political philosophy | Definition, History, Theories, & Facts | Britannica

SUMMARY POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY MIDTERM

Name PLATO (IDEALIST) PHILOSOPHER KING

IMPORTANT LIFE  Socrates: Professor (Elenchus= questioning everything)
o The Socratic Method
o Daimonion (never participate in politics) Socrates inner voice,
resisted his involvement in active politics
o “I’m the only person aware of my ignorance”
o “Accused to corrupt the youth” He accepted the poison
because he believes in the responsibility of a citizen
o Conscription “compulsory enlistment for state service, typically
into the armed forces.”
o Elenchus= Socratic Method method of questions and answers
o Hoi polloi the masses= the many
o The laws declare the basis od civil obedience
 Plato
o Academy (University of high education)
o Myths (Atlantis and the amazons= woman that were fearful)
o Historian, mathematician, and social sciences
BOOKS
PERIOD HISTORY Resentment “If you fail is your fault”
Athens Democracies
IDEAS Kallipolis = the perfect society / Perfect State (trader, legislator, and warrior. 

 High class= the rulers, legislation. have wisdom and head

(rational) truth and overall good.
o Ruler, naturally best fitted (Knowledge and Noble Lie)”
 Middleclass = Protector or warrior have honor, will, spirit
courage and chest (spirited) honor approval
 Low class = workers or trader, they had Limbs and abdomen
(appetitive) money approval
Politea= Republic the whole order of social and political relationships in a polis.
 Justice pays

Athens Polis = Democratic “Power to the people”

o Foreign, Woman, Children and Slaves could not vote
o OF 300 000 inhabitant 60000 can vote could be part of
the Assembly (Counsel preparation = prepare agenda
for Assembly)
o Citizens of Athens were obligated “elected by lottery”
Principle of Specialization:
o which restricts each class to the one social role for which it best fitted
o Guardians and Producer are outlawed of private property
Eugenics policy = is the practice or advocacy of improving the human species by
 selectively mating people with specific desirable hereditary traits.

Art of Rulership
 You need to convince the population to follow you
 The medicine of the lie “Nobel lie”
 Ensure the continued stability of the three classes
 Censorship:
o Prevent from corruption
Plato criticism: He criticize the democracy because democracy killed Socrates s
(Assembly decided to convict)

SPECIFICATION Demagogue: Political leader who seeks to support by appealing to the desires
and prejudices of ordinary people rather than by rational argument.

KEYWORDS “Idiot” Someone that is not interested in Politics

Laity Democracy; amateur democracy perspectives (ordinary people, as distinct
from professionals or experts) “live in a monastery without being a moong)
Noble lie is a myth or untruth, often, but not invariably, of a religious nature,
knowingly propagated by an elite to maintain social harmony or to advance an
agenda.
Name ARISTOTLES ( REALIST) Empiricist and materialist
IMPORTANT LIFE  Plato was his teacher
 Funder of the ‘Lyceum’
 Tutor of Alexander the greatest
 “The masters of those who know”
 He tried to understand the world around him rather than attempt to
radically change it

BOOKS  Nicomachean Ethics

 Politics
 Metaphysics
 Poetics
PERIOD HISTORY Macedonia (Barbaric)
Ancient Greek
IDEAS  Social=Man is by nature a political animal (A person who is interested
in social and political issues, especially one who actively participates in
politics.)
 Polis exist by nature (Family is the simplest form of association)
o Polis is not only political but also ethical community.
 Human beings were born unequal
o Slavery is justified
 Contribute to state affairs
 Politics
 Founder of empirical sciences
o Realistic (cold and warm blood animals, classification,
syllogism= deduction and induction)
 Golden Middle Road = Golden Mean The golden mean or golden
middle way is the desirable middle between two extremes, one of
excess and the other of deficiency. It appeared in Greek thought at
least as early as the Delphic maxim "nothing in excess" and emphasized
in later Aristotelian philosophy.
 Ethics: goal and best life for human beings =eudaimonia (life of virtue)
o Justice and proportional equity
o Constitutional State
o Rule of law vs. Rule of Men
 Law More just and more stable
 Demagogues= Stand out of politics
  Aristotelian Classification of Government (Polity)
o The larger the middle class in a society the better
o Lower class, slaves shouldn’t be active citizens
o Female is inferior by nature.
o Social (Individual, Family, Community, State)

One Few Many

Public King Aristocracy Polity
interest
Private Tyranny Oligarchy Direct Democracy
Interest =Ochlocracy or
Plutocracy/Oligarchy
Virtue Morality Fear Quality Equality

Nature is not equal.

 Leadership:
o Respect to the politician
o Inspire, Hope and endogenies
o Active and passive night = vote you can be elected
 Criticism of Direct Democracy: the majority wins 51%
 Democracy Referendum is a direct vote by the electorate on a
particular proposal or issue. This contrasts with an issue being
voted on by a representative. ... Some definitions of 'plebiscite'
suggest it is a type of vote to change the constitution or
government of a country.
SPECIFICATION

KEYWORDS Polity Ideal democracy that governs for the interest of all, not just the
leadership
Mean Moderation striving for s balance between extremes closer one to
another
Eudaimonia the highest human good
Telos reason for existence, human ration
Ethics system of morality
Syllogism deductive reasoning as distinct from induction
A=B
B=C
C=A
 Political Animal “If you don’t collaborate with politics as a responsibility, you
are a beat or a god”

Oligarchy is a form of power structure in which power rests with a small

number of people. These people may or may not be distinguished by one or
several characteristics, such as nobility, fame, wealth, education, or corporate,
religious, political, or military control
Plutocracy a society that is ruled or controlled by people of great wealth or
income

oligarchy is the rule by a privileged minority whereas plutocracy is the rule by

a wealthy minority.

Ochlocracy Mob rule or ochlocracy is the rule of government by a mob or mass

of people and the intimidation of legitimate authorities. The body of the
community as contrasted with the elite.

Aristotle v.s. Plato

The school of Athens by Rafael

Democracy
  Indirect democracy
o representative democracy (voting system (by majority )
o Plurality (not by majority but with most votes)
o Partocracy is a de facto form of government where one or more political parties dominate
the political process, rather than citizens and/or individual politicians.
o Diplomacy (influencing foreign)
o Dramacracy (mediocracy)
o Audience Democracy

Name CICERO
IMPORTANT LIFE  Supreme orator and master of langue and style
 Active of public service and political action
o Aedile age of 37
o Praetor age 40
 o Consul 43
 Cataline Conspiracy (overthrow the republic with a foreign army,
executed all conspirators)
 Exile Cicero = because of the execution without a trail
 Cicero came back and tried to rebuild the Republic, murder of Julius
Caesar (Rome was divided between the senatorial camp “Aristocracy”
and the cesarean camp “Marc Anthony” )
 Philippics= speech to turn Octavian (Caesar’s heir against Anthony)
 Cicero labeled as a enemy of the state and murder
o They cut off his hands, also, for the offense of having written
something against Antony. Thus, the head was brought to
Antony and placed by his order between the two hands on the
rostra
BOOKS Transmitting the philosophical tradition of Greece to Rome
On Invention
On the Orator
On the Republic
On the laws
On duties
PERIOD HISTORY The Hellenistic period (unrest and civil wars)
The Roman empire was the longer one
Republic= stability, unity, and balance

Pax Romana:
 (Roman Peace) was a period of relative peace and stability across the
Roman Empire which lasted for over 200 years, beginning with the
reign of Augustus (27 BCE - 14 CE). The aim of Augustus and his
successors was to guarantee law, order, and security within the empire,
even if this meant separating it from the rest of the world and
defending, or even expanding, its borders through military intervention
and conquest. (Vote and Military duty)
 Roman Kingdome ( 753 to 509)
Republic 507-27 B.C. ( Consul 2 , questor (money =) and prefect ( leader
over the senate)
 The High Empire (31 BC – 305 AD)

