WATER RESOURCES PROFILE SERIES

The Water Resources Profile Series synthesizes information on water resources, water quality, the water-related dimen-
sions of climate change, and water governance and provides an overview of the most critical water resources challenges
and stress factors within USAID Water for the World Act High Priority Countries. The profile includes: a summary of avail-
able surface and groundwater resources; analysis of surface and groundwater availability and quality challenges related
to water and land use practices; discussion of climate change risks; and synthesis of governance issues affecting water
resources management institutions and service providers.

Ethiopia Water Resources Profile Overview

Ethiopia has abundant water resources and contains the headwaters of numerous transboundary rivers, including
the Nile. Key water stress metrics suggest Ethiopia is water stressed. Total annual renewable water resources per
person are 1,162 m3, which is below the Falkenmark Water Stress Indexi threshold for water stress and just above
the water scarcity threshold. The ratio of water withdrawals to supply is 32 percent, which exceeds the SDG 6.4.2ii
threshold for water stress. Water stress is most evident at the sub-national level and seasonally in some locations.

Water supply is concentrated in western Ethiopia (Abay Basin) and water stress is highest in the east (especially
Awash Basin) due to low supply and high demand. Sedimentation has reduced storage capacity in many
reservoirs in the Awash Basin. The reservoirs are important for mitigating drought impacts on water availability.

Dams are critical for hydropower and water storage, however, concerns have been raised about downstream
impacts. The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) in the Abay Basin has generated concern about
potential impacts to Sudan and Egypt. Currently, there is no international framework to govern dam operations.
The Gibe III Hydropower Dam on the Omo River has impacted downstream flood-recession agriculture.

Severe levels of chromium pollution and high biological oxygen demand (BOD) have been attributed to tanneries
and textile factories around Addis Ababa. Artisanal gold mining has also degraded watersheds throughout
Ethiopia. Widespread eutrophication caused by agricultural runoff has threatened biodiversity in most reservoirs,
lakes, and wetlands. Runoff and untreated effluent from urban areas also pose environmental and public health
risks.

Groundwater resources are not well understood. Natural contamination from fluoride is present throughout the
Great Rift Valley (Afar-Denakil, Awash, Omo-Gibe, and Rift Valley Basins) and poses the most significant health
risk.

Climate change will increase the frequency and severity of flooding and drought risks. The Ogaden, Wabi-
Shebele, Awash, Afar-Denakil, Mereb, and Aysha Basins are already vulnerable to drought, which have caused
widespread loss of livestock and crops, increased poverty and malnutrition, and several major famines.

Ethiopia is committed to Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). Policies, strategies, and programs
are being revised to reflect the government’s decision to centralize the water sector. Greater emphasis is needed
on improving sector financing; increasing staffing and technical capacity; strengthening water quality monitoring,
water use and pollution permitting and enforcement; and establishing Basins Development Agency (BDA)
branch offices.

iThe Falkenmark Water Stress Index measures water scarcity as the amount of renewable freshwater that is available for each person each year. A
country is said to be experiencing water stress when water availability is below 1,700 m3 per person per year; below 1,000 m3 is considered water
scarcity; and below 500 m3 is absolute or severe water scarcity.
iiSDG 6.4.2 measures water stress as the percentage of freshwater withdrawals against total renewable freshwater resources. The water stress thresholds

are: no stress <25%, low 25%-50%, medium 50%-75%, high 75%-100%, and critical >100%.
 Water Resources Availability

KEY TAKEAWAYS

The Abay, Baro-Akobo, Mereb, and Setit-Tekeze/Atbara Basins are part of the transboundary Nile Basin, which contains most of
Ethiopia’s renewable surface water.

Most basins throughout the east are very dry and many locations only have ephemeral surface water.

Groundwater access is limited in the south and southeast by low water tables. Volcanic and alluvial aquifers in highland areas are
often high yielding and accessible drinking water sources.

This section summarizes key characteristics of surface and groundwater resources. Table 1 summarizes key water
resources data and Figure 1 presents key surface water resources, wetlands, and dams.

Surface Water Resources and Rift Valley Basins. Four percent of the national supply
Ethiopia manages its surface water through 12 basins is in the Awash Basin and water availability is negligible
which are part of four transboundary basins: the Nile, Rift in the northernmost Afar-Denakil Basin. The Awash Basin
Valley, Shebelle-Juba, and North East Coast.2,3 With the has limited supply and high demand, with low average
exception of the Nile Basin, all river basins experience annual precipitation.1 The eastern Wabi-Shebelle and
water shortages. Almost no perennial rivers can be found Genale-Dawa Basins are part of the Shebelle-Juba Basin
below 1,500 meters, leaving much of eastern Ethiopia and contain eight percent of Ethiopia’s surface water.4
without reliable surface water.2 The North East Coast Basin encompasses the Ogaden
and Aysha, but they are considered dry basins with rivers
The western Abay (Blue Nile), Baro-Akobo, Mereb, and that only flow after rainfall.2
Setit-Tekeze/Atbara Basins are part of the Nile Basin,
which generates 70 percent of the country’s renewable Ethiopia has 22 lakes. Lake Tana (Abay Basin) is the
surface water, mostly through the Abay Basin. 2,4 largest and is a critical water source for the Nile River.
Collectively, these basins provide 86 percent of the Nile’s There are also numerous large lakes in the Rift Valley
annual flow.5 The central and northeastern Afar-Denakil, Basin,2,4 although most are saline. Ethiopia also has 1.8
Awash, Omo-Gibe, and Rift Valley Basins account for million hectares of wetlands and floodplains, which are
over 20 percent of surface water resources and are part concentrated in the Nile and Rift Valley Basins.2 Ethiopia
of the Rift Valley Basin, which spans much of East Africa. has not ratified the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.6
Water supply is concentrated in the southern Omo-Gibe

