PET 310E Experiment #1 Page 1 of 10

Drilling and Completion Fluids Laboratory

YIELD OF CLAYS

Drilling fluids are mainly compounds in liquids and solids. The liquid component may be water, oil, and
a mixture of both. The solid component may be clays, barite, polymers, thinner agents, cuttings etc.
Drilling fluids are mostly water based which has been formed by three components;

• Water Phase
• Colloidal component (clay)
• Inert solids (barite, sand, etc.)

The yield of clays is the main focus of this experiment. Bentonite clays will be used as a colloidal
component of the drilling fluids throughout the experiment.

Bentonite

Bentonite clay is a fine-grained rock composed mainly of montmorillonite minerals. The formation of
bentonite is an in situ alteration of rhyolitic volcanic ash. The pyroclastic material was ejected into the
atmosphere by volcanic activity and deposited as sediment in a marine environment.

Its color ranges from white to black and includes shades of gray, light olive green, cream, yellow, earthy
red, brown, sky blue and purple. Bentonite feels and appears greasy or waxy and when wet it is highly
plastic and slippery.

Bentonite clay is composed of microscopic platelets consisting of layers of aluminum hydroxide held
between layers of silicate atoms as shown in Figure 1. These platelets are stacked one on top of the
other. If a gram of bentonite were spread out only one particle layer thick, its billions of particles would
cover an area greater than a regular soccer field.

Figure 1. Schematic structure of a 2:1 layer expandable clay such as those found in bentonite (modified
from Giese and Van Oss 2002). Two layers of cations bound to 4 oxygens (tetrahedra) sandwich cations
bound to 6 oxygens (octahedra) to make a silicate layer. These layers are weakly bound in stacks, with
water and interlayer cations between the layers. The large blue spheres represent hydrated cations, and
the small red spheres stand for hydrogen ions.
PET 310E Experiment #1 Page 2 of 10
Drilling and Completion Fluids Laboratory

There are two basic types of bentonite, sodium type and calcium type.

• Sodium Type - This type has sodium in the crystal lattice and is sometimes referred to as
Wyoming Bentonite. This type swells when wet and can increase as much as fifteen times its
original volume when wet. Wyoming bentonite occurs in the Big Horn Basin, the Powder River
Basin and along the western edge of the Black Hills. Because of this unique characteristic,
Wyoming Bentonite is used as the standard against all another bentonite in the world is
measured.

• Calcium Type - This type has calcium in the crystal lattice and is sometimes referred to as
Southern Bentonite. This type will swell only 2 times their unwetted volume. Southern
Bentonite occurs in Mississippi, Arizona, and other southern locations.

Yield of Clays

The yield of a clay is determined as specifying the quality of a clay according to the number of barrels
of 15-cp viscosity mud (the half of the dial reading value at 600 rpm) that one ton of the clay would
produce. Although seldom used today, clays were classified as high-, medium- or low-yield bentonites.
A "good" bentonite produced at least 85 bbl of mud per ton. High-yield clays produced 30 to 50 bbl/ton,
and low-yield clays produced 15 to 30 bbl/ton (Note that yield and yield point are not related terms.). A
comparison of mud viscosities obtained from various concentrations of Wyoming bentonite, high-yield
clay, and an example of native clay in pure water is shown in Figure 2. The clay classification depending
on yield is tabulated at Table 1.

Table 1. The classification of clays by yield.

Clay Yield (m3 mud/ton clay)
Bentonite 15
Metabentonit 10
A-Quality Clay 3-9
Low Yield Clay 1-3

Figure 2. Effect of clay concentration on viscosity of fresh water.

