Module 1- Introduction to what

is fire.
What is Fire?

• The heat and light that comes from burning substances, produced by
the combustion of substances.
• It is the manifestation of a rapid chemical reaction occurring between
a combustible matter and an oxidizer. Such rapid chemical reaction
releases energy in the form of heat and light. When a substance burns,
heat and light are produced. Burning is also called combustion.
• Fire is the product of a chemical reaction or a process called
combustion. When combustion takes place heat and light are
produced, and the heat and light is referred as fire.
• Fire is a product of combustion.
• Fire is the heat and light that is observed when combustion takes
place.

Rapid and Oxidation

- Oxidation that happens in a very fast manner. Oxygen chemically

reacting, chemically combining with the molecules coming from a
material at the very high speed and as the result of the very fast oxidation
rate light and heat are produced.
- Rapid Oxidation results in burning of material or even an explosion. It
happens rapidly and produces light and noticeable heat.
- Combustion and Explosion is a Rapid Oxidation
- Rapid oxidation is simply oxidation at a faster rate.

Combustion

- Reaction of an element or compound with oxygen to form an oxide and

produce heat. Hydrocarbons combust with oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide and water.
- Aside from heat and light, Water and Carbon Dioxide is formed when
combustion takes place.
- A chemical reaction whereby oxygen chemically reacts with the carbon
and hydrogen molecules coming from a fuel, such as paper, candle,
wood or even hydrocarbons like methane and pentane and results to
 H2O (water) in the form of water vapor and CO2 carbon dioxide is
produced.
- Combustion is rapid oxidation.

Oxidation

- Is the chemical combination of oxygen and another element or molecule.

There are many examples of oxidation, including the burning of carbon
based – fuels.
- Is the chemical combination of oxygen to other atoms or molecules.

Oxygen

- Oxygen has six valence electrons

- Don’t need to chemically combine to other atom

Octet Rule

- Explains why oxygen is very reactive

Examples of Oxidation

- Sulfur plus oxygen yields sulfur dioxide: S + O2 SO2

- Carbon plus oxygen yields carbon dioxide: C + O2 CO2
- Magnesium plus oxygen yields magnesium oxide: 2Mg + O2 2MgO
- Iron plus Oxygen yields to iron oxide(rust): 3Fe + 2O2 Fe3O2
- Phosphorus plus oxygen yields phosphorus pentoxide: 4P + 5O 2 2P2O
How are heat and light produced.
Fire (conflagration) is the common term of the burning process – the combustion of a
fuel. Combustion involves rapid oxidation.

Combustion (Chemical Reaction Formula)

Oxidation (slow & rapid)

• The chemical reaction in which oxygen chemically combines with the organic
elements (fuel) of a combustible substance.

Slow oxidation sometimes becomes rapid. The rapid oxidation of material is chemically
termed as combustion. In some fuels, if the heat during oxidation is not easily
dissipated, the temperature gradually rises until the material automatically ignites.
When this situation occurs, the material has undergone spontaneous combustion. Rags
or papers saturated or soaked with animal fat (or vegetable oil), if stored in confined
space where the heat of oxidation is not dissipated fast enough, tend to undergo
spontaneous combustion.

❖ Methane + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide and Water. (Heat is Formed)

Incandescence
- Incandescence is the emission of the electromagnetic radiation (including Visible
light) from a hot body as a result of its temperature.
- Visible light has the wavelengths in the range of 400-700 nanometers (nm)
- Draper point: 798 K (525 ○C ; 977 ○ F)

❖ How is light produced in the process of combustion?

- It is through Incandescence

❖ Electromagnetic Radiation is called infrared and has a wavelength longer

than 700 nanometers.

The elements of fire

❖ Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction
❖ Light is caused by incandescence.
❖ Heat is released when molecules are formed (H 2O and CO2)
❖ Fire is the light and heat that we observed when combustion takes place.

Elements of Fire

1. Heat – ignition temperature

2. Fuel – combustible matter (organic material, hydrocarbons)
3. Oxidizing agent – the common oxidizing agent is oxygen; others are
bromates, iodine, nitric acid, peroxides, chlorates, etc

Air is composed of: 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 1% inert (inactive but are still
combustible) gases
Why heat is needed.
- Heat is needed so that the carbon and hydrogen molecules which are
the flammable vapors will be released from the fuel and to break the
bond between the carbon and hydrogen so that oxygen can attack and
chemically combine with the free carbon and hydrogen atoms.
- Heat is the activation energy that we need in order to reach the energy
level that is needed for our fuel and oxygen to undergo combustion and
turn into carbon dioxide and water.

Fire Triangle

• A geometrical figure that diagrams the relationship between the three

elements of fire. Each side of the triangle represents an element, such
that if one side is missing then there is no triangle; meaning fire cannot
be produced.

If any of the elements are not available, the combustion does not take
place. Normally, oxygen is supplied by air, ignition temperature can be
provided by the ignition device (like a flame), and any combustible material
(usually organic matter) burns when heated by the ignition device. Most
combustible materials burn in the gaseous state only.
If there is a sufficient supply of oxygen, there is rapid oxidation resulting to
complete combustion. If the supply of oxygen and vaporization of a matter is
sufficient combustion is accompanied by heat and light. If there is an
insufficient supply of oxygen, there is smoldering fire. In a smoldering fire, no
flames are manifested.
To burn a fuel, its temperature must be raised (increased) until the ignition point
is reached. Thus, before a combustible material starts to burn or before it can
be ignited, it has to be exposed to a certain degree of temperature. When the
temperature of a substance is very high, it releases highly combustible vapors
known as free radicals.

FUEL
Fire Tetrahedron

Chemical
Chain
Reaction
FUEL

❖ The Forth Element of fire is Chemical Chain Reaction or An Inhibited Chain

Reaction

Chemical Chain Reaction

- Means that, oxygen, and heat was continuously interact with one another
in order to sustain combustion.
The theory of fire.
Flash Point

• The lowest / minimum temperature at which a substance gives off vapors that
burn momentarily (when a flame or spark is applied).

If a fuel’s temperature has reached its flash point, then it can be instantly ignited thus
producing a momentary fire. If its temperature still increases, such that it continuously
releases combustible vapors, the condition results in sustained burning
(combustion). Hence, the fuel is deemed to have reached its fire point.
Fire Point

• The temperature at which the fuel continues to burn after it has been ignited –
that even if the source of ignition has been removed, the fuel continues to
burn.

If a substance automatically burns without any human or mechanical

intervention, the temperature of the substance has been spontaneously increased until
it reaches the auto-ignition point.
Auto-ignition / Self-Ignition Point

• The lowest / minimum temperature at which a substance can be heated to

release vapors that will ignite without the application of a flame or spark.
• It refers to the temperature at which spontaneous combustion takes place.
• It is usually much higher (in temperature than the fire point).