Sub-Saharan Africa
TABLE 1. WATER RESOURCES DATA Year Ethiopia
(median)

Long-term average precipitation (mm/year) 2017 848 1,032

Total renewable freshwater resources (TRWR) (MCM/year) 2017 122,000 38,385
Falkenmark Index - TRWR per capita (m3/year) 2017 1,162 2,519
Total renewable surface water (MCM/year) 2017 120,000 36,920
Total renewable groundwater (MCM/year) 2017 20,000 7,470
Total freshwater withdrawal (TFWW) (MCM/year) 2002 10,550 649
Total dam capacity (MCM) 2015 31,480iii 1,777
Dependency ratio (%) 2017 0 22.78
Interannual variability 2013 1.8 1.55
Seasonal variability 2013 3.3 3.15
Environmental Flow Requirements (MCM/year) 2017 89,300 18,570
SDG 6.4.2 Water Stress (%) 2016 32.26 5.7
Source: FAO Aquastat

iiiDoesnot include recently constructed dams, including the GERD, which began filling in 2020 and provides an additional 79,000 MCM in storage
2 capacity.
FIGURE 1: MAP OF WATER RESOURCES

Groundwater Resources productivity, low recharge (30 mm/year), and are among
Groundwater is highly variable and aquifer systems the deepest (200-400 meters).
are complex. Aquifers can be broadly characterized
as volcanic, basement, sedimentary rock, or alluvial. Alluvial and basement aquifers are less common.
Volcanic aquifers are the most common and are located Both are located in the southern and western regions.
in highland areas throughout central and western Basement aquifers are also located in the far north and
Ethiopia. Volcanic aquifers can be thick (500–1,000 alluvial aquifers in the northeast. Groundwater availability
meters), have moderate to high depths to groundwater is lowest in basement aquifers and highest in alluvial
(50-250 meters), and are among the highest yielding. aquifers, and both systems can be accessed at relatively
Sedimentary rock aquifers are widespread in the lowland shallow depths.7,8
areas of eastern Ethiopia and have low to moderate

3
 Surface Water Outlook

KEY TAKEAWAYS

The Awash Basin is one of the most water stressed in Ethiopia. Dam storage capacity has been significantly reduced by
sedimentation.

Hydropower generation is a key priority for the Government of Ethiopia, although several high profile dams have caused controversy
and international disagreements, particularly with the GERD.

Most lakes, reservoirs, and wetlands are threatened by eutrophication from agricultural encroachment, especially in the Great Rift
Valley.

Tanneries and textile factories are major sources of pollution in Addis Ababa. Inadequate sanitation systems have led to high
concentrations of fecal coliforms that pose public health risks.

This section describes key sources of demand and uses of surface water, and associated challenges stemming
from water availability and water quality challenges.

