& Astronomy in Iran and Ancient Mesopotamia

Price, December 2001

n occult practice that originated in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, India and China. The oldest records

millennium BC, Old Babylonian period. However Sumerians a 1000 years earlier had some understanding
e astrologers observed the movements of the
ned them godlike features and powers. Each
d a god or a goddess and ruled certain areas of
ers advised the rulers and interpreted the
ary movements as omens or signs for
e future. The practice is deeply rooted in the
ation an important aspect of the Mesopotamian
as employed as a technique to communicate
ccording to the Mesopotamian religious
the destinies of humans and controlled all
mos. Divination presupposes supernatural
n all perceived phenomena and assumes the
e gods in their willingness to reveal their future
ving the planets resulted in rudimentary
es in astronomy and the practitioners of the
of astronomy became astrologers with great
uence.

s are astrological omens preserved from the

Astrolabe: An Ancient Astronomical Instrument
mi-saduqa (1683-47 BC). Appearance and
the planet Venus behind the sun is recorded primarily for interpretation of omens. The observations might
ant to the regulation of the calendar as well. More records exist from the later periods and most are from
chive of Assurbanipal at Nineveh (668-627 BC). Celestial omens are discovered in at least 70 tablets with
ting to the moon occupying 23 tablets. Meteorological phenomena thunder, rain, hail and earthquakes are
d thought to have prophetic validity. Six observatories located in different cities including Babylon itself are
tablets. The Babylonian/Assyrian astrology later took hold in Egypt, Persia and other regions. Remnants of
ractice, such as the omens and settings of the planets and stars merged with Egyptian traditions. Scientists
s made accurate measurements of areas using geometry and developed arithmetic in an algebraic direction.
ronomy was used to build multistory ziggurat towers (Choga Zanbil in Susa is an example built by the
wers were usually seven-floor high and astrologers/astronomers conducted observations of the movements
es from the rooftop. They recorded empirical observations of the sun, the moon and the arrangement of the
tellations.

nomical computations of the distances between stars have been preserved and contain information on the
and constellations, their relative positions, periods of the solar rising and settings, etc. Around 1000BC the
wledge of the Babylonians was passed on to the Greeks, who identified 48 constellations. The Greeks
trical explanations of motion rather than the numerical relationships the Babylonians used. As a result
d in astronomy and moved slowly into pure sciences while Babylonians remained closer to vernacular
the principal stars in Mesopotamian religion and astronomy was Venus, personified by the goddess Ishtar
Assyria, Astarte in Phoenicia, Athtar in Arabia, Astar in Abyssinia (now Ethiopia), and Ashtart in Canaan
an world Setareh comes from the same origin).

h (in Babylonia) she was worshipped in connection with the evening star, while as Ishtar of Akkad (also in
as identified with the morning star. Ishtar was called "the eldest of heaven and earth", and daughter of Anu,
n. She was the goddess of love and beauty, the "Great Mother", and to the Assyrians, a goddess of hunting
dentified Ishtar with the goddess Venus. The earliest formal calendar in Mesopotamia was probably the
alendar. The lunar calendar required intercalation (insertion of days or other portions of time in calendars)
proved by the Babylonia priests. They intercalated months according to an 8-year cycle when they would
hs. The calendar months started with the direct observation of a new crescent moon at dusk. Today
mic calendars still use the same principle that the new calendar day begins at sunset. The constellations of
ved at the British Museum from this period have several familiar representations. The Bull, the Tortoise, a
h wings, the Scorpion, the Archer and the Goat-fish are all portrayed on stones, cylinder seals and gems.
ively utilized all such information and were both civil and religious institutions. Their origin was attributed
Gods and Goddesses.

an dominion, particularly from the last quarter of the fifth century BC until the Greek conquest was the
iod for Babylonian mathematical astronomy. Astronomical schools existed in Uruk, Sippar, Babylon and
haemenians maintained an atmosphere favorable to the development of science. Under Darius a great
nomer, Nabu-rimanni (Naburianus), was instructed to carry out a study of lunar eclipses and arrived at
e accurate than those of Ptolemy and Copernicus. His works were translated and used for many centuries by
ucid and Parthian rulers of Persia. His picture of Heavens was borrowed by the Greeks and eventually
us Greek scientist Democritus. The terminology employed by Naburianu includes spheres, orbits, ecliptic,
tial equator, poles, circular motion, revolutions, retrogression, moon’s highest north and south latitudes. All
ively by Greek astronomers including the brilliant Eudoxus of Cnidus, precursor of Euclid. Another well
n astronomer under Persian rule, Kidinnu (Cidenas) of Sippar, distinguished the solar year from the lunar,
ecession of the equinoxes and arrived at an exact calculation of the length of the year, making an error of
1 seconds.

