CHAPTER ONE

1.INTRODUCTION

Pressure vessels are leak proof containers used to hold gases or liquids at pressure
different from the ambient pressure. The pressure vessels (i.e. cylinder or tanks) are used to store
fluids under pressure. The fluid being stored may undergo a change of state inside the pressure vessel
as in case of steam boilers or it may combine with other reagents as in a chemical plant. The pressure
vessels are designed with great care because rupture of pressure vessels means an explosion which
may cause loss of life and property. The material of pressure vessels may be brittle such that cast iron
or ductile such as mild steel.

1.1 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN MODELS FOR CYLINDERS:

1. Thick-walled Cylinders

2. Thin-walled Cylinders

1. Thick-Wall Theory

Thick-wall theory is developed from the Theory of Elasticity which yields the state of

Stress as a continuous function of radius over the pressure vessel wall.

The state of Stress is defined relative to a convenient cylindrical coordinate system:

1. σ t=¿ Tangential Stress

2. σ r=¿ Radial Stress

3.σ l =¿ Longitudinal Stress.

Stresses in a cylindrical pressure vessel depend upon the ratio of the inner radius and the

ro
outer radius ( ) rather than the size of the cylinder.
ri

Principal Stresses (σ 1 , σ 2,σ 3 )

1. Determined without computation of Mohr’s Circle;

2. Equivalent to cylindrical stresses (σ t , σ r ,σ l )

Applicable for any wall thickness-to-radius ratio.

Cylinder under Pressure

Consider a cylinder, with capped ends, subjected to an internal pressure, pi, and an external
pressure Po ,

Figure 1.1

Longitudinal Stress:

Applicable to cases where the cylinder carries the longitudinal load, such as capped ends.

Only valid far away from end caps where bending, nonlinearities and stress concentrations
are not significant.

2. Thin -Wall Theory

Thin-wall theory is developed from Strength of Materials solution which yields the state of
stress as an average over the pressure vessel wall.
Use restricted by wall thickness-to-radius ratio:

According to theory, Thin-wall Theory is justified for,( t/r≤1/20)

In practice, typically use a less conservative rule, ( t/r≤1/10)

State of Stress Definition:

1. Hoop stressσ t ,assumed to be uniform across wall thickness.

2. Radial Stress is insignificant compared to tangential stress, thus σ r= 0.

3. Longitudinal Stress, σ l

Exists for cylinders with capped ends;

Assumed to be uniformly distributed across wall thickness;

This approximation for the longitudinal stress is only valid far away from the end-caps.

4. These cylindrical stresses (σ t , σ r ,σ l ) are principal stresses, which can be determined

without computation of Mohr’s circle plot.

• Analysis of Cylinder Section

Figure 1.2
1.2 Industrial Application’s
Pressure vessels have a wide applications in: storing ,transporting, processing of fluid under
high pressure in chemical industries, sugar industries ,oil and petroleum industries ,
chemical industry, pharmaceutical industry and plastic industry… etc.

1.3 Objectives of pressure vessel

General objectives

To provide the basic and the major concepts of pressure vessel design and understanding of
pressure vessel,gain a knowledge of proper material selection for pressure vessel components
and also gain knowledge of welding code standard, to analysis stress and strength in pressure
vessel,to build ourself competent engineers in design ,and the selection of materials type and
its environmental behaviour.

Specific objectives

To design,develop and build cylinderical pressure vessel with vertical orientation.

To fabricate the pressure vessel as per the reference standards.
To specification vessel design by following plate column:-Determine column wall
thickness,,Selection and sizing of vessel heads,reinforcements(nessecary manholes and
opening),determine the minimum thickness of vessel, determine the internal pressure ,the
standard flange used,the nozzle and flanges and designing lug support and base flange

CHAPTER TWO

2.1 PRESSURE VESSEL

Tanks, vessel and pipelines that carry, store or receive fluids are called pressure vessel.
A pressure vessel is defined as a container with a pressure differential between inside and
outside. The inside pressure is usually higher than the outside. The fluid inside the vessel may
undergo a change in state as in the case of steam boiler or may combine with other reagent as
in the case of chemical reactor. Pressure vessel often has a combination of high pressure
together with high temperature and in some cases flammable fluids or highly radioactive
material. Because of such hazards it is imperative that the design be such that no leakage can
occur. In addition vessel has to be design carefully to cope with the operating temperature
and pressure. Pressure vessels are usually spherical or cylindrical with dome end.

The cylindrical vessels are generally preferred because of the present simple manufacturing
problem and make better use of the available space. Boiler, heat exchanger, chemical reactor
and so on, are generally cylindrical. Spherical vessels have the advantages of requiring
thinner walls for a given pressure and diameter than the equivalent cylinder. Therefore they
are used for large gas or liquids container, containment buildings for nuclear plant and so on.

Components of pressure vessel

The main components of pressure vessel in general are:

þ Vessel shell
þ Head(Hemispherical, Ellipsoidal ,Tori spherical and Conical)
þ Bottom supports (skirt, lug, leg and saddle)
þ Flange
þ Manhole
þ Nozzle

VESSEL SHELL:-

Pressure is cylindrical in shape and it is the primary component that contains the pressure.
Pressure vessel shells in the form of different plates are welded together to form a structure
that has a common rotational axis. Horizontal drums have cylindrical shells and are
constructed in a wide range of diameter and length. The shell sections of a tall tower may be
constructed of different materials, thickness and diameters due to process and phase change
of process fluid. Shell of a spherical pressure vessel is spherical as well.

Figure 2.1 Shell component

 HEAD

 All the pressure vessels must be closed at the ends by heads (or another shell section).
 Heads are typically curved rather than flat. The reason is that curved configurations
are stronger and allow the heads to be thinner, lighter and less expensive than flat
heads.
 Heads can also be used inside a vessel and are known as intermediate heads. These
intermediate heads are separate sections of the pressure vessels to permit different
design conditions.

There are several types of heads are generally used in pressure vessels. They are

-Hemispherical head
- Ellipsoidal head
- Tori spherical head and
Hemispherical Heads:-
It is the strongest shape; capable of resisting about twice the pressure of tori spherical head of
the same thickness. The cost of forming a hemispherical head will, however, be higher than
that for as hallow tori spherical head. The amount of forming required to produce
hemispherical shape is more, resulting in increased forming cost. As they are the expensive to
form they are reserved for high pressure applications.

Figure 2.2 Hemispherical Head

Ellipsoidal Heads:-

For pressures over 10bar, ellipsoidal heads are often used. In cross-section, the head
resembles an ellipse, its radius varying continuously. This results in a smooth transition
between the dome and the cylindrical part of the vessel. Ellipsoidal heads are deeper than
comparable tori spherical heads. The shape of the ellipsoidal head is defined by the ratio of
the major and minor axis. A standard arrangement on vessels is the 2:1 elliptical head. This
will have a depth of head which is a quarter of the vessel’s internal diameter D. Due to
shallow dished shape the forming cost is reduced.
Tori spherical Heads:-

Have a tori spherical shape, which is extensively used as the end closure for a large variety of
cylindrical pressure vessels. These are formed from part of a torus and part of a sphere. The
shape is close to that of an ellipse but is easier and cheaper to fabricate. Tori spherical heads
are made of a dish, with a constant radius. Joining the dish directly to the cylindrical section
of the vessel would lead to a rapid change in geometry, resulting in excessive local stresses.
To avoid this, a transition section (the “knuckle”) is used between the dish and the cylinder.
Normally, tori spherical heads with pressure ratings much above 10bar are uneconomic. The
tori spherical head is actually very similar to the ellipsoid in shape and benefits. But it is
easier to manufacture because of availability regular circular curves on the edges then a larger
curve as it heads.

Generally ellipsoidal heads are often used when design pressure is over10bar and in cross-
section, the head resembles an ellipse, its radius varying continuously. This results in a
smooth transition between the dome and the cylindrical part of the vessel. Also it is cheaper
when compared with hemispherical head. Since, our design pressure is 5.72Map which is
greater than10bar. Therefore, we select ellipsoidal head for our design.

BOTTOM SUPPORTS

Type of support used depends on the orientation and pressure of the pressure vessel. Support
from the pressure vessel must be capable of withstanding heavy loads from the pressure
vessel, wind loads and seismic loads. Pressure on pressure vessel design is not a
consideration in designing support. Temperature can be a consideration in designing the
support from the standpoint of material selection for the different thermal expansion.
Various types of support that used to support the pressure vessel are as follows:

 Skirt
 Lug
 Leg
 Saddle
Skirt Support:-

Tall vertical cylindrical pressure vessels are typically supported by skirts.

A support skirt is a cylindrical shell section that is welded either to the lower portion of the
vessel shell or to the bottom head (for cylindrical vessels).
The skirt is normally long enough to provide enough flexibility so that radial thermal
expansion of the shell does not cause high thermal stresses at its junction with the skirt.