IDEAS  Wisdom and eloquence in all matters

 Civic humanism: philosophy that advocates civic virtue and an active
political life
o Seek peace rather than war
 Natural law was more powerful than the law of men (Government)
o Right reason constant of nature
o Common to every man, eternal
 Defend the republic, he was more of a politician (answers) than a
philosopher (questions)
 False friendship True friendship doesn’t exist in politics
 Inequality is natural however the law must be equal to everyone,
 create justice
 Orator (logos= logic) pathos= emotion ethos =ethics
 Best form of Government was the Constitutional Republic which was a
combination of
o Monarchy Power (Tyranny)
o Aristocracy Wisdom (Plutocracy)
o Democracy Freedom (Anarchy)
 Leadership:
o Guided and knowledge towards mutual advantages
o Manipulation
o Networking + Nepotism form of favoritism which is granted to
relatives and friends in various
o Critical
 Political Institution build upon natural law and virtue of justice
 Citizenship Trust tolerance and intolerant by Catholics
SPECIFICATION Legacy: He made the renaissance possible through his recover of Greek
philosophy and roman history preservation
KEYWORDS  Ciceronian= prime authority in all questions of Latin vocabulary and
composition
 Humanitas (human nature, civilization, and kindness.)
 Qualitas
 Quantitas
 Romanization (assimilation of conquered territories into the Roman
Republic and later Empire.)
o becoming powerful rich, buying citizenship
 Homo Novus “new man in politics” Ancient Rome to refer to a man
who was the first in his family to serve in the Roman Senate, or rather
the first in his family to be elected consul
 Homeland where life is good

Name St Augustine (354) A.D. + Plato ( epistemological septic)

IMPORTANT LIFE o Bishop of Hippo Africa
o Doctor of the Church
o Question of Good and Evil (evil as the absence of humanity)
o Mom Christian, dad Pagan

BOOKS Letters
The confession
The trinity
The City of God
Retraction
PERIOD HISTORY Fall of the roman empire:
313 A. C. Christianity as a true religion
410 A.C Fall of the roman Empire

As bishop, Augustine sought to guide his people through a turbulent time in

Roman history, a time when the empire was being invaded and destroyed by a
Germanic tribe known as the Visigoths. When Rome was captured in the year
410 CE by the Germanic king, Alaric I, the future of the empire was bleak.
Looking for someone to blame for their woes, many Romans turned to the
Christian faith, saying it was their fault that the empire was in such turmoil.
Wanting to refute such claims, Augustine picked up his quill (or pen) and began
The City of God sometime around 413 CE. With this, we come to our first main
point: Augustine hoped to silence Romans blaming the Christians for the fall of
their empire. Augustine refuted the belief that Christians caused the gods to
abandon Rome.
IDEAS o Earthly City Earthly desires and actions Human
o City of God = Spiritual pursuit
o True justice is only found in the city of God, nevertheless the
earthly city should be as just as possible
o The world is imperfect
o If an earthly law contradicts a heavenly law, humans must break it, but
still must accept the earthly punishment for doing so.

Government=
o If there is no peace no justice, there is no condition for serving God
o Type doesn’t matter, is an act of God

Human rights=
o Humans are born with a sin
o Slavery=
o Punishment and remedy for sin
o Serve with love
o War= Result of sin, but also remedy for sin
o Physical Punishment
 Illustrated God as eternal and knower of the truth, Divine Enlightenment,
"where he mentions that God is able to enlighten and bring knowledge to the
human mind by giving it divine truths.

Life: Complex emotions and worst sin is the sexual desire Lust. Against Abortion
Intellectual: Greek philosophy and religion (Human reason cannot be used to
understand God)
• Statement of faith as a search for compression St. Augustine
affirmed that one should “believe to understand",
Challenge: Fall of the great empire

Redemption was the way to freedom, and this was achieved through love of
God.For this reason, he only affirmed that only by knowing God could the
human side be awakened, and the importance of the self be set aside to
commit oneself to the common good and feel free.

Just war and just intention

Basically, an imperfect world sometimes required imperfect solutions in order
to move a little closer to the City of God.
SPECIFICATION Big inspiration for the church
Boosted Christianity ‘modern day politics

 St. Augustine once wrote: ''Remove justice, and what are

kingdoms but gangs of criminals on a large scale?''
•Language learning
referring in the way in which children learn to speak through the environment
and association.

KEYWORDS Caritas
Redemption (the action of saving or being saved from sin, error, or evil.)
Manichean is to follow the philosophy of Manichaeism, which is an old religion
that breaks everything down into good or evil
libido dominandi= The will to power; the desire to dominate; the lust for
government. noun.
Original sin is an Augustine Christian doctrine that says that everyone is born
sinful. This means that they are born with a built-in urge to do bad things and to
disobey God. Original sin is not just this inherited spiritual disease or defect in
human nature; it's also the 'condemnation' that goes with that fault. The sin of
Adam In traditional Christian teaching, original sin is the result of Adam and
Eve's disobedience to God when they ate a forbidden fruit in the Garden of
Eden.

Fall of the Roman Empire

 As bishop, Augustine sought to guide his people through a turbulent time in Roman history, a
time when the empire was being invaded and destroyed by a Germanic tribe known as the
Visigoths. When Rome was captured in the year 410 CE by the Germanic king, Alaric I, the future
of the empire was bleak. Looking for someone to blame for their woes, many Romans turned to
the Christian faith, saying it was their fault that the empire was in such turmoil. Wanting to
refute such claims, Augustine picked up his quill (or pen) and began The City of God sometime
around 413 CE. With this, we come to our first main point: Augustine hoped to silence Romans
blaming the Christians for the fall of their empire. Augustine refuted the belief that Christians
caused the gods to abandon Rome.

Christianity and the fall of Rome

• they blamed the Christians, their argument being that the gods of Rome had abandoned the
empire because the Christian monotheists, or worshipers of only one god, had insulted
them by refusing to pay them homage. Being ticked off, the gods had allowed the Visigoths
to destroy the city.
• Completely disagreeing, Augustine used The City of God to lay out a logical refutation of this
argument. First, he reminded the people that bad things happen to everyone. Next, he gave
a list of horrible things, like plagues, that happened while almost all of Rome actively
worshiped the old gods and Christianity wasn't even on the scene. Simply put, he asked,
'Where were your gods then?' He then took the gloves off by stating Rome fell because it
was spiritually corrupt and morally bankrupt. The Christians had nothing to do with it.

Peace is Possible
• Once he dealt with all the blamers, Augustine got to our second point: Peace can be
acquired here on Earth by those who choose the city of God, over the city of man.
• Concerning peace, Augustine explains there are two cities, one that is temporal, called the
city of the World, and one that is eternal, the City of God. In his writings, the City of the
World represents the natural, sinful world (for example, Rome). By doing this, he
encouraged his fellow Christians that Rome was never their true city. On the contrary,
heaven is their true home, and it alone will last. It will never be conquered. With this truth,
he told his fellow believers that peace could be experienced on Earth by those who follow
the guidelines of the Holy Scriptures. This is the highest good.

