UNIT-III: FUNDAMENTALS OF WIND TURBINES

1.1. Power contained in wind

1.2. Thermodynamics of wind energy
1.3. Efficiency limit for wind energy conversion
1.4. Design of the wind turbine rotor:
– Diameter of the rotor
– Choice of the number of blades
– Choice of the pitch angle
1.5. The tower
1.6. The transmission system and gear box
1.7. Power speed characteristics
1.8. Torque speed characteristics.
1.9. Wind turbine control systems:
– Pitch angle control
– Stall control
– Power electronic control
– Yaw control
– Control strategy.
 1.1. Power contained in wind
Power contained in wind is given by the kinetic energy
of the flowing air mass per unit time. That is,
The kinetic energy in air of mass “m” moving with
speed ‘V’ is given by the following in SI units:
Kinetic Energy= ½( m v2) joules (1-1)
The power in moving air is the flow rate of kinetic
energy per second.
Therefore:
Power=1/2(mass flow rate per second )V2 (1-2)
If we let P = mechanical power in the moving air
ρ= air density, kg/m3 (at 15◦C and
1 atmosphere, ρ = 1.225 kg/m3)
A= area swept by the rotor blades, m2
V = velocity of the air, m/s
Power contained in wind contd…..
Then, the volumetric flow rate is A·V, the mass flow rate of the air in
kilograms per second is ρ·A·V, and the power is given by the following:

(1-3)

Two potential wind sites are compared in terms of the specific wind
power expressed in watts per square meter of area swept by the
rotating blades. It is also referred to as the power density of the site,
and is given by the following expression:

(1-4)
This is the power in the upstream wind. It varies linearly with the
density of the air sweeping the blades, and with the cube of the wind
speed. All of the upstream wind power cannot be extracted by the
blades, as some power is left in the downstream air which continues to
move with reduced speed.
Power contained in wind contd…..

Example 6.1 (Don’t Use Average Wind speed)

Compare the energy at 15◦C, 1 atm pressure,
contained in 1 m2 of the following wind regimes:
a) 100 hours of 6-m/s winds (13.4 mph),
b) 50 hours at 3 m/s plus 50 hours at 9 m/s (i.e.,
an average wind speed of 6 m/s)
Solution:
a) With steady 6 m/s winds, all we have to do is
multiply power given by equation (1.3) times
hours:
Energy at (6 m/s) = ½ρAV3t = ½. 1.225 kg/m3 ·1
m2 · (6 m/s)3 · 100 h
= 13,230 Wh
Power contained in wind contd…..
b) With 50 h at 3 m/s
Energy at (3 m/s) = ½ρAV3t = ½. 1.225 kg/m3 ·1 m2 · (3 m/s)3 · 50 h
= 827 Wh
And with 50 h at 9 m/s contains
Energy at (9 m/s) = ½ρAV3t = ½. 1.225 kg/m3 ·1 m2 · (9m/s)3 · 50 h
= 22,326 Wh
Making a total energy of 827 + 22,326 = 23,152 Wh

Important Point to be noted: Though the average wind velocity

of 50 hours of 3m/s plus 50 hours of 9m/s is same as the
average of 100 hours of 6m/s the energy during the same period
of 100 hours is not the same in the two cases. This is because of
the fact that the power contained in the wind is proportional to
the cube of the velocity. So in such cases we have to take the
average of V3 and not average of V while calculating the total
energy. This aspect will be dealt with in detail in unit -2 while
studying wind statistics.
 1.3. Efficiency limit for wind energy conversion
Power Extracted from the Wind:
The actual power extracted by the rotor blades is the
difference between the upstream and the downstream
wind powers. That is, using Equation 1-2

(1-5)
Where Po = Mechanical power extracted by the rotor, i.e.,
the turbine output power
V = upstream wind velocity at the entrance of the
rotor blades
Vo = downstream wind velocity at the exit of the
rotor blades.
Efficiency limit for wind energy conversion ( Power extracted from
the wind ) contd….

