National Pollutant Inventory

Emission Estimation
Technique Manual

for

Concrete Batching
and Concrete Product
Manufacturing

First published in February 1999

 EMISSION ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES
FOR
CONCRETE BATCHING AND CONCRETE PRODUCT MANUFACTURING

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................1

2.0 PROCESSES AND EMISSIONS ............................................................................2
2.1 Process Description .......................................................................................2
2.2 Emission Sources and Control Technologies...........................................3
2.2.1 Emissions to Air ........................................................................ ...4
2.2.2 Emissions to Water .......................................................................5
2.2.3 Emissions to Land..................................................................... ...6
3.0 EMISSION ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES ..................................................... ...7
3.1 Direct Measurement......................................................................................8
3.1.1 Sampling Data........................................................................... ...8
3.1.2 Continuous Emission Monitoring System (CEMS) Data.... .10
3.2 Mass Balance ................................................................................................11
3.3 Engineering Calculations...........................................................................13
3.4 Emission Factors ..........................................................................................15
3.4.1 Industry-wide Emission Factors............................................. .16
3.4.2 Emission Factor Tables for Concrete Batching Activities ... .17
3.4.3 Predictive Emission Monitoring (PEM)...................................19
4.0 EMISSION ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES: ACCEPTABLE RELIABILITY
AND UNCERTAINTY......................................................................................... .20
4.1 Direct Measurement....................................................................................20
4.2 Mass Balance ................................................................................................20
4.3 Engineering Calculations...........................................................................21
4.4 Emission Factors ..........................................................................................21
5.0 REFERENCES......................................................................................................... .22

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 CONCRETE BATCHING AND CONCRETE PRODUCT MANUFACTURING

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure
1. Basic Process Steps for Concrete Batching ......................................2

Table
1. The Range of Concrete Products Manufactured in Australia......3
2. Concrete Product Manufacturing Process Material Inputs and
Pollutant Outputs .................................................................................4
3. NPI-Listed Substances Emitted to Air by the Concrete Products
Industry. .................................................................................................5
4. List of Variables and Symbols ...........................................................9
5. VOC Content of Common Surface Coatings.................................14
6. Particulate Matter (PM10) Emission Factors for Concrete
Batching ................................................................................................16
7. Emission Factors for PM10 for Concrete Batching Activities ......18

ii
1.0 Introduction

The purpose of all Emission Estimation Technique (EET) Manuals in this series is to
assist Australian manufacturing, industrial and service facilities to report emissions
of listed substances to the National Pollutant Inventory (NPI). This Manual describes
the procedures and recommended approaches for estimating emissions from
facilities engaged in concrete batching and concrete product manufacturing.

The activities covered in this Manual apply to facilities primarily engaged in the
following activities:

- Concrete Batching

- Concrete Product: Concrete boxes, posts, poles, railway sleepers, roof

Manufacturing and floor tiles, sinks and tubs, troughs, tanks, pots,
blocks, bricks, building boards, concrete/styrofoam
composite products, autoclaved aerated products, and
terrazzo products.

EET MANUAL: Concrete Batching and Concrete Product Manufacturing

HANDBOOK: Concrete Product Manufacturing

ANZSIC CODES : 2633, 2634, and 2635

This Manual was drafted by the NPI Unit of the Queensland Department of
Environment and Heritage on behalf of the Commonwealth Government. It has
been developed through a process of national consultation involving State and
Territory environmental authorities and key industry stakeholders.

1
2.0 Processes and Emissions

The following section presents a brief description of the Concrete Batching and
Concrete Product Manufacturing Industry and identifies likely sources of emissions.

2.1 Process Description

The concrete batching and concrete product manufacturing activities covered in this
Manual includes facilities primarily engaged in the mixing of cement and aggregate
into concrete, as well as concrete products, including aerated and concrete composite
products.

The term concrete refers to a product formed by two principal components:

aggregate and slurry. Aggregate, which can be either natural or man-made, consists
of various grades of sand, gravel, crushed stone, or slag. The slurry is composed of
cement, water, and sometimes, entrained air. The cement slurry makes up
approximately 25 to 40 percent by volume of concrete.

