LO2.

1 Determines how are these devices maybe used to measure pressure and what range
LO2.2 Demonstrate the use of simulator for Instrumentation Process Control (IPC) in Pressure Measurement

LESSON 3
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

The behavior of a fluid can generally be deduced from measurements of flow or pressure. A flow transducer or
transmitter has to be attached into a pipe, whereas pressure transmitters can be added non-intrusively as
tappings to the side of a pipe. The basic fault-finding tool in both pneumatic or hydraulic systems is therefore a
pressure gauge. Often, this is a simple gauge which can be plugged into various parts of the system via a flexible
connection.

These test pressure gauges invariably measure gauge pressure with the simple Bourdon pressure gauge shown
in Figure 3.1. This consists of a flattened C-shaped tube which is fixed at one end, as shown in Figure 3.1 (a).
When pressure is applied to the tube, it tends to straighten with the free end moving up and to the right. For
low-pressure ranges, a spiral tube is used to increase the sensitivity.

This movement is converted to a circular pointer movement by a mechanical quadrant and pinion. If an electrical
output signal is required for remote indication, the pointer can be replaced by a potentiometer, as shown in
Figure 3.1(b).

Hydraulic and pneumatic systems tend to exhibit large pressure spikes as loads accelerate or decelerate [a
typical example being shown in Figure 3.1 (c)]. These spikes can be irritating to the observer, leading to
misinterpretation and in extreme cases, could damage the pressure indicator. The response of a pressure sensor
can be dampened by the inclusion of a snubber restriction, as shown in Figure 3.1 (C).

Figure3.1(a) Bourdon Tube Gauge Construction

39
 Figure 3.1(b) Electrical Signal from Bourdon Gauge

Figure 3.1 (c) Snubber Restrictions

Figure 3.1. The Bourdon Pressure Gauge

Bourdon gauge-based transducers are generally robust but have low accuracy (typically...2%) devices. As the
limit of visual resolution of a pointer position is no better than ...2% anyway, ruggedness of these transducers
makes them ideal for plant-mounted monitoring.

Where more accurate pressure measurement is required, transducers based on the force balance principle of
Figure 3.2 are generally used. This is essentially a differential pressure transducer in which the low pressure inlet
(LP) is left open to the atmosphere and the high pressure inlet (HP) connects to the system. The signal given
(HP-LP) is thus, gauge pressure.

A pressure increase in the system deflects the pressure-sensitive diaphragm to the left. This movement is
detected by the displacement transducer, which, via a servo amplifier, leads to an increase in current in the
balance coil.

Because the force from the balance coil always exactly balances the force arising from the pressure difference
between LP and HP, current through the transducer is directly proportional to the differential pressure.

40
 Figure 3.2. Force Balance Pressure Transducer

Remote indicating transducers are generally arranged with a remote power supply and the indicator and/or
recorder connected into one line as in Figure 3.3 to give a two-wire System. A signal range of 4 to 20 mA is
commonly used, with the 4 mA zero level providing a current supply for the transducer’s servo amplifier and
also indicating circuit continuity (0 mA indicating an open circuit fault condition).

Figure 3.3 Advantages of Two-Wire Transducers

3.1. WATER MANOMETER

A water manometer is an instrument used for measuring pressures of a low order, such as fan pressures. Figure
3.4. illustrates a “U” tube water manometer, one limb of which is connected to the system whose pressure is to
be measured and the other limb is open to the atmosphere. The pressure reading is the difference of the water
levels read from the scale.

41
 Figure 3.4. Water Manometer (U-Tube)

Note: 1m³ of fresh water has a mass of 1 Mg and weighs 10³X 9.81 N.

Hence: Im of fresh water exerts a pressure of 10³ X 9.81 N/m², 1 mm of fresh water exerts a pressure of 9.82
N/m², the reading indicated in Figure 3.4. is therefore, equivalent to 20 X 9.81 = 186.2 N/m², i.e. 0. 1862 kN/m²,
above atmospheric pressure (1 bar = 10% N/m² c 1 atm). A wide cistern manometer (well type) is used for lower
pressure differentials (Figure 3.5 as mercury manometer). A variation is the inclined tube manometer the small
bore limb is set at a small angle to the horizontal and the longer scale parallel to it gives even smaller differential
pressure readings.