The air velocity is discontinuous from V to Vo at

the “plane” of the rotor blades in the
macroscopic sense. (we leave the aerodynamics
of the blades which is beyond our scope). The
mass flow rate of air through the rotating blades
is, therefore, derived by multiplying the density
with the average velocity. That is:

(1.6)
Efficiency limit for wind energy conversion ( Power extracted from
the wind ) contd….

The mechanical power extracted by the rotor,

which is driving the electrical generator, is
therefore:

(1.7)
The above expression can be algebraically
rearranged (by multiplying and dividing the first
term in the square brackets by ‘V‘ and the second
term in normal brackets by V2) :

(1.8)
 Efficiency limit for wind energy conversion ( Power extracted from
the wind ) contd….
The power extracted by the blades is customarily expressed
as a fraction of the upstream wind power as follows:

(1.9)

Where

(1.10)

And Cp is the fraction of the upstream wind power, which is

captured by the rotor blades. The remaining power is
discharged or wasted in the downstream wind.

The factor Cp is called the Power Coefficient of the rotor or

the Rotor Efficiency.
Efficiency limit for wind energy conversion ( Power extracted from the wind )
contd….

For a given upstream wind speed, the value of Cp

depends on the ratio of the downstream to the
upstream wind speeds, that is (Vo/V). The plot of
power coefficient versus (Vo /V) shows that Cp is a
single, maximum-value function (Figure 1-1). It has
the maximum value of 0.59 when (Vo/V) is 1/3.
The maximum power is extracted from the wind at
that speed ratio, when the downstream wind
speed equals one-third of the upstream speed.
Under this condition:

(1.11)
 Efficiency limit for wind energy conversion ( Power extracted from the wind )
contd….

Figure 1-1: Rotor efficiency versus Vo/V ratio has single maximum.
Rotor efficiency is the fraction of available wind power extracted
by the rotor and fed to the electrical generator.
Efficiency limit for wind energy conversion ( Power extracted from the wind )
contd….

The theoretical maximum value of Cp is 0.59.

This limit is called ‘Betz Limit’.
In practical designs, the maximum achievable Cp
is below 0.5 for high-speed, two-blade turbines,
and between 0.2 and 0.4 for slow speed turbines
with more blades (Figure : below ).
If we take 0.5 as the practical maximum rotor
efficiency, the maximum power output of the
wind turbine becomes a simple expression:

(1.12)
Efficiency limit for wind energy conversion ( Power extracted from the wind )
contd….

Figure 1-2: Rotor efficiency versus tip speed ratio for rotors with different
number of blades. Two-blade rotors have the highest efficiency.
 Some Relevant Terms and their Definitions
Before proceeding further, we must get acquainted with the terms
frequently used in this notes and in the literature on wind energy.

Solidity:
Solidity of a wind Rotor is the ratio of the projected blade area to the
area of the wind intercepted. The projected blade area does not mean
the actual blade area. It is the blade area met by the wind or projected
in the direction of the wind.

The solidity of the ‘Savonius’ rotor is naturally unity as the wind sees no
passage through it. For ‘multiband water-pumping windmill’ it is typically
around 0.7. For ‘high speed horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT)’ it lies
between 0.01 to 0.1. For the ‘Darrieus’ rotor also it is of the same order.

Solidity has a direct relationship with Torque and speed. High solidity
rotors have high torque and low speed. Low solidity rotors on the other
hand, have high speed and low torque and are typically suited for
electrical power generation.
 Tip speed ratio
• The tip speed ratio (TSR) of a wind turbine is
defined as λ = (2πRN)/ V where λ is the TSR (non
dimensional, R is the radius of the swept area (in
meters), N is the rotational speed in revolutions per
second and V is the wind speed (without rotor
interruption in meters/second).
• The TSRs of Savonius rotor and multi blade water
pumping windmills are generally low. In high speed
horizontal axis rotors and Darrieus rotors, the outer
tip actually turns much faster than the wind speed
owing to the aerodynamic shape. Consequently, the
TSR can be as high as 9. It can be said that high
solidity rotors have in general low TSRs and vice
versa.
 Power Coefficient
The power coefficient of a wind energy converter is given
by:

Cp = (Power output from the wind machine)/(Power

contained in the wind)

‘The power coefficient’ is different from the efficiency of

a wind machine in the sense that the latter includes the
losses in mechanical transmission, electrical generation
etc. where as the former is just the efficiency of
conversion of wind energy into mechanical energy of the
shaft. In high- speed horizontal-axis machines the
theoretical maximum power coefficient is given by the
‘Betz limit’.
 Design of the wind turbine rotor

• The design of the wind turbine rotor is basically

aerodynamics related and its study in detail is
beyond our scope. However a basic knowledge of
the underlying basic principles of a WT Rotor design
is essential even for an Electrical engineer. We must
also remember certain technical conclusions arrived
at from a detailed analysis and study. Hence we will
study them briefly in this topic.

• The design of a WT Rotor basically involves many

aspects like the design of the blade profile, selection
of the number of blades, the Rotor diameter, choice
of pitch angle , height of the tower and the type of
transmission system & gear box. We will study some
of them briefly one by one.
 Diameter of the Rotor
The diameter of the rotor is determined from
the operating wind speed and the rated power
output. The generated power is given by:
Diameter of the Rotor contd…..

Where Po is the power contained in the wind, ηm

is the efficiency of the mechanical transmission
and ηe is the efficiency of electrical generation. If
the rated P (W), V (m/s) , and Cp are known ,the
diameter in meters can be found out.
In the absence of the above data, the following
simple formulae can be used for the initial
estimation of the maximum aerodynamic power:
P = 0.15D2V3 for slow rotors
P = 0.20D2V3 for fast rotors
Example: Find the diameter of a wind turbine to
generate 4kW at a wind speed of 7 m/s and a rotor
speed of 120 RPM . Assume a power coefficient of 0.4,
efficiency of mechanical transmission of 0.9 and
efficiency of generator 0.95.

Solution: Applying the above equation for Generator

power in terms of Rotor diameter we get:

Generator Power P

4.0 = (1/8) x π x 1.225 x D2 x 73 x 0.95 x 0.9 x 0.4

Solving which we get D = 8.42 m

• Example: Find the diameter of a wind turbine
to generate 4kW at a wind speed of 7 m/s and
a rotor speed of 120 RPM . Assume a power
coefficient of 0.4, efficiency of mechanical
transmission of 0.9 and efficiency of generator
0.95.
 Choice of the number of blades
It is obvious that the efficiency of power transfer
from wind depends on the proper choice of the
number of blades.
There will be little power extraction if the blades
are so close to each other or rotate so fast that
every blade moves into the turbulent air created
by the preceding blade.
It will also be less than optimum if the blades are
so far apart or move so slowly that much of the air
stream passes through the wind turbine without
interacting with a blade.
Thus the choice of the number of blades should
depend on the TSR.
Choice of the number of blades contd….
• A large number of blades implies high solidity - hence high
torque and low speed. On the other hand , a small
number of blades implies low torque and high speed.
Therefore a large number of blades are used in wind
turbines for pumping water or other mechanical functions
that require a high starting torque. For modern electricity
generating-wind turbines, requirement of a high TSR leads
to a small number of blades , generally only two or three.