Flammable range or Explosive Range of a Fuel

• It refers to the volume range needed to burn or explode a fuel when it is

ignited.
THE THEORY OF FIRE

Combustion may be in the form of:

1. Glowing combustion (condense-phased combustion) – manifested by embers

2. Gas- phased combustion – flame (blue / yellow/orange)

Fire Properties
Physical properties

1. Specific Gravity
2. Vapor Density
3. Vapor Pressure
4. Temperature
5. Boiling Point
6. Fire Point
7. Flash Point
8. Auto-ignition point – kindling temperature
Chemical properties

1. Endothermic reaction
2. Exothermic reaction
3. Oxidation
4. Combustion
5. Flame

Flames
Flame

• The matter produced by the fire.

• It is composed of burning incandescent gases.
• It is manifested of fire when the fire is in its gas-phase combustion.

Requirements to Produce Flame

1. high temperature
2. reactants (fuel and oxidizer / gases / vapors)
3. the concentration of short-lived intermediate chemical reaction between
reactants

Types of Flames
1.) According to color and completeness of combustion

1. Luminous flame

• reddish-orange in color
• it deposits soot because it is a product of incomplete combustion
• It has a lower temperature

2. Non-luminous flame

• bluish in color
• it does not deposit soot because it is a product of complete combustion
• it has a higher temperature than luminous flame
 2.) According to burning fuel and air mixture
1. Premixed flame
– e.g. flame of a Bunsen Burner or LPG
– Are flame that are produced when the fuel are flammable
vapors are already combined with the oxygen or oxidizer
before undergoing combustion
2. Diffused flame
– e.g. flame of the oxyacetylene torch (ethyl alcohol lamp)
– Is when the fuel is not yet combine with an oxidizer or
oxygen will have to rely therefor with an oxygen present in
the environment.

3.)Based on smoothness

1. Laminar flame – smooth flame (ex. from a candle)

2. Turbulent flame – rough flame (ex. building/forest fire)

What are the factors which affects the color of the flame?
1. Completeness of Combustion
2. Additives that are present

What determines the color of the flame?

- THE FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE COLOR OF THE FLAME are the ones which
determines the color of the flame.

Flame Test
- Is an analytical procedure used by the chemist to detect the presence of
particular metal ions, based on the color of the flame produced.
Hydrocarbon

• Any substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen (water).

Pyrolysis

• It refers to the chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid part of
the fuel.
• It is the thermal decomposition of combustible matter.
• It is the chemical decomposition of a solid fuel through the action of heat.

Free radicals – combustible vapors such as:

1. hydrogen gas
2. carbon dioxide
3. carbon monoxide (most hazardous) – can cause asphyxia
4. nitrogen

Two Basic Modes of Fire

1. Flaming mode

• It is represented by the fire tetrahedron – a four-sided figure with the sides

representing fuel, temperature, oxygen, and the uninhibited chemical chain
reaction.
• The four elements of fire are present (
• Heat, Fuel, Oxygen and Chemical Chain Reaction.)

2. Surface or Smoldering Mode

• It is represented by the fire triangle with the three sides representing fuel,
temperature, and oxygen.
• The three elements of fire are present (Heat, Fuel, and Oxygen).
Evolution of fire
The world that we know today will be entirely different if man didn't master the science
of fire. So how did we learn how to tame fire? What were the prehistoric uses of fire?
What role did fire play in the development of early civilizations? And what are the
modern uses of fire? All of these questions will be answered by the end of this module.

EVOLUTION OF FIRE
Early humans used fire to warm themselves, cook food, and frighten away
predators. Sitting around a fire may have helped unite and strengthen family groups
and speed the evolution of early society. Fire enabled our human ancestors to travel out
of warm, equatorial regions and, eventually spread throughout the world. But fire also
posed great risks and challenges to early people, including the threat of burns, the
challenge of controlling fire, the greater challenge of starting a fire, and the threat of
wildfires.
As early civilizations developed, people discovered more uses of fire. They
used fire to provide light, to make better tools, and as a weapon in times of war. Early
religions often included fire as a part of their rituals, reflecting its importance to
society. Early myths focused on fire’s power.

Fire is divine or sacred to many people

- In ancient Greece and later, the fire was considered one of the four basic
elements, a substance from which all things were composed. Its great
importance to humans, the mystery of its powers, and its seeming capriciousness
has made fire divine or sacred to many people.
- Fire as a god is a characteristic feature of Zoroastrianism, in which, as in many
sun-worshiping religions,
- fire is considered the earthly representative or type of the sun.
Vesta

• Roman goddess of the hearth

• To honor Vesta, the high priest of the Roman religion periodically chose six
priestesses called Vestal Virgins who were responsible to keep the holy
fire going in a community hearth.

Prometheus

• Fire bearer
• He stole fire from the gods, gave it to man, and taught him many useful arts
and sciences.

Early Fire Making Techniques

1. Rubbing together pieces of flint that could produce sparks that would set
fire to wood shavings.
2. Rubbing together pieces of wood until the wood produced a hot powder
that could light kindling
3. Adaptation of the bow and drill which consisted of a block of wood and
a stick that was fixed in the looped string of a small, curved bow.
4. Use of wood piston to compress air inside a bamboo tube that
contained wood shavings. Compressed air became increasingly hotter,
eventually igniting the shavings.
5. Use of tinderbox – moisture-proof, metal carrying case held tinder, usually
charred cotton or linen cloth, and pieces of steel and flint. Striking the steel
and flint together produced a spark that lighted the tinder.
6. Tinderbox that operates like a present-day cigarette lighter in which the
rotary motion of a metal wheel against flint set off sparks in tinder.
7. Development of phosphorus match. (mid 19th century)
Uses of Fire

Prehistoric Uses of Fire

1. Hunter-gatherers (people who lived by hunting and gathering wild food) made
use of fire so that they can remain active after the sunset, protect themselves
from predators, warm themselves, cook, and make better tools.
2. Source of light by taking advantage of the glow of wood-burning fires to
continue their activities after dark and inside their dwelling.
3. Enabled people to make better weapons and tools.

People learned to control fire by blowing at it through reed pipes. Then they
used this technique to burn hollows in logs to create cradles, bowls, and canoes.

Fires in Early Civilizations

1. Artisans first used fire to make pottery and bricks.
2. Ancient people developed improved devices for using fire to provide light
3. The use of candles made of yarn or dry brushes dipped in animal fat.