Irrigation is the largest source of demand for surface The GERD in the Abay Basin will be one of the largest
water. Approximately 85 percent (around 9,000 MCM hydropower dams in the world (79,000 MCM) with an
per year) of all water withdrawals are for irrigation, mostly installed capacity of around 5,150 MW. 21 Egypt and
from surface water.2 Only 10 percent of municipal and Sudan have expressed concerns that the GERD will
industrial withdrawals are from surface water. 7 Almost significantly reduce the Nile’s flow and negatively impact
2 million hectares (ha) are irrigated, mainly in the Omo- their economies.22 The extent of the risks to downstream
Gibe and Rift Valley Basins, although most irrigation is riverine ecosystems and water users will be determined
seasonal.9,10 by dam operation. 23 One analysis suggests that a 10
percent reduction in maximum outflow capacity could
The Awash Basin has low water supply, high demand, lead to a 0.4–0.75 meter decline in the Nile’s downstream
limited water storage capacity, and is vulnerable to water level.24 Other studies suggest the GERD will not
drought. Approximately 19 million people reside in the have significant impacts to downstream countries. 21
Awash Basin, which features Ethiopia’s largest cities, The GERD began filling in 2020 and will fill over 5-7
including Addis Ababa. Almost 200,000 hectares of years, which will temporarily reduce inflows to Egypt’s
irrigated farmland, two-thirds of national industries, and reservoirs.21,25 Sudan has less dam capacity and may be
over 34 million livestock are also located in the Basin. The more susceptible to flow disruptions during the GERD’s
Aba Samuel, Gafarsa, Koka, Kessem, and Tendaho Dams filling.26
provide water storage for municipal and agricultural use,
as well as hydropower.1 Additional storage is needed Agricultural activity throughout the Rift Valley
as sedimentation has reduced reservoir capacity. 12 is causing sedimentation and eutrophication in
Sedimentation has inhibited hydropower generation and downstream reservoirs, lakes, and wetlands.
reduced the capacity of Addis Ababa’s largest and most Agricultural clearing, natural steep topography, and
important reservoir at Koka Dam (original capacity 1,900 high precipitation intensity causes almost 2 billion tons
MCM) to 40 percent of its original capacity since it was of soil erodes annually.27,28 Croplands in highland areas
built in 1959.11,13 deliver twice the sediment and nitrates as grasslands,
which increases downstream turbidity and eutrophication
Reservoirs help regulate flooding and provide water risks at the Legedadi, Aba-Samuel, and Gilgel Gibe
for irrigation, hydropower, and drinking. They also I Reservoirs. 29,30 Direct cultivation in wetlands also
create risks to downstream environmental systems threaten biodiversity and water quality. The Shesher
and water users.9 The recently completed 1,870 MW and Wallala wetlands around Lake Tana have become
Gilgel Gibe III Dam (Omo River) doubled Ethiopia’s fragmented and smaller in size after teff cultivation,
electricity production 14 and mitigates potentially a cereal grain, increased. 31,32 Runoff from wetland
damaging floods. 15 However, the dam has also been agriculture has contributed to widespread eutrophication
labeled as one of the most controversial in Africa.16 The in lakes and caused fish populations to decline. 33
Dam reduces the extent of key floods that approximately Increasing fertilizer application rates and livestock waste
200,000 downstream pastoralists depend on for are key contributors to elevated concentrations of
flood-recession agriculture. 17,18 Flood regulation also phosphorous and nitrogen in surface waters, which cause
diminishes the transport of sediment to downstream regular algal blooms.28,35,36
farmlands, reduces groundwater recharge, and may
threaten unique riparian habit and biodiversity.19 Two
additional large dams- Gibe IV and Give V- are planned
on the Omo River and pose similar risks and benefits.20

4
Untreated effluent from tanneries and textile Southern Ethiopia has also been linked to high mercury
factories around Addis Ababa, as well as large scale levels in downstream water sources.41
gold mining in the south and artisanal gold mining
nationwide degrade surface water quality. Treatment Uncollected municipal waste and inadequate
of industrial effluent is limited and causes widespread sanitation systems have increased fecal coliforms in
pollution around Addis Ababa. Textile factories use surface water. Only a small portion of urban wastewater
thousands of chemicals and lack adequate treatment is collected and treated. Wastewater treatment facilities
systems for effluent, and have caused high BOD and are often poorly managed, which results in direct
suspended solids in surface water.38 In one study, median discharge of wastewater into rivers.42 Some reaches of
chromium levels were found to be 50 times higher than the Akaki River (downstream of Addis Ababa) have high
the WHO guideline value for drinking water downstream concentrations of fecal coliforms levels, posing public
of nearby tanneries in the Awash Basin.37 Artisanal gold health risks and risks to agriculture as coliform levels
mining is also widespread and employs over one million exceed WHO guideline values for irrigation of certain
people,39 and poses risks from watershed degradation crops classes.43,44
and increased turbidity. 40 One large gold mine in

Groundwater Outlook

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Most groundwater withdrawals are for domestic and municipal users, whereas abstractions for irrigated agriculture are more limited.

More research is needed to better understand the sustainability of groundwater resources, particularly in Addis Ababa, where
groundwater demand is highest and most concentrated.

Groundwater in the Great Rift Valley has naturally high fluoride that threatens public health, while limited sanitation infrastructure
poses pathogenic risks to groundwater quality in shallow wells in urban areas.