abled the astronomers to draw almanacs for the ensuing year. Almanacs in which eclipses of the sun and the
of the new and full moon were accurately noted. Also the positions of the planets throughout the year were
g astrological charts. There are tablets that set forth observations of Jupiter from the 43rd year of the reign
to the thirteenth year of Alexander the Great. Some old Persian names in astronomy have barely survived.
four "Royal Stars" which were standing guard at the equinoxes and solstices still resembles the modern
Watcher of the East; Regulus, Watcher of the North; Antares, watcher of the West; Fomalhaut, Watcher of
sed by the Persians. Today’s equivalents would probably be Alcoyne, Regulus, Albireo and Bungula.

ces astronomy remained inseparably linked to astrology. Astronomical texts, in particular, contain allusions
n the stars and various illnesses. By the end of the Achaemenid period in Babylonia and other territories
e science had declined and the potential for its development was stalled. Science was no opponent of
cient times. In fact it developed in the shadow of temples and was influenced by religion.

dominance of religious concepts hindered new methods and modes of thought for understanding nature.
duced the next major change. They launched new ideas that revolutionized science in general including
strology. Empiricism and experimentation were encouraged and metaphysical basis of natural phenomenon
y adopted Babylonian, Egyptian and Persian knowledge, mixed it with Greek thought, developed it and
um of Greek made them universal.

ntribution to astronomy/astrology was immense. The latter Hellenistic (Greek) astrologers of Egypt
of their discipline to Nechepso and Petosiris, an Egyptian pharaoh and his high priest. By 1st century BC
tus of horoscopic astrology was in place and the language of Egyptian astrology had become Greek. The
ologer, Valens traveled throughout Egypt and studied with at least a few living teachers of the old traditions
observations. Originally the astrology texts were written in Coptic, the last form of ancient Egyptian, but no
any has survived. The Hellenistic Egypt systematized the omen materials of the earlier Babylonian
 y astrological methods, such as the use of 12 houses, lots and aspects were developed at this time and spread
rea by the Greek writers. By the 2nd century BC the Greek scientist Hipparchus developed the mathematical
was given its final form by Ptolemy in the second century AD. Ptolemy’s work in turn influenced all
onomical works till the advent of new sciences, including Islamic celestial concepts and astronomical studies
es.

Parthians, rose up against the Seleucids, the Greek successors to Alexander the Great, and re-conquered
an Empire. The Parthians were hostile to the Greeks (and later the Romans) and effectively cut off
between the main body of Hellenistic peoples and Persians plus the Bactrian Greeks in Afghanistan and
eated a new school of astronomy/astrology independent from the Greek and Egyptian traditions. There are
rom this time but its impact on Indian and Hebrew astrology has left its mark. There are fragments in
y that are unlike the Hellenistic astrology that was emerging at the same time. The emphasis of Light and
Zoroastrian religion and the impact of Persian astrology. One can compare such literature to similar
nd of the Indian astrological classic, Parashara’s Hora Sastra. This omen-like material of reading bodily
personality or morality traits seems to have also been influenced by the Persian astrology. There are also
een Indian and Persian astrological history/narrative. This is the account of dynastic history in terms of
f varying lengths of time governed by the stars and planets. Many stories from Sassanian period (Karnameh
n) and Shahnameh contain such dynastic history and more were produced after the Arab conquest (Abu
Nahmutan). However despite hostility by the Parthians, Greek sciences, arts and philosophy remained and
of Sassanian rulers they reached a new peak and advances were made in the field.

mpire of Persia (226-642), with its state religion of Zoroastrianism, saw itself as heir to the legendary
asty and their civilization, and developed an ideology and culture to reflect and promote this image. An
ion of Sassanian emperors actively engaged in collecting, recording and editing the historical and religious
vilization and the neighboring countries. According to Dinkard, the Zoroastrian canon in Pahlavi, Book IV,
nd sciences was received by Zoroaster from Ahura Mazda and transmitted through Avesta. Destruction of
der dispersed the texts throughout the world. The Greeks, the Egyptians derived all their knowledge and
e dispersed texts. Subsequently Sassanian emperors took it upon themselves to collect all these texts from
rces name, Byzantium, India and China as the main centers where book collecting was taking place.

