UNIT-1

OVERVIEW OF NDT
Dr. J.CHANDRADASS
Associate Professor
SRMIST,
[email protected]
DEFINITION
Non-Destructive Testing may be defined as those testing methods in which the
material under test is not destroyed or to say the future usefulness of the material
under test is not impaired.
The terms
nondestructive examination (NDE),
nondestructive inspection (NDI), and
nondestructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this
technology.
Why NDT is needed?
An industrial product is designed to perform a certain function.

The user buys a product with every expectation that it performs the assigned
function well and gives trouble free service for a stipulated period of time.

Trouble free service given by any product may be termed as reliability.

The reliability of a machine or an assembly having a number of components

depends upon the individual reliability factors of all the components.

Most of the machines and systems in the modern day work for example
power plants, chemical and other industrial plants, transport machines etc
are quite complex having thousands of components on which reliable
operation and smooth performance depends.
To ensure the reliability of such machines and the plant as a whole it is
important that each individual component is reliable and performs it s function
satisfactorily for an assigned period of time.

Reliability comes through improving the quality level of the components.

The quality of product, components or parts depends upon many factors;

important among them are the design, raw materials properties and fabrication
techniques.

Quality is related to the presence of those defects and imperfection in the

finished product which impair the performance level.
Many defects are also generated during service.
The nature of these defects differ according to the design, processing, fabrication and service
condition under which the component have to work.

Knowledge of these defects with a view to detect and evaluate them and then minimizing them
in the product is essential to achieve improved or acceptable level of quality.

An improvement in the product quality increases its reliability and in turns the safety of the
machines and equipment, thus bringing economic returns to the user.

Therefore, a need to have method by which the defects in the products can be examined
without affecting their performance

Nondestructive testing or non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis

techniques used in science and technology industry to evaluate the properties of a material,
component or system without causing damage.
COMPARE Destructive and Non-Destructive Tests

DESTRUCTIVE TEST NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST

Measurement are direct and reliable Measurement are indirect reliability is to
be verified
Usually quantitative measurements Usually qualitative measurements
Correlation between test measurements Measurements can also be done
and material properties are direct quantitatively. Skilled judgment and
experience are required to interpret
indications

Tests are not made on the objects directly Test are made directly on the object 100%
hence the correlation between the sample testing on actual components is possible
specimen used and objects need to be
proved

A single test may measure only one or a Many NDT methods can be applied on the
few of the properties same part and hence many or all
properties of interest can be measured

In-service testing is not possible In-service testing is possible

Measurement of properties over a Repeated checks over a period of time are
cumulative period of time cannot readily possible
be possible

Preparation of test specimen is costly Very little preparation is sufficient

Time requirement are generally high Most test methods are rapid
OVERVIEW OF NDT METHOD
Six Most Common NDT Methods
Visual
Liquid Penetrant
Magnetic
Ultrasonic
Eddy Current
Radiography

1. Visual inspection

Most basic and common inspection method.

Tools include, borescopes, magnifying glasses and mirrors.
Portable video inspection unit with zoom allows inspection of large tanks
and vessels, cars, sewer lines.
Robotic crawlers permit observation in hazardous or tight areas, such as
air ducts, reactors, pipelines.
Liquid Penetrant inspection (LPT)
A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to the surface of
the part and allowed time to seep into defect
The excess liquid is removed from the surface of the part.
A developer (powder) is applied to pull the trapped penetrant out the defect
and spread it on the surface where it can be seen.
Visual inspection is the final step in the process. The penetrant used is often
loaded with a fluorescent dye and the inspection is done under UV light to
increase test sensitivity.
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment are then
applied to the specimen. These particles are attracted to magnetic flux leakage fields
and will cluster to form an indication directly over the discontinuity. This indication can
be visually detected under proper lighting conditions. Fluorescent magnetic inks are
used to increase the contrast of indications making them more visible to the operator
and hence increasing the sensitivity of the technique.
Radiography

The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher energy (shorter

wavelength) version of the electromagnetic waves that we see as visible
light. The radiation can come from an X-ray generator or a radioactive
source.

The part is placed between the radiation source and a piece of film. The
part will stop some of the radiation. Thicker and more dense area will stop
more of the radiation.

