destructive examination (NDE) disciplines

For more demanding service conditions, visual inspection is usually followed by

Application Standards/Codes usually specify (or refer to other standards) that

ISO 17637 (Non-destructive examination of fusion welds - visual

1.1.1 Basic requirements for visual inspection (to ISO 17637)

 Requirements for welding inspection personnel.

A summary of each of these topics is given in the following sections.

1.1.2 Welding inspection personnel

 Be familiar with relevant standards, rules and specifications for the

1.1.3 Conditions for visual inspection

 Within 600mm of the surface being inspected.

Figure 1.1 Access for visual inspection.

1.1.4 Aids to visual inspection

It may also be necessary to provide auxiliary lighting to give suitable contrast

Other items of equipment that may be appropriate to facilitate visual

Inspection activities at each of these stages of fabrication can be considered the

1.1.6 Typical duties of a welding inspector

Typical documents that may need to be referred to are:

 The Application Standard (or Code): For visual acceptance criteria:

Examples of requirements difficult to define precisely are some shape

Good workmanship is the standard that a competent worker should be able to

Reference samples are sometimes needed to give guidance about the

Safety consciousness is a duty of all employees and a welding inspector should:

 Be aware of all safety regulations for the workplace.