Figure 2.3 skirt support

Lug Support:
Vertical pressure vessels may also be supported by lugs.
The use of lugs is typically limited to pressure vessels of small and medium diameter (1 to
10ft).
Also moderate height to diameter ratios in the range of 2:1 to 5:1
The lugs are typically bolted to horizontal structural members in order to provide stability
against overturning loads.

Figure 2.4 lug support

Leg Support:
Support legs are used for Spherical pressurized storage vessels.
Small vertical drums are typically supported on legs that are welded to the lower portion of
the shell.
The maximum ratio of support leg length to drum diameter is typically 2:1.
Reinforcing pads are welded to the shell first to provide additional local reinforcement and
load distribution.
The number of legs depends on the drum size and loads to be carried.
Cross bracing between the legs is used to absorb wind or earth quake loads.
 Fig.2.5 Leg support

Saddle Support:
Horizontal drums are typically supported at two locations by saddle support.
It spreads over a large area of the shell to prevent an excessive local stress in the shell at
support point.
One saddle support is anchored whereas the other is free to permit unstrained longitudinal
thermal expansion of the drum. .

Fig. 2.6 Saddle support

When we generalize about the supports, the lug support has the advantage over the other as in
the following:-
It is one of the least expensive and the most direct ways of supporting pressure vessel.
They are easily attached to the vessel by the minimum amounts of welding, and are
Easily levelled in the field.it is used for the vertical pressure vessel and bolted to the shell at
the moderate height. This supports are eccentric which make them to induce the compressive,
tensile and shear forces in the shell wall. By considering the above mentioned points, we
select lug support for our design.
FLANGE:- A flange is a forged or cast ring of steel designed to connect sections of Piper
join pipe to a pressure vessel. They also provides easy access for cleaning, inspection or
modification.

- They used to coupling the pipe which the fluid enter or leave the pipe.

- Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels for manhole covers,
and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required.

Figure 2.7 Flange

MANHOLE:-
It is an access door into the pressure vessel used for maintenance and cleaning. They are
sealed with a removable door from the inside. They are called manholes, if they are big
enough to let an average man pass through them, They can also be hand holes when they are
not big enough to allow people to pass through them but allow only the hand or even just
visual access. We use hand holes if the pressure vessel is not big enough for an average
person to stand inside of the vessel, and when the vessel is not considered to be that much
susceptible to any corrosion or internal damage that would require frequent inspection.
In our design case pressure vessel is big enough to allow people to pass through it and our
vessel height is enough for an average person to stand inside of it. For this reason, we design
manhole instead of hand hole.
NOZZLE:-

A nozzle is a cylindrical component that penetrates the shell or heads of a pressure vessel.
The nozzle ends are usually flanged to allow for the necessary connections and to permit easy
disassembly for maintenance or access.

Figure 2.8 Nozzle

Nozzles are used for the following applications:

-Attach piping for flow into or out of the vessel.

-Attach instrument connections, (e.g., level gauges, thermo wells, or pressure gauges).
-Provide access to the vessel interior at many ways.
-Provide for direct attachment of other equipment items, (e.g., a heat exchanger or mixer).
CHAPTER 3
DIAMETER AND LENGTH CALCULATION
GIVEN PARAMETERS /SPECIFICATION/

Medium = Steam

Inner Service Pressure, [Map = [ 5.20 ]

Nominal Volume, [m3] = 2.00

Service Temperature, [ ℃ ] = 110

Position = Vertical

Support = Bottom lug

Head= Elliptical

We know that the volume of a pressure vessel is 2000L and the volume is equal to the sum of
the volume of the heads (hemispherical and elliptical) and the volume vessel shell (which is
in cylindrical in shape).According to process equipment design the ratio of L/D can be
determined by according to their presser value. And the ratio of L/D is given below. The
operating pressure given for our design is 5.20MPa.

Operating Pressure

It is a pressure which required for the process, served by the vessel, at which the vessel
is normal operated.

Design Pressure

It is the pressure used in the design of a vessel. It recommended in designing a vessel and
vessel parts for higher pressure than the operating pressure.

Design pressure=operating pressure+ 5 to10 percent operating pressure

We select 10 percent for more safety purpose.

=5.20MPa + 0.1*5.20MPa=5.72MPa
The pressure table value that used to find the ratio of L/D. R [3]

Pressure

Psi Map
L/D ratio
3 0-250 0.000-1.724
4 250-500 1.724-3.448
5 >500 >3.448
Table 1.used to find L/D ratio R[2]

Therefore, the ratio of L/D=5 and L=5D because the deign pressure greater than 3.448MPa.

V= V h +¿ V s + V e where, V h-volume of hemispherical head

V s -volume of the shell

V e -volume of elliptical head

D-internal diameter of the shell

V h = π/6*D3= 0.5233*D3

V s = (5/4)*π*D3=3.925*D3

V e = (5/6)*π*D3 = 2.6166*D3

VT = 0.5233*D3 + 3.925*D3 +2.6166*D3

VT =7.0649*D3, but our design volume VT = 2000m3

Then, 2000m3 = 7.0649*D3

D = (2m3/7.0649)1/3 = 0.6566 m

We take standard form D =0.8m.

And L=5D=5*0.8m=4m

L=4m.

CHAPTER 4
4.1 MATERIAL SELECTION
For designing the pressure vessel, we have to choose some materials. Those materials should
satisfy the design factors of that vessel. For selecting the material for a pressure vessel, we
have consider mechanical and physical properties are very important for the selection of the
material by using different kinds of the standards such as ASMS.

o Strength
o corrosion resistance
o resistance to hydraulic attack
o fracture toughness
o fabric ability
4.1.1 STRENGTH

The strength of the material are based on the mechanical propriety of the material that used
for the most easy, fast, strong and low cost of production. Some of the mechanical properties
are (yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, creep strength and rupture strength).

Yield strength
Yield strength is the region which a material changes from elastic to plastic deformation.
Some of the material we select for our pressure vessel are shown below and there yield
strength .The stress level at which the plastic deformation begins.
Metal alloys Aluminum Copper Nickel Cast Stain less
iron steel18Cr/8Ni(
304)
Yield 35 69 138 197 205
strength(Map)
Table 1 Yield strength of alloys

Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

The ultimate tensile strength (tensile stress) is a measure of the basic strength of the
material .it is the maximum stress that the material withstand and measure by a standard
tensile test.

Material Aluminum stainless steel Cast iron Copper Nickel

18Cr/8Ni(304)
 UTS(Map) 90 510 414 200 520
Table 2 Ultimate tensile strength

Creep strength
Material are often pleased in a service at elevated temperature and exposed to static
mechanical stress the deformation under such circumstance is termed creep .The time
dependent and permanent deformation of material when subjected to a constant lode
and stress.
Rupture strength
Is the material resistance to the fracture caused by the internal pressure of the fluid that
was present inside the tank. And it is proportional to tensile strength(UTS) which means the
material have high UTS and have good rupture strength.
4.1.2 Corrosion Resistance
Corrosion resistance is partial or complete wearing away, dissolving,

Or softening of any substance by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment.

The term corrosion specifically applies to the gradual action of natural agents, such as air or
salt water, on metals.

The most familiar example of corrosion is the rusting of iron, a complex chemical reaction in
which the iron combines with both oxygen and water to form hydrated iron oxide. The oxide
is a solid that retains the same general form as the metal from which it is formed but, porous
and somewhat bulkier, is relatively weak and brittle.

Chemical Cast iron Aluminum Nickel Copper Steen less

steel18Cr/8Ni(304)
Oil G G C C G
Table 3 corrosion property

G-good and C-caution-depending on the martial

4.1.3 Resistance to Hydraulic Attack

The tensile strength (UTS) and elastic modulus of metals decrease with increasing
temperature. The temperature that given for my pressure vessel is 1100C (230F) above 600F,
hydrogen attack cause irreparable damage through the component thickness & can damaged
carbon and low alloy steel.

Material Cast Aluminum Nickel copper Steen less steel

iron 18Cr/8Ni(304)
Tensile 414 90 520 200 510
strength(ULT)Map
Design stress at -- -- 240 -- 142
temperature
(1100C)Map
Table.4 temperature effect on UTS

4.1.4 Fracture Toughness

The ability of the material that absorb energy up to fracture .Brittle fracture without
applicable deformation and by rapid crank propagation .The direction the crack motion
is very nearly perpendicular to the direction the applied tensile stress and yield stress
related with fracture surface. Brittle fracture is depended on the stress concentration (K).
And stress concentration facer is shown below.

Material Steel less Aluminum Copper Nickel Cast

steal18Ni/8Cr iron
Fracture 76 44 Low Low Low
toughness(K),Map
Table.5 fracture toughness

4.1.5 Fabric Ability

Based on how it made and cost of production. A guide to the fabrication properties of
common metals and alloys are shown below.