Hell is Real
• With the blamers dealt with, and how to acquire peace explained, Augustine moved on to
the last point, eternal punishment is real and waiting for those who belong to the City of the
World. Obviously, this one didn't make him a crowd favorite, but it does give us our last
point. Augustine told the people of his age that the judgment described in the Holy
Scriptures is true. He wholeheartedly believed the words of the Bible, which read:
• If this is so, then the Lord knows how to rescue the godly from trials and to hold the
unrighteous for punishment on the day of judgment. This is especially true of those who
follow the corrupt desires of the flesh and despise authority.
• Taking it a step further, Augustine encouraged his audience to live as citizens of the City of
God, for not only will they escape judgment, but they will also be welcomed into heaven, a
place of eternal rest and happiness with God.
Name Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) = Aristotle

IMPORTANT LIFE Italy

BOOKS Summa Theologiae
On Kingship to the King of Cryprus
PERIOD HISTORY Thomas Aquinas lived at the peak of a demographic and economic boom (c. 1000-
1350 CE) that saw the burgeoning rural population of Northwestern Europe
provide a broad agricultural base for accelerating urbanization and for the
growing ambitions of lords, kings, and churchmen.
IDEAS Aristotelian philosophy in line with Christian teachings, emphasizing that all
things have a divine nature, purpose, or essence which was evident through
natural inclinations. He called these eternal laws, and they could not be
disobeyed because they were not a matter of choice: they were instinct. Humans
were the exception, unique due to free will. Thus, humans had eternal laws but
could choose to ignore them, so Aquinas instead calls humans' divine inclinations
natural laws.

Natural and supernatural order.

• Eternal Law= The law of Go and
• Secular Natural Law+ The law of the Government (foundational
natural laws for humans is the desire to congregate and build political
societies)
Men are good and irrational
Aquinas best form of Government
• Monarchy (1 men one God)
• Anyone could become
• Cardinal virtues
o Justice, the just political regime is one which protects the
common good.
o Prudence
o Temperance
o Morality
o Fortitude
Rules should be limited by law
Disobedience is considered by the ruler a sin
To serve God

Church State
Mind Body
Monopoly (the exclusive possession Man, Violence and earthly
or control of the supply of or trade in a
commodity or service.)
Knowledge
Ex communicate After Life

According to Aquinas, a war was only just if it

 1. Was authorized by a legitimate political authority
2. Sought to achieve a common good, rather than personal gain
3. Was intended to ultimately create greater peace

Summa Theologica. It contains Aquinas' Five Proofs for the existence of God.

• The Proof of Motion. This states something in motion had to be set in

motion. Aquinas tells us God is the ultimate mover. God brought the
first motion.
• the Proof of Causality. This asserts that everything that is has been
made. Someone caused everything to come into being. That someone
is God. Aquinas asserts God is the ultimate cause.
• Proof of Contingency vs. Necessity. This asserts that something can't
come from nothing. It is necessary to have one necessary being. God
is this necessary being. Everything is contingent on God.
• Proof of Perfection. This purports God exists as the ultimate
measuring stick. Aquinas declared God is the gauge for all our
thoughts on good versus evil.
• Proof from Design. It asserts the complexity of the proves God
exists. Aquinas believed the workings of the cosmos could not have
occurred by chance. There is an ultimate creator, and that creator is
God.

SPECIFICATION
KEYWORDS Theism= Reason and faith
Secular State = religion no longer influences politics
Laicize State= State is neutral
Theocracy= Leader of the Government, the leader of Church The ruler of God
(Iran, Vatican, Tibet, Japan)
The Cardinal virtues are four virtues of mind and character in both classical
philosophy and Christian theology. They are Prudence, Justice, Fortitude,
Temperance. They form a virtue theory of ethics. The term cardinal comes from
the Latin cardo (hinge);[1] virtues are so called because they are regarded as the
basic virtues required for a virtuous life.
Sin is any action, feeling, or thought that goes against God’s standards.

St. Augustine Thomas Aquinas

• For Augustine, philosophy is an • for Aquinas philosophy is a superior

instrument science that includes theology.
• it an instrument for Christian • Thomas considers philosophy a
theologians. universal science
Approaches to Establishing the Existence of God Approaches to Establishing the Existence of God
• God. First, through mystical • present logical evidence
experience, which only a few people
can receive. Second, through faith,.
Third, through reason
Happiness Happiness
• only happiness a person can achieve • happiness consists in “goods of the
is in God, and considering that soul” rather than that of the body or
anything earthly can bring happiness some created good.
is a mistake

Name Machiavelli 1469 - 1527

IMPORTANT LIFE Main goal was to return to the power

BOOKS • The Prince. In it, he lays out a formula for how a ruler should act to
keep control of his land. The intent of this famous work was to teach
Lorenzo de Medici and his family, the rulers of Florence, how to rule
in order to make Florence free from outside domination
• Discourses on Livy is a work that examines how governments of his
time should manage their people, goods, wealth, and other
resources. In this political treatise, Machiavelli examines the ancient
Roman system of government in an attempt to draw out universal
truths and comparisons instrumental in its successes and failures
PERIOD HISTORY Renaissance The Renaissance is a period in European history marking the
transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th
centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas and
achievements of classical antiquity.

The Italian Wars were a series of wars fought over the city-states of Italy. At the
opening of the Wars, some of the prominent Italian city-states, or Italy's
sovereign cities and their surrounding territories, were Venice, Florence, Naples,
Sicily, and the Papal State of Rome. With much of Europe involved, these wars
waged from the late 15th to the mid-16th century. Although they started out
with many players who all changed sides and traded alliances, they soon
degraded into a power struggle between France and Spain.
Italy was divided by Polis and Frances Invaded, Condottieri, leader of a band of
mercenaries engaged to fight in numerous wars among the Italian states from the
mid-14th to the 16th century. By the end of the 14th century, Italians began to
raise mercenary armies, soldiers need to have a family, for which they would die
for.

Renascence= Church was luxury and gave indulgence to go to heaven, Heaven

purgatory and hell), questioning the credibility of the church.
Carpe Diem (curiosity arise and faith)
Fortuna / Faith = You can control the destiny and your life
 Momento Mori = the inevitability of death, so behave ( Christianity )

Platonic philosophy that rulers should be of upright, moral character.

IDEAS internal security, or security within the society from nefarious sources within it,

external security, or security of the society from nefarious sources outside of it

Political Realism: Universe that is not govern by reason or mind, the truth is the
reality (international Relation: state without government or control, Macht Politic
Bismarck (unity of the power of Germany)
• Breaking values and morality for the survival of the state
• No natural order of the soul, no natural hierarchy of values
• Perfection is absurd and harmful
• Men are not what they seem to be generally witched and
unreliable
Political views

• Good and evil are relative

• Strong State
• Statesman may violate values of the system
• Break moral rules to expand and gain power
• End justifies the mean
o You cannot be cruel
o Religion is the tool for discipline to the people
 Morality =Christianity
Reputation: give to the people property and woman

The Prince Machiavelli views issues of power from a purely analytical standpoint
without much regard for ethical considerations. The powerful person in this case
is Florence Governor Lorenzo de' Medici, to whom Machiavelli writes in an
attempt to get back into the good graces of the Medici rulers following his loss of
position during the political turbulence of sixteenth century Italy.
• #1: Expect the Worst
• #2: The Ends Justify the Means
• It's Better to be Feared than Loved “Here the question
arises; whether it is better to be loved than feared or
feared than loved. The answer is that it would be
desirable to be both but, since this is difficult, it is much
safer to be feared than loved, if one must choose'.”
• #4: When All Else Fails, LIE
• The Generosity Paradox A prince should guard himself,
above all things, against being despised and hated.
Generosity leads you to both
• War study of war has many benefits beyond its intended
purpose of seizing and maintaining power

Discourses on Livy philosophically republican perspective, in which the

 government is meant to be a strong institution that balances power for the
people, ensuring the freedom of the people at large, while simultaneously
ensuring the nobility has the means by which to rule, govern, employ, and
prosper