3.2. MERCURY MANOMETER

A mercury manometer of the well type is shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5. Mercury Manometer (Well Type)

42
This instrument measures pressures of a higher order than that measured by the water manometer, such as
scavenge or supercharge air pressure for “IC” engines. The uniform bore glass tube is small in diameter so that
when mercury is displaced from the well into the tube, the fall in level of the mercury in the well is so small it
can be neglected. Hence, the pressure reading is indicated directly by the level of the mercury in the glass tube.
The relative density of mercury is equivalent to a pressure of 9.81 X 13.6 N/m², i.e., 134 N/m² or 0.134 kN/m².
A special application is the vacuum gauge (kenotometer), which is a combined barometer and manometer with
the scale on the right hand side calibrated in absolute pressure.

3.3. PRESSURE GAUGE

A pressure relay tube is a principal working component (detecting element). This tube which is semi-elliptical in
cross-section and is connected to the pressure source. When the tube is subjected to a pressure increase, it
tends to unwind or straighten out and the motion is transmitted to the gauge pointer through the linkage,
quadrant and gear (measuring element). If the tube is subjected to a pressure decrease, it winds or coils up and
the motion is again transmitted to the pointer. This gauge is therefore suitable for measuring pressures above
or below atmospheric pressure. A diagrammatic sketch is shown in Figure 3.6.

The materials used in the construction of the gauge are solid drawn phosphor bronze and stainless steel for the
pressure relay tube. Bronze or stainless steel is used for the quadrant, gear and linkage. For the case, brass or
plastic is used.

Figure 3.6 Pressure (or Vacuum) Gauge - Bourdon

3.4. PRESSURE GAUGE (SCHAFFER)

This type utilizes a strong flexible metal diaphragm (detecting element), which moves up as pressure increases.
The device is shown in Figure 3.7. Again, this device can also be used as a transducer (pneumatic or electric) in
telemetering or control with an output signal proportional to diaphragm movement. Similar remarks apply to
most detecting (sensing) devices.

43
 Figure 3.6 Pressure (or Vacuum) Gauge - Schaffer

3.5. DIFEERENTIAL PRESSURE CELL (D/P CELL)

Figure 3.7. Illustrates a single diaphragm subject to differential pressure. The “d/p” cell is often used in direct
differential pressure recording as well as flow and level applications. The detecting element of the cell is a
bellows or diaphragm whose mechanical movement is used to indicate electrical or Pneumatic signal output.

Figure 3.8 Differential Pressure Cell

As an alternative to a one-membrane diaphragm, a sealed capsule (twin membrane) can be inserted in the cell
body and secured so that different pressures are applied at each side. The capsule can be filled with a constant
viscosity fluid (for a fairly wide temperature range) which also damps oscillation. Silicone is such a fluid. Again,
mechanical movement of the capsule is proportional to differential pressure.

44
Another type of “d/p” cell utilizes two separate bellows. Such a design often called a Barton cell is shown in
Figure 3.8.

Pressure increase on the high-pressure side displaces liquid (via an adjustable damping plug) and expands the
right hand low-pressure bellows. This bellows is connected to the horizontal spindle, one end of which has a
flexure strip and the other end is fastened to flat plate springs. Equilibrium exits when spring force equals
differential pressure. Mechanical pressure is via the flexure strip, lower seal diaphragm and vertical spindles to
indicator or transducer. A bi-metallic strip adjusts the bellows fluid capacity to allow for volumetric expansion.
This “device is shown dotted within the left hand bellows in Figure 3.8.

3.6. GAUGE TESTING EQUIPMENT

Many ships are now fitted with equipment for testing pressure gauges usually in the form of a deadweight tester
as shown in Figure 3.9. The system is balanced at atmospheric pressure by opening the reservoir valve and
moving the piston so that the cylinder is full of oil. The floating piston then takes up its lowest position. The
reservoir valve is closed and the handwheel is operated to raise the pressure. The increase in pressure on the
underside of the floating piston and the load thus produced is balanced by the load due to piston weight, weight
carrier and calibration weight. When equilibrium is reached, the gauge under test will record the pressure in the
chamber. To reduce friction on the piston, the gauge should be spun slowly.