Figure 1 shows the concrete batching processes and likely emission points. As each
facility in Australia is likely to be unique, operators are strongly advised to develop a
flow diagram for their own facility that details the input of materials and NPI-listed
substances, as well as the waste sources and emissions resulting from the operation
of each process:

Aggregate
PM Cement Unloading
Unloading
Pneumatic or bucket
elevator transfer
PM Sand, aggregate
Elevated storage silo PM
stockpile
Front end loader,
clam shell crane,
belt conveyor or
bucket elevator
Elevated storage Particulate Matter
PM
bins (PM)

Water Weigh hoppers Water

PM
PM Truck mixed product Mixer PM

Open bed dump

PM Agitator truck PM
truck

Figure 1. Basic Process Steps for Concrete Batching

(Source:USEPA AP-42, 1995)

Some concrete mixtures include hydrochloric acid, acetone, styrene, glycol ethers, or
butyl benzyl phthalate as additives. Manufacturers utilise different combinations of
pastes and aggregates to produce grades of concrete that vary in terms of cost,
strength, durability, and rigidity.

The many types of products fashioned from concrete include bricks, architectural
blocks, columns, paving materials, foundations, curbing, storage tanks, roofing-tiles,
and pipes. Facilities covered in this Manual produce both ready-mixed concrete

2
which is unhardened concrete material, and a multitude of concrete products, such
as those listed above. Table 1. indicates the wide variety of concrete products, and
the range of production activities involved.

Table 1. The Range of Concrete Products Manufactured in Australia

Concrete Product Concrete Product
Box culverts Concrete mouldings
Concrete pipes (including pre-stressed) Ornamental concrete or terrazzo product
Autoclaved aerated products Prefabricated panels
Concrete blocks Concrete posts and poles
Concrete bricks Concrete railway sleepers
Building boards Concrete roof tiles
Concrete cisterns Concrete roof components
Monuments and grave markers Concrete sinks and tubs
Floor and wall tiles Concrete troughs and tanks
Flower pots Terrazzo products
Meter boxes Concrete tiles
Concrete/styrofoam composite Wall fittings and terrazzo
products
Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage, 1998.

Concrete batching plants store, convey, measure, and discharge concrete constituents
into concrete mixers for transport to the job site. The raw materials can be delivered
to a batching plant by road or by rail, and are then transferred to elevated storage
silos pneumatically, or by bucket elevator. The sand and coarse aggregate are
transferred to elevated bins by front-end loader, clam-shell crane, belt conveyor, or
bucket elevator. From the elevated bins, the constituents are fed by gravity, or screw
conveyor, to weigh hoppers that combine the proper amounts of each material.

The constituents are then fed from the weigh hopper to agitator trucks, where the
concrete is mixed on the way to the site where it is to be used. Central mix facilities
mix the concrete on site and then transfer it either to an open bed dump truck or a
concrete mixer for transport to the job site. Shrink mixed concrete is partially mixed
at the central mix plant, then completely mixed in the concrete mixer on the way to
the job site. Dry batching, where concrete is mixed and hauled to the construction
site in dry form, is seldom used in Australia.

2.2 Emission Sources and Control Technologies

Concrete batching and product manufacturing generates emissions of particulate

matter (PM10). Product manufacturing may also generate emissions of paint wastes,
and plant maintenance wastes - the latter two often contain listed NPI substances.
Table 2 illustrates some of the raw materials used in production processes, and
highlights the likely emission points.

3
Table 2. Concrete Product Manufacturing Process Material Inputs and
Pollutant Outputs
Process Material Air Emissions * Water or Land Other Wastes
Input Emissions & Emissions
Concrete Cement, Cement dust, Wastewaters Equipment
Batching and sand, lime- sand and containing and repair
Product stone, gravel, gravel dust, residual emissions
Manufacturing aggregate constituents solvents, and wastes,
material, from fuel other VOCs, paint sludges
acetone, burning, VOCs acids, and containing
glycol ethers, from paint and particulates residue
hydrochloric solvent solvents
acid, styrene, application
solvents in and cleaning
paints and
clean-up
Adapted from: USEPA Sector Notebook Project, 1995.
*For more detail on Air Emissions, please refer to the EET Manual for Combustion in Boilers.

2.2.1 Emissions to Air

Air emissions may be categorised as :

Fugitive Emissions

These are emissions that are not released through a vent or stack. Examples of
fugitive emissions include dust from stockpiles, volatilisation of vapour from vats,
open vessels, spills, and materials handling. Emissions emanating from ridgeline
roof-vents, louvres, and open doors of a building, as well as equipment leaks, and
leaks from valves and flanges are also examples of fugitive emissions. Emission
factor EETs are the usual method for determining losses through fugitive emissions.

Fugitive emissions from the concrete industry include particulate matter (PM10) from
vehicular movements, and the storage, unloading and conveying of aggregates, and
other material inputs. (Emissions from concrete product manufacturing may also
include various volatile organic compounds (eg., xylenes), from solvent and paint
usage.)

Point Source Emissions

These emissions are exhausted into a vent or stack and emitted through a single
point source into the atmosphere. Table 3 highlights the most commonly emitted
substances from the United States Concrete Product Manufacturing Industry.