ached their peak at the time of Khosro I (Anoshirvan, (531-578). Greek Philosophers, Syriac speaking
estorians fleeing persecution by the Byzantines (Orthodox Christians of Constantinople) were received by
were commissioned to translate Greek and Syriac texts into Pahlavi. Paul the Persian dedicated Works of
The Greek philosopher Priscianus Lydus wrote a book in response to the king’s questions on a number of
telian physics, theory of the soul, meteorology and biology. Dinkard itself shows familiarity with all these
 Aristotelian physics. Books in medicine, Ptolemy’s Almagest (A collection of mathematical anthology) and
tronomy, Aristotle’s Organon and a number of texts in crafts and skills were translated from Greek sources.
material in astronomy, astrology, mathematics and medicine were also translated into Pahlavi. The Book of
al-Mawalid) was a five part astronomical work that was translated from Pahlavi into Arabic in 750. It was
ster and according to the Iranian historian Sa’id ibn-Khurasan-Khurreh, "it was translated by Mahankard,
r from among the books of Zoroaster".

ry was important to Sassanian Imperial ideology. The stars decreed the fate of the mortals and the kings
ve special protection. Shahnameh is full of stories where the fate of the heroes is sealed in the astronomical
time of their birth. Ptolemy and Greek astronomy was very well known in Iran. To what extent astronomy
om astrology is not clear and very likely astrology would have dominated the field. The Muslim Arabs
all of the literature of the Zoroastrian Sassanian including their astrological works. However there are
what their astrology might have been. Most of the greatest astrologers in the Islamic era were Persians! The
s taught is quite different from both the Hindu and the Greek traditions. It had orbs of aspect, the Great
and Saturn, all of the elaborate systems of planetary interactions such as Frustration, Abscission of Light,
ght and so forth. While Muslim era astrology owes a large debt to Hellenistic astrology, it is also clear that in
enturies between the last known Hellenistic astrologers and the first known Muslim ones, something new
e field. This was very likely the Persian stream of astrology.

ersity and the hospital at Jundishapur built earlier reached its peak at Anoshirvan’s time. In Jundishapur
& Byzantine), Indian and Persian scientific traditions were assimilated. Indian scientific material in
logy, mathematics and medicine were translated into Pahlavi along with Chinese Herbal medicine and

ept at the university and the royal libraries and Greek sciences flourished. The Arab conquest in 7th century
changes. The destruction of major cities, libraries, and eventual closure of universities in Alexandria,
ia in the long run stalled development of science and technology except for the first 300 years.

of such major centers of learning with the compulsory use of Arabic made it clear to the scholars and
all pre-Islamic knowledge and national identities were in danger of total obliteration and they had to be
ve and heroic efforts were made to save the ancient knowledge. The result was the formation of a dynamic
anslation movement for almost two hundred years till 10th century. The movement started in Damascus in
nd flourished in Abbasid Baghdad (754 AD). This is the period that is known as the Golden age of Islam. All
ac Persian and some Indian texts were translated into Arabic and Neo Persian. Pre-Abbasid translations
uded major religious, literary and historical texts. Greek and Indian texts translated into Pahlavi were re-
rabic and Neo Persian.

the translation of scientific texts was added. Nawbakht the court astrologer and his son Abu Sahl and other
and Umar Tabari and many others sponsored by the Barmakid family (the chief ministers to the early
re murdered later) translated and promoted Pahlavi texts into Arabic and Neo-Persian. They were all
ed to incorporate Sassanian culture into Abbasid ideology and guarantee the continuity of the Iranian
n and Jewish learned families of Sassanian Persia such as Bukhtishu and Hunyan families were also great
iac Greek Pahlavi and other texts into Arabic. Both families had served at Jundishapur University for
were instrumental in founding the Adudi Hospital and Medical School in Baghdad. Baghdad a suburb of
osen as the site of the New Abbasid capital (Baghdad is Persian and means God given, it was founded in
The Royal library was based on the Sassanian model and was called the same name (house of knowledge,
Even at Caliph Mamun’s time when the persecution of Iranian elements had started, the director of the
eat Persian nationalist and Pahlavi expert, Musa Sahl ibn-Harun (9th century). The famed Iranian
nd astronomer Musa Khawrazmi was employed full time by the library at this time. Ibn-an-Nadim, the
st (the index), one of the most famous associates of the library listed all the books and their origins in his
great part of the index has survived and is a valuable source of information.