He wrote two different books which where complete opposites, because he

wanted to manipulate the prince in order to recover his position in politics
SPECIFICATION Best form of Government
TP= Monarchy
DL= Republic
KEYWORDS Virtue: morally neutral way
Fortune: Circumstances to be exploits by virtue
Empirical method: examination of the past present to derive general rules of
political behavior
Reason of State: Political stability justifies and even dictates the mean (cruelty
and deception if necessary)
Republicanism: Reference for individual liberty and mixed constitution with
popular institutions tempered by aristocratic leadership
Pragmatism: evaluation of theories and their success
Despotism: the exercise of absolute power, especially in a cruel and oppressive
way.
Discourse: Preserve liberty and avid corruption
Machiavellian Clever but often dishonest methods that deceive people so that
you can win power or control
Clientelism or client politics is the exchange of goods and services for political
support, often involving an implicit or explicit quid-pro-quo
Amoral = no morla
Inmoral = contrast of moral
Celibacy (from Latin caelibatus) is the state of voluntarily being unmarried,
sexually abstinent, or both, usually for religious reasons

Name Hobbes 1588- 1679

IMPORTANT LIFE
BOOKS Leviathan, is a 1651 book by Thomas Hobbes. Written during the English Civil
War, Hobbes' book is a call for a strong, undivided government.
 Book 1 is focused on the nature of humans. Hobbes explains that nothing about
humans is divine or even intelligent, and terms like 'good' and 'evil' are
meaningless. Human psychology has nothing to do with morality. Rather than
morality, Hobbes believed humans are driven by fear of death.
Hobbes describes the absence of government as anarchy. In this 'state of
nature,' as Hobbes calls it, men are constantly at war. There can be no invention
or industry, no crops, no knowledge, no arts, and no society. Political systems
arise from the desire to avoid death.
PERIOD HISTORY English history, and his most productive years as a philosopher coincided with a
time of political turmoil and civil war. Early in the 1640s, when it became clear
that Parliament was going to turn on King Charles I, Hobbes fled to France.
The Spanish Armada had set sail to attack England.
Reformation (less power to the church ) Everyone was afraid of the death
Magna Carta
1: a charter of liberties to which the English barons forced King John to give his
assent in June 1215 at Runnymede
2: a document constituting a fundamental guarantee of rights and privileges

English Parliamentarian system

Between 1642 and 1651, armies loyal to King Charles I and Parliament faced off
in three civil wars over longstanding disputes about religious freedom and how
the “three kingdoms” of England, Scotland and Ireland should be governed.
Notable outcomes of the wars included the execution of King Charles I in 1649,
11 years of republican rule in England and the establishment of Britain’s first
standing national army.

1689 The English Bill of Rights created a constitutional monarchy in England,

meaning the king or queen acts as head of state but his or her powers are
limited by law. Under this system, the monarchy couldn’t rule without the
consent of Parliament, and the people were given individual rights.

IDEAS Authoritarianism
Hobbes Modern (nazis) (FIRE) Financial
Independence Retire early)
Maritain’s order and security Collective goal
Resist (just to individual survive) Anti-hedonistic
Administrator Impossible resist
Avoid War Showman Propaganda
Glorifies War

Best form of Government: Monarchy is divine

Equality among all (boy, mind and law)
Prisoners Dilemma (corporations are always going to end in betrayal)

State of Nature Social Construct Government

Solipsism A contract between Monarchy
 Animals subjects establishing Commonwealth
absolute government, No rebellion admitted
for the commonwealth Military and religion

Anarchy:
Independent and thinking

In an Authoritarian Regime: you could become a free rider, there is a ruler and
obedience
SPECIFICATION
KEYWORDS Human nature= solipsism (Only one’s mind is sure to exist)
Hobbism= Doctrine of absolute submission to royal sovereign to avoid anarchy
disorder resting from the selfish competition of individuals
The state of nature= war of all against, life would be solitary, poore, nasty,
brutish, and short.
Social contract= Contract between subject establishing absolute government
Absolutism= unconditional and unified sovereign authority, no collective right of
resistance
Sovereign = Ruler
Subjects = civilian
Sovereignty= supreme power or authority.
Leviathan = powerful and extremely large

Leviathan rigorously argues that civil peace and

social unity are best achieved by the
establishment of a commonwealth through social
contract. Hobbes's ideal commonwealth is ruled
by a sovereign power responsible for protecting
the security of the commonwealth and granted
absolute authority to ensure the common
defense. In his introduction, Hobbes describes
this commonwealth as an "artificial person" and
as a body politic that mimics the human body.
The frontispiece to the first edition of Leviathan,
which Hobbes helped design, portrays the
commonwealth as a gigantic human form built
out of the bodies of its citizens, the sovereign as
its head. Hobbes calls this figure the "Leviathan,"
a word derived from the Hebrew for "sea
monster" and the name of a monstrous sea
creature appearing in the Bible; the image
constitutes the definitive metaphor for Hobbes's
perfect government. His text attempts to prove the necessity of the Leviathan for preserving peace and
preventing civil war.

Leviathan is divided into four books: "Of Man," "Of Common-wealth," "Of a Christian Common-wealth,"
and "Of the Kingdome of Darknesse." Book I contains the philosophical framework for the entire text,
while the remaining books simply extend and elaborate the arguments presented in the initial
chapters. Consequently, Book I is given the most attention in the detailed summaries that follow.
Hobbes begins his text by considering the elementary motions of matter, arguing that every aspect of
human nature can be deduced from materialist principles. Hobbes depicts the natural condition of
mankind--known as the state of nature--as inherently violent and awash with fear. The state of nature is
the "war of every man against every man," in which people constantly seek to destroy one another. This
state is so horrible that human beings naturally seek peace, and the best way to achieve peace is to
construct the Leviathan through social contract.

Book II details the process of erecting the Leviathan, outlines the rights of sovereigns and subjects, and
imagines the legislative and civil mechanics of the commonwealth. Book III concerns the compatibility of
Christian doctrine with Hobbesian philosophy and the religious system of the Leviathan. Book IV engages
in debunking false religious beliefs and arguing that the political implementation of the Leviathanic state
is necessary to achieve a secure Christian commonwealth.

Hobbes's philosophical method in Leviathan is modeled after a geometric proof, founded upon first
principles and established definitions, and in which each step of argument makes conclusions based
upon the previous step. Hobbes decided to create a philosophical method similar to the geometric proof
after meeting Galileo on his extended travels in Europe during the 1630s. Observing that the conclusions
derived by geometry are indisputable because each of constituent steps is indisputable in itself, Hobbes
attempted to work out a similarly irrefutable philosophy in his writing of Leviathan.

Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes.jpg. Digital image. Wikipedia. N.p., 26 Feb. 2006. Web. 18 Oct. 2015.

Published in 1651, the political writings of Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, was accompanied by the
frontispiece by Abraham Bosse. The bottom half of the piece displays contrasting symbols of the
balanced sovereign powers, the emblems on the left depict the monarch and on the right represent the
church. In the centre is the Sovereign King that is composed of citizens who are looking towards the
head. The art piece was inspired by the anamorphic art form which originates from the Renaissance. The
1600s was the Baroque era, elaborate, realistic and precise art work was deemed as beautiful. Baroque
art is filled with dramatic shading and naturalistic landscapes, the frontispiece of Leviathan meets the
requirements within the details, opposed to the image as a whole. There is an abundance of shading and
preciseness but the piece displays each Baroque aspect with many images. The overwhelming
complexity and intricacy does not represent the Baroque era.

