Fire Behavior
Fire Behavior
Fire Behavior
Fire Behavior
5
Objectives (1 of 3)
• Discuss the fire tetrahedron.
• Identify the physical states of matter in
which fuels are found.
• Describe the methods of heat transfer.
• Define flash point, flame point, and
ignition temperature as they relate to
liquid fuel fires.
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5
Objectives (2 of 3)
• Define the relationship of vapor
density and flammability limits to gas
fuel fires.
• Define Class A, B, C, D, and K fires.
• Describe the phases of fire.
• Describe the characteristics of an
interior structure fire.
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5
Objectives (3 of 3)
• Describe rollover and flashover.
• Describe backdrafts.
• Describe the principles of thermal
layering within a structure.
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5
Introduction
• Understanding of fire behavior is the basis
for all firefighting principles and actions.
• Understanding fire behavior requires
knowledge of physical and chemical
processes of fire.
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5
Fire Triangle and Tetrahedron
• Three basic
factors required
for combustion:
– Fuel
– Oxygen
– Heat
• Chemical chain
reactions keep
the fire burning.
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5
Methods of Extinguishment
• Cool the
burning
material.
• Exclude
oxygen.
• Remove fuel.
• Break the
chemical
reaction. 7
5
Fuel
• What is actually
being burned
• Physical states
– Solid
– Liquid
– Gas
• Combustion
occurs when
fuel is in a
gaseous state.
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5
Solids
• Most fuels are solids.
• Pyrolysis releases
molecules into
atmosphere.
– Converts solid to a gas
• Solids with high
surface to mass ratio
combust more easily
and rapidly.
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5
Liquids
• Assume the shape of their containers
• Vaporization is the release of a liquid’s
molecules into the atmosphere.
• Liquids with a high surface to volume
ratio vaporize and combust more
easily and rapidly.
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5
Gases
• Have neither shape nor volume
• Expand indefinitely
• Fuel to air mixture must be within a
certain range to combust.
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5
Oxygen and Oxidizing Agents
• Oxygen is required to initiate and
sustain combustion.
• Materials classified as oxidizers will
support the combustion of other
materials, even if no oxygen is
present.
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5
Heat
• Required to ignite a fire
• Energy to produce an ignition comes
from a variety of sources:
– Mechanical energy
– Chemical energy
– Electrical energy
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5
Chemical Chain Reaction
• Chain reactions continue to occur as
long as there is sufficient fuel, oxygen,
and heat.
• Interrupting the chain reaction puts
the fire out.
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5
Chemistry of Combustion (1 of 2)
• Exothermic
reactions
– Reactions that result
in the release of heat
energy
• Endothermic
reactions
– Reactions that
absorb heat or
require heat to be
added 15
5
Chemistry of Combustion (2 of 2)
• Oxidation
– Chemically combining oxygen with another substance to
create a new compound
• Combustion
– Rapid, selfsustaining process that combines oxygen with
another substance and results in the release of heat and
light
• Pyrolysis
– Decomposition of a material caused by external heating
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5
Products of Combustion
• Combustion produces smoke and
other substances.
• Specific products depend on:
– Fuel
– Temperature
– Amount of oxygen available
• Few fires consume all available fuel.
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5
Smoke
• Airborne products of combustion
• Consists of:
– Particles
– Vapors
– Gases
• Inhalation of smoke can cause severe
injuries.
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5
Smoke Contents (1 of 2)
• Particles
– Solid matter consisting of unburned, partially
burned or completely burned substances
– Can be hot and/or toxic
• Vapors
– Small droplets of liquids suspended in air
– Can be oils from the fuel or water from
suppression efforts
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5
Smoke Contents (2 of 2)
• Gases
– Most gases produced by fire are toxic
– Common gases include:
• Carbon monoxide
• Hydrogen cyanide
• Phosgene
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5
Heat Transfer
• Combustion gives off heat which can
ignite other nearby fuels.
• Heat energy always flows from hotter
to colder.