The film darkness (density) will vary with the amount of radiation reaching
the film through the test object
Eddy current Testing
In ECT an alternating current (frequency 1 kHz-2 MHz) is made to flow in a coil
which in turn produces an alternating magnetic field around it.

The coil when brought close to the electrically conducting surface of a metallic
material to be inspected induces an eddy current flow in the material due to
electromagnetic induction. These eddy current are parallel to the coil winding.

The presence of any defect or discontinuity in the material disturbs the eddy
current flow. These eddy current in turn generate an alternating magnetic field
in opposite direction which may be detected either as a voltage across a
second coil or by the perturbation of the impedance of the original coil.

Eddy current testing is particularly well suited for detecting surface cracks Here
a small surface probe is scanned over the part surface in an attempt to detect a
crack.
Ultrasonics

High frequency sound waves are introduced into a material and they are
reflected back from surfaces or flaws.

The transfer of sound from the ultrasonic probe to the component requires a
coupling medium, which is usually water or gel.

Reflected sound energy is displayed versus time, and inspector can visualize a
cross section of the specimen showing the depth of features that reflect sound.
Casting Defect
The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand
castings

 Gas defects

 Shrinkage cavities

 Molding material defects

 Pouring metal defects

 Mold shift
Gas Defects

A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten

metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of the casting. The
defects in this category can be classified into

1. blowholes and
2. pinhole porosity.

Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities present in the casting on the

surface or inside the casting.
Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of hydrogen gas, which
gets entrapped during heating of molten metal.
Causes
The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to
•lower venting,
•lower permeability of the mold or
•improper design of the casting.

The lower permeability is caused by

•finer grain size of the sand,
•high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and
•excessive moisture present in the mold.
•Metal contains gas
•Mold is too hot
Shrinkage Cavities
These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification of the
casting. To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is required. For this
reason risers are placed at the appropriate places in the mold. Sprues may be too
thin, too long or not attached in the proper location, causing shrinkage cavities. It
is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage cavities.
Molding Material Defects
The defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal penetration, fusion, and
swell.

Cut and washes

These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by
erosion of molding sand by the flowing metal. This is caused by the molding
sand not having enough strength and the molten metal flowing at high velocity.
The former can be taken care of by the proper choice of molding sand and the
latter can be overcome by the proper design of the gating system.
Metal penetration
When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result is a
rough casting surface. This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash
was applied on the surface of the mold. The coarser the sand grains more the
metal penetration.
Fusion

This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal, giving a
brittle, glassy appearance on the casting surface. The main reason for this is
that the clay or the sand particles are of lower refractoriness or that the pouring
temperature is too high.

Swell

Under the influence of metallostatic forces (force developed within molten

metal), the mold wall may move back causing a swell in the dimension of the
casting. A proper ramming of the mold will correct this defect.
Inclusions

Particles of slag, refractory materials sand or deoxidation products are

trapped in the casting during pouring and solidification. The provision of
choke in the gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the mold
can prevent this defect.

Pouring Metal Defects

The likely defects in this category are
Mis-runs and
Cold shuts.
A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity
completely and thus leaves unfilled cavities. A mis-run results when the metal
is too cold to flow to the extremities of the mold cavity before freezing. Long,
thin sections are subject to this defect and should be avoided in casting
design.
A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do
not fuse together properly thus forming a discontinuity in the casting. When
the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity through more-than-one gate,
multiple liquid fronts will have to flow together and become one solid. If the
flowing metal fronts are too cool, they may not flow together, but will leave a
seam in the part. Such a seam is called a cold shut
The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of the
mold or when the section thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can
be improved by changing the composition of the metal and by increasing the
pouring temperature of the metal.
Mold Shift
The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have not
been properly aligned.
Welding Defects
The defects in the weld can be defined as irregularities in the weld metal
produced due to incorrect welding parameters or wrong welding procedures or
wrong combination of filler metal and parent metal.