This section describes key sources of demand and uses of groundwater, and associated challenges stemming from
water availability and water quality challenges.
Studies on groundwater sustainability and half of shallow wells in the Great Rift Valley. The highest
abstractions are generally limited. Groundwater concentrations over 50 times the guideline value. High
accounts for 90 percent of domestic/municipal and levels of salinity are found in volcanic aquifers throughout
industrial supply. 2,7 Around 70 percent of rural water the Great Rift Valley, and in the sedimentary aquifers
supply is from groundwater, 2 with comparable usage in the south, southeast, and northeast.48 Other limited
rates (60 percent) in Addis Ababa. 45 Groundwater studies have identified arsenic in some parts of the Great
dependency is highest in the more arid Wabi-Shebelle Rift Valley.49
and Ogaden Basins, although groundwater is not very
accessible in some regions due to its depth.46 Pastoralists Inadequate sanitation systems contaminate
in these basins also depend on groundwater for livestock groundwater in most urban areas. A recent national
watering and agriculture to complement ephemeral survey found that almost 30 percent of sampled
surface water sources. Groundwater use in irrigation is wells in southern, central, and northern Ethiopia were
low.4 contaminated with E. Coli. 50 In Addis Ababa, only 14
percent of the city is connected to a sewer system, with
Naturally occurring fluoride is widespread in the most households using on-site disposal systems such
Great Rift Valley and poses serious health risks. as latrines and septic tanks which can pollute shallow
Around 30 percent of Ethiopia’s groundwater has groundwater.51 Shallow wells in Addis Ababa are more
naturally high salinity and fluoride, mainly in the Great than twice as likely as deep wells to test positive for
Rift Valley.47 Concentrations of fluoride are nearly three E. Coli.52 Larger national studies are needed to better
times the WHO guideline value for fluoride in drinking assess pathogenic pollution of groundwater.
water in approximately one-third of boreholes and one-

5
 Water Resources and Climate

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Climate change will increase precipitation but lead to more frequent droughts. This will increase risks to food security and livelihoods
among pastoralists and farmers throughout lowland areas in eastern Ethiopia.

Lowland areas in Ethiopia are prone to extreme flooding due to high rainfall intensity and naturally steep terrain. Climate change will
increase rainfall intensity and worsen flood risks.

This section covers climate variability and climate change, their impacts on water availability and water quality, and
the risks they pose to local communities and their economies.

Climate change will increase rainfall and rainfall drought between 1983-1985, coupled with political
intensity, although hotter temperatures will also instability and conflict, caused Ethiopia’s worst famine in a
increase evaporation. Ethiopia has naturally high inter- century and led to the deaths of over one million people.59
seasonal rainfall variability. The driest regions in the east The 2015 drought was one of the worst in recent history,
also have high interannual variability.53 Precipitation ranges with precipitation being 65 percent below average in
from 2,700 mm/year in highland areas in the southwest and the northeastern and central regions.60 By 2016, over 10
can be as low as 100 mm/year in the Afar Lowlands in the million people required emergency assistance, as one
northeast.9,54 Between 50 and 80 percent of rainfall occurs million livestock and 75 percent of croplands were lost in
from June to September.55 Climate change will increase the most affected areas.61
average temperature 1.9- 3.7°C and increase precipitation
between 29 and 117 mm/year, with most gains occurring Climate change will lead to heavier rainfall and increase
between September and December. However, higher flood risks, particularly in the Awash and Wabi-
evaporation losses will offset most of these gains.56 Shebelle Basins, and in parts of the Great Rift Valley.
Flood impacts are already severe, especially in lowland
Climate change is increasing the frequency, magnitude, areas, due to naturally high rainfall intensity and steep
and scale of droughts, raising the risk of famine and topography, as well as upper basin land use changes and
major economic losses, especially in eastern Ethiopia.57 deforestation.57,62 Between 1991 and 2019, floods resulted
Drought risks are high in most eastern basins 58 and in 3,000 deaths, displaced 1.3 million people, and the loss
almost 90 percent of drought prone regions are in lowland of 250,000 cattle and half a million hectares of cropland.63
areas.53 Over the past 30 years, Ethiopia has had seven Climate change is increasing rainfall intensity, which will
major droughts which resulted in five famines.57 Prolonged accentuate flood risks.56

FIGURE 2: DROUGHT RISK FIGURE 3. RIVERINE FLOOD RISK

6
Water Policy and Governance

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Ethiopia’s water sector policies, programs, and strategies are being revised and key sub-national basin management entities have
recently been centralized.

Lack of coordination among water sector actors with overlapping mandates impedes effective water resources management. Low
sectoral funding and finance has delayed the opening BDA branch offices and development of master plans.

Water quality monitoring is overseen by the MoWIE and the MEFCC in the Awash Basin; water quality monitoring is broadly lacking
in all other basins.

This section provides an overview of key policies, institutions, and management challenges. Key laws, policies, and
plans are summarized in Table 2 and the roles and responsibilities of select transboundary, national, and sub-national
water management entities are summarized in Table 3.

TABLE 2. KEY LAWS, POLICIES, AND PLANS

Name Year Purpose

Environmental Policy of 1997 Establishes national policy related to water conservation, the environmental
Ethiopia impact assessment process, water quality compliance monitoring, and
wetland and forest rehabilitation and protection.
Water Resources 1999 Currently under revision, the EWRMP adopts basin and sub-basin
Management Policy (EWRMP) management approaches, and outlines national goals, objectives, and
guiding principles for water resources management by prioritizing water use
for economic development and poverty alleviation.
Water Sector Strategy 2001 Currently under revision, the strategy outlines the national approach for
irrigation, water and sanitation, and hydropower. The strategy also addresses
transboundary water management and environmental mitigation for hydraulic
infrastructure.
Water Resources 2005 Establishes rights and obligations of water users and government entities for
Management Regulations water use and effluent discharge permitting, water works construction, and
well installations.