S -satisfactory
 D -Difficult, special techniques needed.
U -Unsatisfactory.

Martial Mashing Cold Hot Casting Welding Annealing

work work temperate(℃)
Cast iron S U U S U/D _
Stainless S S S D S 1050
steel(18Cr,8Ni)304
Nickel S S S S S 1150
Aluminum S S D S S 550
Copper(dioxides) D S S S D 700
Table.6 fabric ability

CONCLUSION ABOUT THE MATERIAL SELECTION

We select Stainless steel 18Cr/8Ni(304) because it has good yield strength(205MPa),

tensile(UTS) strength(510MPa), good fracture toughness, good resistance of temperature,
good corrosion resistance and it can fabricate in different method except casting.

4.2 WELDING

Welding, in engineering is any process in which two or more pieces of metal are

Joined together by the application of heat, pressure, or a combination of both. Today welding
is the most commonly used method in fabrication of pressure vessel parts. Depending upon
the combination of temperature and pressure from a high temperature with no pressure to a
high pressure with low temperature, a wide range of welding methods has been developed.

Types of welding joints

There are different types of welding, these are:-
Butt Weld
Fillet Weld
Tacks Weld
Spot/Seam Weld
Plug/Slot Weld
Edge Weld
Welding method
There are three types of welding method.
Forge welding:-It is the oldest method, it is applicable to low-carbon steel. It is performed
by heating two pieces of metal to a high temperature and then hammering them together. The
joint is not particularly strong.
Fusion welding:-This process does not require any pressure to form the weld. The seam to be
welded is heated, usually by burning gas or an electric arc to fusion temperature and
additional metal, if required, it is applied by melting a filler rod of suitable composition. The
most widely used industrial welding method is arc welding, which is any of several fusion
welding processes where in the heat of fusion is generated by an electric arc.

Pressure welding:-It is used in processes such as resistance welding, which utilized the heat
created by an electric current passing against high resistance through the two pieces at the
contact interface.

Design of welding joint

Process vessels are built up from preformed parts: cylinders, heads, and fittings, joined by fusion
welding. Riveted construction was used extensively in the past (prior to the1940s) but is now
rarely seen. Cylindrical sections are usually made up from plate sections rolled to the required
curvature. The sections (strakes) are made as large as is practicable to reduce the number of
welds required. The longitudinal welded seams are offset to avoid a conjunction of welds at the
corners of the plates.
The design of a welded joint should satisfy the following basic requirements:-
1. Give good accessibility for welding and inspection.
2. Require the minimum amount of weld metal.
3. Give good penetration of the weld metal; from both sides of the joint, if practicable.
4. Incorporate sufficient flexibility to avoid cracking due to differential thermal expansion.

JOINT EFICIENCIES
Welded joint efficiency, and construction categories

The strength of a welded joint will depend on the type of joint and the quality of the welding. The
soundness of welds is checked by visual inspection and by non-destructive testing
(radiography).The possible lower strength of a welded joint compared with the virgin plate is
usually allowed for in design by multiplying the allowable design stress for the material by
a "welded joint factor" J. The value of the joint factor used in design will depend on the type of
joint and amount of radiography required by the design code. Typical values are shown in Table.
Taking the factor as 1.0 implies that the joint is equally as strong as the virgin plate; this is
achieved by radiographing the complete weld length, and cutting out and remaking any defects.
The use of lower joint factors in design, though saving costs on radiography, will result in a
thicker, heavier, vessel, and the designer must balance any cost savings on inspection and
fabrication against the increased cost of materials,
Table . Maximum allowable joint efficiency
Type of joint Degree of radiography

Maximum allowable joint efficiency

Type of joint Degree of radiography

100 % Spot Non
Double welded 1.0 0.85 0.7
Single welded 0.9 0.8 0.65

The national codes and standards divide vessel construction into different categories, depending
on the amount of non-destructive testing required. The higher categories require100 per cent
radiography of the welds, and allow the use of highest values for the weld joint factors. The
lower-quality categories require less radiography, but allow only lower joint-efficiency factors,
and place restrictions on the plate thickness and type of materials that can be used. The highest
category will invariably be specified for process-plant pressure vessels. The standards should be
consulted to determine the limitations and requirements of the construction categories specified.
Welded joint efficiency factors are not used, as such, in the design equations given in BS 5500;
instead limitations are placed on the values of the nominal design strength (allowable design
stress) for materials in the lower construction category. The standard specifies three construction
categories:
Category 1: the highest class, requires 100 per cent non-destructive testing (NOT) of
the welds; and allows the use of all materials covered by the standard, with no restriction
on the vessel thickness.
Category 2; requires less non-destructive testing but places some limitations on the materials
which can be used and the maximum plate thickness.

Category 3: the lowest class, requires only visual inspection of the welds, but
is restricted to carbon and carbon-manganese steels, and austenitic stainless steel;
and limits are placed on the plate thickness and the nominal design stress. But in
our project we select double type with joint efficiency is 1.0 which categorized
under category 1.

THE ECONOMY OF WELDING

If the two preceding factors allow free choice, then the aspect of economy must be the
deciding factor. Some consideration concerning the economy of welding:

V-edge preparation, which can be made by torch cutting, is always more economical than the
use of J or U preparation. Double V preparation requires only half the deposited weld metal
required for single V preparation. Increasing the size of a fillet weld, its strength increases in
direct proportion, while the deposited weld metal increases with the square of its size. Lower
quality welding makes necessary the use of thicker plate for the vessel.

Whether using stronger welding and thinner plate or the opposite is more economical,
depends on the size of vessel, welding equipment, etc. this must be decided in each particular
case.

In our design we select fusion welding because it doesn’t required any pressure to form
welding, and it is the most widely used industrial welding method is arc welding, which is
any of several fusion welding processes where in the heat of fusion is generated by an electric
arc.

CHAPTER 5

FLANGE HEAD AND SHELL THICKNESS

To find the thickness of the pressure vessel which subjected to internal design pressure
of P=5.20MPa there are different equations and its corrosion allowance for stainless
steel 18Cr/8Ni is (2mm) from the table. There will be a minimum wall thickness required
to ensure that any vessel is sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight, and any incidental
loads.

Where, t = min. required thickness of shell, mm

P = internal design pressure, Pa

R = inside radius of shell, mm

S = max. Allowable stress, Pa

E = joint efficiency (min)

C.A=corrosion allowance, mm

Circumferential Stress
It means that the governing stress will be the circumferential stress (hoop stress) in the long
seam. For this it has to satisfy that pressure does not exceed 0.385SE .In which case we shall
use the following formula for thickness of shell

t = PR/ (SE -0.6P) + C.A

Given P=5.72MPa

R=0.33m

S= 142MPa (20.65kPsi--- (from R [2])

E=1

C.A=2mm=0.002m

let’s use these two equation to find the thickness of the pressure vessel and select the
smallest value of them because safety purposes. The weight of the pressure vessel can
affect the support lug.

Using
(A) Circumferential stress (longitudinal joint)
P ≤ 0.385SE, P ≤ 0.385*142MPa

5.72MPa < 54.67MPa ---------------- (satisfied)

Therefore; t=PR/ (SE-0.6P) + C.A

 t = (5.720MPa*0.33m)/ (142MPa*1 - 0.6*5.720MPa) + 0.002m

t= (2.079)/ (142MPa - 4.158MPa) + 0.002m

t= (1.716)/ (104.48) + 0.002m
t=0.0154m + 0.002m
t=15.6m=

t=15.6mm---------------------- (answer)

And the smallest value is t=15.6mm and for standard value let’s take t=18mm.

Finally let’s find the external radius and diameter

Ro = R + t=0.33m+.0180m

Ro = 0.348m ---------------------------- (answer)

And Do=2*Ro=2*0.348

Do=0.696m ------------------------- (answer)

Do
is used to determine whether our pressure vessel is thin walled or thick
Di
walled vessel.
Do 0.696
= =1.62<1.5; so our vessel is thin walled.
Di 0.6556

Mean Diameter
Do+ Di 0.696 m+0.6556 m
= = =0.667 m .
2 2

Closure Head

Heads are one of the important parts in pressure e vessels and refer to the parts of the vessel
that confine the shell from below, above, and the sides. The ends of the vessels is closed by
means of heads before putting them into operation. There are different kinds of pressure
vessel closed heads. Some of them are listed below
 The heads may be of various types such as:

 Flanged head
 Hemispherical head
 Ellipsoidal head
 Tori spherical head
 Conical head
 Tori conical head

Flanged Head

Formed domed heads are made with a short straight cylindrical section, called a flange or
skirt. This ensures that the weld line is away from the point of discontinuity between the head
and the cylindrical section of the vessel
Hemispherical Heads

ASME Section VIII Division 1 provides the following equation for internal pressure .This is
a compromise between a thin- shell equation and ‘‘exact ’’equation. The design thickness of
a hemi spherical head is given by

PR
t= Where R= is the inside radius s,
2 SE−0 .2 P

S= is the allowable le shear, and

E = is the joint efficiency.

