[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 265

DAWN OF MODERN
PHYSICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:
 Distinguish between inertial and non-inertial frames of references.
 Describe the postulates of special theory of relativity and its results.
 Understand the NAVASTAR navigation system.
 Understand the concept of black body radiation.
 Know Planck’s assumptions.
 Know the origin of quantum theory.
 Show an appreciation of the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation.
 Describe the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
 Explain photoelectric effect in terms of photon energy and work function.
 Explain the function of photocell and describe its uses.
 Describe Compton’s effect.
 Explain the phenomena of pair production and pair annihilation.
 Describe de-Broglie’s hypothesis of wave nature of particles.
 Describe and interpret qualitatively the evidence provided by electron diffraction for the
wave nature of particles.
 Understand the working principle of electron microscope.
 Understand and describe uncertainty principle.

INTRODUCTION
In the beginning of 20th century, many experimental and theoretical problems relating to physics
could not be solved on the basis of Newtonian classical physics. For example the behaviour of matter on
the atomic level. The phenomenon of black body radiation, the photoelectric effect and constancy of
speed of light could not be explained in terms of laws of classical physics. To explain these observations
new concepts were needed. The study of these concepts is known as modern physics.
Q.1 What is relative motion?
RELATIVE MOTION
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 266
The change in position of a body with respect to another body is called relative motion. If a ball
is thrown up, the up direction is only for that particular place. It will be down position for a person on
opposite of 1st observer. This concept of direction is relative. Similarly, rest or motion of object is not
same for different observers. For example Cabin walls of moving train are at rest with the respect to
passenger while, they are in motion with the respect to observer are stationary on earth. All motions are
relative to a person or instrument observing it.
Examples
(i) If we place a body on Earth, it remains at rest unless an unbalanced force is applied upon it. This
observation shows that Earth may be considered as an inertial frame of reference.
(ii) If a body is placed in a car moving with a uniform velocity with respect to Earth also remains at
rest. So that a car is also an inertial frame of reference.

Q.2 Define frame of reference with its type.

FRAME OF REFERENCE
The space bounded by three mutually perpendicular co-ordinate axes with respect to which
observations are made is called frame of reference. For example If an observation is made with respect
to the wall of the room, the room is the frame of reference. Similarly, the cabin of a moving train is also
a frame of reference. If observation are made with respect to it. The frame of reference may be at rest or
in motion. They have two types
(1) Inertial Frame of Reference
Those frame of references which are at rest or moving with uniform velocity i.e., it has no
acceleration called inertial frame of reference.
Newton‟s laws of motion are valid in inertial frame of reference. Inertial frame of reference are
also called non-accelerated frame of reference.
(2) Non-inertial Frame of Reference
That frame of reference which moves with some acceleration is called non-inertial frame of
reference or accelerated frame of reference.
Example
If the moving car is suddenly stopped or accelerated up is a non-inertial frame of reference.
Newton‟s first law of motion does not valid in the non-inertial frame of reference.

Q.3 State postulates of special theory of relativity. Explain three results of theory.
SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
In classical mechanics, the velocities of moving objects are negligible as compared to velocity of
light. However, relativitics mechanics deals with velocities of moving objects comparable to speed of
light.
The part of relativistic mechanics which deals with uniform relativistic velocities is called special
theory of relativity. On the other hand, the part of relativistic mechanics which deals with accelerated
relativistic velocities is called the general theory of relativity.
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 267
Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity
Special theory of relativity is based on the following postulates
(1) The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frame of reference.
(2) The speed of light in free space has the same value for all observers.
Explanation
If the laws of physics is different for different observers in relative motion. The observer could
determine from this difference that which of them were stationary in a space and which were moving.
But such distinction does not exist so, the 1st postulate show that there is no way to detect absolute
uniform motion.
The 2nd postulate states an experimental fact that speed of light in free space is universal constant
i.e., C = 3.0  108 meter per sec. These simple postulates have far-reaching consequences. These include
such phenomena as the slowing down of clocks and contraction of lengths in moving reference frames
as measured by a stationary observer. Some interesting results of the special theory of relativity can be
summarized as follows without going into their mathematical derivations.
Results of Special Theory of Relativity
According to special theory of relativity, following are the results:
(1) Time Dilation (time increase in motion)
According to special theory of relativity, time is not absolute quantity. It depends upon the
motion of frame of reference. Let to be the time interval between two events as measured by an observer
in stationary frame of reference. This is known as proper time. If the frame of events is moving with
uniform relativistic velocity v with respect to observer. The time measured by the observer would not be
to but it would be t given by
to
t =
v2
1  c2