• Though both two blade and three blade designs are

equally popular , their choice depends on certain factors.
The two blade designs have less nacelle weight and are
much simpler to erect. Three blade turbines involve 33%
more weight and cost , though the power coefficient
increases only by 5-10%. On the other hand, the three
blade design has smoother power output and a more
balance gyroscopic force and therefore less blade fatigue
and lesser chances of failure.
 The Tower
In a horizontal axis wind turbine, the tower supports the hole
machinery, including the blades, the gearbox the generator
and the control equipment. It therefore requires high strength,
which is achieved with a steel or concrete structure based on
tubular or lattice construction.
It is necessary to avoid amplification of vibration through
careful design of the resonant frequencies of the
tower,blades,rotor ,etc. vis-a-vis the wind fluctuation
frequencies.
In general, for medium and large turbines, the height of the
tower is slightly greater than the Rotor diameter.
Small turbines should have taller towers in comparison with
their rotor diameters; otherwise the turbine would be too
close to the ground surface and would experience poor wind
speeds.
Turbines with rated output between 10kW and 100 kW have
tower heights in the range of 20-30 m;300kW to 500kW
machines would have towers 35m to 40 m high.
 The Transmission System and the Gearbox

In general , the optimal speed of rotation of

an electrical generator is much higher than
the optimal speed of a wind turbine.

In order to ensure that a low speed of the

turbine produces a high rotational speed at
the Generator, a gear box is inserted in the
transmission system. The arrangement in side
the generator housing ( known as nacelle ) is
shown schematically in the figure below.
 Generator Housing (Nacelle)

Figure : The Shaft ,Gearbox, Generator and Brake inside the

Nacelle ( Nacelle and the important subsystems inside )
 The Transmission System and the Gearbox contd…..

• If the generator has a fixed gear ratio , the transmission

system is relatively simple and inexpensive. However, in
this case the efficiency suffers at low or high wind
speeds. It has been found that for a particular site ( with
particular wind speed distribution characteristics), one
particular choice of the gear ratio gives the highest
system efficiency and the curve falls off on both sides of
this optimal gear ratio. Therefore a judicious choice of the
gear ratio is very important. Generally a speed ratio of
20-30 is chosen for wind electrical systems.
• For variable speed wind turbine , a better overall
efficiency may be obtained with a two speed gearbox
which can switch from a low gear ratio at high wind
speeds to a high gear ratio at low wind speeds so that the
speed variation at the generator side is kept minimum.
 Power –Speed Characteristics
• The wind turbine power curves shown in the figure
below ( 1-4) illustrate how the mechanical power that
can be extracted from the wind depends on the rotor
speed. For each wind speed there is an optimum turbine
speed at which the extracted wind power at the shaft
reaches its maximum.
• Such a family of wind turbine power curves can be
represented by a single dimensionless characteristic
curve , namely , the CP-λ curve as shown in the figure
below (1-2) where the power coefficient is plotted
against the TSR.
• For a given turbine , the power coefficient depends not
only on the TSR but also on the blade pitch angle. Figure
1-5 shows the typical variation of the power coefficient
with respect to the TSR(λ) with blade pitch control.
Power –Speed Characteristics contd……..

Figure : (1-4) Typical power vs. speed

characteristics of a wind turbine
Efficiency limit for wind energy conversion ( Power extracted from the wind )
contd….

Figure 1-2: Rotor efficiency versus tip speed ratio for rotors with different
number of blades. Two-blade rotors have the highest efficiency.
Power –Speed Characteristics contd……..

Figure 1-5: Typical curves of Power coefficient vs. TSR for various Pitch
angles
Power –Speed Characteristics contd……..

From equations corresponding to the power

contained in the wind and definition of
coefficient of Power CP, the mechanical power
transmitted to the shaft is given by:

1-40
Where CP is a function of the TSR λ and the pitch
angle α. For a wind turbine with a radius R,
equation 1-40 can be expressed as

1-41
Power –Speed Characteristics contd……..