PET 310E Experiment #1 Page 3 of 10
Drilling and Completion Fluids Laboratory

Experimental Apparatus

• Mud Balance

The four-scale mud balance is used to determine the density or weight of drilling fluids as shown
in Figure 3. The mud balance is designed so that the mud cup at one end of the arm is balanced
by a fixed counterweight at the opposite end, with a sliding weight rider free to move along a
graduated scale. A level bubble is mounted on the beam to ensure accurate balancing. On the
front side are measuring scales with ranges of 6.5 to 23 lbs/gal and specific gravity of 0.79 to
2.72 g/cm³. At the back side, there are scales for 49 to 172 lb/ft³ and for 340 to 1190 psi/1000
ft.

Figure 3. Typical mud balance.

Procedure

1. Remove the lid from the cup, and completely fill the cup with the mud to be tested.
2. Replace the lid and rotate until firmly seated, making sure some mud is expelled through the
hole in the cup.
3. Wash or wipe the mud from the outside of the cup.
4. Place the balance arm on the base, with the knife-edge resting on the fulcrum.
5. Move the rider until the graduated arm is level, as indicated by the level vial on the beam.
6. At the left-hand edge of the rider, read the density on either side of the lever in all desired
units without disturbing the rider.
7. Note down mud temperature corresponding to density.

• Marsh Funnel

The Marsh Funnel is a device that is common to every drilling rig. Details of the Marsh Funnel
and receiving cup are shown in Figure 4. The viscosity is reported in seconds allowed to flow
out of the funnel. API specifications call for 1500 ml and one quart (946 ml) out. For API water
at 70 F + 0.5oF = 26 + 0.5 sec. The Marsh Funnel measures the apparent viscosity.
PET 310E Experiment #1 Page 4 of 10
Drilling and Completion Fluids Laboratory

Figure 4. (a)Marsh funnel and one-liter cup (b) sketch of the geometry.

Procedure

1. With the funnel in an upright position, cover the orifice with a finger and pour the freshly
collected mud sample through the screen into a clean, dry funnel until the fluid level reaches the
bottom of the screen (1500 ml).
2. Immediately remove the finger from the outlet and measure the time required for the mud to
fill the receiving vessel to the 1-quart (946 ml) level.
3. Report the result to the nearest second as Marsh Funnel Viscosity at the temperature of the
measurement in degrees Fahrenheit or Centigrade.

• Mud Mixer

Most drilling fluid formulations contain a base liquid and additives which must be dissolved or
mechanically dispersed into the liquid to form a homogenous fluid. The resulting fluid may
contain one or more of the following: water-dispersible (soluble) polymers or resins, clays or
other insoluble but dispersible fine solids, and soluble salts. The fluids are mixed or sheared for
times appropriate to achieve a homogenous mixture.

The Five-Spindle Multi-Mixer® Model 9B mixer (Figure 5) is recommended for use in general
purpose mixing of drilling fluids in preparation for laboratory tests of mud materials. Five
Spindle Multi-Mixer mixers are supplied with No. 9B29X impeller blades. Each spindle is fitted
with a single sine-wave impeller approximately 25 mm in diameter mounted flash side up. It
conforms to American Petroleum Institute (API) Specification 13A for mixing water-based and
oil based drilling fluids.

All muds are prepared for 350 ml samples with the help of mixing cups. Knowing the fact that
1 lb/bbl is equal to 1g / 350 ml is the reason of this 350 ml sampling to make easier conversion
to field unit.
PET 310E Experiment #1 Page 5 of 10
Drilling and Completion Fluids Laboratory

Figure 5. Five-spindle multi-mixer.

• Balance

In experimental studies, sensitivity is very important. The balance having a capacity of

measuring 1000 g with two digits sensitivity after dot is used.

• Rotational Viscometer

Viscosity is defined as the resistance of a fluid to flow and is measured as the ratio of the shear
stress to the rate of shear strain. The types of the fluids are distinguished by the relation of
these two parameters as depicted in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Shear stress- shear rate relation and rheological models.

PET 310E Experiment #1 Page 6 of 10
Drilling and Completion Fluids Laboratory

Two types of fluid characterizations are:

1. Newtonian where the ratio of shear stress to shear rate or viscosity is constant, e.g. water,
light oils, etc. and
2. Non-Newtonian (Bingham Plastic, Power-Law, etc.) where the viscosity is not constant, e.g.
drilling muds, colloids, etc.