• Three methods of heat transfer
– Conduction
– Convection
– Radiation
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5
Conduction
• Heat transferred
from one
molecule to
another (direct
contact)
• Conductors
transfer heat
well.
– Example: Metal
• Insulators do 22
5
Convection
• Movement of
heat through a
fluid medium
such as air or a
liquid
• Creates
convection
currents
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5
Convection within a Room
• Hot gases rise, then travel horizontally.
• Gases then bank down a wall or move
outside the room.
– Horizontally
– Vertically
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5
Radiation
• Transfer of heat
in the form of an
invisible wave
• Heat radiated to a
nearby structure
can ignite it.
• Radiated heat
passing through a
window can ignite
an object. 25
5
Liquid Fuel Fires (1 of 3)
• A liquid must vaporize before it burns.
• A minimum and maximum
concentration of vapors must be
present to ignite.
• Most flammable liquids can ignite well
below their boiling point.
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5
Liquid Fuel Fires (2 of 3)
• Conditions required for ignition:
– Fuelair mixture within flammable limits
– An ignition source with sufficient energy
– Sustained contact between ignition source and
fuelair mixture
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5
Liquid Fuel Fires (3 of 3)
• Flash point
– Lowest temperature at which vapor is produced
• Flame point (or fire point)
– Lowest temperature at which sufficient vapors are
produced to support a small flame for a short time
• Ignition temperature
– Temperature at which the fuelair mixture will
spontaneously ignite
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5
Gas Fuel Fires (1 of 2)
• Vapor Density
– Weight of a gas fuel
– Gas with vapor density less than 1.0 will rise.
– Gas with vapor density greater than 1.0 will settle.
– Knowing vapor density helps predict where the
danger of ignition will be.
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5
Gas Fuel Fires (2 of 2)
• Fuelair mixtures only burn when mixed
in certain concentrations.
• Flammability/explosive limits
– Below the lower flammability limit
• Too little fuel = too lean
– Above the upper flammability limit
• Too much fuel = too rich
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5
BLEVE (1 of 3)
• Boiling liquid, expanding vapor
explosion
• Occurs when a tank storing liquid fuel
under pressure is heated excessively
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5
BLEVE (2 of 3)
• Sequence:
– Tank is heated
– Internal pressure rises beyond ability to vent
– Tank fails catastrophically
– Liquid fuel at or above boiling point is released
– Liquid immediately turns into a rapidly expanding
cloud of vapor
– Vapor ignites into a huge fireball
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5
BLEVE (3 of 3)
• BLEVEs can injure and even kill fire
fighters and civilians.
– Fireball created by the ignition of expanding
vapors
– Large pieces of the tank propelled great distances
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5
Classes of Fire (1 of 2)
• Fires classified according to type of
fuel
• Extinguishing agents classified to
match type(s) of fires they extinguish
• A fire can fit into more than one class.
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5
Classes of Fire (2 of 2)
• Five classes of fires:
– Class A
– Class B
– Class C
– Class D
– Class K
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5
Class A
• Fuel: Ordinary solid combustibles
– Wood
– Paper
– Cloth
• Extinguishing agents:
– Water (cools the fuel)
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5
Class B
• Fuel: Flammable or combustible liquids
– Gasoline
– Kerosene
– Oils
• Extinguishing agents:
– Foam or carbon dioxide
– Dry chemicals
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5
Class C
• Fuel: Energized electrical equipment
– Underlying fuel is often Class A or Class B
– Special classification required due to electrical
hazards
• Extinguishing agents:
– Carbon dioxide
– Use of water is not advised.
• Be sure to shut off power before using water.
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5
Class D
• Fuel: Burning metals
– Potassium
– Lithium
– Magnesium
• Extinguishing agents:
– Special saltbased powders or dry sand
– Do NOT use water.