Modern Uses of Fire

1. Used in appliances that rely on fire to operate

2. Used to supplement the main heating system in their homes
3. Used over campfires
4. Used to manufacture products and dispose of waste
5. Used in incinerators to destroy garbage
6. Fire also heat large boilers to generate steam which then powers large
turbines.
7. Used in power plants to generate electricity
8. Used as a weapon in times of war (catapult)

Early 1980’s
- Koobi Forra
- Jawbone of fossils
- Homo Heidelbergensis – first who used fire
Introduction to fuels
FUELS (COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS)
- Anything that burns and releases energy.
Most fuels release energy by burning with oxygen in the air. But some,
especially chemical fuels used in rockets, need special oxidizers in order to
burn. Oxidizers are compounds that contain oxygen. Nuclear fuels do not burn but
release energy through the fission (splitting) or fusion (joining together) of atoms.
In the fire triangle, fuel is one of the vital elements needed to produce fire. To
burn fuel, it must be heated to its ignition point.
Nuclear Fuel or Nuclear energy is called Green energy

General Categories of Fuels

1. Solid combustible materials

➢ includes organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, and metallic solid

materials.
➢ Has physical shape and size
➢ To ignite, solids must be heated to the point of decomposing, and thus
producing vapors.
➢ The heat being applied to the solid matter must be sufficient to
overcome the amount of heat that solid is capable of vapors.
➢ Surface to mass ratio

2. Liquid combustible materials

➢ includes all flammable liquid fuels and chemicals.

➢ A liquid’s ability to ignite and burn depends on the form.
❖ Density of Liquid Fuel
- It affects in combustion
- Dictates whether it will sit on top of a water or sink and rest below the water
surface.
❖ Kerosine is less dense than water
❖ Solubility – it dictates whether it will readily mixed with water or not.
❖ Polar molecules will only mix to polar molecules and non-polar molecules will
only mix to non-polar molecules.
❖ Non-polar oil does not interact or mixed with water
❖ It is important to know the solubility of a fuel to water because it affects the
investigation of a fire seat
 3. Gaseous substances

➢ includes those toxic hazardous gases that are capable of ignition.

➢ True gas vs vapor
➢ Relatively few gases are ignitable at room temperature not all gases
burn.
❖ True gas
-one that is in a gaseous state at normal temperature and
pressure
-example is LPG (liquid Petroleum Gas)
➢ Vapor density
- Weight of gas when compared with air at sea level. The weight of air at sea level
is 14.4 pounds per square inch
- If a gas is heavier than air it has a vapor density designation of more than 1
- If a gas is lighter than air it has a vapor density designation of less than 1
- Propane has a vapor density designation of 1.6
- Gases and vapors can ignite only when mixed with an appropriate amount of
oxygen.
- Flammable Range or Explosion Range
- UEL (Upper explosive Limit) and LEL (Lower Explosive Limit)

Classification of Combustible Materials

1. Class A Fuels (can cause Class A fires)

➢ Ordinary combustible materials that are usually made of organic substances

such as wood and wood-based products
➢ It includes some of those synthetic and/or inorganic materials like rubber, leather,
and plastics.

2. Class B Fuels (can cause Class B fires)

➢ Materials that are in the form of flammable liquids such as alcohol, acidic
substances, oil, and other chemicals such as those liquid petroleum products.

3. Class C Fuels (can cause Class C fires)

➢ Normally fire-resistant materials

➢ Materials used in electrical wiring and other electrical appliances

4. Class D Fuels (can cause Class D fires)

➢ Combustible metallic substances such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium,

sodium and potassium
 5. Class K – Kitchen fires

➢ A new classification as of 1998 and involves fires in combustible cooking fuels

such as vegetable or animal fats.
Introduction to fire behavior
FIRE BEHAVIOR
Thermal Balance

• It refers to the rising movement or pattern of the fire.

• The normal behavior when the fire is undisturbed.

Thermal Imbalance

• The abnormal movement of fire due to the interference of foreign matter.

• It often confuses the fire investigator in determining the exact point where the
fire originated.
• Opposite of thermal balance.
• Fire is disturbed
• Abnormal behavior of fire

Ceiling Jet

- Consist of a thin layer of voyant gases that moves rapidly just under the ceiling in
all direction away from the Plume.
- Responsible for the activation of smoke detectors sprinkler heads and so forth,
and as these gases formed in the upper levels in the compartment this start to
form thermal layers of varying temperature
- The hottest layer is one of the topmost and may be visible in your naked eye if
left on disturbed.
- Each layer will have its own color

❖ Fire is governed by the laws of physics

❖ If thermal balance is maintained throughout the fire, then it is much easier for
our fire investigators to reconstruct the crime scene and determine where the
fire originated.
❖ However if the thermal balance is disturbed fire will not beave normally
Dangerous/fatal behavior of fire

1. Backdraft

• It is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined

area that occurs in the form of an explosion
• The compartment retains the heat, the oxygen in the air suddenly depletes
or .becomes fewer and fewer until from 21 it becomes 16 and it becomes
lower than 16. However incomplete combustion takes place there were still
the production of flammable vapors that are accumulated inside because they
are trapped and those superheated gasses which are produced by
incomplete combustion are just waiting for fresh air containing at least 16% of
oxygen to come in.
• This may occur because of improper ventilation. If the room is not properly
ventilated, highly flammable vapors may be accumulated such that when a
door or window is suddenly opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen, and
simultaneously, sudden combustion occurs which may happen as an
explosion (combustion explosion).
• The explosion is a result when air or oxygen is suddenly introduced in an
area where there is a tremendous amount of incomplete combustion of
products.
• These radical gases do not burn even if ignition temperature has been
reached because there is a lack of oxygen.
• This is a dangerous condition that usually results in fatal behavior of fire.
• Compartment were those superheated flammable gases are trapped I like a
ticking boom, because the moment someone’s opens he door fresh air will
come in and that oxygen in that air will suddenly react with all the
superheated flammable vapors and tremendous pressure will built up and
that will result to an expulsion and that fatal behavior of fire is what we
referred as Backdraft.

Characteristics of Backdraft

1. fire gases are under pressure

2. confinement of excessive heat
3. there is a little flame or no visible flame
4. smoke leave the building in puffs or by intervals
5. windows are smoke stained
6. muffled sounds are heard inside the building
7. the violent rushing of air inside when the opening is made
2. Flashover

• It is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is

incomplete combustion of fuels.
• It is the sudden burning of accumulated free radicals, which is initiated by a
spark or flash produced when the temperature rises until the flashpoint is
reached.
• When the accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly burns, there will be
a very intense fire that is capable of causing flames to jump at a certain
distance in the form of fireballs. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards within
a few seconds.
• It is the near-simultaneous ignition of most of the direct exposed combustible
material in an enclosed area.
• Flashover happens when all the combustible material inside the room
reaches there auto ignition temperature.
• Flashover is when a fire in a room becomes a room on fire

3. Bite back
• A fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists extinguishments operation
and becomes stronger and bigger instead

4. Flashfire

• It is better known as dust explosion.