4
Table 3. NPI-Listed Substances Emitted to Air by the Concrete Products
Industry.
Listed Substance Listed Substance
Ammonia Phenol
Formaldehyde Styrene
Hydrochloric acid Sulphuric acid
Hydrogen fluoride Toluene
Methanol Xylenes (mixed isomers)
Particulate matter (PM10)
Adapted from: USEPA, Sector Notebook Project, 1995.

Air emission control technologies, such as water sprays and fabric filters are
commonly installed to reduce the concentration of substances in venting air streams
prior to emission. Where such emission abatement equipment has been installed,
and where emission factors from uncontrolled sources have been used in an emission
estimation, the collection efficiency of the abatement equipment needs to be
considered. Guidance on applying collection efficiencies to emission factor equations
is provided in later sections.

With regards to emission controls for PM10, in the absence of measured data, or
knowledge of the collection efficiency for a particular piece of equipment, an
efficiency of 90% should be used in the emission factor equation to calculate actual
mass emissions. This default should only be used if there is no other available control
efficiency.

2.2.2 Emissions to Water

Manufacturers who apply finishes to concrete products generate various paint

wastes. When solvent-based paints are used, the spray guns and application
equipment must also be cleaned with solvent, thereby producing spent solvent
waste. These wastewaters can also contain listed substances, such as ethanol, ethyl
acetate, and other volatile organic compounds.

Emissions of substances to water can be categorised as discharges to:

• Surface waters (eg. lakes, rivers, dams, and estuaries)

• Coastal or marine waters
• Stormwater.

Because of the significant environmental hazards posed by emitting toxic substances

to water, most facilities emitting NPI-listed substances to waterways are required by
their relevant State or Territory environment agency to closely monitor and measure
these emissions. This existing sampling data can be used to calculate annual
emissions.

If no wastewater monitoring data exists, emissions to process water can be calculated

based on a mass balance or using emission factors. The most appropriate method for
determining emissions to the environment via wastewaters is to use direct
measurement, however, you may use other EETs for the purpose of reporting to the
NPI.

The discharge of listed substances to a sewer or tailings dam does not require you to
report to the NPI (See also Section Three of The NPI Guide).

5
2.2.3 Emissions to Land

Emissions of substances to land on-site include solid wastes, slurries, sediments,

spills and leaks, storage and distribution of liquids and may contain listed
substances. These emission sources can be broadly categorised as :

• surface impoundments of liquids and slurries

• unintentional leaks and spills.

6
3.0 Emission Estimation Techniques
Estimates of emissions of NPI listed substances to air, water and land should be
reported for each substance that triggers a threshold. The reporting list and detailed
information on thresholds are contained in The NPI Guide at the front of this
Handbook.

There are four types of emission estimation techniques (EETs) that may be used to
estimate emissions from your facility.

The four types described in The NPI Guide and in this Manual are:-
• sampling or direct measurement
• mass balance
• fuel analysis or other engineering calculations
• emission factors

Select the EET (or mix of EETs) that is most appropriate for your purposes. For
example, you might choose to use a mass balance to best estimate fugitive losses
from pumps and vents, direct measurement for stack and pipe emissions, and
emission factors when estimating losses from storage tanks and stockpiles.

If you estimate your emission by using any of the EETs described in The NPI Guide
and in this Manual, your data will be displayed on the NPI database as being of
‘acceptable reliability’. Similarly, if your relevant environmental authority has
approved the use of emission estimation techniques that are not outlined in The NPI
Guide and in this Manual, your data will also be displayed as being of ‘acceptable
reliability’.

This Manual seeks to provide the most effective emission estimation techniques for
the NPI substances relevant to this industry. However, the absence of an EET for a
substance in this Manual does not necessarily imply that an emission should not be
reported to the NPI. The obligation to report on all relevant emissions remains if
reporting thresholds have been exceeded.

You are able to use emission estimation techniques that are not outlined in this
document. You must, however, seek the consent of your relevant environmental
authority. For example, if your company has developed site specific emission
factors, you may use these if approved by your relevant environmental authority.

You should note that the EETs presented in this Manual relate principally to average
process emissions. Emissions resulting from non-routine events are rarely discussed
in the literature, and there is a general lack of EETs for such events. However, it is
important to recognise that emissions resulting from significant operating excursions
and/or accidental situations (eg: spills) will also need to be estimated. Emissions to
land, air and water from spills must be estimated and added to process emissions
when calculating total emissions for reporting purposes. The emission resulting
from a spill is the net emission, ie., the quantity of the NPI reportable substance
spilled, less the quantity recovered or consumed during clean up operations.