Ellipsoidal heads

For an internal pressure P, the thickness of the ellipsoidal head is given by

PRK
t= Where, D=shell diameter,
2 SE−0 .2 P

K=stress intensity factor

1 a
K= [ + ( ¿ 2] a and b semi-major and semi-minor axes of ellipse.
6 b

Tori spherical heads

For an internal pressure P, the thickness of the Tori spherical head is given by

PLM
t= where L=spherical cross radiuses
2 SE−0 .2 P

M=1/4[1/3 + (L/R) 1/2]

M=shear intensity factor

R=knuckle radiuses

Conical heads

ASME Code Section VIII Division provides the following equation for thickness t of conical
heads subjected to an internal pressure P .With the semi-apex angle of the cone
 PD
t= Where α=seem-apex angel
2cos α (SE−0 .6 P)

D= is the inside diameter

S= is the allowable stress,

E= is the joint efficiency
Tori conical heads
A tori conical head is a blend d of conical and tori spherical heads. Accordingly,
The thicknesst cin the cone region is calculated using g conical head equations and that in the
head transition section is calculated using Tori spherical head equation.

PD 1
tc =
2cos α (SE−0 .6 P)

For conical region

For Tori spherical region, to=PLM/ (2SE-0.2P)

M=1/4[1/3 + (L/R) 1/2] where M= shear intensity factor

D1
L=
cos α

A pressure vessel designer generally has flexibility in selecting head geometry. Most
common is of course the Tori spherical head, which is characterized by inside diameter r,
crown radius, and knuckle radius. The designer selects a head configuration that minimize the
cost of the plate material and its form action.

Fig. 5.1 tori conical head

Head Thickness
Our pressure vessel is ellipsoidal head in shape and 5.20MPa internal design pressure is
applied on it and it’s thickness is calculated below

According on the two theory

Given values

Ri =0.33m

t=18mm=0.0180m

Ro =0.348m

P=5.72MPa

Thin-shell theory

S= (PR) / (2t)

S= (5.72MPa*0.33m)/ (2*0.0180m

S=52.4MPa ---------------------------- (answer)

‘’Exact’’ theory

S= [PRi3/ (R30-R3i)] [1+R30/2R3i]

S= [(5.72MPa)*(0.33m) 3/ (0.3483-0.333) m3] *[1 + (0.3483/2*0.333)]

S= ((0.2055MPa)/ (0.0062)) (1.586)

S=20.899MPa ------------------- (answer)

Therefore let find the head thickness and take the largest value for S=52.4MPa.

t=Pry/ (2SE-0.2P) +C.A = (5.720MPa*0.165m)/ (2*52.4MPa*1 – 0.2*5.72MPa) + 0.002m

t=0.0114m, t=11.4mm-------------------------------------- (answer)

Let take standard thickness 14mm.

CHAPTER 6
HEAD TO SHELL TRANSITIONS

To join the head and shell we use butt walled joint and the head shell have deferent thickness
in according to CODE UW-9(c), UW-13. Joining of a plate unequal thickness with butt weld,
the thickness of the plate shall be tapered is more than 3.125mm (1/8in). R [2]

Fig.5.2 welding type of head to shall

Thickness of head (the=14mm) and shell (its=18mm), their deference (4mm) is greater than
3.125mm (1/8in) or 3.175mm.

L ≥ 3*y and y=10mm

L ≥ 30mm.

Selection of standard flange

For selecting the standard dimension and material for the flange by applying the
American National Standard ANSI B16.5-1981 of temperature and pressure rating. The
given temperature is 110oC (230F) and pressure is 5.720MPa (1.005KPSi). And we can’t
find the Match value for design pressure lets change in to standard value which is
7.756MPa(1125Psi).

Class 300lb.
Hydrostatic test/design pressure Map(Phi) 7.756(1125)
Temperature ,℃(℉) Maximum allowable non-shock pressure,
 Map(Phi)
110(230) 3.48(505)
Table 7 Temperature pressure rating

We know that the flange is class 300lb and the material is Forged steel SA 105 R [2].We
select Welding-neck flanges, because have a long tapered hub between the flange ring and
the welded joint. This gradual transition of the section reduces the discontinuity stresses
between the flange and branch, and increases the strength of the flange assembly. Welding-
neck flanges are suitable for extreme service conditions; where the flange is likely to be
subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads. They will normally be specified for the
connections and nozzles on process vessels and process equipment. R [1].

Flange design

Standard flanges will be specified for most applications. Special designs would be used only
if no suitable standard flange were available; or for large flanges, such as the body flanges of
vessels, where it may be cheaper to size a flange specifically for the duty required rather than
to accept the nearest standard flange, which of necessity would be over-sized.
Fig. Forces acting on an integral flange fig. Deflection of a weak flange (exaggerated)
The design procedures given in the codes and standards can be illustrated by considering he
forces and moments which act on an integral flange, Figure 13.35.

The total moment Mop

Acting on the flange is given by

Where Hg = gasket reaction (pressure force) =πG2bm Pi

H t = pressure force on the flange face = H - H d

π
H =total pressure force = ( ) G2Pi
4

π
H d = pressure force on the area inside the flange = ( ) B2Pi
4

G = mean diameter of the gasket,

B = inside diameter of the flange,

2b = effective gasket pressure width,

b = effective gasket sealing width,h d, h gand ht are defined in Fig.

The minimum required bolt load under the operating conditions is given by

The forces and moments on the flange must also be checked under the bolting-up conditions.

The moment M atmis given by:

Where Wm2 is the bolt load required to seat the gasket, given by:

Where y is the gasket seating pressure (stress).

The flange stresses are given by:

Longitudinal hub stress σ h = F1M

Radial flange stress σ rd =F2M

Tangential flange stress σ 1g =F3M - F4σ rd

Where, M is taken as Mop or M atm, whichever is the greater; and the factors F1 to F4 are

Functions of the flange type and dimensions, and are obtained from equations and graphs

Given in the codes and standards (BS 5500, clause 3.8).

Where F fo is the maximum allowable design stress for the flange material at the operating
conditions .The minimum bolt area required Abf will be given by:

Where W m is the greater value of W m1 or Wm2, and f fothe maximum allowable bolt stresses.
Standard size bolts should be chosen, sufficient to give the required area. The bolt size will
not normally be less than 12 mm, as smaller sizes can be sheared off by over-tightening. The
bolt spacing must be selected to give a uniform compression of the gasket. It will not
normally be less than 2.5 times the bolt diameter, to give sufficient clearance for tightening
with a wrench or spanner. The following formula can be used to determine the maximum bolt
spacing:

Where, pb= bolt pitch (spacing), mm,

d b = bolt diameter, mm,

t f =¿flange thickness, mm

m = gasket factor.
Flange applied lode and flange moment

The lode on the flange can be given as fallow

m=gasket factor

Pi=internal pressure of flange, Pi=3.48MPa

d3=in side diameter of a flange for each pipe B=d4/2

t f =thickness of flange d4=effective gasket selling

width

t f =b 2d4=effective gasket pressure

width

h d= (d 3+ D – 2E)/4 H d =pressure force of area inside the

flange

h g= (D – d3)/4 d3’=mane diameter of gasket

ht = (d3+ D)/4 = (π/4) d2Pi

=d3+ (ht +hg) H t =pressure for a flange face

Hg=gasket reaction forces (pressure forces) =H - H d

=πd3 (2b)m Pi H=total pressure

The moment on the flange is = (π/4) d3’2Pi

Mop= H d *h d + H t *ht + Hg*hg let’s calculate the

 There gasket factor width and internal pressure for the flange are the same
m=1.25, b=10mm and Pi=3.48MPa
 h d = (d3 + D – 2E)/4

For 25mm= (42+100-2*33.528)mm/4=18.736mm

For 40mm = (62+130-2*48.3)mm/4=23.85mm

For 150mm = (184+265-2*168.3)mm/4=28.1mm

h g= (D – d3)/4 ht = (d3+D)/4

For 25mm= (100-42) mm/4=14.5mm For 25mm= (42+100) mm/4=71mm

For 40mm= (130-62) mm/4 =17mm For 40mm= (62+130) mm/4=96mm

For 150mm= (265-184) mm/4=20.25mm For 150mm= (184+265)

mm/4=112.25mm

t f ==b B=d4/2

For 25mm=14mm for 25mm=60mm/2=30mm

For 40mm=14mm for 40mm=80mm/2=40mm

For 150mm=18mm for

150mm=202mm/2=101mm
 d3’=B + (ht -h g)