Weld defect may be in the form of variations from the intended weld bead
shape, size and desired quality. Defects may be on the surface or inside the
weld metal. Certain defects such as cracks are never tolerated but other defects
may be acceptable within permissible limits. Welding defects may result into the
failure of components under service condition, leading to serious accidents and
causing the loss of property and sometimes also life.
Various welding defects can be classified into groups
such as cracks, porosity, solid inclusions,
lack of fusion and inadequate penetration,
imperfect shape and miscellaneous defects.
1. Cracks
Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may appear in the weld metal or
base metal or base metal and weld metal boundary. Different categories of
cracks are longitudinal cracks, transverse cracks or radiating/star cracks and
cracks in the weld crater. Cracks occur when localized stresses exceed the
ultimate tensile strength of material. These stresses are developed due to
shrinkage during solidification of weld metal.
Cracks may be developed
due to poor ductility of
base metal, high sulphur
and carbon contents, high
arc travel speeds i.e. fast
cooling rates, too concave
or convex weld bead and
Fig : Various Types of Cracks in Welds high hydrogen contents in
the weld metal.
2. Porosity
Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the solidifying weld metal.

These gases are generated from the flux or coating constituents of the
electrode or shielding gases used during welding or from absorbed moisture in
the coating.

Rust, dust, oil and grease present on the surface of work pieces or on
electrodes are also source of gases during welding. Porosity may be easily
prevented if work pieces are properly cleaned from rust, dust, oil and grease.

Futher, porosity can also be controlled if excessively high welding currents,

faster welding speeds and long arc lengths are avoided, flux and coated
electrodes are properly baked.
Fig : Different Forms of Porosities
Solid Inclusion
Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other nonmetallic
material entrapped in the weld metal as these may not able to float on
the surface of the solidifying weld metal.

During arc welding, flux either in the form of granules or coating after
melting, reacts with the molten weld metal removing oxides and other
impurities in the form of slag and it floats on the surface of weld metal
due to its low density. However, if the molten weld metal has high
viscosity or too low temperature or cools rapidly then the slag may
not be released from the weld pool and may cause inclusion.
Slag inclusion can be prevented if all the slag from the previously
deposited bead is removed, too high or too low welding currents are
avoided.

Fig : Slag Inclusion in Weldments

4. Lack of Fusion and Inadequate or incomplete penetration:
Lack of fusion is the failure to fuse together either the base metal and weld
metal because of failure to raise the temperature of base metal or previously
deposited weld layer to melting point during welding. Lack of fusion can be
avoided by properly cleaning of surfaces to be welded, selecting proper
current, proper welding technique and correct size of electrode.
Incomplete penetration means that the weld depth is not upto the desired
level or root faces have not reached to melting point in a groove joint. If
either low currents or larger arc lengths or large root face or small root gap
or too narrow groove angles are used then it results into poor penetration.

Fig : Examples of Inadequate Penetration

Imperfect Shape
Imperfect shape means the variation from the desired shape and size of the
weld bead.
During undercutting a notch is formed either on one side of the weld bead or
both sides in which stresses tend to concentrate and it can result in the early
failure of the joint. Main reasons for undercutting are the excessive welding
currents, long arc lengths and fast travel speeds.
Underfilling may be due to low currents, fast travel speeds and small size
of electrodes.
Excessive reinforcement is formed if high currents, low voltages, slow
travel speeds and large size electrodes are used.

Excessive root penetration occur if excessive high currents and

slow travel speeds are used for relatively thinner members.
Distortion is caused because of shrinkage occurring due to large heat input
during welding.
6. Miscellaneous Defects
Various miscellaneous defects may be multiple arc strikes i.e. several arc
strikes are one behind the other, spatter, grinding and chipping marks, tack
weld defects, oxidized surface in the region of weld, unremoved slag and
misalignment of weld beads if welded from both sides in butt welds.
VISUAL TESTING (VT)

Visual inspection is probably the most widely used among all the non-
destructive tests. It is simple, easy to apply, quickly carried out and usually low
in cost.

Even though a component is to be inspected using other NDT methods, a

good visual inspection should be carried out first.

A simple visual test can reveal gross surface defect thus leading to an
immediate rejection of the component and consequently saving much time and
money.

In this method direct visual and optically aided inspection is applied to the
surface of object to detect flaws and anomalies.
If significant flaws are detected during visual inspection then the part being
inspected can be rejected on that basis.
BASIC PRINCIPLE

The basic procedure used in visual NDT involves illumination of the test
specimen with light usually in the visible region.

The specimen is then examined with eye or by light sensitive device such as
photocells. The equipment used for visual inspection is extremely simple, but
adequate illumination is absolutely essential.