3.1 Direct Measurement

You may wish to undertake direct measurement in order to report to the NPI,
particularly if you already do so in order to meet other regulatory requirements.

7
However, the NPI does not require you to undertake additional sampling and
measurement. For sampling data to be adequate and able to be used for NPI
reporting purposes, it would need to be collected over a period of time and be
representative of operations for the whole year.

3.1.1 Sampling Data

Stack sampling test reports often provide emissions data in terms of kg per hour or
grams per cubic meter (dry standard). Annual emissions for NPI reporting can be
calculated from this data. Stack tests for NPI reporting should be performed under
representative (ie. normal) operating conditions. You should be aware that some tests
undertaken for a State or Territory license condition may require the test be taken
under maximum emissions rating, where emissions are likely to be higher than when
operating under normal operating conditions.

8
Table 4. List of Variables and Symbols
Variable Symbol Units
Concentration C parts per million volume dry
Molecular weight MW kg/kg-mole
Molar volume @ STP V 22.4 m3/kg-mole @ 0°C and 101.3 kPa
Flow rate Qa actual cubic metres per second (m3/s)
Flow rate Qd cubic metres per second (m3/s)
Emissions Ei typically kg per hour of pollutant i
Annual emissions Ekpy,i kg per year of pollutant i
Filter catch Cf grams (g)
PM10 concentration CPM g/m3
Metered volume at standard Vm, STP cubic metres (m3)
temperature and pressure
o
Temperature T C
Activity rate A tonnes per year (t/yr)
Annual operating hours OpHrs hours per year (hr/yr)
Specific gravity of coating SG kilograms per litre (kg/L)
Evaporation rate Evap percentage (%)
Control efficiency CE percentage (%)
Annual volume of coating A litres per year (L/yr)
Content of VOC species S percentage (%)
Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage, 1998.

Estimating Emissions to Air

Because vent or stack testing is relatively uncommon for Australian concrete product
manufacturers, emissions test data for these facilities are typically in the form of
worker exposure monitoring results conducted for compliance with Worksafe
Australia exposure standards. This gas concentration data may be used in
conjunction with exhaust system flow rates to calculate fugitive emissions from a
room, floor, or building. Equation (1) calculates these emissions.

Ekpy,i = (Q * 3 600 * OpHrs * Ci * 0.0858 * Mi) /1 * 106 (1)

where:

Ekpy,i = emissions of VOC or PM10 species i, kg/yr

Q = flow rate through exhaust ventilation system, m3/s
3 600 = conversion factor, s/hr
OpHrs= exhaust system operating hours, hr/yr
Ci = concentration of VOC or PM10 species i, ppmv
0.0858 = molar volume of gas at 20 °C, mole/m3
Mi = molecular weight of VOC or PM10 species i, kg/kg-mole
1*106 = 1*106, million m3

The following example illustrates the application of Equation (1).

9
Example 1. - Using Sampling Data

This example shows how Equation (1) is used to calculate fugitive emissions of
xylenes from a building where concrete roof-tiles are being coated. The following
data is given:

• the building exhaust flow rate (FR) is 10.1 m3/s

• the exhaust system operates for 7 920 hr/yr, OpHrs
• occupational hygiene data indicates that the concentration of mixed isomer
xylenes in the building (Cit) is 0.1 ppmv
• the molecular weight of mixed xylenes (Mi) is 106 kg/kg-mole

Xylenes emissions are calculated as follows:

Ekpy,i = (FR * 3 600 * OpHrs * Cit * 0.0858 * Mi) / 1 * 106

= (10.1 * 3 600 * 7 920 * 0.1 * 0.0858 * 106) / 1 * 106
= 262 kg xylenes/yr

Estimating Emissions to Water

Because of the significant environmental hazards posed by emitting toxic substances

to water, most facilities emitting listed NPI substances to waterways are required by
their relevant State or Territory environment agency to closely monitor and measure
these emissions. This existing monitoring data on pollutant concentrations in water
can be used to calculate annual emissions by the use of Equation (2).

Ekpy,i = Ci *V * OpHrs / 1 000 000 (2)

where:

Ekpy,i = emissions of pollutant i, kg/yr

Ci = concentration of pollutant i in wastewater,
mg/L
V = hourly volume of wastewater, L/hr
OpHrs = operating hours per year for which data
apply, hr/yr
1 000 000 = conversion factor, mg/kg

In applying Equation (2) to water emission calculations, monitoring data should be

averaged and only representative concentrations used in emission calculations. The
total emissions of a listed substance should equal the amount used during the year,
minus the amount incorporated into products, minus the amounts destroyed in on-
site treatment or transferred off-site for disposal by another facility. In estimating
emissions of metals, it is particularly helpful to first estimate the amount
incorporated into products before proceeding to individual emission estimates, as
this will provide a reference point.