For 25mm=30mm + 71-14.5) mm=86.5mm

For 40mm=40mm + (96-17) mm=119mm

For 150mm=101mm + (112.20.25) mm= 192.95mm

 H= (π/4) d3’2Pi

For 25mm= (π/4) (86.5mm) 2*3.48MPa=20,450.378N

For 40mm= (π/4) (119mm) 2*3.48MPa=38,704.641N

For 150mm = (π/4) (192.95mm) 2*3.48MPa=101,755.687N

 H d = (π/4) B2Pi

For 25mm= (π/4) (30mm) 23.48MPa =2,459.867N

For 40mm= (π/4) (40mm) 2*3.48MPa=4,373.970N

For 150mm = (π/4) (101mm) 2*3.48MPa=27,881.226N

 H t =H- H d

For 25mm= (20,450.378-2,459.867N) N=17,990.511N

For 40mm= (38,704.641-4,373.970) N=34,330.671N

For 150mm= (101,755.687-27,881.226) N=73,874.461N

Hg=πd3 (2b) m Pi

For 25mm=π (86.5mm) (2*10mm) 1.5*3.48MPa=28,370.467N

For 40mm=π (119mm) (2*10mm) 1.5*3.48MPa=39,029.890N

For 150mm=π (192.95mm) (2*10mm) 1.5*3.48MPa=63,284.180N

The moment is
 Mop= H d *hd + H t *ht + Hg*hg

For 25mm pipe

Mop= (2,459.867N) (18.736mm) + (17,990.511N) (71mm) + (28,370.467N) (14.5mm)

 =1,734,786.121Nmm=1,734.786Nm

For 40mm pipe

Mop= (23.85N) (4,373.97mm) + (96N) (34,330.6771mm) + (17N) (39,029.890mm)

=4,063,651.731Nmm=4,063.652Nm

For 150mm pipe

Mop= (27,881.226) (28.1mm) + (73,874.461N) (112.25mm) + (63,284.180N) (20.25mm)

=10,357,375.34Nmm=10,357.375Nm

The minimum load required bolt load under the operating condition given by

Wm1=H + Hg

Wm1, 25mm=20,450.378N + 28,370.467N=48.820kN

Wm1, 40mm=38,704.641N + 39,029.890N=77.734kN

Wm1, 150mm=101,755.687N + 63,284.18N=165.040kN

The force and the momentum must be checked under the bolting up conditions.
The moment is given by

 M atm=Wm2*hg Where Wm2 is the bolt load required to sat the gasket, given
by
 Wm2=yπd3’b

y=gasket sating pressure (stress) =2.8MPa

Wm2, 25mm=2.8MPaπ86.5mm*10mm=7,608.937N=7.607KN

M atm 25mm=7,608.937N *14.5mm=110,329.592Nmm=110.330Nm

Wm2, 40mm=2.8MPaπ119mm*10mm =10,467.787N=10.468KN

M atm 40mm =10,467.787N*17mm =117,952.374Nmm=117.952Nm

Wm2, 150mm=2.8MPaπ192.95mm*10mm=16,972.768N=16.972KN

M atm 150mm=16,972.768N*20.1mm=341,152.646Nmm=341.153Nm

Flange stress
Flange stress are given by

Longitudinal hub stress σ hb=F1M

Radial flange stress σ rd=F2M

Tangential flange stress σ tg=F3M - F4σrd

where M is taken as Mop/B’ or M atm /B’, whichever is the greater; and the factors F1, F2, F3
and F4 are functions of the flange type and dimensions, and are obtained as followed

F1= 1/λ gt2gt= (d3-d1)/2

λ=δ + γ δ=t3/d and γ=α/T α=t e+1
d= (u/v)h o go2 go=J and h o= (B’ go ) 1/2= (B’J) 1/2
= (u/v) (B’J) 1/2J2 B’= (d3-d1)/2
F2=β/λt2 t=thickness of the flange=b
β=1.333te+1
F3=y/t2 y= (1-v2) u
F4=z z=k- factor
K=d1’/B’ d1’= (D-d3)/2 and B’= (d3-d1)/2
K= (D-d3)/ (d3-d1)
K25mm= (100-50) mm/ (50-33.7) mm
=3.068mm
K40mm= (130-70) mm/ (70-48.3) mm
=2.765mm
K150mm= (260-185) mm/ (185-168.3) mm
=4.491mm
And from R [3] we find this table
Nominal pipe K T Z Y , Map(Psi) U
Dia.(mm)
25 3.068 1.43 1.51 0.018(2.58) 2.84

Table.9 value of (K, T, Z, Y and U)

Y-gasket seating design stress
Let’s find the value of (e)
e=F/h o =F/ (B-J) 1/2
Let’s find the value of F (in y-axis) by using ASME code, section viii, Dev1.in x-axis g1/goor
1
B’/J) go and (**) h/h o (or (C-J)/ ( B−J ¿ ¿ 2

After calculating of this value, we find F for each flange and the values are shown blow.
F25mm=0.8, F40mm=0.9, F150mm=0.918
e25mm=0.8/15.44mm=0.052/mm
e40mm=0.9/18.79mm=0.048/mm
e150mm=0.908/34.9mm=0.026/mm
Find (α) find (β)
α25mm=10mm (0.052/mm)+1=1.52 β25mm=1.333*10mm (0.052/mm)+1=1.693
α40mm=10mm (0.048/mm)+1=1.48 β40mm=1.333*10mm (0.048/mm)+1=1.639
α150mm=10mm (0.026/mm)+1=1.26 β150mm=1.333*10mm (0.026/mm)+1=1.346

And γ will be
γ25mm=1.52/1.43=1.02
γ40mm=1.48/1.43=1.035
γ150mm=1.346/1.32=1.02
Let find the value of v from ASME code Viii Div. 1 using by the value of (**) and it will be
v25mm=0.26
v40mm=0.33
v150mm=0.30
Now d will be
d25mm= (2.84/0.26) (13.65mm*17.4825mm)1/2 ( 17.4825 ¿ ¿2
=53,357.9mm3
d40mm= (2.84/0.33) (15.88mm*22.225mm)1/2 (22.225mm¿2
=798,608.8mm3
d150mm= (2.41/0.30) (21.59mm*30.1625mm)1/2 (30.1625mm¿2
=1,865,049.9mm3

The value of δ will be let’s find the value of λ

 δ25mm= (10 mm ¿ ¿3/53,357.9mm3 λ25mm=1.0387
=0.0187 λ40mm=1.0475
δ40mm= (10 mm ¿ ¿3/798,608.8mm3 λ150mm=1.0201
=0.00125
Δ150mm= (10 mm ¿ ¿3/1,856,049.9mm3
=0.000054
Then, y will be gt will be
y25mm= (1-0.262)2.84=2.65 gt25=13.6mm
y40mm= (1-0.332)2.84=2.53 gt40=15.88mm
y80mm= (1-0.302)2.41=2.19 gt150=21.59mm

Nominal Dia. F1(1/mm2) F2 (1/mm2) F3(1/mm2) F4

(mm)
25 0.0052 0.0163 0.0265 1.51
40 0.0038 0.0156 0.0253 1.51
150 0.0021 0.0134 0.0219 1.36
Table 10.value of the constant
To find the stress on the flange, we must evaluate the value of the moment M and it is the
largest of the (Mop/B’ or M atm/B’). And it is given blow
Nominal diameter(mm) Mop, Nm M atm/ (N/m)
25 1,734.785 110.329
40 4,063.652 117.952
150 10,357.375 341.153
Table 11. Value of moment

There for M=Mop/B’ the stress is

σ hb=F1M
For 25mm=0.0052(1/mm2) (403.59KNmm/22.225mm)
=94.4MPa
For 40mm=0.0038(1/mm2) (1,062.41KNmm/23.8125mm)
=169.53MPa
For 150mm=0.0021(1/mm2) (4,075.70KNmm/25.4mm)
=336.96MPa
σ rd=F2M
For 25mm=0.0163(1/mm2) (403.59KNmm/22.225mm)
 =295.99MPa
For 40mm=0.0156(1/mm2) (1,062.4KNmm/23.8125mm)
=695.99MPa
For 150mm=0.0134(1/mm2) (4,075.7KNmm/25.4mm)
=2,150.2MPa