• For a given wind speed , the power extracted from the wind is
maximized if CP is maximized.
• The optimum value of CP, say CPopt,always occurs at a definite value
of λ say(= λopt). This means that for varying wind speed, the rotor
speed should be adjusted proportionally to adhere to this value of
λ (= λopt) for maximum mechanical output power from the turbine.
Using the relation λ = ωR/V ( = 2πNR/V) in equation (1-41) , the
maximum value of the shaft mechanical power for any wind speed
can be expressed as :

Pmax = ½ ρCp,optπ ( R5/λ3opt)ω3

(1-42)
• Thus the maximum mechanical power that can be extracted from
wind is proportional to the cube of the rotor speed i.e. Pmax ω3.
This is shown in figure 1-4.
 Torque –Speed Characteristics
• Studying the Torque versus rotational
characteristics of any prime mover is very
important for properly matching the load and
ensuring stable operation of the electrical
generator.
• The typical torque-speed characteristics of a two
blade propeller type wind turbine are shown in
the figure below (1-6).
• The profiles of the Torque-Speed characteristic
curves shown in this figure follow from the power
curves, since Torque and power are related as
follows:
Tm = Pm/ω 1-43
Torque –Speed Characteristics contd……

From equation 1-42 , at the optimum

operating point (Cp,opt, λopt ), the relation
between aerodynamic torque and rotational
speed is:

1-44

It is seen that at the optimum operating point

on the CP-λ curve, the torque is quadratically
related to the rotational speed.
Torque –Speed Characteristics contd……

• The curve in figure 1-6 shows that for the propeller

turbine for any wind speed , the torque reaches a
maximum value at a specific rotational speed and this
maximum shaft torque varies approximately as the
square of the rotational speed.
• In the case of electricity production the load torque
depends on the electrical loading and by properly
choosing the load (or power electronics interface) the
torque can be made to vary as the square of the
rotational speed.
• The choice of the constant of proportionality of the
load is very important ( see fig 1-7) At the optimal
value, the load curve follows the maximum shaft
power. But at a higher value the load torque may
exceed the turbine torque for most speeds.
 Torque –Speed Characteristics contd……

Figure 1-6: The Torque speed Characteristics of a Two

blade Propeller type Rotor
Torque –Speed Characteristics contd……

Figure 1-7 : The Torque Speed Characteristics of a wind turbine with T n 2

load for different values of the proportionality constant K
 Wind Turbine Control Systems
Wind turbines require certain control systems.
• Horizontal-axis wind turbines have to be oriented
to face the wind. This is achieved by Yaw Control.
• In high winds it is desirable to reduce the drive train
loads and protect the generator and the power
electronics equipment from overloading, by
limiting the turbine power to the rated value up to
the furling speed. This is done Pitch angle control.
• At gust speeds, the machine has to be stalled.
• At low and moderate wind speeds, the aim should
be to capture power as efficiently as possible. This
is also achieved by Pitch angle control.
Wind Turbine Control Systems contd……

• Along with many operating characteristics, the

technical data sheet of a turbine mentions its output at
a particular wind speed, generally known as the rated
wind speed. This is the minimum wind speed at which
the wind turbine produces its designated output
power. For most turbines, this speed is normally
between 9 and 16 m/s. The choice of the rated wind
speed depends on the factors related to the wind
speed characteristics of a given site, which are
discussed in the next unit. The Generator rating is
chosen so as to best utilize the mechanical output of
the turbine at the rated wind speed.
• Wind turbines can have four different types of control
mechanisms, as discussed in the following sections.
 Pitch Angle Control

• This system changes the pitch angle of the blades according

to the variation of wind speed. With pitch control, it is
possible to achieve a high efficiency by continuously aligning
the blade in the direction of the relative wind.
• On a pitch-controlled machine, as the wind speed exceeds its
rated speed, the blades are gradually turned about the
longitudinal axis and out of the wind to increase the pitch
angle. This reduces the aerodynamic efficiency of the rotor,
and the rotor output power decreases.
• When the wind speed exceeds the safe limits for the systems,
the pitch angle is so changed that the power output reduces
to zero and the machine shifts to the ‘stall’ mode.
• After the gust passes, the pitch angle is reset to the normal
position and the turbine is restarted. At normal wind speeds,
the blade pitch angle should ideally settle to a value at which
the output power equals the rated power.
 Pitch Angle Control contd….
• The Pitch angle control principle is shown in the
figure below (1.21). The input variable to the pitch
controller is the error signal which is the difference
between the output electrical power and the
reference power. The pitch controller operates the
blade actuator to alter the pitch angle. During
operation below the rated speed, the control
system commands to pitch the blade at an angle
that maximizes the rotor efficiency. The generator
must be able to absorb the mechanical power
output and deliver to the load. Hence, the
generator output power needs to be
simultaneously adjusted.
Pitch Angle Control contd….