3.1.2 Continuous Emission Monitoring System (CEMS) Data

A continuous emission monitoring system provides a continuous record of emissions

over time, usually by reporting pollutant concentration.

10
Once the pollutant concentration is known, emission rates are obtained by
multiplying the pollutant concentration by the volumetric gas, or liquid flow rate of
that pollutant.

It is important to note that prior to using CEMS to estimate emissions, you should
develop a protocol for collecting and averaging the data in order that the estimate
satisfies your relevant environmental authority’s requirement for NPI emissions
estimations.

3.2 Mass Balance

A mass balance identifies the quantity of substance going in and out of an entire
facility, process, or piece of equipment. Emissions can be calculated as the difference
between input and output of each listed substance. Accumulation or depletion of the
substance within the equipment should be accounted for in your calculation.

Estimating emissions of listed substances from concrete product manufacturing

activities can be undertaken across a process or entire facility using a mass balance.
Using industry-wide emission factors will not necessarily provide an accurate
reflection of the actual emissions from any facility because of the wide range of
possible operational practices within the industry.

The operational activities that are process or facility specific, and need to be factored
into a mass balance equation, include:

• the range and mix of process activities and product manufacturing that occur at
any facility;

• the amount of paint, solvents, and acid solutions used at the facility;

• the volatile organic compound (VOC) content, volatility and weight percentage of
listed substances in the paints and solvent cleaning solutions used;

• the amount of material that is recovered and recycled, but not reused within the
facility; and

• the control equipment used, and the control efficiency of this equipment.
The mass balance approach requires the addition of all materials containing NPI
pollutants received at the facility and then the subtraction of all the known losses or
transfers of the material off-site, including finished product and waste materials. The
difference is assumed to have been emitted to air, water, or land. The quantity
received, and the quantity lost or used should be for the same time period, typically 1
July to 30 June (the NPI reporting year).

Equation (3) can be used for calculating emissions using the mass balance approach.

Ekpy,i = Qr - Qp - Qrec - Qw - Qi (3)

where:

Ekpy,i = emissions of VOC or PM10 species i, kg/yr

11
 Qr = quantity of VOC or PM10 species i that is received as raw
material, kg/yr
Qp = quantity of VOC or PM10 species i that is contained in the
final product or article, kg/yr
Qrec = quantity of VOC or PM10 species i that is recovered on-
site by all methods (such as solvent recovery), kg/yr
Qw = quantity of VOC or PM10 species i that is contained in all
wastes (such as wastewater, sludge, drum residue)
generated during the NPI reporting year, kg/yr
Qi = quantity of VOC or PM10 species i that remains on-site in
the raw material inventory or stock pile, kg/yr

The following example shows the application of Equation (3).

12
Example 2. - Using a Mass Balance

This example shows how total xylene emissions for a concrete roof-tile
manufacturing facility can be calculated using Equation (3). Given data is as follows:

• In a given year, a concrete tile facility receives 70 000 kg of xylenes (Qf) contained
in 140 000 litres of concrete roof-tile paint.
• Based on the total amount of product shipped off-site, and records of product
composition, the facility estimates that the amount of xylenes shipped off-site
contained in roof tile coatings is 21 000 kg.
• The amount of xylenes that were recovered by the facility’s distillation system
(Qrec) is 20 000kg.
• Based on waste composition analyses, the amount of waste transferred off-site,
and wastewater discharge rates, the facility estimates that the amount of xylenes
found in all wastes generated during the year (Qw) is 5 000kg.
• The amount of xylenes contained in the facility’s paint inventory at the end of the
reporting year (Qi) is 15 000kg.

Emissions of xylenes are calculated as follows:

Ekpy,i = Qr - Qp - Qrec - Qw - Qi
= 70 000 - 21 000 - 20 000 - 5 000 - 15 000
= 9 000 kg xylenes/yr

3.3 Engineering Calculations

An engineering calculation is an estimation method based on physical/chemical

properties (eg. vapour pressure) of the substance, and mathematical relationships
(eg. ideal gas law).

Estimating VOC Emissions

The methodology for calculating volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from
coating or sealer application to concrete product or concrete mixing operations is
quite straightforward. For each type of coating, sealer, or paint fluid used, the
quantity of total product used is multiplied by the VOC content and evaporation rate
of the coating, sealer, or paint to obtain the total VOC emissions from the use of that
product.