Figure 3.9 Gauge Testing Equipment

Another method is to use a very high equality precision gauge in place of the piston and weights as a comparison.
By varying the pressure over the required gauge, the accuracy of the gauge under test can be compared with
the precision gauge. To check a gauge, a definite procedure should be adopted, first to check the gauge and
then to adjust it. If the gauge is corroded, badly damaged or obsolete, it should be scrapped. To check a gauge,
place it in the test rig and test for leakage by raising the pressure to about twenty-five per cent (25%) above the
scale maximum and hold for ten (10) seconds. Release the pressure slowly to zero and the pointer should follow.
If it fails to do so and does not return to zero even after tapping lightly, then the tube is in poor condition and
the gauge should be replaced. If the pointer does return to zero, raise the pressure again to the gauge maximum
and release slowly, carefully observing for jerky movements or a tendency to stick. This indicates wear, leakage
or a damaged hair spring. Following a satisfactory check, raise the pressure in a series of steps and then drop it
in similar steps and noting any errors that occur.

45
If these errors are less than 0.25 per cent, the gauge is worthy of recalibration. After cleaning, subject the gauge
to a pressure of about 15 per cent in excess of the dial reading and then select two points at about 10 per cent
and 90 per cent of the dial range at test points.

The magnification and the reading of the former are checked and modified by adjusting the slides in the
quadrant slot (see Figure 3.10.) and by removing and resetting the pointer respectively until the gauge gives the
correct reading at both points. The mid-point reading is then checked by adjusting the length of the connecting
link between the quadrant and tube. After tightening all screws, the gauge is finally checked at all points on the
scale.

Figure 3.10. Gauge Adjusting Mechanism

3.7. DIAPHRAGM SEALED GAUGE

A modification of the Bourdon tube gauge is the diaphragm sealed gauge used where a general purpose gauge
is not suitable owing to corrosion, plugging or other similar circumstances. Here, a diaphragm is fixed between
two flanges to seal the line fluid from the gauge, and the tube is filled with a suitable liquid to transmit the
pressure from the diaphragm movement to the Bourdon tube. For highly viscous fluids which solidify in stagnant
ends, the use of diaphragm seal type gauge is recommended. In some cases, purging may be necessary. Where
fluids to be measured are non-compatible with the gauge or diaphragm materials, the diaphragm and gauge
body may be coated with rubber or “PVC”. This reduces accuracy and a hysteresis of 2 per cent of the scale
reading may arise. Bellows and diaphragm type gauges have their particular applications, the former being used
in control equipment for measuring pressures due to their compactness and robustness while diaphragm types
are generally found in the lower pressure ranges.

46
 Figure 3.11 Diaphragm Sealed Gauge

LO2.1 Determines how are these devices maybe used to measure pressure and what range
LO2.2 Demonstrate the use of simulator for Instrumentation Process Control (IPC) in Pressure Measurement

LESSON 4
MEASUREMENT OF LEVEL

Many industrial applications require the level of liquids, powder, or irregular solids to be maintained constantly.

Pulses of ultrasonic energy are directed at the surface of the material inside the tank, and the reflected waves
are received by the transducer in much the same way as radar reflections are received. The time delay between
the transmitted and received signal is dependent on the level of the material inside the tank. The time delay is
convened into a potential or current and is compared with reference value. If an error exists, the servo system
operates the supply valve to bring the level to the desired value.

Capacitive, Optical and radioactive transducers are found in industrial applications for this type of work.

Liquid level sensors are usually classified under two headings: direct methods and inferential methods.

4.1. DIRECT METHODS

Float Operated

A float is generally a hollow cylinder or ball working on direct action or displacement principles. Level variation
is transmitted by chain or wire and pulley or torque tube (usually with counterweights fitted) to the indicator.

47