The Baroid (Model 286) Rheometer is a coaxial cylindrical rotational viscometer, used to
determine single or multi-point viscosities shown in Figure 7. It has fixed speeds of 3 (GEL), 6,
100, 200, 300 and 600 RPM that are switch selectable with the RPM knob. Additionally, the
same switch set to the VAR position enables speed selection of between 3 and 625 RPM, by
manual adjustment of the variable knob.

Procedure

1. Place a recently agitated sample in the cup, tilt back the upper housing of the rheometer,
locate the cup under the sleeve (the pins on the bottom of the cup fit into the holes in the base
plate), and lower the upper housing to its normal position.
2. Turn the knurled knob between the rear support posts to raise or lower the rotor sleeve until
it is immersed in the sample to the scribed line.
3. Stir the sample for about 5 seconds at 600 RPM, then select the RPM desired for the best.
4. Wait for the dial reading to stabilize (the time depends on the sample's characteristics).
5. Record the dial reading and RPM.

Rheological Calculations

Using rotational rheometer, shear rate, shear stress and apparent viscosity of a drilling can be
calculated by the following equations where N is the rotary speed and θN is the dial reading.

𝛾 = 1.703 𝑁 [1/𝑠] (Shear rate) (1)

𝜏 = 1.06 𝜃𝑁 [𝑙𝑏/100𝑓𝑡 2 ] (Shear stress) (2)

𝜃𝑁
𝜇𝑎 = 300 𝑁
[𝑐𝑝] (Apparent viscosity) (3)

After précising the drilling fluid’s behavior (Bingham plastic or Power-law), the characteristic
parameters of the model can be evaluated by the following equations.
PET 310E Experiment #1 Page 7 of 10
Drilling and Completion Fluids Laboratory

Figure 7. Variable speed rheometer.

1) Bingham Plastic

Plastic viscosity;

 p (cP ) =
300
( N 2 −  N 1 ) (4)
N 2 − N1

 p = 600 − 300 N1 = 300, N2 = 600 (5)

Yield Point;

y (
lb
100 ft 2
)= N1 − p
N1
300
(6)

y = 300 −  p N1 = 300 (7)

2) Power-Law

n (Flow-Behavior Index) =
(
log  N 2 /  N1 ) (8)
log( N 2 / N1 )

 
n = 3.322 log 600  (N1 = 300, N 2 = 600) (9)
  300 

510 N
K (Consistency Index)= (10)
(1.703N1 )n
510300
K= (11)
511n
PET 310E Experiment #1 Page 8 of 10
Drilling and Completion Fluids Laboratory

Gel Strength

Gel strength is obtained by noting the maximum dial deflection when the rotational viscometer is turned
at 3 rpm speed after the mud has remained static for some period of time. If the mud is allowed to remain
static in the viscometer for a period of 10 seconds, the maximum dial deflection obtained when the
viscometer turned on is reported as the initial gel strength. If the mud is allowed to remain static for 10
minutes, the maximum dial deflection in reported as 10 min-gel.

An initial 10-second gel and a 10-minute gel strength measurements give an indication of the amount of
gelation that will occur after circulation ceased and the mud remains static. The more the mud gels
during shutdown periods, the more pump pressure will be required to initiate circulation again.

Procedure:

1. On viscometer, switch to 600-rpm position (forward position). Stir mud sample for 10 seconds.
2. Switch to off position. Allow mud to stand undisturbed for 10 seconds.
3. After 10 seconds, switch to 3 rpm position and note the maximum dial reading. This maximum
dial deflection is the 10-second (initial) gel strength in lb/100 ft2. Record on the mud data checks
sheet.
4. Switch to 600-rpm speed. Stir mud for 10 seconds.
5. After 10 seconds, switch to off position and allow mud to stand undisturbed for 10 minutes.
6. After 10 minutes, switch to 3 rpm position and note the maximum dial reading. This maximum
dial deflection is the 10-minute gel strength in lb/100 ft2. Record on the mud data checks sheet.