σ tg=F3M-F4σrd
For 25mm=0.026(1/mm2) (403.59KNmm/22.225mm)-
1.51*295.99MPa
=25.19MPa
For 40mm=0.0253(1/mm2) (1,062.7KNmm/23.8125mm)-
1.51*695.99MPa
=78.14MPa
For 150mm=0.0219(1/mm2) (4,075.7KNmm/25.4mm)-
1.36*2,150.2MPa
=589.82MPa
The flange must be sized so that the stresses given by equations satisfy the following criteria:
when f fo=102.04MPa (14.8KPSi) is the maximum allowable design stress for the flange
material at the operating conditions. R [1] and [2]
σ hb> 1.5 f fo
For 40mm 169.53MPa > 153.06MPa----------------------------------------------- (satisfied)
F0r 150mm 336.96MPa > 153.06MPa---------------------------------------------- (satisfied)
σ rd> f fo
For 25mm 295.99MPa >102.02MPa ------------------------------------------------ (satisfied)
For 45mm 695.99MPa > 102.04MPa ------------------------------------------------ (satisfied)
For 150mm 2150.2MPa > 102.04MPa ----------------------------------------------- (satisfied)
0.5(σ hb+σ rd) > f fo

For 25mm 195.195MPa > 102.04MPa --------------------------------------------- (satisfied)

For 45mm 432.760MPa8 > 102.04MPa --------------------------------------------- (satisfied)
For 150mm 1,243.58MPa > 102.04MPa --------------------------------------------- (satisfied)
 0.5(σ hb+σ tg ¿> f fo
For 45mm 123.835MPa > 102.04MPa -------------------------------------------- (satisfied)
For 150mm 463.39MPa > 102.04MPa -------------------------------------------- (satisfied
The bolt spacing must be selected to give a uniform compression of the gasket. It will not
normally be less than 2.5 times the bolt diameter, to give sufficient clearance for tightening
with a wrench or spanner. The following formula can be used to determine the maximum bolt
spacing. From the table R [1] and R [2] the material [SA-193-B7] and maximum allowable
stress ( f b) for the bolt is 172.37MPa (25KPSi).
The minimum bolt area is given by
Abf =Wm1/ f b
Where, W m greatest of Wm1or Wm2
Abf =Wm1/ f b
For 25mm =48.82KN/172.37MPa=283.32mm2
For 40mm =77.732KN/172.37MPa=451mm2
For 150mm =165.040KN/172.37MPa=957mm2
The bolt spacing must be selected to give a uniform compression of the gasket. It will not
normally be less than 2.5 times the bolt diameter, to give sufficient clearance for tightening
with a wrench or spanner. The following formula can be used to determine the maximum bolt
spacing:
Pb=2db+6tf/ (m+0.5)
Where Pb-bolt pitch (spacing), mm
d b -bolt diameter, mm
t f -flange thickness, mm
m- Gasket factor, 1.25
Pb-will be
For 25mm
=2∗10 mm+ 6∗17.4625/(1.25+0.5) = 80mm
For 40mm
=2∗12mm+ 6∗22.225 mm /(1.25+0.5)=100.2mm
For 150mm
=2∗16 mm+6∗30.1625 mm/(1.25+0.5)=134.5mm
Design loads
The principal loads(i.e force) applied actual operation to a vessel or its structural attachement
to be considered in the design of such a vessel are;

1) dead loads 2) wind load 3) thermal loads 4) piping load 5) impact load 6) cyclic load

Loading or forces are the cause of stress in pressure vessel.These forces and moments must
be isolated both to determine where they apply to the vessel and when they apply to a
vessel.Loading may be applied over a large portion(general area) of the vessel or over a local
area of the vessel.These stresses are additive and define the overall state of stress in the vessel
or component.Since our pressure vessel is in vertical position the thickness of the vessel
through top to the bottom is not the same. A much thicker wall will be needed at the column
base to withstand the wind and dead weight loads. As a first trial, divide the column thickness
into five sections (courses) with the thickness increasing by 2mm per section. Try 20, 22, 24,
26, 28 mm. So we take the thickness average = 24mm.

The major sources of dead weight loads are:

The vessel shell.

The vessel fittings nozzles.
Internal fittings: plates (plus the fluid on the plates)
External fittings: ladders, platforms, piping.
Auxiliary equipment which is not self-supported; condensers, agitators.
Insulation.
The weight of liquid to fill the vessel. The vessel will be filled with water for
Hydraulic pressure test.

The weight of the vessel and fittings can be calculated from the preliminary design sketches.
The weights of standard vessel components: heads, shell plates, man ways, branches and
nozzles, are given in various hand books. For preliminary calculations the approximate
weight of a cylindrical vessel with domed ends, and uniform wall thickness, can be estimated
from the following equation:

W v= 240C V D m ( H v + 0.8Dm).
The following values can be used as a rough guide to the weigh to fitting.
(a)caged ladders,steel,360N/m length,
(b)plain ladders,steel,150N/m length,
(c)plat forms, steel, for vertical columns,1.7kN/m2 area,
(d)contacting plates, steel, including typical liquid loading,1.2kN/m2 plate area.
Typical values for the density of insulating materials are (all kg/m3):

Insulating material Density ( Kg/m3 )

Foam glass 150
Mineral wool 130
Fiberglass 100
Calcium silicate 200

These densities should be doubled to allow for attachment fittings, sealing, and moisture
The major sources of dead weight loads (WT) are;
WT=W vessel shell +W nozzle + W insulation +W steam +W ladder Where:
WT=is the total weight of b1 which is supported by the vessel after plate considered. Weight
of the vessel shell.

W v= 240CvDm[Hv+0.8Dm]t ,where ; C V =1.08,Hv=4m,Dm=( Di +t)=(0.6566+0.0185),

Dm= 0.675m

Therefore; W v = 240*1.08 * [4 + 0.8*0.675] 24

= 240*1.08*24*4.54

=28.24kN

Weight (at base of nozzles + piping base)

W n = 2ρvg nozzle + ρvg piping base

= 2*7700*9.81 (3.14*0.0752*20*10-3)/4 + 7700*9.81 (3.14*0.0752*24*10-3)/4

= 13.34N+ 8N

= 21.34N

Weight of insulation
W i = ρvg where density of insulation (mineral wool) is 130kg/m3
W i = ρg (volume of cylindrical part+ volume ellipsoidal part +volume of conical part)
Weight of insulation
mineral wool density130 kg/m3
approximate volume of insulation = π ×0.6566× 4 ×75 × 10-3
V=0.62m3
weight = 0.62 × 130 × 9.81= 0.789kN
double this to allow for fittings, etc. 1.578kN

Weight of steam =Vgρsteam

π
W steam= Vg ρ = ( × (0.6566) 2 *4)743.02×9.81 = 9.8674kN
4

W ladder =1.8KN (based standard 1.7 per area)

WT = W vessel shell + W nozzle+ W insulation +W steam+W ladder

WT = 28.264KN + 0.02134KN + 9.8674KN+1.8KN =40.74KN

Wind loading design

Wind design is used to determine the force and moment at each elevation to check is the
calculated shell thickness are adquated.Also determine the effective dynamic load due to
wind speed past the vessel and support structure system.

-dynamic wind pressure

The load imposed on any structure by the action of wind will depend on the shape of the
structure and the wind velocity.

Pw =0.05u2w , Where Pw=wind pressure,

 Pw =0.05u2wUw = wind speed, =160km/h.
= 0.05(160km/h)2
= 1280N/m2

To calculate wind load ;taking dynamic wind pressure PW=1280N/m2 and mean diamete

Mean diameter, including insulation

Dm= ¿ ¿+t) m

= 0.6566+2(24+75)×10−3

=0.8546m

Loading (per linear metre) F w= 1280 ×0.546 =1093.89 N/m

Bending moment at the bottom tangent line:

F w L2
Mx = ( ) =1093.89 N /m× ¿ ¿
2

= 8751.1Nm

Eccentric loads (tall vessel)

Equipment attached to a tall vessel will subject the vessel to a bending moment if the center
of gravity of the doesnot coincide with the centre line of the vessel. The only platform ladder
attached to tall vessel,so the moment is given by Ladder with cage built of structural shapes
to prevent a man from falling when clamping the ladder.bolted to and supported by clips on
the outside of the vessel used for vertical access to the platforms.

Me= Wladder×lo

Where; Wladder =dead weight of ladder and

L0 =distance between the center of gravity of the equipment and

column center line.

Me= Wladder×lo
=1.8kN× 4m

=7.2kNm

ANALYSIS OF STRESS IN VESSEL

Stress anaysis is the determination of the relationship beetwen external force applied to a
vessel and corresponding stress.