The Sovereign King at the centre is not a realistic impression of the ideal king, due to the abstractness of
the body The shading of the Sovereign King has caused the three dimensional effect to prove
inconsistent, along with the proportionality of the hands to the head. To better depict the Sovereign
King to symbolize protection of the state, with the ideals of secularism and ecclesiastical, the hands
must be larger for they are present in the foreground. The landscape in front of the king is of skewed
proportions and the city that is present, appears to be removed from the background. Thus creating an
inaccurate scale between the countryside and city.

The symbols that represent the two sovereign powers embody the essence of Baroque the most for
they are realistic and dramatically shaded. The iconic images of the crown and religion are accurately
created, separately, they are of Baroque standards. Although the elements of the era are present, the
frontispiece is not a perfect example of Baroque art.

Name John Locke Bristol England 1632

IMPORTANT LIFE Studied medicine Oxford

Royal Society (new people)
Empiricism
Fleeing to Holland ( The wake of Liberalism in practice)
Commission of appeals

BOOKS The treatises on Government= Political Philosophy intended to push forward the
ideas of contract and natural rights. He published firstly anonymously
Perfect Freedom
Equality
Natural Rights

PERIOD HISTORY Glorious Revolution in England

IDEAS The state of Nature is men are born equal. Tabula Rasa We are born like a blank
sheet
State of Nature= “Human being could exist well in such a condition, have the
tendency to order and organize themselves”

Natural Right =Life, Liberty and Property. Entitlement’s humans’ beings had
merely because they were human, right that no one could take away or fully
eliminated

Best form of Government

Life liberty and the pursuit of happiness, was the one that restricted the least
amount of freedom
 Authority with consent and swearing an oath of allegiance

Social Contract= Agreement between themselves and the leaders, People have
the right to adjust change, abolish their government if it not being fair

Executive power of the law of nature: no one has any right to exercise the
power over another and therefore everyone has executive power

Liberty versus License

 Liberty is acting within the constraint of the natural law
 license is motivated by passion to social life

Patriarchal power = God granting of patriarchal authority to Adam and his heirs.

Religion= State has no business in religion affairs, Reasonableness of

Christianity

Religious Toleration, except for the Catholic (primary obligation to Rome) and
the Atheist (no foundation for promises). They were a danger to the state.

Right to Revolution= An appeal to heaven”, pie tree, Locke argues that people
have the right that cannot be infringed upon by the government and that
rebellion is justified is to defend those rights. “Give me liberty or give me death”
 Theory of Resistance= Punishment, passion for revenge, Rebelling
against the sovereign, the majority can rebel.
Theory of Property= Property is the lives liberties and states of people, a man
labor is his property. Unlimited accumulation of property, leading to scatter
homes for example.
Money= Some lasting thing that man can exchange.

State of Nature Social Contract Government

Law of Natural  Rebel Separation of Power
Tabula Rasa  Against Slavery, Check and balances
Equal and Independent owns his or her
own body Against Divine Right
 (Ideals he
But because of participated in Constitutional Republic
Property: the Caroline’s)
Revenge, conflict,  The right is self-
greedy => Need for evident and
social contract universal,
 Life Liberty and
property
 Majority
SPECIFICATION 1689 Democracy Appeared

Legacy: Contribution to the declaration of independence

Father of Liberalism
French Revolution
American revolution
Liberalism
Free trade
International Law
Mercantilism

KEYWORDS Empiricism = Knowledge comes from experiences, experimental

 Sensation= use of the sense to obtain information
 Reflection= memory, reflect on experiences

Tabula Rasa= the mind in its hypothetical primary blank or empty state before
receiving outside impressions.
State of Nature= “Human being could exist well in such a condition, have the
tendency to order and organize themselves”
oath of allegiance= An oath of allegiance is an oath whereby a subject or citizen
acknowledges a duty of allegiance and swears loyalty to monarch or country

Private Property = Permitted unlimited accumulation of private property

Mixing one’s labor = appropriation, title the object property
Worship: show reverence and adoration for (a deity); honor with religious rites.
Mercantilism= economic policy that is designed to maximize the exports and
minimize the imports for an economy.

Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of the

governed and equality before the law. Liberals espouse a wide array of views
depending on their understanding of these principles, but they generally support
individual rights (including civil rights and human rights), democracy, secularism,
freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion and a market
economy.
Free trade is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports.

Classical Liberalism= small government, nigh watch state, military, legal system,
police. Classical liberalism is a political ideology and a branch of liberalism that
advocates free market, civil liberties under the rule of law with an emphasis on
minarchism, economic freedom and cultural liberalism
Minarchism refers to a political ideology that a government should be as small
as possible. = night watch, In monarchism the state's only legitimate function is
the protection of individuals from aggression. According to monarchists, the
existence of the state is a necessary evil.

Negative Freedom= Protect the people others, defensive

Social Question= Capitalism and Industries

Modern Liberalism = Modern liberalism focuses on the use of the state for the
benefit of society. It is generally associated with social welfare programs and a
variety of other means that are used to support society using programs.
The more money you have the freer you are
Positive Freedom= Help people to become me free, job, money, health.

Neoliberalism is a model of free market capitalism that favors greatly reduced

government spending, deregulation, globalization, free trade, and privatization. (
re market, less government. Against liberalism.
 Hobbes Locke
Fled to Paris Fled to Holland
Absolute Monarchy Democracy
Control Protect overseeing human affairs

To abolish democracy, change the constitution and for the 2/3 of the voting. Really hard.

Name Spinoza

IMPORTANT LIFE Jewish community

He was excommunicated his social life decreases
BOOKS Theological Political Treatise 1670

PERIOD HISTORY Enlightenment and rationalism = Golden Century

Tolerant Amsterdam = Curiosity
Excommunicated 1659
Inquisition
Dutch Republic= Economy Social Structure Freedoms and Political System

Economy= Banking systems, stock market, treading companies, urbanization

craftsmen ship, wealthy

Social Structure is divided equal, distribution of wealth fare, social mobility,

Middle class, they bought a lot of art.

Freedoms: Books, religious tolerance, emancipation for women and women

took position for the man

Politician Dutch Republic = no authority, they were loyal to the Spanish king
nevertheless Spanish king was catholic an Dutch were protestant, polis, the
Spanish king raise the taxes. Dutch republic rebel
 1581 Dutch Republic with the declaration of Abjuration = letter
Union of the 7 provinces => Dutch Republic

Federation = Centralized control

Confederation= Sovereign States Provinces

Confederation and European Union disadvantages

 Corruption
 Rich and poor differences is huge
 Social contract huge low class
 Not allowance for study to woman
 Religious tolerance but piracy
 Slavery not allowed but still observed

IDEAS Everything is determined by necessity.

The mind has no free will= series of causes that regress to infinity
“We do what we do, out of divine necessity”

Emotion, “to be good is to wish to align our desires with Gods necessities, to
be bad is to resist that necessity”

Human Freedom: whatever power we can exert over emotion is due for our
understanding of divine necessity.

Rational attitude towards religion

Bible is fake, rational people maintain order, he is critical about the bible,
moral lesson it cannot be taken literally. Each person should come to her or his
own conclusion, protestant and translated the bible by Luther.

Religion institutions are not need in society

Morals= goals consist only in justice

Divine law= Natural law

Politics= basic right (equality, freedom of speech, thought and religion)

Best form of government Political realist Democratic

 Function of the state = liberate
 Democratic Liberation

State of Nature Social Contract Government

Law of Nature= Born Duties and Obligations Strong
ignorant and equal of the state Monarchy = Slaves
Reason could Equality Aristocracy son+ father
overcome this chaos Security relationship ( No
 and ignorance Commonwealth inheritor
Stoicism Freedom Democracy= education
“The Goal of the state is the tool for becoming
is Freedom” a democracy, subject
Cannot rebel against do the work
the Authority = death Slaves Students and
penalty and enemy of Woman could not
the state, the participate in politics
punishment might be
higher than the
benefits for the crime Politics make people
smarter

In a free state man can

say what he likes and
state what he thinks”
Freedom of speech
until your hurt
someone

Guilty Mind: the

mental element of a
person's intention to
commit a crime; or
knowledge that one's
action or lack of action
would cause a crime to
be committed. It is a
necessary element of
many crimes.