Fig. 1.8 The feedback loop for pitch angle control

Continuous pitch control is relatively expensive to
incorporate and the cost-benefit trade-off does not
justify its use in small wind machines. However, the
stalling mechanism must be incorporated to prevent
damage of the turbine during turbulent weather
conditions.
 Stall Control
Passive stall control
Stall control is generally applied to limit the
power output at high winds to constant-pitch
turbines.
As the wind speed increases, the angle of attack
also increases for a blade running at a near
constant speed.
Beyond a particular angle of attack, the lift force
decreases, causing the rotor efficiency to drop.
This is an intrinsic property and does not need
any complex control /actuation system. The lift
force can be further reduced to restrict the power
output at high winds by properly shaping the
rotor blade profile to create turbulence on the
rotor blade side not facing the wind.
Stall Control contd….
Active stall control
• In this method of control, at high wind speeds the
blade is rotated by a few degrees in the direction
opposite to that in a pitch-controlled machine.
This increases the angle of attack, which can be
controlled to keep the output power at its rated
value at all high wind speeds below the furling
speed. A passive controlled machine shows a drop
in power at high winds. The action of active stall
control is sometimes called deep stall. Owing to
economic reasons, active stall control is generally
used only with high-capacity machines.

• Figure below (1.22) presents typical profiles of

power curve for pitch control and stall control.
 Stall Control
Passive stall control
Stall control is generally applied to limit the
power output at high winds to constant-pitch
turbines.

Beyond a particular angle of attack, the lift

force decreases, causing the rotor efficiency
to drop. This is an intrinsic property and does
not need any complex control /actuation
system.
Stall Control contd….

Active stall control

• In this method of control, at high wind speeds
the blade is rotated by a few degrees in the
direction opposite to that in a pitch-controlled
machine. This increases the angle of attack,
which can be controlled to keep the output
power at its rated value at all high wind
speeds below the furling speed.

• Figure below (1.22) presents typical profiles of

power curve for pitch control and stall control.
Fig. 1.9 Typical power profile: (a) pitch control (b) passive stall
control (c) active stall control
 Power Electronic Control
In a system incorporating a power electronic interface
between the generator and the load (or the grid), the
electrical power delivered by the generator to the load
can be dynamically controlled.
• The instantaneous difference between mechanical power
and electrical power changes the rotor speed following
the equation.

(1.46)

• Where J is the polar moment of inertia of the rotor, ω is

the angular speed of the rotor, Pm is the mechanical
power produced by the turbine, and Pe is the electrical
power delivered to the load.
Power Electronic Control contd…
Integrating Equation (1.46), we get

The advantage of this method of speed control is that it

does not involve any mechanical action and is smooth in
operation. A disadvantage is that fast variation of speed
requires a large difference between the input power and
output power, which scales up as the moment of inertia of
the rotor. This results in a large torque and hence
increases stress on the blades. Moreover, continuous
control of the rotor speed by this method implies
continuous fluctuation of the power output to the grid,
which is usually undesirable for the power system.
 Yaw Control
• This control orients the turbine continuously along the
direction of wind flow. In small turbines this is achieved with a
tail-vane. In large machines this can be achieved using
motorized control systems activated either by a fan-tail (a small
turbine mounted perpendicular instrument to the main
turbine) or, in case of wind farms, by a centralized instrument
for the detection of the wind direction. It is also possible to
achieve yaw control without any additional mechanism, simply
by mounting the turbine downwind so that the thrust force
automatically pushes the turbine in the direction of the wind.