If any type of air pollution control equipment is in use, then the VOC emissions
estimate is reduced by the effectiveness of the equipment to reflect the effects of the
control device. To report individual listed VOCs, (eg., toluene or xylenes), the same
method is applied, only the quantity of coating used is multiplied by the individual
content of the VOC being measured. The methodology is expressed by Equation (5).

13
 EVOC = Σi [(Ai * SGi) * (SVOC,i/100) * Evap * (1 - (CE/100))] (4)

where:

EVOC = total emissions of VOCs from concrete product

operations, kg/yr
Ai = total volume of coating, sealer, or paint type i used in the
reporting year, L/yr
SGi = specific gravity of the coating, sealer, or paint type i,
kg/L
SVOC,i = content of individually listed VOC substance for coating,
sealer, or paint type i, %
Evap = evaporation rate of VOC for coating, sealer, or paint
type i, fraction
CE = control efficiency factor, %
i = coating type, paint, release-agent, concrete-sealer,
thinner, primer

The quantities of each type of coating used are usually available in litres. Material
and Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), or paint and coating manufacturers and suppliers,
should be consulted to obtain the VOC content, VOC speciation profile, and the
evaporation rate. Some default VOC content values are provided in Table 5.

Table 5. VOC Content of Common Surface Coatings

Surface Coating VOC Content
(kilograms/litre)
Paint (solvent based) 0.672
Paint (water based) 0.156
Enamel 0.420
Concrete-Sealer 0.732
Primer 0.792
Varnish and Shellac 0.396
Thinner 0.883
Adhesive 0.528
Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage, 1998.

The following example illustrates the use of Equation 4:

14
Example 3. - Calculating VOC Emissions

50 000 litres of a concrete coating/sealer is used in a roofing tile manufacturing

facility over a reporting year. A solvent recycling system operates at an efficiency of
60 % for the recovery of xylene. From the MSDS, the percentage of xylenes in the
sealer is 50 %. The evaporation rate of the sealer is 0.7. The specific gravity of the
sealer is 1.0.

Using Equation (4), emissions of xylenes can be calculated as follows:

EVOC = Σi [(Ai * SGi) * (SVOC,i/100) * Evap * (1 - (CE/100))]

Exylene = (50 000L/yr * 1 kg/L) * (50/100) * 0.7 * (1 - (60/100))

= 7 000 kg xylenes/yr

3.4 Emission Factors

An emission factor is a tool that is used to estimate emissions to the environment. In

this Manual, it relates the quantity of substances emitted from a source, to some
common activity associated with those emissions. Emission factors are obtained
from US, European, and Australian sources and are usually expressed as the weight
of a substance emitted, divided by the unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of
the activity emitting the substance (eg. kilograms of sulfur dioxide emitted per tonne
of aggregate handled).

Emission factors are used to estimate a facility’s emissions by the general equation:

Ekpy,i = [A * OpHrs] EFi * [1 - (CEi/100)] (5)

where :

Ekpy,i = emission rate of pollutant i, kg/yr

A = activity rate, t/hr
OpHrs= operating hours, hr/yr
EFi = uncontrolled emission factor of pollutant i, kg/t
CEi = overall control efficiency of pollutant i, %.

Emission factors developed from measurements for a specific hopper, aggregate

loader, or other process may sometimes be used to estimate emissions at other sites.
For example, a concrete batcher may have several units of similar model and size, so
that if emissions were measured from one hopper or mixer, an emission factor could
be developed and applied to similar hoppers or mixers at other sites. It is advisable
to have the emission factor reviewed and approved by State or Territory
environment agencies prior to its use for NPI estimations.

15
Example 4. - Calculating PM10 Emissions

Table 6 shows that 0.05kg of PM10 are emitted for each tonne of truck-mix concrete
produced from all process sources. The emission factor is from a plant with no
emission abatement or control technologies in place. The concrete plant operates for
1 500 hours per year.

EFPM10 = 0.05 kg/t

Concrete production rate = 50 t/hr

PM10 emissions = EFPM10 * production rate * OpHrs

= 0.05 kg/t * 50 t/hr * 1 500 hr/yr
= 2.5 kg/hr * 1 500 hr/yr
= 3 750 kg PM10 /yr