• This may happen when a metal post that is completely covered with dust is
going to be hit by lightning.
• The dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously thus creating a
violent chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followed by an
explosion.
• A sudden, intense fire caused by ignition of a mixture of air and a dispersed
flammable substance such as a solid (including dust), flammable or
combustible liquid (such as an aerosol or fine mist), or a flammable gas
• Hybrid is the mixture of gas and dust.
Phases of Fire
1. Incipient phase – growth stage
1. normal room temperature
2. the temperature at the base of the fire is 400-800 º F
3. ceiling temperature is about 200 º F
4. pyrolysis products: mostly water vapors and carbon dioxide; small
quantities of carbon monoxide and sulfides may be present.

2. Free-burning phase – developing stage

1. the accelerated pyrolytic process takes place

2. development of convection current; formation of the thermal
column as heat rises
3. temperature: 800-1000 º F @ the base of the fire

1200-1600 º F @ the ceiling

4. pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the walls (crawling of the flame)
leaving burnt patterns (fire fingerprints)
5. occurrence of flashover

3. Smoldering phase – decaying stage

1. oxygen content drops to 13% or below causing the flame to vanish
and the heat to develop in layers
2. products of incomplete combustion increase in volume, particularly
carbon monoxide with an ignition temperature of about 1125 ºF
3. ceiling temperature: 1000-1300 ºF
4. heat and pressure in the room builds up
5. building or room contains large quantities of superheated fuel
under pressure but little oxygen
6. when a sufficient supply of oxygen is introduced, backdraft occurs.

- The three principle environmental elements affecting while in fire behavior which
are found in the environment tringle are fuel, weather, and topography
4 basic Concepts
1. Rate of spread
- 1 CHAIN = 66 ft
- 80 CHAINS = 1 mile
- 10 sq CHAINS = 1 acre
2. Fireline Intensity
- Measurement of heat released over a period of time
- Low relative humidity + heavy Fuels can lead to high fire intensity
3. Flame length
- Is the distance between the flame tip and the base of the midpoint of the flame at
ground level
4. Flame height
- Average maximum vertical extension of the flame

Parts of a Fire
1. Origin
2. head
3. Back
4. Flanking fire
- Spreads at right angles to the wind
5. Fingers
- Project from main body
6. Pockets
- Unburned areas between fingers
7. Island
- Unburned areas inside fire perimete
8. Spot
- New ignition outside fire perimeter
Types of Fire
1. Ground
- Spread primarily by smoldering combustion through subsurface fields including
deep dup, pit roots, rattan berry logs and other organic materials.
2. Surface
- Spread by flaming combustions through fuels at or near the surface including
needles or leaves, grass, woody debris, small plants and shrubs
3. Crown
- Burns through shrubs and tree crowns in canapés

Stages of a Fire Crown

1. Passive
- Torching
2. Active
- Dependent
3. Independent
- Very rare
CAUSES OF FIRE
A. Natural Causes

1. Spontaneous heating
o The automatic chemical reaction that results in spontaneous
combustion due to the auto-ignition of organic materials.
o The gradual rising of heat in a confined space until the
ignition temperature is reached.
o A slow process causing the burning of a plant combustible
material even without an external source of heat.

Factors affecting the development of spontaneous combustion

a. air supply
b. insulating materials
c. temperature

2. Lightning
o A form of electricity.
o A natural electric current with great magnitude, producing
tremendous amperage and voltage.
o It usually strikes objects that are better electrical conductors
than air.
o It can cause fire directly or indirectly.
o Indirectly when it strikes telephone and other transmission
lines causing an induced line surge.
o It can cause flash fire or dust explosion. When lightning strikes
steel or metal rod covered with dust, the dust would suddenly
burn thus resulting to an explosion.
o A lightning may be in the form of:

• Hot bolt – longer in duration; capable only of igniting combustible

materials.
• Cold bolt – shorter in duration; capable of splintering a property or
literally blowing apart an entire structure; produces electrical current
with tremendous amperage and very high temperature.
 3. Radiation of sunlight - when a light hits a concave mirror,
concentrating the light on a combustible material thereby igniting it.

B. Accidental causes

1. Electrical Mishaps
1. short-circuit – unusual or accidental connection between 2
points at different potentials (charge) in an electrical circuit
of relatively low resistance.
2. arcing – production of sustained luminous electrical
discharge between separated electrodes; an electric hazard
that results when the electrical current crosses the gap
between 2 electrical conductors.
3. sparking – production of incandescent particles when 2
different potentials (charged conductors) come in contact;
occurs during short-circuits or welding operations.
4. Induced current-induced line surge – an increase of
electrical energy flow or power voltage; induced current; a
sudden increase of electrical current resulting in the burning
of insulating materials, exploding of the fuse-box, or burning
of active electrical appliances.
5. Overheating of electrical appliances – increase or rising of
amperage while electric current is flowing in a transmission
line resulting to the damage or destruction of insulating
materials; maybe gradual or rapid; internal or external.

2. Purely Accidental Causes

1. ignorance in using volatile substances or chemicals

2. overfilling of fuel tanks
3. the spilling of flammable liquids.

3. Negligence and other Forms of Human Error

1. smoking
2. misuse of fuels and explosives
3. misfiling of fuel tanks
4. motor vehicle traffic accidents
C. Intentional Causes – incendiary - arson
* Preparations or traces of accelerants and plants and trailers in the
burned area may indicate the intentional cause of the fire.

Fire Control and Extinguishments

- to remove any element of fire in order to eradicate the fire.
- Removing or reducing the elements of fire to illuminate fire.

Steps
1. Pre-Fire Planning
- This activity involves developing and defining systematic course of action that
may be performed in order to realize the objectives of fire protection.
- It involves the process of establishing the SOP incase fire breaks out.

2. Evaluation or Size-Up (on-the-spot planning or sizing-up the

situation)
- Learn the facts of the situation by answering the 5 W’s and 1H
- Understand the probabilities of dangerous or fatal behavior of fire.
- Know your situation or capabilities – weaknesses and strengths: available
manpower and equipment.
- Determine the specific course of action- entry or rescue
S-strength
W-weakness
O-opportunity
T-threats

3. Evacuation
- The activity of transferring people, livestock, and property away from the burning
area to minimize damage or destruction that the fire might incur in case it
propagates to other adjacent buildings.
 4. Entry
- This is the process of accessing the burning structure.
- Entry maybe done in a forcible manner.
- The following are the purpose of conducting forcible entry:
- To provide access of fighters with equipment for fire extinguishments.
- To provide rescue
- To aid in ventilation

5. Rescue
- This is the operation of removing (extricating)
- Thus, saving people and other livestock’s from the burning building and others
involved properties, conveying them to a secured.

6. Exposure/ Cover Exposure

- This is the activity of securing other buildings near the burning structure in order
to prevent the fire from extending to another building

7. Confinement
- This is the activity of restricting the fire of the place (room) where it started.
- The process of preventing fire from extending from another section or from one
section to another section of the involved building.