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5
Class K
• Fuel: Combustible cooking media
– Cooking oils
– Grease
• Extinguishing agents:
– Designation is new and coincides with a new
classification of Class K extinguishing agents
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5
Phases of Fire
• Four distinct phases:
– Ignition
– Growth
– Fully Developed
– Decay
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5
Ignition Phase
• Fuel, heat, and oxygen are
present
• Fuel is heated to its ignition
temperature
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5
Growth Phase
• Additional fuel involved
• Fire grows larger
• Convection draws more air into
fire
• Thermal layering:
– Hot gases collect at ceiling and bank
downward.
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5
Flashover
• Point between growth phase and fully
developed phase
• All combustible materials in a room
ignite at once.
• Temperatures can reach 1000°F.
• Flashovers are deadly!
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5
Fully Developed Phase
• Heat produced at maximum
rate
• Oxygen consumed rapidly
• Fire will burn as long as fuel
and oxygen remain.
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5
Decay Phase
• Fuel is nearly
exhausted
• Intensity reduces
• Eventually fire will
go out
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5
Characteristics of an Interior
Structure Fire
• Fire is fully or partially contained within
a building
• Building acts as a box.
• Special considerations:
– Room contents
– Fuel load and fire spread
– Flashover, rollover, backdraft, and thermal layering
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5
Room Contents
• Many fires burn only the contents, and
not the structure itself.
• Modern rooms contain many plastic
and synthetic materials.
• Furniture may have little resistance to
ignition from flaming sources.
• Wall and ceiling finishes can burn
readily.
48
5
Fuel Load and Fire Spread
• Total quantity of combustibles in a room
• Determines how much heat and smoke
will be generated
• Size, shape, and arrangement of fuel
will affect combustibility and fire spread
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5
Special Considerations
• Four conditions particular to interior
fires that affect fire fighter (and civilian)
safety:
– Flashover
– Flameover (or rollover)
– Backdraft
– Thermal layering and thermal balance
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5
Flashover
• Sudden ignition of all contents
• Minimal chance of survival
• Flashover often occurs just as fire
fighters arrive on the scene.
• Signs of flashover:
– Dense black smoke with tightly packed curls
– Dense smoke fills over half of a door or window
– Flameover (rollover) visible
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5
Rollover (Flameover)
• A warning sign of imminent flashover
• Licks of flame ignite briefly in upper
layers of smoke
• Situation calls for aggressive cooling of
atmosphere, immediate exit, or
immediate ventilation
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5
Backdraft (1 of 4)
• Explosion that
occurs when
oxygen is
suddenly admitted
to a confined area
that is very hot
and filled with
combustible
vapors
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5
Backdraft (2 of 4)
• Usually occurs when a fire is
smoldering
– Room is filled with carbon monoxide and other
products of combustion.
– Sudden introduction of air will explosively feed the
fire.
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5
Backdraft (3 of 4)
• Signs of an impending backdraft:
– Little or no flame visible
– Smoke emanating under pressure from cracks
– No large openings
– “Living fire” visible
– Unexplained change in color of smoke
– Glass smoke stained or blackened
– Signs of extreme heat
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5
Backdraft (4 of 4)
• Prevention of backdrafts:
– Ventilate at a high level to allow superheated gases
to escape
– Wellcoordinated fire attack
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5
Thermal Layering and Thermal
Balance
• Superheated gases collect near ceiling.
• Temperatures are lowest near floor.
• Fire streams create steam which
expands and rises.
• Prevention:
– Coordinate fire attack with ventilation.
– Use straight streams to minimize steam formation.
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5
Summary (1 of 3)
• To be a successful fire fighter you must
know fire behavior.
• Characteristics of solids, liquids, and
gases are different.
• Fire triangle and fire tetrahedron
represent conditions necessary for
combustion.
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5
Summary (2 of 3)
• Five classes of fire require specific
extinguishing methods.
• Knowledge of heat transfer is required
to understand how fires propagate.
• Typical fires pass through four distinct
phases.
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5
Summary (3 of 3)
• Liquid fuel fires, gas fuel fires, and
interior fires have unique
characteristics.
• Flashover, rollover, backdraft, and
thermal layering are conditions that
threaten fire fighters and victims.
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