Procedure throughout the experiment

The following steps will be used throughout the experiment.

1) Caliber the rheometer and mud balance with fresh water.

2) Measure the viscosity of the water at room temperature by using marsh funnel.
3) Use following steps to prepare three mud samples containing 3%, 6% and 8% (by weight)
bentonite.
o Pour 350 ml of fresh water into mixing cup.
o Indicate the amount of bentonite to be added by the equation shown above and prepare
the desired amount of bentonite by using balance.

350 𝑥 % (𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

𝑥(𝑔) = (12)
1−%(𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

o Place the mixing cup to mud mixer and pour slowly the bentonite into them. Pouring
slowly helps bentonite for better dispersion in water.
o After bentonite added completely to water mix it about 10 minutes.
4) Place the mud sample to rheometer.
5) Record the dial reading values of 3, 6, 100, 200, 300, 600 rpm for all mud samples.
6) Measure the density of the sample having 8% of bentonite (by weight).
7) Prepare a salt water solution (35g/L): Pour 1000 ml water into a cup and add 35 g salt (NaCl).
Mix it 10 minutes.
8) Prepare a mud sample containing 8% (by weight) bentonite with the salt water solution and
record the dial reading values of 3, 6, 100, 200, 300, 600 rpm for each mud samples.
PET 310E Experiment #1 Page 9 of 10
Drilling and Completion Fluids Laboratory

Name, Surname: Group:

Student ID:

RAW DATA SHEET

A. Properties of water

Density: _________ppg
Marsh Funnel Viscosity: __________s/qt

B. Dial reading values of mud samples

Fresh Water Based Salt Water Based

Dial-reading
3% 6% 8% 8%

θ600

θ300

θ200

θ100

θ6

θ3
Gel Strength
1 min., lb/100 ft2
Gel Strength
10 min., lb/100 ft2

C. Densities of mud samples

Fresh water based 3% bentonite; _______ppg

Fresh water based 6% bentonite; _______ppg
Fresh water based 8% bentonite; _______ppg
Salt water based 8% bentonite; _______ppg

Date:

Lab. Coord.:

Signature:
PET 310E Experiment #1 Page 10 of 10
Drilling and Completion Fluids Laboratory

EVALUATION

1. Construct a plot of apparent viscosity vs. clay content (%). Determine the yields of bentonite on
the graph.
2. Calculate the yields of bentonite in bbl/ton.
3. Discuss the effect of salty water on the yield of clays and mud viscosities.
4. Calculate theoretical densities of the mud prepared with 3%, 6% and 8% of clay.
5. Construct a plot of apparent viscosity vs shear rate of each bentonite-based muds on (3x5cycle)
log-log scale. Determine the viscosity values for 50, 150, 250, 500 rpm on the graph.
6. Construct a plot of gel strength versus time for two mud samples.

PROBLEMS

1. An unknown X-clay with a different percentage (by weight) is added to 350 ml pure water. The
obtained dial-reading values are tabulated below.

% X–clay Amount of X
(by weight) (g)    
10 38.8 24 18 15 13
20 87.5 30 23 20 18
30 150 46 32 28 23

a. Calculate the yield of X-clay in m3/ton and bbl/ton.

b. Discuss the properties of X-clay by using the graph in Figures 2 and 6.
c. Calculate and tabulate the apparent, plastic viscosities and yield point for the given data of
X-clay.
d. Calculate the shear rate and shear stress values for the sample having 10% of X-clay.
Construct a plot of shear rate vs. shear stress.

2. A mud sample containing 40lbm/bbl clay has a dial-reading value of 30 cp (at 600 rpm).
Calculate the yield of the mud. Note that 1 short ton is equal to 2000 lbm.