8. Ventilation
- This is the operation purposely conducted to displace toxic gases.
- It includes the process of displacing the heated atmosphere within the involved
building with normal air from outside atmosphere.

9. Salvage
- The activity of protecting properties from preventable damage other than the fire.
Steps:
a. Remove the material outside the burning area
b. Protect or cover materials by using tarpaulins (cotton canvass treated by water
proofing)
 10. Extinguishment
- This is the process of putting out the main body of fire by using the 4 general
methods of fire extinguishments like cooling.

11. Overhaul
- This is the complete and detailed check of the structure and all materials therein
to eliminate conditions that may cause reflash.
- It involves complete extinguishments of sparks or smoldering (glowing0
substances (embers) to prevent or eliminate possibilities of re-ignition or
rekindling.

Specific Fire Fighting Tips

➢ Upon recovery of Fire or Smoke
1. Remove person from immediate danger
2. Alert others in near vicinity and administration
3. Contain fire and smoke (close door)

➢ The fire has just started, and is still small

➢ You have the connect, appropriate firefighting equipment.
➢ You know what you are doing
➢ It is normal reaction for most people to immediate flee, at the first onset of fire.
This is certainly the safest personal approach to any fire. However, there are
specific instances when you can actually successfully fight fire, provide:
➢ The fire has just started, and it is still smalls
➢ You have the correct, appropriate firefighting equipment
➢ You know what you are doing

➢ Assuming the above conditions, here are specific tips and firefighting techniques:

➢ Timing

➢ Equipment Familiarity and Firefighting Practices

 ➢ What to do if someone actually catches fire?
1. Stop moving immediately
2. Drop to the ground or floor
3. Roll to smother the flame. If you have a fire blanket or damp clothing
materials, cover the person as he or she rolls.

Fire Response
1. Life safety and Personal protection
2. Incident stabilization
3. Property conservation

Safety Triangle Concept

Triangle of
safety

Effective training

The theory of fire extinguishment

1. Removing the Heat
2. Removing the Fuel
3. Remove the Oxygen
4. Interrupt the chain reaction

Extinguishment Agent
- A substance that will put out a fire
The specific actions involved in fire extinguishment
1. Cooling
- To reduce the temperature
- This is a direct attack on the heat side of the fire tetrahedron

2. Smothering
- To separate the fuel from oxygen

3. Oxygen dilution
- To reduce amount of available oxygen needed to sustain combustion.

4. Chain breaking
- To disrupt the chemical process that sustains the fire.

Classes of Fires
Class A fires
Class B fires
Class C fires
Class D fires
Class K fires

Fire Fighting Agents

1. Water
2. Foam
3. Carbon Dioxide
4. Halogenated Agents
5. Dry chemical
6. Wet chemical
FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT
The extinguishment of fire is based on an interruption of one or more of the
essential elements in the combustion process. With flaming combustion the fire may be
extinguished by reducing temperature, eliminating fuel or oxygen, or by stopping the
uninhibited chemical chain reaction. If a fire is in the smoldering mode of combustion,
only three extinguishment options exist: reduction of temperature, elimination of fuel or
oxygen.

FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT THEORY

1. Extinguishment by Temperature Reduction
One of the most common methods of extinguishment is by cooling with
water. The process of extinguishment by cooling is dependent on cooling
the fuel to a point where it does not produce sufficient vapor to burn. If we
look at fuel types and vapor production, we find that solid fuels and liquid
fuels with high flash points can be extinguished by cooling. Low flashpoint
liquids and flammable gases cannot be extinguished by cooling with water
as vapor production cannot be sufficiently reduced. Reduction of
temperature is dependent on the application of an adequate flow of water
in proper form to establish a negative heat balance.

2. Extinguishment by Fuel Removal

In some cases, a fire is effectively extinguished by removing the fuel
source. This may be accomplished by stopping the flow of liquid or
gaseous fuel or by removing solid fuel in the path of the fire. Another
method of fuel removal is to allow the fire to burn until all fuel is consumed
(this should be combined with the process of confinement).

3. Extinguishment by Oxygen Dilution

The method of extinguishment by oxygen dilution is the reduction of the
oxygen concentration in the fire area. This can be accomplished by
introducing an inert gas into the fire or by separating the oxygen from the
fuel. This method of extinguishment will not work on self-oxidizing
materials or on certain metals as they are oxidized by carbon dioxide or
nitrogen (the two most common extinguishing agents)

4. Extinguishment by Chemical flame Inhibition

Some extinguishing agents, such as dry chemicals and halons, interrupt
the flame producing chemical reaction, resulting in rapid extinguishment.
This method of extinguishment is effective only on gas and liquid fuels as
they cannot burn in the smoldering mode of combustion. If extinguishment
 of smoldering materials is desired, the addition of cooling capability is
required.
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
-Portable fire extinguishers are designed to attack a fire in its initial stage. The
selection of a suitable extinguisher is primarily influenced by the following factors:
the size and rate of fire spread the class of fire (i.e. type of materials involved)
the training and capabilities of the person using the extinguisher

Note: Always follow the specific instructions on a fire extinguisher and familiarize
yourself with these instructions prior to an emergency situation. Persons should
be trained in the use of extinguishers to optimize their effectiveness.

General Guidelines for Using a Fire Extinguisher

1. raise the alarm, summon help and have someone call the fire service.
2. keep your escape path at your back. Never allow the fire to get between
you and the escape path.
3. select the correct extinguisher for the class of fire
4. remember P.A.S.S.
… Pull the pin
… Aim the extinguisher nozzle at the base of flames
… Squeeze trigger while holding the extinguisher upright
… Sweep the extinguisher or nozzle from side to side covering the base
of the fire.
5. observe fire after initial extinguishment, it may rekindle
6. the contents of small extinguishers may last as little as 8 seconds and up to 60
seconds for larger extinguishers. The time to discharge an extinguisher depends
on the type and size of the extinguisher

REMEMBER:
Saving lives through a quick escape is far more important than saving property.
An emergency is not the time to read extinguisher instructions, if you do not know how
to use the extinguisher or the type of materials involved in the fire:
• Close the door to contain the fire
• Ensure everyone is out of the building
• Ring the fire service.
• Never go back into the building once out
• Wait to meet the fire service
Types of fire extinguishers
Water(solid Red): wood and paper fires - not electrical
Foam (Blue band): flammable liquid fires - not electrical
Carbon Dioxide (Black band) electrical fires
Dry Chemical (White band) flammable liquids and electrical fires
Wet chemical (Oatmeal band) fat / oil fires - not electrical
Special Purpose (Yellow band) various (eg. metal fires)
Fire extinguisher locations must be clearly identified. Extinguishers are color-
coded according to the extinguishing agent. The important thing to remember is that fire
fighting must always be secondary to the safety of people.