llenistic Greek knowledge was preserved in Alexandria, home of Ptolemy (85 to 165 AD). His great Book
ntaxis" was translated into Arabic and was titled the "Greatest," Greek "Megiste," which became "al-
st in Latin). Ptolemy’s knowledge was kept alive by Hypatia (355? - 415AD), the first great woman of
a well-known professor of philosophy, mathematics and astronomy at Alexandria. With her father Theon,
rote commentaries on Ptolemy’s work. Some sources mention that Caliph Mamun acquired Almagest (813-
eaty with the Byzantine emperor. Once translated into Arabic it influenced Islamic and Western cosmology,
strology for centuries to come.

at interest in astronomy in order to find the direction to Mecca for praying. While latitude (north-south
o find, longitude (east-west location) requires accurate time. Without accurate portable clocks, longitude
d by sighting a star in two different places at the same time. A lunar eclipse gives astronomers in two places
adjusting their clocks to the same time. The great Iranian scientist and mathematician Khawrazmi was the
tronomical tables to address the quest.

e major scientists of the era were non-Arabs and mostly Iranians and though they traveled extensively in
d many carried out their research in Iranian territories. Khawrazmi’s tables were used to find days of new
setting times of the sun, moon, and planets, and to predict eclipses. Because they made these calculations
served the same function as today’s computers. He also adapted Ptolemy’s Geographike Hyphegesis and
st independent textbook for algebra; as a result his name survives in the term algorithm (Al Khawrazmi) for
of a calculating method. His book of tables introduced the Indian system of decimal numbers to the west.
aborsaving devices for astronomical calculations. He also improved astrolabe (Ostorlab), Ptolemy had used
serving and computing but its use was limited before it was improved. Trigonometry was improved since it
he computation of planetary orbits as well as to terrestrial mapping, and consequently medieval ‘qibla’
eat accuracy.

ies were built in Persian territories such as Maragheh and Samarkand over the centuries. At these
tronomers gathered to refine Ptolemy’s coordinates for the stars and, eventually, to revise Ptolemy’s catalog
ogue gave the positions of 1,022 stars by magnitude, or brightness. The l0th-century astronomer Al Sufi
revised the book. Azophil’s Book of the fixed Stars is the earliest illustrated astronomical manuscript
st copy, the work of the author’s son, is dated 1009 and the author expressly states that he traced the
celestial globe. The Persian astrologer Abu Ma’shar Balkhi (787-886 AD) was one of the most influential
d. His works were translated into Latin in the twelve century and exerted a powerful influence on the
Western Astrology. A student of al-Kindi (Latin Alkindi) his works represent a fusion of Sabian,
rsian chronology and Islamic religious doctrine plus Greek science and Mesopotamian astrology. He was an
sful practitioner of the Art of astrology and traveled throughout the area in service to numerous Indian,
d Egyptian heads of states. With his Iranian student Abu Sa’id Schadsan, who recorded his teachers
ological deeds they were very popular in Medieval Europe’s scholarly circles.

er Brilliant Iranian scientist who has made great contributions to sciences in general and mathematics and
ticular. Born in Khawrazm (ruled by Iranian Samanids) by 990 AD, at age 17 he computed the latitude of
bserving the maximum altitude of the sun and shortly afterwards produced his Cartography, a work on map
orrected Khujandi’s astronomical calculations at the observatory in Ray near Tehran. In Gilan near Caspian
a major eclipse in 997 and by comparing his results with another astronomer in Baghdad was able to
erence in longitude between the cities.

was observing more eclipses at Gurgan and dedicated his work Chronology to Qabus, the Ziyarid ruler of the
logy refers to seven earlier works which he had written: one on the decimal system, one on the astrolabe,
ical observations, three on astrology, and two on history. He also produced major astronomical works for
ler, Sultan Mahmoud. Biruni’s contribution to science, astronomy and social studies are enormous. His
dia covers many aspects of life in this country while travelling with Mahmoud’s army. He describes
n and philosophy of India, its caste system and marriage customs. He then studies the Indian systems of
bers before going on to examine the geography of the country. He studied Indian literature in the original,
al Sanskrit texts into Arabic. He also wrote several treatises devoted to Indian astronomy, mathematics,
 ammar. He produced around 146 works in his lifetime (around 13000 pages) covering all the sciences of
e corrections to Ptolemy’s calculations. He shows no prejudice against different religions or sects and very
d the Arab conquers for destroying the ancient books and texts at the libraries in the cities. ‘Shadows’ is one
rtant texts written around 1021. The contents of the work include the Arabic nomenclature of shade and
tions of the shadow functions to the astrolabe and to other instruments, shadow observations for the
us astronomical problems, and the shadow-determined times of Muslim prayers. The book is an extremely
for the history of mathematics, astronomy, and physics.