• The yaw control mechanism can also be used for speed control.
The rotor is made to face away from the wind direction at high
wind speeds, thereby reducing the mechanical power.
However, this method is seldom used where pitch control is
available, because of the stresses it produces on the rotor
blades. Yawing often produces loud noise, and it is desirable to
restrict the yawing rate in large machines to reduce the noise.
 Control Strategy
Speed Control: For every wind turbine, rotor speed
control is necessary for three reasons:

1) To capture maximum possible energy.

2) To protect the rotor, the generator and the power
electronic equipment from overloading at high wind.
3)When the generator is disconnected accidentally or
for a scheduled event, losing the electrical load. Under
this condition, the rotor speed may run away,
destroying it mechanically, if it is not controlled.

There are five different ranges of wind speed, which

require different speed control strategies (Fig. 1.23).
 Control Strategy contd….
Five Ranges of Wind Speed :
• Below a cut-in speed, the machine does not produce
power. If the rotor has a sufficient starting torque, it may
start rotating below this wind speed. However, no power
is extracted and the rotor rotates freely. In many modern
designs the aerodynamic torque produced at the
standstill condition is quite low and the rotor has to be
started (by working the generator in the motor mode) at
the cut-in wind speed.
• At normal wind speeds, maximum power is extracted
from wind. We know that the maximum power point is
achieved at a specific (constant) value of the TSR.
Therefore, to track the maximum power point, the
rotational speed has to be changed continuously in
proportion to the wind speed( By Pitch angle control).
 Control Strategy contd….
• At high winds, the rotor speed is limited to a
maximum value depending on the design limit
of the mechanical sub systems. In this region,
the Cp is lower than the maximum, and the
power output is not proportional to the cube of
the wind speed.
• At even higher wind speeds, the power output is
kept constant at the maximum value allowed by
the Electrical generator.
• At a certain cut-out or furling wind speed, the
power generation is shut down and the rotation
stopped in order to protect the system
components.
Control Strategy contd….

Fig. 1.10 Typical Power versus wind speed

characteristics of variable speed wind machines
 Control Strategy contd….
• The last three control regimes can be realized with yaw
control, pitch angle control (if these are installed ), and
eddy-current or mechanical brakes.
• In the intermediate-speed range, the control strategy
depends on the type of electrical power generating
system used, and can be divided into two basic
categories.
-The constant-speed generation scheme, and
-The variable-speed generation scheme.
• The constant-speed generation scheme is necessary if
the electrical system involves a grid-connected
synchronous generator ( the details are given in
subsequent units). In the case of grid-connected squirrel
cage induction generators, the allowable range of speed
variation is very small, requiring an almost constant
rotational speed.
Control Strategy contd….

• However, constant-speed generation systems

cannot maximize the extraction of the power
contained in wind. We can see from Fig.1.2 that
the power coefficient reaches a maximum at a
specific value of TSR for every type of wind
turbine. Therefore, to extract the maximum
amount of power from the wind, the turbine
should operate at a constant TSR, which means
that the rotational speed should be proportional
to the wind speed. Hence the extraction of
maximum power requires a variable-speed
generation system with the speed control aimed
at keeping a constant TSR.
Control Strategy contd….