The surface of the specimen should be adequately cleaned before being

inspected.
Tools for visual inspection

The human eye is the most frequently used tool for visual inspection. It can be
aided by lenses and magnifiers.

At places where direct vision is not possible boroscopes can be used. The
images can be observed under visible light or ultraviolet light may be used for
fluorescent materials.

Video and film cameras have also been employed for remote visual inspection,
infact liquid penetrant testing and magnetic particle testing are only more
advanced forms of visual inspection.
Defects which can be detected by unaided visual inspection

• The general condition of the component.

• The presence or absence of oxide film or corrosive product on the surface.

• The presence or absence of cracks, orientation of cracks, position of cracks

relative to various zones in the case of welds

• The surface porosity, unfilled craters, contour of the weld beads and the
probable orientation of the interface between the fused weld bead and the
adjoining parent metal.

• Potential source of mechanical weakness such as sharp notches or

misalignments etc.

• The result of visual examination may be of great assistance to other test.

Optical aid used for visual inspection

The use of optical instruments in visual inspection is beneficial and is

recommended to magnify defects that cannot be detected by the unaided eye.
Permit visual checks of areas not accessible to the unaided eye.

Microscope

An optical microscope is a combination of lenses used to magnify the image of a

small object. The object is placed close to the lens to obtain a high magnification
as possible. The distance from lens to object is adjusted until the object is at the
depth of field of the lens and is in focus.

The simplest form of a microscope is a single converging lens often referred to as

a simple magnifier.
Magnification (M) of a single lens is determined by the equation M=10/f.
In this equation f is the focal length of the lens and 10 is a
constant that represents the average minimum distance at which
objects can be distinctly seen by the unaided eye.

Using the equation M=10/f a lens with a focal length of 5” has a magnification of
two or is said to be two power lens (2X).

The focal length of the simple magnifier and its working distance are
approximately the same. The field of view is the area seen through the magnifier.
Depth of field is the term used to indicate the distance a magnifier can be moved
towards or away from a subject remaining in good focus.

Minute defects and details of fine structure on a surface can be detected more
easily with the aid of microscope.

Optical microscope are used to evaluate with respect to shape and orientation of
cracks.
Borescopes
A borescope (Fig.) is a long, tubular optical device that illuminates and allows the
inspection of surfaces inside narrow tubes or difficult-to-reach chambers.

The tube, which can be rigid or flexible with a wide variety of lengths and
diameters, provides the necessary optical connection between the viewing end
and an objective lens at the distant, or distal, tip of the borescope.

This optical connection can be achieved in one of three different ways:

By using a rigid tube with a series of relay lenses

By using a tube (normally flexible but also rigid) with a bundle of optical fibers.

By using a tube (normally flexible) with wiring that carries the image signal from a
charge-coupled device (CCD) imaging sensor at the distal tip
A rigid borescope with a lamp at the distal end. (b) A rigid borescope
with a light guide bundle in the shaft
Rigid Borescope
Rigid borescopes are generally limited to applications with a
straight-line path between the observer and the area to be observed.

The sizes range in lengths from 0.15 to 30 m (0.5 to 100 ft) and in diameters
from 0.9 to 70 mm (0.035 to 2.75 in.). Magnification is usually 3 to 4×, but
powers up to 50× are available.

The illumination system is either an incandescent lamp located at the distal tip
end (Fig. a) or a light guide bundle made from optical fibers (Fig. b) that
conduct light from an external source.

Some rigid borescopes have orbital scan (Fig. b), which involves the rotation
of the optical shaft for scanning purposes. Depending on the borescope
model, the amount of rotation can vary from 120 to 360°.
Some rigid borescopes also have movable prisms at the tip for scanning.
Rigid borescopes are available in a variety of models having significant
variations in the design of the shaft, the distal tip, and the illumination system.
Some of these design variations are described below.

Basic Design.
The rigid borescope typically has a series of achromatic relay lenses in the
optical tube. These lenses preserve the resolution of the image as it travels
from the objective lens to the eyepiece.

The tube diameter of these borescopes ranges from 4 to 70 mm (0.16 to 2.75

in.). The illumination system can be either a distal lamp or a light guide bundle,
and the various features may include orbital scan, various viewing heads, and
adjustable focusing of the objective lens.
Miniborescopes.
Instead of the conventional relay lenses, miniborescopes have a single
image-relaying rod or quartz fiber in the optical tube.