SPECIFICATION Language = Absolutely infinite

Enlightenment
KEYWORDS Tractatus= Tractatus is Latin for "treatise". It may refer to.
Pantheism = Jedeism God is the Universe
Monism= connection of everything
Speculation= God is good, god is evil all is god
Atheist= deny existence o f God
Agnostics = you cannot prove the existence, but something is greater than
humans
Stoicism = no emotions are needed to be happy
New Stoicism Religion = Teacher of the moral for the irrational
A commonwealth is a traditional English term for a political community
founded for the common good. Historically, it has sometimes been
synonymous with " republic ". The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public
welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the 15th century.
 Guilty Mind: the mental element of a person's intention to commit a crime; or
knowledge that one's action or lack of action would cause a crime to be
committed. It is a necessary element of many crimes.
Federation = Centralized control
Confederation= Sovereign States Provinces

Poldering Polder Model =The polder model (Dutch: poldermodel) is a method

of consensus decision-making, based on the acclaimed Dutch version of
consensus-based economic and social policymaking in the 1980s and 1990s. It
gets its name from the Dutch word (polder) for tracts of land enclosed by
dikes. The polder model has been described as "a pragmatic recognition of
pluriformity" and "cooperation despite differences".

Name Montesquieu was more individualist

IMPORTANT LIFE
BOOKS Letters Persas= absurdities of the French Society
Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence
L’ espirt des loai

PERIOD HISTORY History Government change, England had declared itself as a constitutional
monarchy “Glory Revolution” (1688-1689)
Start of the enlightenment
IDEAS Meteorological Climate Theory
Climate and environment influence the nature if man and society.
Law can diverse between nations concerning their religion and geography

Law = necessary relation deriving from the nature of things

Spirit= complex ordering principle behind different forms of government and
society, each form of government has both fundamental constitutional norm
and spirt.
The spirit of the Nation was caused by the climate theory

Political Liberty= Freedom of will, security, justice, and property.

Rejection on the Natural Laws, believe in the law of society

Political law government vs. people
Civil law ppl vs. ppl
Law of nations between nations

Social Views:
 Liberal
 Abolition of Slavery
 Freedom of Thought, speech
  Religious Tolerance
 Aristocratic Privilege
 Woman can be in charge of the government not the family


Government
Republic Protestant Small Democracy = Virtue
elected
Aristocracy
appealed
Moderation
Monarch Catholic Medium Honor
Despotism Islam Big Dictatorship Fear

Trias Politica=

Judiciary= judgement on law Courts

Legislative = make and change laws parliament
Executive= Government Law into action

There is a fusion, in which the parliament vote to choose the government, the
courts hep to decide the law when the parliament cant come to a agreement,
etc.
Republic can become corrupted with: Threat of democracy
 extreme inequality, pursue of the state is not the interest of the
citizens
 Extreme equality, Authority disappears, citizens know how to govern
better than the politician does.

Classical Liberalism = Liberty of citizens right to property protection, against

slavery religious tolerance
Separation of Power

 Legislative
 Judicative
 Executive
 Civil Servant
 Media Mediacracy
 Corporations Lobbyism (influence the actions, policies, or decisions of
government officials, most often legislators or members of regulatory
 agencies) Consultancy
 Power (UN, EU, IMF
SPECIFICATION Legacy: Separation of the power, US government
Dutch Constitution, declaration of Man and Citizens
KEYWORDS Despotism= exercise of absolute power, especially in a cruel and oppressive
way, corruption
Trias Politica= separation of Powers with check and balances
Grand Tour= travel around Europe to see culture
Classical Liberalism = Liberty of citizens right to property protection, against
slavery religious tolerance
Patriotism= the quality of being patriotic; devotion to and vigorous support
for one's country., own interest less important than the common wealth of
the state
Jurisprudence Jurisprudentia= which means either "Knowledge of
Law" or "Skill of law",

Jurance Prudence= verdict becoming a law

American Constitution first three laws conceptualize the operations of

government.

Name Rousseau
Geneva
Mandame de dive

IMPORTANT LIFE
BOOKS A discourse on the moral effects of the art and sciences
A discourse upot the origin and foundation of the inequality among mankind
Emilie Education
PERIOD HISTORY Criticis the enlightenment= the corruption of moralities and virtues

French Revolution
Elit didn’t had to pay tac=xes, all other had to, enormous inflammation , 1789-
1809 constitutional monarchy
1791 Ring of terro Republic
1884 Napoleon Middel class Meritocracy
Invasion to liberte equalit spread out.

Reintroduce the equal responsibilities and the nationalism conscription

IDEAS State of Nature= Humans are good self-preservation and pity, born free and
equal, not with natural equality
Natural goodness
 Amor de soi= self suficiente
 Eduaction closet o nature
 Was corrupted by property Social interdependence ( more valued than
others), amor prope individual interest

Social Contract= already have right and property, the general will
 Liberty and equality
 Natural Liberty
 Civil Liberty
 Moral Liberty
General Will/ Real will (General will of the citizen, free of selfish interest)
Comes from all applies to all

Government = Direct Democracy small state

Middle Aristocracy
Large Monarchy

Civil Religion: Civic profession of faith, religion is need

Emile = Gender Roles
SPECIFICATION Man is bron free but ewverywhere in chain
KEYWORDS Populism = Populists usually try to make a difference between common
people and "elites" (meaning usually, top classes of people), where politician
don’t follow the general will
Ancient Greek Democracy Roman Republic
The Socratic philosophers in ancient Greece teaching
methods and for asking thought-provoking questions.
Instead of lecturing his students, he asked them difficult The Hellenistic period spans the period of Mediterranean
questions to challenge their underlying assumptions history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and
the emergence of the Roman Empire

Socrates (469-399) B.C Cicero (106 BC -43 BC)

Plato (429-347) B.C. Rome
Aristotle (384-322) B.C.
Ancient Greek
Fall of the Roman Empire

Augustine von Thomas Aquinas

Hippo 354 -410 A.D. (1224-1274 A.D.)
Africa Italy

Renaissance

Civil War in England

Machiavelli (1469 –
Hobbes (1588-
1527) Italy
1679)
Early Enlightenment and Glorious Revolution in England

Enlightenment
John Locke (1632- 1704)
England Spinoza (1632
·1677)
Enlightenment Dutch

Montesquieu 1689- Enlightenment inspired

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..the French Revolution
1755
French Jean-Jacques
Rousseau 1712-
Period of time: 1778

Ancient Greek Democracy:

This system was comprised of three separate institutions: the ekklesia, a sovereign governing body that
wrote laws and dictated foreign policy; the boule, a council of representatives from the ten Athenian
tribes and the dikasteria, the popular courts in which citizens argued cases before a group of lottery-
selected jurors. Although this Athenian democracy would survive for only two centuries, its invention by
Cleisthenes, “The Father of Democracy,” was one of ancient Greece’s most enduring contributions to
the modern world. The Greek system of direct democracy would pave the way for representative
democracies across the globe.

All those people, only male citizens who were older than 18 were a part of the demos, meaning only
about 40,000 people could participate in the democratic process.

The Ekklesia Assembly

Athenian democracy was a direct democracy made up of three important institutions. The first was the
ekklesia, or Assembly, the sovereign governing body of Athens. Any member of the demos—any one of
those 40,000 adult male citizens—was welcome to attend the meetings of the ekklesia, which were held
40 times per year in a hillside auditorium west of the Acropolis called the Pnyx.