3.4.1 Industry-Wide Emission Factors

Table 6. Particulate Matter (PM10) Emission Factors for Concrete Batching

Process Uncontrolled Emission
Particulate Emission Factor
Factor 1 Rating Code
(kg/tonne)
Sand and aggregate transfer to elevated 0.014 E
bin
Cement unloading to elevated storage silo
Pneumatic 0.13 D
Bucket elevator 0.12 E
Weigh hopper loading 0.01 E
Mixer loading (central mix) 0.02 E
Truck loading (truck mix) 0.01 E
Vehicle traffic (unpaved roads) 4.0 (kg/VKT)a C
Wind erosion from sand and aggregate 3.9 (kg/ha/day) D
storage piles*
Total process emissions (truck mix) 0.05 E
Units are kg of PM10 emitted per tonne of material handled.
Emissions are uncontrolled unless otherwise specified.
1
USEPA Document AP-42 (1995).
a
VKT= Vehicle kilometres travelled.
* It should not be assumed that wind erosion emission factors are the same for concrete batching as
they are for coal mining. The emission factors provided in this handbook for wind erosion refer
specifically to overall PM emissions from concrete batching plants. Aggregate used by concrete
batching plants is very different from coal mining particulates. The wind erosion emission factors in
the mining handbook relate largely to studies undertaken at Hunter Valley coal mines in 1988. The
relevance of this data to concrete batching plants, or indeed any other mining activity, requires
clarification.

16
Speciating PM10 Emissions

PM10 emissions containing listed metals may require speciation into individual metal
species where reporting thresholds for the metal have been triggered. Speciated PM10
emissions are calculated using Equation (6).

Ekpy,i = QPM10 * (EWi/MWPM10) (6)

where:

Ekpy,i = total emissions of PM10 species i, kg/yr

QPM10 = amount of PM10 emitted by the facility, kg/yr
EWi = elemental weight of substance i, kg/kg-mole
MWPM10= molecular weight of PM10, kg/kg-mole

* QPM10 in Equation (6) = Ekpy,i in Equation (5)

The application of Equation (6) is illustrated in the following example.

Example 5. - Speciating PM10 Emissions

This example demonstrates how speciated PM10 emissions from total concrete
batching processes at a facility may be calculated using the quantity of PM10
emissions calculated from Example 4 and Equation (6):

QPM10 = 3750 kg ZnO per year emitted as PM10

Ci = 80% Zn in ZnO

Ekpy,Zn = QPM10 * Ci/100

= 3750 * 80/100
= 3000 kg Zn per year

3.4.2 Emission Factor Tables for Concrete Batching Activities

Table 7 illustrates Emission Factors for PM10 for Concrete Batching Activities
(kg/tonne material unless otherwise specified).

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Table 7. Emission Factors for PM10 for Concrete Batching Activities
Component/Activities PM10 Emission Factors
(kg/tonne)
1. Materials Handling
a) unenclosed
Default formula for PM10 EPM10 = 0.75 * 0.001184 * [(U/2.2)1.3 /
(M/2)1.4]
NB For materials where M = 0, use
default of 0.0036 kg/t handled
Reduction Factors (RF)
- wind breaks 0.7
- water sprays 0.5
- chemical suppression 0.2
- enclosure (2 or 3 walls) 0.1
- covered stockpiles 0.0
b) bag filters venting outside EPM10 = 12mg/m3 * m3/hr (flow) * hr/yr
(OpHrs) * 10-6
(12mg/m3 = 80% * undiff. (15mg/m3))
c) enclosed 0.0
2. Materials Storage - wind erosion
from
active stockpiles (kg/ha/hr-area of
base)
Default 0.3
Reduction Factors (RF)
- wind breaks 0.7
- water sprays 0.5
- chemical suppression 0.2
- enclosure (2 or 3 walls) 0.1
- covered stockpiles 0.0
3. Equipment Traffic - greater than 5
tonnes
gross (kg/VKT on unsealed roads)
Option 1 0.0019 * (# wheels)3.4 * (road surface
material
silt content (g/m2 as per AS3638))0.2
Option 2 Default 1.5 (75% of undiff. (2.0))
Reduction Factors (RF)
- watering (to eliminate visible dust) 0.25
- chemical spraying (rate) 0.2
4. Fuel Preparation & Drying - coal
firing
with dust collector As per Section 1 b) bag filters
5. Limestone/Raw Material Crushing -
material through crusher (kg/tonne)
- uncontrolled 0.017
- fabric filter 0.0002
- wet or chemical suppression 0.0005
- wet scrubber 0.004

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Table 7 Emission Factors for PM10 for Concrete Batching Activities (cont’)
Component/Activities PM10 Emission Factors
(kg/tonne)
6. Kiln
a) wet process
- electrostatic precipitator 0.3
b) preheater kiln
- fabric filter 0.1
- electrostatic precipitator 0.1
c) precalciner process kiln
- fabric filter 0.1
- electrostatic precipitator 0.1
7. Clinker Processing
- fabric filter 0.001
- electrostatic precipitator 0.01
- gravel bed filter 0.03
8. Finished Cement Grinding
- uncontrolled 0.3
- fabric filter 0.003
- electrostatic precipitator 0.004
(Assumes a default factor of 60mg/m3
split into 40mg/m3 PM10 and 20mg/m3
> PM10)
Source: The Cement Industry Federation Limited, 1998.