The lengths of miniborescopes are 110 and 170 mm (4.3 and 6.7 in.),
and the diameters range from 0.9 to 2.7 mm (0.035 to 0.105 in.).

High magnification (up to 30×) can be reached at minimal focal lengths,

and an adjustable focus is not required, because the scope has an
infinite depth of field.

The larger sizes have forward, side view, and forward-oblique views.
The 0.9 mm (0.035 in.) diam size has only a forward view.
Miniborescopes have an integral light guide bundle.
Hybrid borescopes
It utilize rod lenses combined with convex lenses to relay the image. The rod
lenses have fewer glass-air boundaries; this reduces scattering and allows for
a more compact optical guide.

Consequently, a larger light guide bundle can be employed with an increase in

illumination and an image with a higher degree of contrast.

Hybrid borescopes have lengths up to 990 mm (39 in.), with diameters ranging
from 5.5 to 12 mm (0.216 to 0.47 in.).

All hybrid borescopes have adjustable focusing of the objective lens and a
360° rotation for orbital scan.

The various viewing directions are forward, side, retrospective, and forward-
oblique.
Extendable borescopes
It allow the user to construct a longer baroscopic tube by joining extension
tubes.

Extendable borescopes are available with either a fiber-optic light guide or an

incandescent lamp at the distal end.

Extendable borescopes with an integral lamp have a maximum length of about

30 m (100 ft).

Scopes with a light guide bundle have a shorter maximum length (about 8 m,
or 26 ft), but do allow smaller tube diameters (as small as 8 mm, or 0.3 in.).

Interchangeable viewing heads are also available. Extendable borescopes do

not have adjustable focusing of the objective lens.
Flexible Fiberscopes
• Flexible fibre-optic borescope permit manipulation of the
Instrument round corners and through passages with
several directional changes.

• These devices are designed to provide sharp and clear images of parts and interior
surfaces that are normally impossible to inspect.

• A typical fiberscope (Fig.) consists of a light guide bundle, an image guide bundle, an
objective lens, interchangeable viewing heads, and remote controls for articulation of
the distal tip.

• Fiberscopes are available in diameters from 1.4 to 13 mm (0.055 to 0.5 in.) and in
lengths up to 12 m (40 ft). Special quartz fiberscopes are available in lengths up to
90 m (300 ft).

• The fibers used in the light guide bundle are generally .0254 mm (0.001 in.) in
diameter.
The second optical bundle, called the image guide, is used to carry the image
formed by the objective lens back to the eyepiece. The fibers in the image guide
must be precisely aligned so that they are in an identical relative position to each
other at their terminations for proper image resolution.

The diameter of the fibers in the image guide is another factor in obtaining good
image resolution. With smaller diameter fibers, a brighter image with better
resolution can be obtained by packing more fibers in the image guide.

With higher resolution, it is then possible to use an objective lens with a wider field
of view and also to magnify the image at the eyepiece. This allows better viewing of
objects at the periphery of the image. Image guide fibers range from 6.5 to 17 m
(255 to 670 in.).
A flexible fiberscope with a light source.
ENDOSCOPE
• The endoscope is much like a borescope except that it has a superior
optical system and a high intensity light source.

• A unique feature of endoscope is that objects are constantly in focus

from about 4 mm to infinity.

• Actually when the tip is about 4 mm from the surface being inspected
a magnification factor of about 10x is achieved.

• The no focusing feature of the endoscope makes it much easier to use

than a borescope, which need to be focused at the inspection area.

• Endoscopes are available in diameters down to 1.7 mm in lengths

from 100 to 1500 mm.
TELESCOPE
• Telescope is used to obtain magnified images of objects at considerable
distance from the eye.

• It is particularly useful for providing visual examination of the surface

which is otherwise inaccessible.

• It consists essentially of two lenses called the objective and eyepiece.

• The telescope can be used in conjunction with a periscope for viewing a

concealed surface.
HOLOGRAPHY
• Holography is the name given to the method of obtaining an
accurate three dimensional image of a given object.

• The process is carried out in two stages. First, a permanent record in the form of a
two dimensional interference pattern is obtained on a photographic plate by means
of a laser beam.

• The three dimensional image is then obtained from the two dimensional record again
using a laser. In this way a picture having a high definition and free from aberration
can be obtained without the use of a camera.