Extinguishing Agent - a substance that will put out a fire. Every extinguishing agent
operates by attacking one or more side of the fire tetrahedron. The specific actions
involved are the following:
1. Cooling To reduce the temperature. This is a direct attack on the heat side of the fire
tetrahedron.
2. Smothering To separate the fuel from oxygen.
3. Oxygen dilution To reduce amount of available oxygen needed to sustain
combustion.
4. Chain breaking To disrupt the chemical process that sustains the fire

Types of Extinguishing Agent:

1. Water Extinguishing Agent
- It is a liquid between the temperatures of 0 °C and 100 °C (32 °F and 212
°F); at 100 °C (212 °F) it boils and burns to steam. Fresh water weighs slightly
less, and seawater slightly more. Being fluid and relatively heavy, water is
easily transported through fire mains and hoses when it is placed under
pressure.
Extinguishing Capabilities of Water
- Water is primarily a cooling agent. It absorbs heat and cools burning
materials more effectively than any of the commonly used extinguishing
agents. Water provides a smothering action.
2. Foam extinguishing agent
- A blanket of bubbles that extinguishes fire mainly by smothering. The bubbles
are formed by mixing water and foam-making agent (foam concentrate). The
result is called foam solution. Various foam solutions are lighter than the lightest
flammable oils. When applied to burning oils, they float on the surface of the oil.

- Extinguishing effects of foam: Used to form a blanket on the surface of flaming

liquids, including oils. It has a cooling effect which is capable of extinguishing
Class A fires.
3. Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Agent
- It delivers a quick smothering action to flames, reducing oxygen and suffocating
the fire. It dissipates without leaving any contamination or corrosive residue. It is
a colorless and odorless gas, hence, will not damage clothing, equipment and
other valuable items.

- Extinguishing Properties of Carbon Dioxide It extinguishes fire mainly by

smothering. It dilutes the air surrounding the fire until the oxygen content is too
low to support combustion. It is effective on Class B fires, where the main
consideration is to keep the flammable vapors separated from oxygen in the air.

Limitations on the Use of Carbon Dioxide

Effectiveness - It is not effective on substances that contain their own oxygen. - It is not
effective on combustible metals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, and
zirconium.
Possibility of re ignition - It has a very limited cooling capacity, hence, it takes time for
the material to cool.
Hazards - It is suffocating in the concentration necessary for extinguishments. A person
exposed to this concentration would suffer dizziness and unconsciousness.

- Halogenated Agents
- halogenated agents have been used for fire fighting since the early 1900’s
- of the ten halogenated agents that have been used two have been the most
common since the early 1970’s halon 1211 and halon 1301.
- to have better understanding of the chemical properties of these agents, the US
Army Corps of Engineers developed a numerical system for halogenated agents.
 - halogenated agents suppress fire by interrupting the chemical chain reaction in
the combustion process, working in the fire chemically instead of physically.
Extracted how this Chain breaking process works is not completely understood.
4. AFFF – Aqueous Film Forming Foam Light water. A synthetic foam-forming liquid
designed for use with fresh water. When proportionally mixed with water, it generates
white foam with a remarkable ability to make a water float on flammable liquid which are
lighter than water. This double action foam and aqueous film enhances extinguishments
of flammable liquid fires and prevent reflash. This action also takes place on spilled or
leaking liquid fuels, which have not been ignited so they are secured and are not readily
ignited.
5. BCF-HALON 1211
- Stands for Bromochlorodifluoromethane
- One of the modern and effective fire-extinguishing agents available for general
risk.
- Vaporizing liquid which will chemically interrupt the chain reaction taking place in
the flames.
- Has the ability to minimize the possibility to reflash after the fire has been
extinguished.
- A colorless, non-corrosive liquefied gas that leaves no messy residue.
- Highly recommended for use in industrial factory, home computers and electronic
companies, motor vehicles, etc.

6. DRY CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHING AGENT

- Chemicals in powder form. It should not be confused with dry powders which are
intended only for combustible materials.
- On class B fires they demonstrate superior flames knock-down over other
available agents.
- Pound for pound they are unequaled in effectiveness when used properly on
class B fires.
Extinguishing Effects of Dry Chemical
Cooling.
- No dry chemicals exhibit any great capacity for cooling. However, a small amount
of cooling takes place simply because the dry chemical is at lower temperature
than the burning material. Heat is transferred from the hotter fuel to the cooler dry
chemical when the latter is introduced to the fire.
 Smothering.
- When dry chemical react with the heat and burning material, some carbon
dioxide and water vapor are produced. These dilute the fuel vapors and the air
surrounding the fire. The result is a limited smothering effect.
Shielding of Radiant Heat.
- Dry chemical produces an opaque cloud in the combustion area. This cloud
reduces the amount of heat that is radiated back to the heart of fire, i.e., the
opaque cloud absorbs some of the radiation feedback that is required to sustain
the fire. Lesser vapor is produced, thus, the fire becomes less intense.
Chain Breaking.
- Chain reactions are necessary for continued combustion. In these, chain
reactions, fuel and oxygen molecules are broken down by heat.

All dry chemical agents may be used to extinguish fires involving

Flammable oils and greases
Electrical equipment
Hoods, ducts and cooking ranges in galleys and diet kitchens.
Certain combustible solid such as pitch, naphthalene and plastics (except those that
contain their own oxygen)
Machinery spaces, engine rooms and paint and tool lockers

Flame Flare-Up
- Phenomenon, a unique property of dry chemicals that occurs when dry chemical
is applied to a flammable liquid fire.

Sodium Bicarbonate
- Also called as regular dry chemical
- In addition to effectiveness of class B and C fires, it will have some effect on the
flaming stages of a class A fire but no effect on the ember or deep seated stages
of a class A fire.
- When used with common cooking grease it will react with the hot grease form a
thick foam through a process known as “Saponification”
Potassium Bicarbonate
- “Purple-K” potassium bicarbonate or purple-K dry chemical was developed by the
U.S. Naval Research Lab.
- Claims of the effectiveness of the potassium bicarbonate agents range from
50% o 100% more effective on flammable liquid fires when compared to sodium
bicarbonate.
- Potassium bicarbonate is also called Alkaline in nature, has similar abilities to
saponify when used on hot cooking grease, but like sodium bicarbonate, it lacks
the cooling capability of wet chemical and is no longer agent of choice of class K
fires.

7. Wet Chemical
- Wet chemical agents are solutions of water mixed with potassium acetate,
potassium carbonate, potassium citrate or combinations thereof
- They are specifically designed for class K fires but they have demonstrated
superior effectiveness (gallon for gallon) on Class A fires when compared with
plain water.
- These agents are used in both hand portable extinguishers are pre-engineered
fixed systems.