The Boule

The second important institution was the boule, or Council of Five Hundred. The boule was a group of
500 men, 50 from each of ten Athenian tribes, who served on the Council for one year. Unlike the
ekklesia, the boule met every day and did most of the hands-on work of governance. It supervised
government workers and was in charge of things like navy ships (triremes) and army horses. It dealt with
ambassadors and representatives from other city-states. Its main function was to decide what matters
would come before the ekklesia. In this way, the 500 members of the boule dictated how the entire
democracy would work. Positions on the boule were chosen by lot and not by election. This was
because, in theory, a random lottery was more democratic than an election

The Dikasteria

The third important institution was the popular courts, or dikasteria. Every day, more than 500 jurors
were chosen by lot from a pool of male citizens older than 30. Of all the democratic institutions,
Aristotle argued that the dikasteria “contributed most to the strength of democracy” because the jury
had almost unlimited power.

There were no police in Athens, so it was the demos themselves who brought court cases, argued for
the prosecution and the defense and delivered verdicts and sentences by majority rule. (There were also
no rules about what kinds of cases could be prosecuted or what could and could not be said at trial, and
so Athenian citizens frequently used the dikasteria to punish or embarrass their enemies.)

Around 460 B.C., under the rule of the general Pericles (generals were among the only public officials
who were elected, not appointed) Athenian democracy began to evolve into something that we would
call an aristocracy: the rule of what Herodotus called “the one man, the best.”

Ancient Rome
As legend has it, Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by Romulus and Remus, twin sons of Mars, the god of
war. Left to drown in a basket on the Tiber by a king of nearby Alba Longa and rescued by a she-wolf,
the twins lived to defeat that king and found their own city on the river’s banks in 753 B.C. After killing
his brother, Romulus became the first king of Rome, which is named for him. A line of Sabine, Latin and
Etruscan (earlier Italian civilizations) kings followed in a non-hereditary succession.

Rome’s era as a monarchy ended in 509 B.C. with the overthrow of its seventh king, Lucius Tarquinius
Superbus, whom ancient historians portrayed as cruel and tyrannical.

While they were referred to as “Rex,” or “King” in Latin, all the kings after Romulus were elected by the
senate. Rome turned from a monarchy into a republic, a world derived from res publica, or “property of
the people.

The Early Republic

The power of the monarch passed to two annually elected magistrates called consuls. They also served
as commanders in chief of the army. The magistrates, though elected by the people, were drawn largely
from the Senate, which was dominated by the patricians, or the descendants of the original senators
from the time of Romulus. Politics in the early republic was marked by the long struggle between
patricians and plebeians (the common people), who eventually attained some political power through
years of concessions from patricians, including their own political bodies, the tribunes, which could
initiate or veto legislation.
In 450 B.C., the first Roman law code was inscribed on 12 bronze tablets–known as the Twelve Tables–
and publicly displayed in the Roman Forum. These laws included issues of legal procedure, civil rights
and property rights and provided the basis for all future Roman civil law. By around 300 B.C., real
political power in Rome was centered in the Senate, which at the time included only members of
patrician and wealthy plebeian families.

Military Expansion

During the early republic, the Roman state grew exponentially in both size and power. Though the Gauls
sacked and burned Rome in 390 B.C., the Romans rebounded under the leadership of the military hero
Camillus, eventually gaining control of the entire Italian peninsula by 264 B.C. Rome then fought a series
of wars known as the Punic Wars with Carthage, a powerful city-state in northern Africa. Rome’s military
conquests led directly to its cultural growth as a society, as the Romans benefited greatly from contact
with such advanced cultures as the Greeks. The first Roman literature appeared around 240 B.C., with
translations of Greek classics into Latin; Romans would eventually adopt much of Greek art, philosophy
and religion.

Internal Struggles in the Late Republic

Rome’s complex political institutions began to crumble under the weight of the growing empire,
ushering in an era of internal turmoil and violence. The gap between rich and poor widened as wealthy
landowners drove small farmers from public land, while access to government was increasingly limited
to the more privileged classes
During this same period, Marcus Tullius Cicero, elected consul in 63 B.C., famously defeated the
conspiracy of the patrician Cataline and won a reputation as one of Rome’s greatest orators

From Caesar to Augustus

Less than a year later, Julius Caesar was murdered on the ides of March (March 15, 44 B.C.) by a group
of his enemies (led by the republican nobles Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius). Consul Mark
Antony and Caesar’s great-nephew and adopted heir, Octavian, joined forces to crush Brutus and
Cassius and divided power in Rome with ex-consul Lepidus in what was known as the Second
Triumvirate. With Octavian leading the western provinces, Antony the east, and Lepidus Africa, tensions
developed by 36 B.C. and the triumvirate soon dissolved. In 31 B.C., Octavian triumped over the forces
of Antony and Queen Cleopatra of Egypt (also rumored to be the onetime lover of Julius Caesar) in the
Battle of Actium. In the wake of this devastating defeat, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.

By 29 B.C., Octavian was the sole leader of Rome and all its provinces. To avoid meeting Caesar’s fate, he
made sure to make his position as absolute ruler acceptable to the public by apparently restoring the
political institutions of the Roman republic while in reality retaining all real power for himself. In 27 B.C.,
Octavian assumed the title of Augustus, becoming the first emperor of Rome.

Age of the Roman Emperors

Augustus’ rule restored morale in Rome after a century of discord and corruption and ushered in the
famous pax Romana–two full centuries of peace and prosperity. He instituted various social reforms,
won numerous military victories and allowed Roman literature, art, architecture and religion to flourish.
Augustus ruled for 56 years, supported by his great army and by a growing cult of devotion to the
emperor. When he died, the Senate elevated Augustus to the status of a god, beginning a long-running
tradition of deification for popular emperors. Antoninus Pius (138-161), Rome continued in peace and
prosperity, but the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–180) was dominated by conflict, including war against
Parthia and Armenia and the invasion of Germanic tribes from the north. When Marcus fell ill and died
near the battlefield at Vindobona (Vienna), he broke with the tradition of non-hereditary succession and
named his 19-year-old son Commodus as his successor.

Decline and Disintegration

The decadence and incompetence of Commodus (180-192) brought the golden age of the Roman
emperors to a disappointing end. His death at the hands of his own ministers sparked another period of
civil war, from which Lucius Septimius Severus (193-211) emerged victorious. During the third century
Rome suffered from a cycle of near-constant conflict. A total of 22 emperors took the throne, many of
them meeting violent ends at the hands of the same soldiers who had propelled them to power.
Meanwhile, threats from outside plagued the empire and depleted its riches, including continuing
aggression from Germans and Parthians and raids by the Goths over the Aegean Sea.

The reign of Diocletian (284-305) temporarily restored peace and prosperity in Rome, but at a high cost
to the unity of the empire. Diocletian divided power into the so-called tetrarchy (rule of four), sharing
his title of Augustus (emperor) with Maximian. A pair of generals, Galerius and Constantius, were
appointed as the assistants and chosen successors of Diocletian and Maximian; Diocletian and Galerius
ruled the eastern Roman Empire, while Maximian and Constantius took power in the west.

The stability of this system suffered greatly after Diocletian and Maximian retired from office.
Constantine (the son of Constantius) emerged from the ensuing power struggles as sole emperor of a
reunified Rome in 324. He moved the Roman capital to the Greek city of Byzantium, which he renamed
Constantinople. At the Council of Nicaea in 325, Constantine made Christianity (once an obscure Jewish
sect) Rome’s official religion.