• Holography is used for the NDT of surfaces of highly complicated and precision
components without the disadvantage of having to use a high power microscope.

• In a simple operation a hologram can provide a record of the image of an entire

surface which can be readily compared with that of a standard defect free surface.
VISUAL TESTING
Merits
• The easiest and most useful method of NDT is visual examination.
• Important details can be collected during VT which would be useful for future
analysis and also to decide on the type of NDT to be used for further analysis.
• VT should be carried out as a complementary method to all other NDT methods.
• Inaccessible areas can be inspected by means of boroscope and fibre optic
technique.
• If the product is found unacceptable during visual inspection itself, further NDT
need not be carried thus saving time and cost of inspection.
• VT is selected for detecting the following discontinuities
• Surface deposits, Scaling, Erosion, Discoloration, Oxidation bulging, Mechanical
damage, dimensional conformance, gross defect visible on the surface, distortion
of components during fabrication and in service, general corrosion on the surface
of the component.
Demerit
VT can be applicable only for gross defect.
 MCQ

Which of the following is incorrect of Non-destructive Testing

(a) Most test are rapid
(b) Test are made directly on the object
(c) little preparation is sufficient
(d) In-service testing is not possible.

The human eye is sensitive to which of the following type of light

(a) Yellow-green
(b) Red
(c) Blue-Violet
(d) orange
Which of the following non-destructive technique cannot be used to
detect internal crack in a steel shaft
(a) Liquid penetrant
(b) Radiography
(c) Ultrasonic testing
(d) X-ray tomography?
Visual non destructive technique is limited to
(a) small easily handle parts
(b) Non-ferrous material
(c) Dimensional defect
(d) surface defect.

_____________ is a suitable non-destructive technique to detect subsurface

defect 10mm from the surface.

(a) Magnetic particle testing

(b) Eddy current testing
(c) Radiography.
(d) Liquid penetrant testing
___________ allows the inspection of surface inside narrow tubes or difficult
to reach chamber
(a) borescope
(b) toolmaker microscope
(c) Magnifying glass
(d) Magnifying mirror.

Which among the following is not a type of Non-destructive testing?

a. compression test
b. visual testing
c. ultrasonic testing
d. eddy current testing
Identify the type of destructive testing
a. Radiographic test
b. Dye penetrant test
c. Creep test
d. thermography

Which test can be performed without skilled labour?

a. Dye penetrant testing
b. Acoustic emission test
c. Ultrasonic testing
d. Magnetic particle test.
-------------- is the only NDT method to detect conducting materials.
a. Radiography
b. Ultrasonic Testing
c. Magnetic Particle Testing
d. Eddy current Testing
----------- method of obtaining an accurate three dimensional image of a
given object
a. Radiography
b. Telescope
c. Microscope
d. Holography

------------- method is used to make an assessment of the corrosion rate

a. Magnetic particle Testing
b. Thermography
c. Ultrasonic testing
d. Liquid Penetrant Testing
Which of the following method uses sound energy to detect the defect.
a. Thermography
b. Ultrasonic Testing
c. Radiography
d. Acoustic Emission Testing.

--------------- instrument is used in conjunction with periscope to view

concealed surface.
a. Telescope
b. Holography
c. Borescope
d. Magnifiers
An optical aid that can be used without focusing
a. Microscope
b. Borescope
c. Endoscope
d. Telescope.

----------------is an instrument designed to enable an observer to inspect the inside

of a narrow tube, bore or chamber
a. Microscope
b. Telescope
c. Borescope
d. Magnifier.
The length of rigid borescope varied between
a. 15 to 30 cm
b. . 3 to 40 cm
c. 0.15 to 30 m
d. . 35 to 50 m.

The diameter of rigid borescope varies from

a. 0.9 to 70 mm
b. 1.5 to 13 mm
c. 1 to 25 mm
d. 3 to45 mm
Which of the following discontinuity types could typically be found with a
liquid penetrant test
a. Internal slag in a weld
b. internal slag in a casting
c. sensitization in austenitic stainless steel
d. fatigue cracks.

The diameter of flexible borescope is available from

a. 20 to 50 mm
b. 1.4 to 13 mm
c. 15 to 20 mm
d. 15 to 20 mm.