River Basin Councils and 2007 Outlines the establishment of River Basins High Councils and River Basins
Authorities Proclamation Authorities and defines their powers, structures, and duties, including data
sharing, basin management planning, and water use permitting.

Powers and Duties of 2018 Redefines existing organizational structures and responsibilities for key
the Executive Organs ministries and institutions, including in the water sector. Transfers the rights
Proclamation and obligations of basin-level institutions to the central Basins Development
Authority (BDA).

7
 TABLE 3: WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ENTITIES

Mandate Institution Roles and Responsibilities

International partnership consisting of 11 countries within the Nile

Basin, which encompasses the Lake Victoria Basin as part of its upper
Transboundary Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)
watershed. Coordinates basin development through a Council of
Ministers, Technical Advisory Committee, and Secretariat.
Primary entity in charge of water resources management, water
dispute resolution, designing water policy and legal frameworks,
conducting basin studies, operating water infrastructure, and
monitoring and regulating water quality. Oversees Water
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy
Development Commission, Basins Development Authority, Irrigation
(MoWIE)
Development Commission, and the Great Renaissance Dam
Coordination Project Office. The Hydrology and Water Quality
Directorate is housed within MoWIE and leads water quality
monitoring.
Coordinates and directs environmental sector objectives, develops
Environment, Forest, and Climate Change
policy and laws, and charged with establishing a cross sectoral
Commission (EFCCC)
environmental information system.

Collects water quality data, manages system for environmental

Ministry of Environment, Forest, and
impact assessments, and administration of environmental regulations
National Climate Change (MEFCC)
related to forest management and water pollution.

Oversees WDF and leads water and sanitation service delivery

Water Development Commission
nationwide, in both rural and urban areas, through branch offices.
Semi-autonomous body accountable to the Water Development
Commission. Provide loans for development of WASH infrastructure,
Water Development Fund (WDF)
credits to water user associations, and grants for sectoral capacity
building initiatives.
Executive organ of the central government that is accountable to
MoWIE. Prepares basin Master Plans, issues water use permits and
Basins Development Agency (BDA)
collects water use fees, and provides technical support to MoWIE
regarding dispute resolution.
Executive organ of the central government that approves basin plans
National Basin High Council
and sets water use fees.
Plan and develop regional water supply projects and provide
Regional Water Bureaus (RWB) oversight and technical support to water service providers. Oversees
Sub-national sub-regional Woreda Water Office and Zonal Water Departments.
Local level organization in charge of irrigation and drinking water
Water Users Associations (WUA)
supply management.

Low government funding and a lack of sustainable There are eight water resources management master plans
financing mechanisms have delayed the establishment but they are over two decades old and require substantive
of BDA branch offices and development of basin updates.28 Revisions of the basin master plans for the
master plans. The 2018 Ethiopia Powers and Duties of Awash, Abay, and Rift Valley Basins have been affected
the Executive Organs Proclamation initiated important by technical capacity and financial constraints within the
changes to how the water sector is organized. The BDA branch offices.28,68 The BDA is considering external
Proclamation transferred the rights and obligations of the and private sector financing as well as establishing a
previously autonomous River Basin Authorities (RBAs) to water resources management fund within the MoWIE to
a national BDA and converted the Awash, Abay, and Rift address budget deficits and finance basin development
Valley RBAs into branch offices of the BDA.64,65 Due to and conservation projects.67 Water use and wastewater
funding shortfalls, the other nine basins did not have RBAs. permitting can be an important financing tool for basin
Prior to the 2018 proclamation, efforts were underway to management initiatives, however, permit revenue only
establish RBAs in Tekeze, Omo-Gibe, and Baro-Akobo, accounts for one percent of the Awash BDA’s operational
although it remains unclear if and when these organizations budget, the only BDA to issue permits to date.28
will be constituted as BDA branch offices. 65 The BDA Compliance monitoring (through inspections) is needed
is developing a National Integrated Water Resources to ensure water users adhere to the terms of water use
Management Plan (NIWRMP), which may clarify the BDA’s permits, but this occurs infrequently.28
new approach to IWRM.67