e contributions to theoretical and practical arithmetic, summation of series, combinatorial analysis, the rule
al numbers, ratio theory, algebraic definitions, method of solving algebraic equations, geometry, Archimeds’
ometry, the sine theorem in the plane, and solving spherical triangles. He corresponded with other brilliant
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Sijzi about various scientific topics such as heat and light. One fifth of his works
s most important astrological textbook, ‘Elements of the Art of Astrology’ was published in Ghaznah in
detailed rules for the interpretation of nativity and horoscope charts for the time of birth.

was an accomplished mathematician with a number of works in astronomy. He lived during the Samanid,
avid rulers of Iran and worked as physician at a number of courts. His famous book ‘The Book of Healing’ is
opaedia covering logic, natural sciences, psychology, geometry, astronomy, arithmetic and music. One
rk is devoted to mathematics with astronomy and music included as branches of mathematics. He divided
stronomical and geographical tables, and the calendar. Ibn Sina made astronomical observations at Isfahan
observed Venus as a spot against the surface of the Sun and correctly deduced that Venus must be closer to
e Sun. He invented an instrument for observing the coordinates of a star. Another of Avicenna’s
astronomy was his attempt to calculate the difference in longitude between Baghdad and Gurgan by
on at the later location.

1044-1123ad) is another celebrated Iranian mathematician, philosopher, astronomer and poet who made
ns to both science and literature. He was born at Nishapur, the provincial capital of Khurasan. He also
d and other centers of learning such as Bukhara, Balkh and Isfahan. He was an expert in Algebra and made
ssify most algebraic equations.

idered to be the first to find the binomial theorem and determine binomial coefficients. In geometry, he
es of Euclid and contributed to the theory of parallel lines. He was invited to Ray by the Saljuq Sultan,
k at the new observatory around 1074 and started the task of producing a new and more accurate solar
endar is still in use today and it called Jalali calendar. It had an error of one day in 3770 years and was thus
eorgian calendar (error of 1 day in 3330 years). His contributions to other fields of science include a study
 Euclid, development of methods for the accurate determination of specific gravity. He became very popular
orld, when Edward Fitzgerald in 1839 published an English translation of his (quatrains) Ruba’iyat.

an mathematician, Nasir Din Tusi, founded the observatory at Maragha in 1259, one-year after the fall of
Mongols. He was born in Tus, Khurasan in 1201 and studied all subjects popular at the time. In 1262, he
ervatory by building a twelve-foot wall quadrant made from copper. He used many instruments including
sentations of constellation, epicycles and shapes of spheres for various calculations.

ical work done at the observatory involved simplifying the Ptolemy’s model and bringing it into line with
model, which postulated uniform circular orbits for the planets. Although they were often misguided, they
tant contributions; Ibn Shatir [early 14th century] used the information and came up with models for the
Moon and of Mercury that are strikingly similar to those of Copernicus. Tusi invented new instruments for
rs accurately. He also invented an ingenious mechanical device (torquetum) for computing star positions
ow a special pair of circles (called a Tusi couple) can draw a straight line. Tusi was one of the greatest
maticians, astronomers, philosophers, theologians and physicians of his time. He was a prolific writer. He
ises on such varied subjects as Algebra, Arithmetic, Trigonometry, Geometry, Logic, Metaphysics,
and theology. Ilkhanid ruler Hulaku Khan appointed him as one of his ministers. Tusi produced a very
planetary movements and a star catalogue, and he published it under the title "Zij-Ilkhani" which was
Khan and was in use till 15th century. The tables were developed from observations over a twelve-year
primarily based on original observations.

out several serious shortcomings in Ptolemy’s models. His critique of Ptolemy’s theories convinced future
he need to develop an alternative model ending in Copernicus discoveries. Tusi pioneered spherical
d one of his most important mathematical contributions was the treatment of trigonometry as a new
cipline and revived the philosophy of Avicenna. He wrote his works in Arabic and Persian, sixty-four
vived. These were translated into Latin and other European languages in the Middle Ages. Among Tusi’s
an students are Nizam Araj, who wrote a commentary on the Almagest, and Qutb ad-Din Shirazi who gave
ory mathematical explanation of the rainbow.