• Such systems can yield 20-30% more power than

constant-speed generation systems. With the
development of induction generators and power
electronic converters, designers are favoring
variable-speed generation systems. We will,
therefore, discuss the control strategies for such
systems in greater detail.
• The constant-TSR region, which encompasses the
largest range of wind speeds, is generally
achieved by regulating the mechanical power
input through pitch control or the electrical
power output by power electronics control. In
many cases a combination of both is employed.
 Control Strategy contd….
• The control scheme generally takes two possible forms. In the
first case, the value of the TSR for maximum Cp is stored in a
microprocessor. The operating TSR is obtained from the
measured values of the wind speed and rotational speed. An
error signal is generated whenever the operating TSR deviates
from the optimum TSR. If the current value of the TSR
deviates from the optimum TSR, the power electronic
converted increases the power output so that the rotational
speed is reduced to the desired value. The opposite action is
performed if the optimal value exceeds the current TSR.
• This scheme has a few disadvantages. First, the wind speed
measured in the neighborhood of a wind turbine (or a wind
farm) is not a reliable indicator of V∞ because of the
shadowing effects. Second, it is difficult to determine the
value of TSR for maximum Cp. Third, this value changes during
the lifetime of a wind turbine due to the changes in the
smoothness of the blade surface, necessitating alterations in
the reference setting.
Control Strategy contd….
• A second control scheme is devised to continuously track
the maximum power point (MPP) using the property that
the CP versus TSR curve has a single smooth maximum
point. This means that if we operate at the maximum point,
small fluctuations in the rotational speed do not
significantly change the power output, i.e., the MPP is
characterized by dP/dω = 0. To implement this scheme, the
speed is varied in small steps, the power output is
measured, and ΔP/Δω is evaluated. If this ratio is positive,
more mechanical power can be obtained by increasing the
speed. Hence the electrical power output is decreased
temporarily by power electronic control so that the speed
increases. This increases the mechanical power, and the
electrical power output is again raised to a higher value.
The process continues until the optimum speed is reached,
when mechanical power becomes insensitive to speed
fluctuations. When the wind speed changes, this
mechanism readjusts the speed at the optimum value.
 Control Strategy contd….

The use of brakes:

• In the event of load tripping or accidental disconnection of
the electrical load, the rotor speed may increase
dangerously. This may even lead to the mechanical
destruction of the rotor. Moreover, at very high wind speeds,
the electrical power throughput has to be kept within limits
to protect the generator and the power electronic converter.
This can be done by reducing the rotational speed. However,
this speed control cannot be achieved by power electronic
control as discussed above, because that would call for an
increase in the electrical power output which is exactly the
opposite of what was desired.

• In these situations it is advisable to use brakes. Either an

eddy-current or a mechanical brake (or a combination of
these) is installed in most wind turbines. A mechanical brake
is also necessary for stalling these turbines in gusty winds.
 Illustrative Examples :
Example 2: How Fast Does a Big Wind Turbine
Turn? A 40-m diameter (D) , three bladed
wind turbine produces 600 kW at a wind speed of
14 m/s. Air density is the standard 1.225 kg/m3.
Under these conditions,
a) At what rpm does the rotor turn when it
operates with a TSR of 4.0?
b) What is the tip speed of the rotor?
c) If the generator needs to turn at 1800 rpm,
what gear ratio is needed to match the rotor
speed to the generator speed?
d) What is the efficiency of the complete wind
turbine (blades, gear box, generator) under these
conditions?
 Illustrative Examples contd….
Solution:
a) The tip speed ratio of a wind turbine is given by λ =
(2πRN)/ V or (πDN /V ) where λ is the TSR (non
dimensional), D is the diameter of the swept area (in
meters), N is the rotational speed in revolutions per
second and V is the wind speed without rotor interruption
in meters/second).
From which we get N = λ.V/πD
Substituting the given values we get:

Rotor Speed N = (4x14)/40π = 0.446 RPS or 26.7 RPM

b) The tip speed of each blade is given by:

Tip speed = (πDN)m/s = π.40. 0.446 = 56 m/s
Illustrative Examples contd….
The same answer could have been obtained from the other
simpler relation also. i.e. Tip speed is given by: λ = Tip Speed (
m/s)/(wind speed without rotor interruption in meters/second)
or Tip Speed = λ x Wind speed = 4x14 = 56 m/s

c) If the generator needs to spin at 1800 rpm, then the gear

box in the nacelle must increase the rotor shaft speed by a
factor of
Gear ratio = Generator rpm / Rotor rpm = 1800 / 26.7 = 67.4

d) From (1.3) the power in the wind is given by: P = ½ρAV3

Substituting the given values we get:
P = ½ .1.225. π . ¼ .402 × 143 =2112 kW
So the overall efficiency of the wind turbine, from wind power
to final electrical power =600 / 2112 = 0.284 = 28.4%