8
Water management responsibilities and regulatory share responsibilities for catchment management, irrigation
authority are distributed among several national development, and the regulation of pesticides. The Ministry
and sub-national governmental entities, however, of Agriculture leads the development and management
coordination is generally limited. The 2007 and 2018 of small-scale irrigation schemes, while MoWIE assumes
proclamations called for the MoWIE to transfer water use these responsibilities for larger irrigation projects. Finally,
and wastewater permitting responsibilities to the BDA, the draft NIWRMP notes that regional states, through their
but the BDA is not yet operational in all the basins.68 The Regional Water Bureaus (RWBs), often license, build, and
MoWIE and the BDA are supposed to manage water use manage hydraulic development projects (such as municipal
permits for medium and large-scale irrigation schemes, water supply, canals) without coordinating with the BDA to
while small-scale irrigation (< 500 ha) permits are handled consider basin-wide impacts.
by regional governments.28 Industrial abstraction permits
are managed by regional governments based on land Water Quality Monitoring
and industrial development licenses.28 None of these Surface and groundwater quality monitoring is limited.
permitting structures take into account water availability or The MEFCC and MoWIE, through the BDA branch
sustainability, and are primarily for monitoring usage.28 offices, monitor water quality and maintain separate
water quality monitoring networks in the same basins.37
The draft NIWRMP identifies opportunities to align water Systematic water quality monitoring only occurs in the
resources management functions across institutions.68 Awash Basin but it is conducted independently by the
The MEFCC and MoWIE share mandates for water quality MoWIE and the MEFCC37 and data is limited, especially
monitoring and catchment management, however, the draft for groundwater.28 A National Groundwater Information
NIWRMP indicates that MoWIE’s mandate is “contested” System (NGIS) exists69 but data is not effectively shared
and that there is limited coordination between the two and used across institutions.28,37 The MEFCC has yet to
institutions. Similarly, the Ministry of Agriculture and MoWIE set ambient water quality criteria.37

References
(1) FAO. Water Accounting in the Awash River Basin; 2020.
(2) FAO. Aquastat Country Profile: Ethiopia; Rome, 2016.
(3) Barron, J.; Noel, S.; Rockström, J.; Soussan, J. Water and Poverty Linkages in Africa; Stockholm, 2007.
(4) Berhanu, B.; Seleshi, Y.; Melesse, A. M. Surface Water and Groundwater Resources of Ethiopia: Potentials and Challenges of Water Resources
Development. In Nile River Basin: Ecohydrological Challenges, Climate Change and Hydropolitics; Melesse, A. M., Abtew, W.,
Setegn, S. G., Eds.; Springer International Publishing, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02720-3_6.
(5) Abtew, W.; Dessu, S. B. Hydrology of the Blue Nile Basin: Overview. In The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam on the Blue Nile; Springer
International Puglishing, 2019; pp 39–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97094-3_4.
(6) Dixon, A.; Wood, A.; Hailu, A. Wetlands in Ethiopia: Lessons From 20 Years of Research, Policy and Practice. Wetlands in the Developing World
2021, 41 (20). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-021-01420-x.
(7) BGS. Hydrogeology of Ethiopia http://earthwise.bgs.ac.uk/index.php/Hydrogeology_of_Ethiopia (accessed 2021 -04 -09).
(8) Ayenew, T.; Masresha, P.; Awulachew, S. B. Ethiopia. In Groundwater Availability and Use in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of 15 Countries; Pavelic,
P., Giordano, M., Keraita, B., Ramesh, V., Rao, T., Eds.; International Water Management Institute, 2012; pp 24–41.
(9) FAO. Aquastat Main Database http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/results.html (accessed 2020 -07 -08).
(10) Hagos, F. G.; Makombe, G.; Namara, R.; Awlachew, S. B. Importance of Irrigated Agriculture to the Ethiopian Economy: Capturing the Direct Net
Benefits of Irrigation. Ethiopian Journal of Development Research 2009, 32 (1). https://doi.org/10.4314/ejdr.v32i1.68597.
(11) FAO. AQUASTAT - FAO’s Global Information System on Water and Agriculture http://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/databases/dams (accessed 2020
-08 -19).
(12) Wolancho, K. W. Watershed Management: An Option to Sustain Dam and Reservoir Function in Ethiopia. Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology 2012, 5 (262–273). https://doi.org/10.3923/jest.2012.262.273.
(13) Kebbede, G. Environment and Society in Ethiopia; Routledge: Abingdon, 2017.
(14) NS Energy. Salini Impregilo commissions 1870MW Gibe III hydroelectric project in Ethiopia https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/news/newssalini-
impregilo-commissions-1870mw-gibe-iii-hydroelectric-project-in-ethiopia-191216-5700122/ (accessed 2021 -07 -16).
(15) United States Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service. Heavy Rains during August Cause Massive Floods in Ethiopia; 2006.
(16) The Economist. Ethiopia opens Africa’s tallest and most controversial dam https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2016/12/21/
ethiopia-opens-africas-tallest-and-most-controversial-dam (accessed 2021 -07 -16).
(17) Winsor, M. Ethiopia’s Massive Gilgel Gibe III Hydropower Dam Project Linked To Severe Hunger By Indigenous Kwegu Tribe, UN Investigating
https://www.ibtimes.com/ethiopias-massive-gilgel-gibe-iii-hydropower-dam-project-linked-severe-hunger-1886295 (accessed
2021 -04 -16).
(18) Parker, L. See a Massive Dam’s Big Impacts on Tribal Communities https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/article/omo-dam-ethiopia-
kenya-photographs (accessed 2021 -04 -16).
(19) Africa Resources Working Group (ARWG). A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe
III Dam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Ethiopia; 2008.
(20) Olson, N. Gibe III https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/gibe-iii (accessed 2021 -07 -16).
(21) Wheeler, K. G.; Jeuland, M.; Hall, J. W.; Zagona, E.; Whittington, D. Understanding and Managing New Risks on the Nile with the Grand Ethiopian
Renaissance Dam. Nature Communications2 2020, 11 (5222).
(22) Dunne, C. W. The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam and Egypt’s Military Options%0A http://arabcenterdc.org/policy_analyses/the-grand-
ethiopian-renaissance-dam-and-egypts-military-options/ (accessed 2021 -04 -16).
(23) Soliman, G. Assessment of Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Impacts Using Decision Support System. IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering
2016, 18 (5).
(24) El-Nashar, W. Y.; Elyamany, Ahmed, H. Managing Risks of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam on Egypt. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 2018,
9, 2383–2388. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2017.06.004.