3.4.3 Predictive Emission Monitoring (PEM)

Predictive emission monitoring is based on developing a correlation between

pollutant emission rates and process parameters. A PEM allows facilities to develop
site-specific emission factors, or emission factors more relevant to their particular
process.

Based on test data, a mathematical correlation can be developed which predicts

emissions using various parameters.

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4.0 Emission Estimation Techniques: Acceptable Reliability and
Uncertainty

This section is intended to give a general overview of some of the inaccuracies

associated with each of the techniques. Although the NPI does not mandate one
emission estimation technique over another, this section does attempt to evaluate the
available emission estimation techniques with respect to accuracy.

Several techniques are available for calculating emissions from concrete batching and
concrete product manufacturing facilities. The technique chosen is dependent upon
available data, available resources, and the degree of accuracy sought by the facility
in undertaking the estimate. In general, site-specific data that are representative of
normal operations are more accurate over industry-averaged data, such as the
emission factors presented in Section 3.4.1. of this Manual.

4.1 Direct Measurement

Use of stack and/or workplace health and safety sampling data is likely to be a
relatively accurate method of estimating air emissions from concrete batching and
concrete product manufacturing facilities. However, collection and analysis of
samples from facilities can be very expensive and especially complicated where a
variety of NPI-listed substances are emitted and where most of these emissions are
fugitive in nature. Sampling data from one specific process may not be representative
of the entire manufacturing operation and may provide only one example of the
facility’s emissions.

To be representative, sampling data used for NPI reporting purposes would need to
be collected over a period of time covering all aspects of production of concrete
products.

In the case of CEMS, instrument calibration drift can be problematic and uncaptured
data can create long-term incomplete data sets. However, it may be misleading to
assert that a snapshot (stack sampling) can better predict long-term emission
characteristics. It is the responsibility of the facility operator to properly calibrate and
maintain monitoring equipment and the corresponding emissions data.

4.2 Mass Balance

Calculating emissions from a concrete product manufacturing facility using mass

balance appears on the surface to be a straightforward approach to emissions
estimations. However, few Australian concrete product manufacturing facilities
consistently track material usage and waste generation with the overall accuracy
needed for application of this method. Inaccuracies associated with individual
material tracking or other activities inherent in each material handling stage often
accumulate into large deviations of total facility emissions. Because emissions from
specific materials are typically below 2 percent of gross consumption, an error of
only ± 5 percent in any one step of the operation can significantly skew emissions
estimations.

4.3 Engineering Calculations

Theoretical and complex equations or models can be used for estimating emissions
from concrete product manufacturing, however, their use is a more complex and

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time-consuming process than the use of emission factors. Emission equations require
more detailed inputs than the use of emission factors but they do provide an
emission estimate that is based on facility-specific conditions.

4.4 Emission Factors

Every emission factor has an associated emission factor rating (EFR) code. This
rating system is common to EETs for all industries and sectors and therefore, to all
Industry Handbooks. They are based on rating systems developed by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and by the European
Environment Agency (EEA). Consequently, the ratings may not be directly relevant
to Australian industry. Sources for all emission factors cited can be found in Section
5.0 of this document. The emission factor ratings will not form part of the public NPI
database.

When using emission factors, you should be aware of the associated EFR code and
what that rating implies. An A or B rating indicates a greater degree of certainty
than a D or E rating. The less certainty, the more likely that a given emission factor
for a specific source or category is not representative of the source type. These
ratings notwithstanding, the main criterion affecting the uncertainty of an emission
factor remains the degree of similarity between the equipment/process selected in
applying the factor, and the target equipment/process from which the factor was
derived.

The EFR system is as follows :

A - Excellent
B - Above Average
C - Average
D - Below Average
E - Poor
U - Unrated

In addition to the EFR code, the accuracy of emission factors is thoroughly

dependent upon the degree of similarity between the reference source and the
emission source being estimated.

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5.0 References

USEPA. January 1995. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume 1:

Stationary Point and Area Sources, fifth edition, AP-42. Section 11, Mineral Products
Industry, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards. Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.

USEPA. September 1995. EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project. Profile of the
Stone, Clay, Glass, and Concrete Products Industry.. United States Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance. Washington,
DC, USA.

Written Communication from The Cement Industry Federation Limited, St Leonards,

NSW, to the Queensland Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane, QLD, August
1998.

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