Using the Right Fire Fighting Tools

Fire Extinguishing
Burning Material Extinguishing Method
Category Agent

Ordinary combustible
Class A Cool below flash point Water
materials

Flammable or
Class B Cut oxygen supply Foam
combustible liquids

Dry chemical
Class C Electrical Equipment Cut oxygen supply
powder

Cut oxygen supply, cool

Class D Combustible metal Dry powder
below flash point

Cut oxygen supply, cool

Class K Cooking Oils Wet Chemical
below flash point
Fire Investigation
- Is the process of determining the origin, cause and development of a fire or
explosion.
- Area of origin

Accelerants
- Things that increase the burning or combustion

❖ It is important to know what cause the fire to know the traces for evidence

Nature of fire Investigation

- A fire or explosion investigation is a complex endeavor involving both art and
science. The compilation of factual data, as well as an analysis of those facts,
should be accomplished objectively and truthfully.

Systematic Approach
- The systematic approach recommended is that of the scientific method which is
used in the physical sciences. This method provides for the organizational and
analytical process so desirable and necessary in a successful fire investigation.

Relating fire investigation to the scientific method

- The scientific method is a principal of inquiry that forms a basis for legitimate
scientific and engineering process, including fire incident investigation.

The scientific method is applied using the following six

steps:
1. Recognize
- Recognize the need: in this case a fire or explosion has occurred and the cause
must be determined and listed so that the future, similar incidents can be
prevented.
 2. Define
- Define the Problem: Having determined that a problem exists; the investigator or
analyst must define. In what manner the problem can be solved. In this case,
proper origin and cause investigation must be conducted.

3. Collect
- Collect Data: Facts about the fire incident are now collected. This is done by
observation, experiment, or other direct data gathering means.

4. Analyze
- Analyze the Data (Inductive reasoning): All of the collected and observed
information is analyzed by inductive reasoning

5. Develop
- Develop Hypothesis: based upon the data analysis, the investigator must now
produce a hypothesis or group of hypotheses to explain the origin and cause of
the fire explosion incident.

6. Test
- Test the Hypothesis (Deductive Reasoning): All other reasonable origins and
causes must be eliminated.

Basic Method of a Fire Investigation

1. Receiving the assignment
2. Prepare for the Investigation
3. Examination of the scene
4. Recording the scene
- Take photograph
- Sketch the crime scene
- measure
5. Collecting and preserving evidence.
6. Analyzing the incident
Basic Steps in a Fire Scene investigation
1. Search systematically
2. Observe
3. Take photograph
4. Work by process of elimination (after testing)
5. Check and verify
6. Take note
7. Draw diagrams

Types of Fire investigation

1. Basic Investigation
- To determine what property was damaged
- Cause and reasons
- The number and extent of injuries or facilities
- The recommended corrective actions to prevent reoccurrence

2. Technical Investigation
- There is suspicion of arson in connection with the fire
- There is a suspicion of negligence or violation of regulations
- The cause of any fire is undetermined (to establish the most probable cause)
- There is evidence of negligence or mismanagement in the fire suppression or
rescue operation.
- Loss of fire or disabling as a result of fire.

3. Arson Investigation
- The direct result of the basic or technical investigation or it may be brought about
from outside knowledge.

Personnel who are Qualified to Investigate Fires

1. Should possess knowledge of investigate techniques
2. Should have an insight of human behavior
3. Should have a firsthand knowledge of the fire chemistry and behavior of fire
4. Should be resourceful
Preliminary Legal Considerations
- Authority to conduct investigation
- Right of entry

Method of Entry
1. Consent
2. Exigent Circumstance
3. Administrative Search Warrant
4. Criminal Search Warrant
Sources of Information
❖ Purpose of Obtaining Information
- The thorough fire investigation always involves the examination of the fire scene,
or by evaluating the prior documentation of that scene. The fire Investigator
should not however, end with the mere examination of the fire scene.

Forms of information
❖ Verbal: Sources which, may be encountered by the fire investigator, may include
but are not limited to, verbal statements during interviews, telephone
conversations, tape recording and the like.

❖ Written: Sources may include, but are not limited to, written reports, written
documents, reference materials, newspapers and the like.

❖ Visual: Visual sources of information, by definition, are limited to those that are
gathered utilizing the sense of sight. Sources may include but are not limited to,
photographs, videotapes, motion pictures, and computer generated animations.

❖ Electronic: Computers have become an integral part of modern information and

data systems. As such, the computer system maintained by any particular source
of information may provide a wealth of information relevant to the fire
investigation.
Origin Determination
- The physical marks (fire patterns) left by the fire
- The observations reported by person who witnessed he fire or were aware of the
conditions present at the time of the fire.
- The analysis of physics and chemistry of fire initiation, development, and growth
as an instrument to related known or hypothesized fire conditions capable of
producing those conditions.

❖ There is no single item sufficient to establish the origin of fire, thus the
investigator must use all the available resources in developing potential
scenarios and determining which scenarios plausibly fit all of the evidence
available. It is important that the determination of the single point of origin not be
made unless the evidence is conclusive.
❖ There purpose of determining the origin of the fire is to identify the geographical
location where the fire begin. If the specific location where the heat source
ignited the first fuel can be identified, then the point of origin can be determined.

Recommended Techniques to Follow when examining a Fire scene

❖ Fire Damage Assessment
❖ Photography
❖ Depth-of-Char Survey Grid Diagram
❖ Notes
❖ Vector Diagram

Cause of Determination
- The determination of the cause of fire requires the identification of those
circumstances and factors that were necessary for the fire to have occurred.
- The circumstances and factors include but are not limited to: device or equipment
involved in the ignition, the presence of competent ignition source, the type and
form of the material first ignited, and the human actions that allowed the factors
to come together so as to allow the fire to occur.
Classification of the Cause:
1. Accident Fire Cause
2. Incendiary Fire Cause
3. Natural Fire Cause
4. Undetermined Fire Cause

Safety
- Investigating the scene alone
- Safe clothing and equipment
- Fire scene hazard
- Personal health and safety

Factors Influencing Scene Safety

1. Status of suppression
2. Structural stability
3. Utilities
4. Standing water
5. Safety of Bystanders
6. Safety of the Fire Scene Atmosphere

Arson Investigation
❖ Point of Origin
- It is established by examining the witness, by inspection of the debris at the fire
scene and by studying the fingerprints of the fire
- Also known as Area of Origin

Note the following setting mechanism:

❖ Candles
❖ Matches
❖ Electrical system
❖ Chemical methods
Motives of Arsonist
❖ Economic gain
- Insurance fund
- Desire to dispose merchandise
- Existing business transactions that the arsonist would like to avoid such as
impending liquidation, settlement pf estate, need for cash, prospective business
failure, and increase rentals
- Profit by the perpetrator other than the assured like insurance agents wishing
business with the assures, business competitors planning to drive others, person
seeking job as personnel protection, salvages and contractors wishing to contact
another building.
❖ Concealment of Crime
❖ Punitive measure – due to hatred, jealousy and revenge
❖ Intimidation or economic disabling
❖ Pyromania – Uncontrollable impulse to burn anything without any motive.