9
(25) Enterprise. Ethiopia to start the second phase of GERD reservoir filling in August 2021.
(26) BBC. Gerd: Sudan talks tough with Ethiopia over River Nile dam https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-56799672 (accessed 2021 -04 -23).
(27) Awulachew, S. B. Irrigation Potential in Ethiopia. Constraints and Opportunities for Enhancing the System; 2010.
(28) ODI. Building Adaptive Water Resources Management in Ethiopia; London, 2015.
(29) Jaleta, D.; Mbilinyi, Boniface, P.; Mahoo, H. F.; Lemenih, M. Comparative Assessment of Soil and Nutrient Losses from Three Land Uses in the
Central Highlands of Ethiopia. International Journal of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering 2017, 9 (1), 1–7.
(30) Adugna, T. M.; Cherie, D. A. A Review on Reservoirs Sedimenation Problems in Ethiopia. Asian Journal of Advanced Research and Reports 2021,
15 (3), 1–8.
(31) Giweta, M.; Worku, Y. Reversing the Degradation of Ethiopian Wetlands : Is It Unachievable Phrase or A Call to Effective Action. International
Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources 2018, 14 (5), 136–146.
(32) Mohammed, I.; Mengist, M. Status, Threats and Management of Wetlands in the Lake Tana Sub-Basin: A Review. Journal of Agriculture and
Environmental Sciences 2018, 3 (2).
(33) Fetahi, T. Eutrophication of Ethiopian Water Bodies: A Serious Threat to Water Quality, Biodiversity and Public Health. African Journal of Aquatic
Science 2019, 44 (4). https://doi.org/10.2989/16085914.2019.1663722.
(34) Abdulkadir, B.; Kassa, S.; Desalegn, T. emesgen; Tadesse, K.; Haileselassie, M.; Fana, G.; Abera, T.; Amede, T.; Tibebe, D. 2: Crop Response
to Fertilizer Application in Ethiopia: A Review. In A review of soil fertility management and crop response to fertilizer
application in Ethiopia: Towards development of site- and context-specific fertilizer recommendation; Tamene, L., Amede, T.,
Kihara, J., Tibebe, D., Schulz, S., Eds.; International Center for Tropical Agriculture, 2017.
(35) Koelmans, A. A.; Besseling, E.; Foekema, E.; Kooi, M.; Mintenig, S.; Ossendorp, B. C.; Redondo-Hasselerharm, P. E.; Verschoor, A.; van Wezel, A.
P.; Scheffer, M. Risks of Plastic Debris: Unravelling Fact, Opinion, Perception, and Belief. Environmental Science & Technology
2017, 51 (20), 11513–11519.
(36) Willén, E.; Ahlgren, G.; Tilahun, G.; Spoof, L.; Neffling, M.-R.; Meriluoto, J. Cyanotoxin Production in Seven Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes. Inland
Waters 2011, 1 (2), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.5268/IW-1.2.391.
(37) Zinabu, E.; Kelderman, P.; van der Kwast, J.; Irvine, K. Monitoring River Water and Sediments within a Changing Ethiopian Catchment to Support
Sustainable Development. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment2 2019, 191 (7).
(38) Dadi, D.; Stellmacher, T.; Senbeta, F.; Passel, S. V.; Azadi, H. Environmental and Health Impacts of Effluents from Textile Industries in Ethiopia: The
Case of Gelan and Dukem, Oromia Regional State. Environ Monit Assess. 2017, 1 (11), 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-
016-5694-4.
(39) International Growth Centre. Performance of artisanal gold exports in Ethiopia.
(40) Meaza, H.; Ali, M.; Tesfamariam, Z.; Abebe, N. Impacts of Artisanal Gold Mining Systems on Soil and Woody Vegetation in the Semi-Arid
Environment of Northern Ethiopia. Singapore Journal of T ropical Geography 2017, 38 (3), 386–401. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjtg.12203.
(41) Center for International Human Rights. Ethiopia’s Violations of Civil and Political Rights in Connection with the Lega Dembi Gold Mine; 2020.
(42) Haddis, A.; de Geyter, A.; Smets, I.; Van der Bruggen, B. Wastewater Management in Ethiopian Higher Learning Institutions: Functionality,
Sustainability and Policy Context. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 2014, 57 (3), 369–383. https://doi.org/
10.1080/09640568.2012.745396.
(43) WHO. Guidelines: The Current Position. In Water quality: Guidelines, standards and health; 2001.
(44) Alehegne, K. A. Water Quality of Akaki Rivers and Its Impact on Irrigated Vegetable Farms, Addis Ababa University and Bahir Dar University, 2018.