Roman unity under Constantine proved illusory, and 30 years after his death the eastern and western
empires were again divided. Despite its continuing battle against Persian forces, the eastern Roman
Empire–later known as the Byzantine Empire–would remain largely intact for centuries to come. An
entirely different story played out in the west, where the empire was wracked by internal conflict as well
as threats from abroad–particularly from the Germanic tribes now established within the empire’s
frontiers like the Vandals (their sack of Rome originated the phrase “vandalism”)–and was steadily losing
money due to constant warfare.

Rome eventually collapsed under the weight of its own bloated empire, losing its provinces one by one:
Britain around 410; Spain and northern Africa by 430. Attila and his brutal Huns invaded Gaul and Italy
around 450, further shaking the foundations of the empire. In September 476, a Germanic prince named
Odovacar won control of the Roman army in Italy. After deposing the last western emperor, Romulus
Augustus, Odovacar’s troops proclaimed him king of Italy, bringing an ignoble end to the long,
tumultuous history of ancient Rome. The fall of the Roman Empire was complete.
Middle Age
Renaissance
The Renaissance was a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, political and
economic “rebirth” following the Middle Ages. Generally described as taking place
from the 14th century to the 17th century, the Renaissance promoted the
rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art. Some of the greatest
thinkers, authors, statesmen, scientists and artists in human history thrived
during this era, while global exploration opened up new lands and cultures to
European commerce. The Renaissance is credited with bridging the gap between
the Middle Ages and modern-day civilization.

From Darkness to Light: The Renaissance Begins

During the Middle Ages, a period that took place between the fall of ancient
Rome in 476 A.D. and the beginning of the 14th century, Europeans made few
advances in science and art.
Also known as the “Dark Ages,” the era is often branded as a time of war,
ignorance, famine and pandemics such as the Black Death.
Some historians, however, believe that such grim depictions of the Middle Ages
were greatly exaggerated, though many agree that there was relatively little
regard for ancient Greek and Roman philosophies and learning at the time.
Humanism
During the 14th century, a cultural movement called humanism began to gain
momentum in Italy. Among its many principles, humanism promoted the idea
that man was the center of his own universe, and people should embrace human
achievements in education, classical arts, literature and science.
In 1450, the invention of the Gutenberg printing press allowed for improved
communication throughout Europe and for ideas to spread more quickly.
As a result of this advance in communication, little-known texts from early
humanist authors such as those by Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio,
which promoted the renewal of traditional Greek and Roman culture and values,
were printed and distributed to the masses.
Additionally, many scholars believe advances in international finance and trade
impacted culture in Europe and set the stage for the Renaissance.

Medici Family
The Renaissance started in Florence, Italy, a place with a rich cultural history
where wealthy citizens could afford to support budding artists.
Members of the powerful Medici family, which ruled Florence for more than 60
years, were famous backers of the movement.

Great Italian writers, artists, politicians and others declared that they were
participating in an intellectual and artistic revolution that would be much different
from what they experienced during the Dark Ages.
The movement first expanded to other Italian city-states, such as Venice, Milan,
Bologna, Ferrara and Rome. Then, during the 15th century, Renaissance ideas
spread from Italy to France and then throughout western and northern Europe.
Although other European countries experienced their Renaissance later than Italy,
the impacts were still revolutionary.
Renaissance Religion
Humanism encouraged Europeans to question the role of the Roman Catholic
church during the Renaissance.
As more people learned how to read, write and interpret ideas, they began to
closely examine and critique religion as they knew it. Also, the printing press
allowed for texts, including the Bible, to be easily reproduced and widely read by
the people, themselves, for the first time.
In the 16th century, Martin Luther, a German monk, led the Protestant
Reformation – a revolutionary movement that caused a split in the Catholic
church. Luther questioned many of the practices of the church and whether they
aligned with the teachings of the Bible.
As a result, a new form of Christianity, known as Protestantism, was created.

End of the Renaissance

Scholars believe the demise of the Renaissance was the result of several
compounding factors.
By the end of the 15th century, numerous wars had plagued the Italian peninsula.
Spanish, French and German invaders battling for Italian territories caused
disruption and instability in the region.

The 17th century : Religious troubles & Civil War

James I (1566-1625) was a Protestant, like Elizabeth, and aimed at improving relations with the
Catholics. But 2 years after he was crowned, a group of Catholic extremists led by Guy Fawkes
attempted to place a bomb at the parliament's state opening, when the king and his entourage would
be present, so as to get rid of all the Protestant aristocracy in one fell swoop. The conspirators were
betrayed by one of their number just hours before the plan's enactment. The failure of the Gunpowder
Plot, as it is known (see Coughton Court), is still celebrated throughout Britain on Guy Fawkes' night (5th
November), with fireworks and bonfires burning effigies of the conspirators' leader.

The divide between Catholics and Protestant worsened after this incident. James's successor Charles I
(1600-1649) was eager to unify Britain and Ireland, and wanted to do so as an absolute ruler of divine
right, like his French counter-part Louis XIV. Despite being an (Anglican) Protestant, his marriage with a
French Roman Catholic combined with policies at odd with Calvinist ideals and his totalitarian handling
of the Parliament eventually culminated in the English Civil War (1642-1651). The country was torn
between Royalist and Parliamentarian troops, and most of the medieval castles still standing were
destroyed during that period (eg. Kenilworth, Corfe, Bodiam...).

Charles was beheaded, and the puritan leader of the Parliamentarians, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658),
ruled the country as a dictator from 1649 to his death. He was briefly succeeded by his son Richard at
the head of the Protectorate, but his political inability prompted the Parliament to restore the monarchy
in 1660, calling in Charles I' exiled son, Charles II (1630-1685).

The Restoration

The "Merry Monarch", as Charles II was known, was better at handling Parliament than his father,
although as ruthless with other matters. It is during his reign that the Whig and Tory parties were
created, and that the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam became English and was renamed New York,
after Charles' brother, James, Duke of York (and later James II).

Charles II was the patron of the arts and sciences. He helped found the Royal Society and sponsored
architect Sir Christopher Wren, who rebuilt the City of London of the Great Fire of 1666, and constructed
some of England's greatest edifices. Charles acquired Bombay and Tangiers through his Portuguese wife,
thus laying the foundation for the British Empire.

Although Charles produced countless illegitimate children, 14 of whom he acknowledged (including the
Duke of Monmouth, the Duke of Northumberland, the Duke of Grafton, the Duke of Cleveland, the Duke
of Richmond and the Duke of St Albans), his wife couldn't bear an heir, and when he died in 1685 the
throne passed to his Catholic and unpopular brother James

The Glorious Revolution

James II's religious inclinations and despotism led to his quick removal from power in the Glorious
Revolution of 1688. His Protestant daughter Mary, married to his equally Protestant nephew, William of
Orange. The couple was "invited" by the Protestant aristocracy to conduct an invasion from the
Netherlands. They defeated James' troops at the Battle of the Boyne, and deposed James II with limited
bloodshed. James was allowed to escape to France, where he remained the rest of his life under the
protection of Louis XIV. His son and grandson later attempted to come back to the throne, but without
success.

The new ruling couple became known as the "Grand Alliance". The parliament ratified that all kings or
queens would have to be Protestant from then on. After Mary's death in 1694, then William's in 1702,
James's second daughter, Anne, ascended the throne. In 1707, the Act of Union joined the Scottish and
the English Parliaments thus creating the single Kingdom of Great Britain and centralising political power
in London. Anne died heirless in 1714, and a distant German cousin, George of Hanover, was called to
rule over the UK.

Entlightment
English Language Learners Definition of enlightenment. : the state of having
knowledge or understanding : the act of giving someone knowledge or
understanding. : a movement of the 18th century that stressed the belief that
science and logic give people more knowledge and understanding than tradition
and religion.
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