Types of Pyromaniac
1. Abnormal youth
2. Hero type – a person set a building on fire and pretends to discover it, turn
on the alarm or make some rescue works to appear as hero
3. Drug addicts and alcoholics
4. Sexual deviates and perverts

Prime Suspects
The following technique may serve the investigation:
1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence
2. Background study for policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of other
person having major interest in the fire.
3. Interviews and interrogation of persons who discovered the fire, and the one who
turned the alarm, firemen, and eyewitnesses
4. Surveillance
The Tell-tale signs of Arson
❖ Burning Building
- The type of building that may indicate a set of fire under certain circumstance.

❖ Separate fires
- When two or more separate fires break out within a building, the fire certainly is
suspicious

❖ Color of smoke - Some fire with little or no smoke must be made at the start of
the fire scene once the fire has assumed a major portion; the value of the smoke
is lost, because the smoke will not indicate the material used by the arsonist.
- when the white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in
contact with the fire, it indicates humid material burning as burning hay,
vegetable fibers, phosphorous (with garlic)

- Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing lacrymation and
coughing- indicates plastic products and rubber.

- Black smoke indicates lack of air. If accompanied by large flames, it indicates

petroleum products and rubber.

- Reddish-brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose- HSO4, HNO3 or HCI

❖ Color of flame
- The color of flame is a good indication of the intensity of the fire, an important
factor in determining incendiarism.

❖ Amount of Heat
- A reddish glow indicates heat of 500 degrees centigrade; a real bright red about
100 degrees centigrade, Red flames indicate petroleum. Blue flame indicates the
use of alcohol as accelerant.

❖ Smoke marks
- Investigator shall determine the volume of smoke involved at a fire and the
characters as residue deposited on walls or elsewhere.

❖ Size of fire
- Fire makes what is termed as normal progress. Such progress can be estimated
after examination of the material burned in the building and the normal ventilation
offered by the fire. The time element and the degree of headway by the flames to
determine the factors of possible incendiarism.
 ❖ Direction of travel
- While it is admitted that no two fires burn in identical fashion, yet it can be shown
that fire makes normal progress through various types of building materials,
combustibility of contents, channel of ventilation and circumstances surrounding
the sending of alarm, an experienced investigator can determine whether a fire
spread abnormally fast. (upward or lateral)

❖ Intensity
- The degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame. This oftentimes
indicate that some accelerant ahs been added to the material normally present in
a building and the investigator must look for further evidence pointing to use such
accelerant. Difficulty in extinguishing a fire often led to suspect presence of such
fluid as gasoline and kerosine.

❖ Odor
- The odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable liquids which are
often used as accelerant and oftentimes arsonist are tapped because of this
telltale sign. Most of the fire-setters are inclined to use substance which will make
the blaze certain and at the same time burn up any evidence of their crime.

❖ Condition of Content
- Persons tending to set there house on fire frequently remove objects of value
either materially or sentimentally.

Meaning of color of smoke and fire:

1. Black smoke with deep red flame
- Petroleum products, tar, rubber, plastics, etc.

2. Heavy brown with white bright red flame

- Nitrogen products

3. Black smoke with red and blue green flame

- Asphalt

4. Purple or Violet
- Potassium Products

5. Greenish-yellow flame
- Chloride or manganese products
 6. Bright reddish yellow flame
- Calcium products

7. Gray or white smoke

- Burning dry wood

8. Gray smoke with blowing ash

- Loosely packed organic matter such as straw or wallpaper

Testimonial Evidence of Arson

- To corroborate the physical evidence that you will have on hand, testimonial
evidence is always resorted to. Besides and investigator, it is impossible to
observe everything directly. Undeniable the investigator has to be precise with
his observation what others did observed. Persons who actually saw what
happened should therefore be availed of. It will be found that all the witness will
differ in many factors, like their willingness, intelligence or capacity to report
accurately or correctly. Their reports should be carefully studied and accordingly
judged and interpreted. Witnesses who are intelligent, trained and expert can
easily have their testimony gain acceptance in court.

Who can be witnesses?

1. Starting from the person who turned in the alarm
2. Those who suffered injuries in the fire should be interviewed
3. The occupants and employees of the building
4. The spectators
5. The bookkeeper or accountant
6. The firemen
7. The first person who discovered the fire
8. The last person in the premises
9. The owner of banks
10. The police department
The role of Circumstantial Evidence in Arson Investigation
- There is more than one circumstance
- The facts from which the interferences are derived or are proven
- The combination of all the circumstances is such as to produce a conviction
beyond a reasonable doubt.

Example of Circumstantial Evidences

- Testimony of a witness that the accused was the only person who had been in
the burned house from the time he was seen living it five minutes before the
outbreak of the fire up to the actual occurrence of the fire.
- Fingerprints of the accused on a gasoline container.
- Testimony of a witness saying he smelled odor of gasoline emanating from the
house shortly before the fire.
- Excessive insurance
- Movable property removed just before the fire
- Separate fires
- Alibi

Fire Response
1. Life safety and Personal Protection
2. Indent Stabilization
3. Property conservation

Arson
• It is the malicious or intentional destruction of property by fire.

* Intent must be proven, otherwise, no crime exists.

* The law presumes that a fire is accidental, hence designs must be shown.
* Fire caused by accident or negligence (if proven) does not constitute arson.
What constitutes arson?

1. Burning: There must be burning or charring (a state where the

fiber of the wood is destroyed or decomposed, its identity or
physical state changed).
2. Willfulness: The act was done purposely and intentionally
3. Motive: The moving cause that induces the commission of the
crime
4. Malice: It denotes hatred or a desire for revenge
5. Intent: The purpose or design with which the act is done and
involves the will to do the act.

What is the basis of criminal liability in arson?

• Kind and character of the building burned

• Location of the building
• Extent or value of the damage
• Whether inhabited or not

Methods of proof of arson

Physical evidence of arson is often destroyed. To prove arson was committed, corpus
delicti must be shown and the identity of the arsonist must be established. Corpus
delicti is the fact that a crime has been committed. The following must show it:

1. Burning – that there was a fire that may be shown by direct testimony of the
complainant, firemen responding to the crime, other eyewitnesses. Burned
parts of the building may also indicate location.
2. Criminal design – must show that it was willfully and intentionally done. The
presence of incendiary devices, flammable substances/materials such as
gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the fire is not accidental.
3. Evidence of intent – when valuables were removed from the building before
the fire, ill-feeling between the accused and the occupants of the building
burned, absence of effort to put off the fire and such other indications.