phasis on astronomy, astrology also had a strong presence. Some scholars denied any scientific base for it.
spite numerous works on the subject did not believe in it. Other writers ridiculed fortunetellers and
this period and superstition and blind fate are criticized by the likes of Biruni, Ibn Sina and Ibn Khaldun
ater makes a clear distinction between prophecy, a divine act bestowed upon chosen saints and prophets as
une telling a fake and deceitful act. The astrologers from the time of Mansur when Baghdad was first built
y. In fact the site and the time was chosen by advice from Iranian court astrologer Nawbakht with help from
i. These astrologers recommended 30th of July 762 as a blessed time to lay the foundation for Baghdad.
the verdict and it was Nawbakht who also consulted the charts and advised him of the future revolt by
ullah (762-63 AD). "Astrology made its gradual appearance in the public life of Arab rulers as a result of the
sanian cultural patterns" and all the subsequent rulers in the area used it in both its scientific and popular

ciple of pre-destiny boasted the practice. Muslims believed that all their lives and actions were written down
ng of creation in the sacred tablet called ‘Lowh e Mahfuz’. Only Allah knew every ones’ destiny but the
gain some insight by learning the subject. Star charts became very popular and people consulted the charts
om choosing the appropriate time (Saad) for a wedding to bad omen times called Nahs and fortune telling.
ere very common in Iran till the beginning of 20th century. Legend has it that the great astronomer Tusi
rs and advised the ruler, Rukn Din Khurshah, that in order to save the Ismailis, he should surrender his
, Alamut and other areas to the invading Mongols. If true, the stars saved him for a little while around 1257,
the ruler and the rest of the Ismaili community and their castles and provinces were virtually reduced to
the Mongol ruler. Had they stayed in their castles they might not have vanished with such ease!

11th century AD, the Golden Age of Islam was over for many reasons including political/economic
reign attacks. The great families who supported the translation movement and promoted advancement of
sophy in Persian, Byzantine and other territories were eradicated. The Muslim schools were fully
were dominated by the fundamentalists where political ideology emphasized fate over reason. The
es of Egypt, Syria and the Holy Land with its’ Greek and Syriac elements and the Byzantine (Turkey) did
lost their language and their culture of scientific tradition and enquiry.

artially survived but empirical knowledge and scientific traditions were lost. Astronomy like other branches
nce was virtually vanished and like medicine was only revived in 20th century Iran. Astrologers on the other
every aspect of life including love and sexuality. With the coming of monotheistic religions i.e. Judo-
Islam the ancient goddesses of love, sexuality and fertility were totally eliminated. Their temples were
communal acts and festivities to ease tension were banned. People particularly women turned to
d soothsayers for comfort. Christianity had banned such practices but Islamic ideas of pre-destiny

nsulting charts and stars prescribed remedies, charms, and talisman and made haphazard
s. Most were not educated as the ancient or classical astrologers used to be and incorporated everything
and were basically charlatans. Exclusion of women from public life during the Islamic period, polygamy and
legal status created unemployment, psychological disorders (for both males and females), insecurity and
was great demand for astrologers and fortunetellers by women. In fact one of the few employment
to women at this time was fortune telling. However such women were rarely literate and could not use star
rained male counterparts. As a result they had lower status and were paid less. By 19th century very few
properly trained with no observatories. The very few that existed remained at the service of the courts.
documents and star charts from 18th and 19thcentury Iran. They belong to the old aristocratic families of

riting a chart for the male newborns of the grand families was common till the end of the 19th century.
evived in the 20th century and had become an important scientific discipline. However the lack of research
gressive institutions has hindered its growth. The country has no international standing other than many
ndividuals working in first class facilities in Europe and North America.

o note that since the Islamic revolution fortune telling and astrology that was ridiculed in the earlier part of
has made a comeback in Iran. Along with mystical cults, believing in supernatural and seeking help from
me popular particularly amongst women including educated ones. Insecure, emotionally drained, legally,
omically inferior once again women are seeking comfort with fortunetellers and astrologers. Western
ncorporated and horoscopes, taro cards, Chinese and Indian astrology and their practitioners are read
principles are followed. Internationally such trends are enjoying a comeback as well but their popularity in
a large extent is a result of closer contacts with other nations.

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