(45) Berehanu, B.; Azagegn, T.; Ayenew, T.; Masetti, M. Inter-Basin Groundwater Transfer and Multiple Approach Recharge Estimation of the Upper
Awash Aquifer System. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection 2017, 5, 76–98. https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2017.53007.
(46) Ministry of Water Resources. Ethiopia: Strategic Framework for Managed Groundwater Development (DRAFT); 2013.
(47) Unlocking the Potential of Groundwater for the Poor (UPGro). UPGro- African Groundwater 2020 https://upgro.org/country-profiles/ethiopia/
(accessed 2021 -04 -16).
(48) Malago, J. Fluoride Levels in Surface and Groundwater in Africa: A Review. American Journal of Water Science and Engineering 2017, 3 (1). https://
doi.org/10.11648/j.ajwse.20170301.11.
(49) Merola, B. R.; Kravchenko, J.; Rango, T.; Vengosh, A. Arsenic Exposure of Rural Populations from the Rift Valleyof Ethiopia as Monitored by Keratin
in Toenails. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 2014, 24, 121–126.
(50) Bedada, T. L.; Mezemir, W. D.; Dera, Firehiwot, A.; Sima, W. G.; Gebre, S. G.; Edicho, R. M.; Biegna, A. G.; Teklu, D. S.; Tullu, K. D. Virological and
Bacteriological Quality of Drinking Water in Ethiopia. Applied Water Science 2018, 8 (2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0716-8.
(51) World Bank. Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Project-Additional Financing. 2012.
(52) Debala, T. H.; Beyene, A.; Tesfahun, E.; Getaneh, A.; Gize, A.; Mekonnen, Z. Fecal Contamination of Soil and Water in Sub-Saharan Africa Cities:
The Case of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ecology & Hydrobiology 2018, 18 (2), 225–330.
(53) World Bank. Challenges and Opportunities for Water in Development in the Lowlands of Ethiopia; Washington, D.C., 2020.
(54) World Bank. Ethiopia : Managing Water Resources to Maximize Sustainable Growth; Washington, D.C., 2006.
(55) USAID. Climate Change Risk Profile Ethiopia https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/2016 CRM Factsheet - Ethiopia_use
this.pdf (accessed 2021 -04 -09).
(56) World Bank Group. Projections: Ethiopia https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/ethiopia/climate-data-projections (accessed 2021
-04 -14).
(57) World Bank. Climate Change Profile: Ethiopia; 2018.
(58) Kaur, N.; Getnet, M.; Shimelis, B.; Tesfaye, Z.; Syoum, G.; Atnafu, E. Research-Inspired Policy and Practice Learning in Ethiopia and the Nile Region;
2010.
(59) Vestal, Theodore. Famine in Ethiopia: Crisis of Many Dimensions. Africa Today 1985, 32 (4), 7–28.
(60) FEWS NET. Illustrating the Extent and Severity of the 2015 Drought; 2015.
(61) World Weather Atribution. Ethiopia drought, 2015 – a livelihood crisis https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/ethiopia-drought-
2015/#:~:text=The worst drought in decades,according to the United Nations. (accessed 2021 -04 -14).
(62) World Bank. Ethiopia : Managing Water Resources to Maximize Sustainable Growth; 2006.
(63) World Bank. Disaster Risk Profile: Ethiopia; Washington D.C., 2019.
(64) Government of Ethiopia. Proclamation No.1097/2018 Definition of Powers and Duties of the Executive Organs of the Federal Democratic Republic
of Ethiopia Proclamation.--; 2018.
(65) Chelkeba, A. Competing Water Resource Demands in Ethiopia’s Federal System: Infancy of the Law toward Integrated Management. Mizan Law
Review 2018, 12 (2). https://doi.org/10.4314/mlr.v12i2.1.
(66) SIWI. Scoping Study of Water Resource Management in the Textile Industry in Ethiopia; Stockholm, 2015.
(67) WASH Ethiopia. FULL Proceedings of the Joint 10th WASH-WRM Multi-Stakeholder Forum https://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/
communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/MSF 10 Full Proceedings.pdf (accessed 2021 -04 -07).
(68) Government of Ethiopia. Draft National Integrated Water Resources Management Program; 2018.
(69) Climate and Development Knowledge Network (CDKN). Green Climate Compatible Urban Industrial Development in Ethiopia Strategy and
Projects for the Kombolcha Mek’ele Industrial Corridor; 2017.
ABOUT THIS PROFILE
This profile was produced by USAID's Sustainable Water Partnership activity.

DISCLAIMER
The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International
Development or the United States Government