At bottom tangent line

Pressure stresses:

Longitudinal stress

σ L =pidi/4t =(5.72N/mm2)×(656.6mm)/(4×28mm)= 33.534N/mm2

Hoop stress

σ h=pidi/2t

= (5.72N/mm2)×(656.6mm)/(2×28mm)

=67.067 N/mm2

Dead weight stress:

WT 40.74 kN
σw = =
π ( D i +t ) t π ( 0.6566+ 0.028 ) 0.028

= 0.677N/mm2(compressive)

Bending stresses:

D0 =696mm and
Di =656.6mm
π 4 4
Iv = (D o-D i)
64
π
= (696 mm ¿¿¿ 4) – (656.6mm)4)
64
= 2.395×109mm4
 σ b=
±
Mb ( Di2 +t )
Iv

σ b=± ¿ ¿
=±1.302N/mm2

The resultant longitudinal stress is:

σ z =σ L+σ w± σ bwhere, σ w is compressive and negative

σ z (upwind) = 33.534-0.677+67.067=+99.9N/mm2

σ z(downwind) = 33.534-0.677-67.067 = -34.21N/mm2

The greatest difference between the principal stresses will be on the down-wind side.
(67.067-(- 34.21))= 101.88 N/mm2
well below the maximum allowable design stress

Design of vessel subjected to combined loading

Pressure vessels are subject to other loads in addition to pressure and must be design to
withstand the worst combination of loading without failure.A trial thickness must be
assumed(based on that calculated for pressure alone) and the resultant stress from all loads to
ensure that the maximum allowable stress intensity is not exceeded at any point.

Primary stresses

1. The longitudinal and cicumferential stress due to internal pressure

σ L =33.534 N/mm2
σ h=67.067 N/mm2
2. The direct stress σ w due to the weight of components,and any attachment.The
stress will be tensile (positive) for points below the plane of the vessel supports,
and compressive (negative) for points above supports.
σ w =0.677N/mm2(compressive)
3. Bending stresses.
σ b=±1.302N/mm2

Principal stresses
The principal stress will be given by :

σ 1,σ 2 =1/2 (σ h +σ z )± ½√ (σ h−σ z )2+ 4 τ hz2)

σ 1, σ 2 =1/2 (σ h +σ z )± ½√ (σ h−σ z )2 , τ hz =0

Where,σ z =σ b + σ L + σ w = 1.302+33.534+0.677 = 35.51N/mm2

σ 1 =1/2 (67.067+35.51)+ ½√ (67.067−35.51)2 =67.067N/mm2

σ 2 =1/2 (67.067 + 35.51 )- ½√ (67.067−35.51)2 =35.51N/mm2

Allowable stress:

Allowable stress for pressure vessel design (σ 1-σ 2) = (67.067N/mm2-35.51N/mm2). .

. =31.557N/mm2. The vessel wall must be sufficient to ensure the maximum stress intensity
does not exceed the design for material of construction at any point.

Check elastic stability(buckling)

t
Critical buckling stress: σ c = 2x104(
DO
)
= 2x104(28/696)
=804.6 N/mm2

The maximum compressive stress in a vessel wall not be exceeds the critical bucking
stress.so our design is safe.

Design of heads

The top head of the vessel selected as Ellipsoidal headtype.This is also called a 2:1 elliptical
head.The shape of this head is just a quater of the diameter.It radius varies beetwen the major
and minor axis.
Thickness of the ellipsoidal heads : where,internal pressure(pi) =5.72N/mm2
designstress(f)=142N/mm2
joint factor is(j) = 1.0
internal diameter (di) =656.6mm
K=stress intensity factor

th=pidik/(2jf-0.2pi)+C.A

= (5.72x656.6)/(2x1.0x142-0.2x5.72)+2mm = 15.278mm
 Volume of ellipsoidal head:

5π 3
Veh = D = 2.6166*D3 =2.6179*(0.6566m)3= 0.739m3
6

The Height to contact with the shell =1/3*d= 0.2189mm

The Bottom head of the vessel selected as Hemispherical head type.

Thickness of the hemispherical heads :

th=pidi/(2jf-0.2pi)+C.A
= (5.72x656.6)/(2x1.0x142-0.2x5.72)+2mm=18mm

where, internal pressure(pi) =5.72N/mm2s

internal diameter (di) =656.6mm

joint factor is(j) = 1.0

designstress(f)=142N/mm2

Volume of hemispherical head:

π 3
Veh = D = 0.5236*D3
6
=0.5236*(0.6566 ¿ ¿3

= 0.1482 m3
The Height to contact with the shell = 0.5*656.6mm=328.3mm

CHAPTER 7
CALCULATING THICKNESS OF THE NOZZLE
Design of nozzle
Nozzle thickness determining:

Thickness of nozzle not be greater than the thickness of the shell to which it is connected.And
given by;
eb = do/25+2.5
= 696mm/25 +2.5
= 30mm.according to reference 1 section UG-16(b) it is recommended
that not to be less than 75% or more than 15% of the part to which it is attached. Since
the nozzle is attached to the cylinderical vessel,the thickness of the vessel is 18.5mm,
then 75%x(18.5mm) =13.875mm≅14mm.
Area of nozzle:≅
Arae of nozzle(A) = 2 π r 2
 =2(3.14 x (50mm)2
= 15700mm2

Reinforcement design for an opening

The opening is 1/3 of the vessel diameter

The opening = 1/3(0.6566m) = 0.2189m

Figure 7.1 Nozzle Design

Nominal thickness of the nozzle (t n)

= t n + CA =18.5mm + 2mm =20.5mm

The inside diameter of the nozzle (di)

d i= opening - (2 ×t n)

=0.2189m – (2 × 0.0205m)
 =0.178m

The inside radius of the nozzle (r) = ½(0.178m) m= 0.089m

The required thickness of the shell (t r) = thickness of shell – corrosion allowance

= 0.0185m – 0.002m = 0.0165m

The metal used as reinforcement must be located within the limits. The limit measured
perpendicular to the nozzle wall in outward (h) is equal to 2.5tn

h = 2.5 ×20.5mm= 51.25mm

The limit measured parallel to the vessel wall (L) is equal to

L = 2.45035m
The value of this limit is equal to 2.45035m
The limit measured perpendicular to the inward (h1) is equal to
(2.5tn - 2(CA))
h1 = (2.5×0.0205) – (2×0.002) = 0.0473m

The thickness of the reinforcing pad (t p)

The length of the welding (LW) = 0.7 × t shell= 0.7 × 0.0185m = 0.01295m
The diameter of pad (d p) = (2 × L) – (2 × LW)
= (2 × L) – (2 × LW) = (2×0.178m)–(2 × 0.01295)
= 0.33m
Radius of the pad (r d ) = 0.165m
Therefore t p including CA
= 2.656+ 0.002m = 2.658828m

The ratios f r 1= 0.85, since the material for

i. the nozzle and pad is stainless steel (AISI 304)
ii. the shell is stainless steel (AISI 321)

Areas in the reinforcement of nozzle design

For vessel under internal pressure the total cross sectional area required for the reinforcement
is
 A= (d × t r×F) + (2×t n× t r × F × (1-fr1))

= (0 .178× 0.0165 × 1) + (2 × 0.0205 × 0.0165 × 1 × (1 – 0.85)) m2 = 7040mm2

Area of excess thickness in vessel (A1)

A1 = (2×L-d) × (t s-F ×t r) – 2 × t n (t s-F×t r) × (1-fr1)

= (2 × 0.316-0.178) × (0.0185m - 1 × 0.0165) – 2 ×0.0205× (0.0185 – 1 × 0.0165) × (1 –

0.85)

= 895.7mm2

Area of excess thickness in nozzle (A2)

A2= 2×h × (t n-t) × fr1

= 2 × 0.05125 × (0.0205 – 0.007237) × 0.85 m2

=1155.53mm2

Area of inside extension of nozzle square (A3)

A3 = 2 × h1 × (t n- 0.2 × CA) × fr1

= 2 × 0.0473× (0.0205 – 0.2 × 0.002) × 0.85 m2

= 1616.241mm2

Area of weld (A4)

A4 = (A41 + A3) × fr1+ A42 × fr1

A42 = (0.7 × t ¿ ¿2 = (0.7 × 0.007237 ¿¿ 2 = 25.6mm2

A41 = tn2 = 0.02052 = 420mm2

A43 = has no minimum area

A4 = (420mm2+1616.241mm2) × 0.85 + 25.6mm2× 0.85mm2

= 1752.56mm2

The sum

AT=A1+ A2 + A3 + A4=5420mm2
Since the sum of A1, A2, A3, A4 is less than the area for reinforcement required, A the
difference must be supplied by reinforcing pad (A5).

A = (A1+A2+A3+A4) + A5

7040mm2= 5420mm2+A5

A5= 1620 mm2

The height is 0.6m to fit with the flange and the bolt.

The outside diameter = (2 × nominal thickness) + inside diameter of nozzle

= 2*0.0205m +0.178m

=0.22m

Weight of the nozzle (WN) = mg = π×DM ×ρ × h1 × g × L

The length of the nozzle (L) = h + t + h1+ 0.6m

= 0.05125 +0.0185 + 0.0473m+ 0.6m =0.717m

DM = (d+ (t n×10−3 )) = (0.178m + (0.0205×10−3 ) = 0.1784m

W N = π×0.1784m × 0.0473m × 0.717m × 7850Kg/m3 × 9.81m/s2

=1.463KN

Compensation for openings

Compensation is the technique used to provide reinforcement local to the opening, equal in
cross-sectional area to the area removed in forming the opening. We have five openings in
this project or design.
1. vapour out : has diameter of 50mm and 1.5m below top of cylinderical section.
 Area of vapour out(A) = πr 2
= 3.14 ×(0.025)2m2
= 1963.5mm2

2. reflex return : has diameter of 100mm and found at 2m below the top of cylinderical .
. section.

 Area of reflex return (A) = πr 2

=3.14 x (50mm)2
=7850 mm2

3.man hole: have 0.5m diameter and found 2m above the bottom column.
  Area of man hole(A) = πr 2
=(3.14 x (0.25m)2)
= 0.196m 2( for one manhole area)

4. nozzle : we have nozzle feed at the bottom of the vessel and has 100mm diameter

 Area of the nozzle(A) = πr 2

=(3.14 x (50mm)2
= 7850 mm2
We conclude that the area of compension and reinforcement are equal.
For selecting the standard dimension and material for the flange by applying the
American National Standard ANSI B16.5-1981 of temperature and pressure rating. The

Design of man hole

Thickness
With given formula thickness of cylinder we can find thickness of manholes
P Di
t m= +CA where t m=thickness of manhole
JS−0.6 P
P=design pressure
Di=internal diameter of manholes
S=design stress
J= joint factor

CA= corrosion allowance t m=

N
5.72 ∗500mm
mm 2
+2mm
N
1∗142 −0.6∗5.72
mm 2
t m =11.24mm≈ 12mm

Diameter of reinforcement (d r )

d r =1.5 to 2*d m where d r = diameter reinforcement

d m=diameter of manhole
=2*500mm
=1000mm

Maximum h o and hi =0.64√ (d o+ t m )t m

 =0.64 √ (1000+12)12

=70.82mm≈ 71mm

To overcome the total weight, at the bottom manholes should have higher than toper one

Approximately from the thickness ratio, it become (t m= area)

A2= A1 where A2 =reinforcement area

A1 = removed area

A1 = π r 2

A1 = π (0.25 m)2

=0.196m 2

Since the A2= A1 the reinforcement area for the manholes become =0.196m 2

Design of lug support

W = Weight of vessel, S = Stress,
n = Number of lugs t = Wall thickness of shell, in
W
Q= =¿Load on one lug, C=shape factor, K= Factors
n
R = Radius of shell, H = Lever arm of load.
A A
2A, 2B = dimensions of wear plate D=
R √
3

B
LONGITUDINALSTRES:

QH K R
S1=± 2 (C 1 K 1 +6 C2 t + 2D¿ ¿ )
DR t 2

Design of base ring and Bolts

By taking the bolt material is stainless steel and the design stress of stainless steel at
temperature 110℃ is 142N/mm2 .Bolt design stress is 125N/mm2.Now calculate the
following parameters;
The bolt area is give by:

1 4 Ms
Ab = N bf [ Db –w]
b

where Ab – area of one bolt at the root of the thread ,N b – number of

bolt ,fb – maximum allowance stress :N/mm2 =125N/mm2 ,Ms – bending
moment at the base, the same as Mbs ,W – weight of the vessel ,N ,Db –
bolt circle diameter,m
Approximate pitch circle dia., say, 2.2 m
Circumference of bolt circle =2200 π
2200 π
Number of bolts required, at minimum recommended bolt spacing = 600 =11.5
Closest multiple of 4 =12 bolts
Take bolt design stress =125 N¿ mm2
Take W=40.7kN
Ms= 1536.5kN-m

Area of bolt is:

3
1
Ab =
12×125
[ 4 × 1536.5× 10 –40700] = 1835.3mm2
2.2

Bolt root dia ¿ √ (1835.3 x 4)/3.14 = 48.34mm

The total compressive load on the base ring is given by:

Fb =¿] =¿] =4557.5kN/m

Taking the bearing pressure 5N/mm2

 The minimum width of the base ring (Lb) is given by

Fb
 Lb = fc= ]
¿ = 911.5mm

where Fc - is the max allowable bearing pressure.

Rather large consider a flared lug.

Take the lug bottom dia. as 3m

θ
Lug base angle l=¿ tan 0.5 (3 −0.6566)
−1 3
=¿ ¿70°

Keep the skirt thickness the same as that calculated for the cylindrical skirt. Highest
stresses will occur at the top of the skirt; where the values will be close to those
calculated
for the cylindrical lug. Sin 70= 0.94, so this term has little effect on the design
criteria.
Assume bolt circle dia. = 3.2 m.
Take number of bolts as 16
 π ×3.2 ×10 3
Bolt spacing= =628mm.which is greater than 600.Therefore it is
16
satisfied.

1 4 × 1536.5× 103
Ab =
16 ×125
[ –40700] = 940mm2
3.2
Use M56 bolts (BS 4190:1967) root area =940mm2

F b =¿] =221.7kN/m.

Lb =¿] = 44mm
This is the minimum width required; actual width will depend on the chair design.
Actual width required is:
= Lr +t s+50mm
150+20+50 =220mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:
221.7 ×103
3 =1.007N/mm
' 2
f c=
220× 10

t b=150 × 3 ×1.007 =22.039

√
140
round off to 23mm
Chair dimensions from Figure 13.30 for bolt size M56.

Welded joints

Welding is the mostcommon method of fabrication of pressure vessel, shells, structural

parts,such as stiffening ring, lifting lugs, support clip for piping, internal trays and other parts
are also attached to the vessel wall by welding.

Pressure vessel are built up from performed parts: cylinders, heads, and fittings, joined by
welding.Many different forms of welded joint are needed in the constraction of a pressure
vessel.
The design of welded joint should satisfy the following basic requirements:
 Require the minimum amount of weld metal.
 Give accessibility for welding andinspection.
 Incorporate sufficient flexibility to avoid cracking due to differential thermal
expansion.
  Give good penetration of the weld metal; from both sides of the joints, if
practicable.

The preferred types of joint, and recommended designs and profiles,are given in the codes
and standards. From types of joint we select that double-sided U -sections. Because double-
sided U -sections are used for thick plates; that our design is thick pressure vessel.

Weld type
Nozzle to flange attachment

t n = normal thickness of nozzle wall = 20.5mm

 1
tn + in. = 20.5mm + 3.178mm
8
=23.678mm

Shell to nozzle (outlet opening placed at the side)

ὰ = 45o
Thickness of vessel wall = 28mm
t n= thickness of nozzle = 20.5mm

a = minimum weld size

Head to nozzle (inlet nozzle placed at the top)

Shell to head
ὰ = 60o

Checking the design factor of design.

To find factor of safety(n),we have to get the yield and ultimate strength of vessel and lug
support.
ultimate strength of stainless steel: =510N/mm2 and working stress =142N/mm2 ,for carbon
steel: ultimate strength= 360N/mm2 and working stress = 130 N/mm2
 Factor of safety vessel(n) = ultimate strength/ working stress = 510/142
= 3.6 ≅ 4
 Factor of safety lug (n) = ultimate strength/ working stress = 360/130 =2.7≅ 3
factor of safety for both is greater than one ; therefore the design is safe.

CONCULUSION

The types of pressure vessel we design is vertical pressure vessel which storage about 2m 3
of steam.The stress in the vessel thickness are increasing with reduction of thickness and
bending stresses are within allowable limit for all cases considered. The vertical pressure
vessels are often preffered,especially for a thin walled vessel operating under low
pressure.The project design is considering all criteria for a good quality and life time of the
pressure.The design of a vertical cylindrical vessels becomes simple beacause of the
additional bending stresses due to weight of the vessel it self and often steam can be
eliminated.

Welded also very important fabrication of pressurevessels.Usuallyweldeddirectlyto the

vessel,because the lug are reqiured to withstand the pressure in the vessels.
Pressure Vessel Design Mechanical Engineering

REFERENCE

1. Mechanical Engineering, Shigley’sMechanical Engineering Design, Budynas –

Nisbett,Eighth Edition.
2. Mechanical Design an Integrated Approach, Ansel C. Ugural.
3. Pressure vessel design manual Third, seventh, tenth edition.
4. Text book of machine design
5. Pressure vessel hand book tenth edition
6. Sinnott R.K, Engineering Design (4th Edition), Elsevier Publication, 2005.
7. BandarupalliPraneeth, T.B.S.Rao, “Finite Element Analysis of Pressure Vessel and
Piping Design”
8. http://www.rspublication.com/ijeted/ijeted_index.htm
9. Material selection in machine design second edition, MICHAEL F. ASH BY
10. Mechanical design of process system volume one, A.keithEscoe
11. Machine element in mechanical design fourth edition, Robert L.mott