v2
As, 1  c2 < 1 The speed of light emitted by
flashlight is c measured by two
observes, one on the moving
then, t and> the
track to other on the road.
i.e., time has dilated due to relative motion of observer and frame of events. Time dilation is applicable
to all timing processes physical, chemical and biological. Even aging process of human body is slowed
down by motion at very high speed.
(2) Length Contraction (Length Decreases in Motion)
The distance from earth to star measured by an observer in a moving spaceship would seems
smaller than the distance measured by an observer on earth. This effect is known as length contraction.
The length of an object or distance between two points measured by an observer who is relatively at rest is
called proper length lo. If the object and an observer are in relative motion with relativistic speed v, then
the contracted length is l is given by
v2
l = lo 1  c2

The length contraction is only along the direction of motion and not at right angle to motion.
 [CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 268
(3) Mass Variation
According to special theory of relativity an object whose mass when measured at rest is mo will
have an increased mass m when moving at relativistic velocity v is given by
mo
m =
v2
1  c2

The increase in mass indicates the increase in inertia, so large force is required to accelerate the
body.
v2
When v = c then 1  c2 = 0 and m = 

So an infinite force is needed to accelerate the mass since infinite force cannot be applied then a
body cannot be accelerated to a speed of light in free space.
Discussion on above Results
In our everyday life, we deal with velocities which are extremely small as compare to velocity of
light. Even the earth orbital speed is only 30 km/sec. Whereas velocity of light in free space is 300,000
km/sec. So, under this situation
v
c  0
~ and hence

t = to , l = lo , m = mo
No relativistic effects are observe in everyday life and newtanion physics is valid in everyday
situation. However, dealing with atomic particles moving with velocities approaching with speed of
light, the relativistic effects cannot be neglected. The experimental results are explained by taking
Einstein‟s equations into account.
(4) Mass Energy Relation
According to Einstein special theory of relativity, mass and energy are interconvertable and are
related by the relation
E = mc2
2
o where
o m depends upon the speed
o of object. Energy E = m c correspond to rest mass m is called rest-
mass energy.
As mc2 is greater than moc2, the difference of energy is due to motion and is called K.E of the
mass.
Thus K.E is equal to
K.E = mc2  moc2
K.E = (m  mo)c2
The change in mass is due to change in K.E.
E is given by
E
m = c2
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 269
2
As c is very large quantity, so sizeable change in mass requires very large change in energy. In
our everyday world, energy changes are too small to provide measurable mass changes. However,
energy and mass changes in nuclear reactions are found to be exactly in accordance with the above
mentioned equations.
NAVSTAR Navigation System
The results of special theory of relativity are put to practical use even in everday life by a modern
system of navigation satellites called NAVSTAR. The location and speed anywhere on Earth can now
be determined to an accuracy of about 2 cms1. However, if relativity effects are not taken into account,
speed could not be determined any closer than about 20 cms1. Using these results the location of an
aircraft after an hour‟s flight can be predicted to about 50 m as compared to about 760 m determined by
without using relativistic effects.

Q.4 What is black body radiation? Explain intensity distribution diagram.

BLACK BODY RADIATION
Radiation
The amount of energy emitted from hot body in the form of electromagnetic waves is called
radiations or thermal radiations.
When a body is heated, it emits radiations. The radiation emited depend upon the temperature
and nature of material of body. However, radiations from black body depend only on the temperature of
a black body.
Black Body
It is a cavity in a solid with
small opening. The walls of the cavity
are made black with suitable black small small
hole hole
material to make it good absorber. The
small opening appears black because
the radiations that enters is reflected
from the inside walls many times
untill completely absorbed i.e., cannot
escapes out. Thus black body is a
good absorber of radiation. If a black
body is heated to higher temperature, internal incident emerging
radiation internal
the opening of cavity emits radiation cavity cavity radiation
like perfect emitter. The radiations Absorption of radiation Emission of radiation
from such body are called black body
radiations or cavity radiations.
Intensity Distribution in Black Body Radiation
Lummer and Pringsheim measured the intensity of radiation emitted from the black body in
different wavelengths when the black body was heated through different temperatures. Their
experimental arrangement is shown in figure.
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 270
The amount of radiation emitted with different wavelength when black body is heated at
different temperature have been shown graphically.
The following effects can be studied from the graphs.
(i) At a given temperature, the energy is not uniformly distributed in black body radiation spectrum.
(ii) Wein Displacement Law This law states that; for a particular temperature, the wavelength of
maximum intensity (max) is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the black body
that is
1 black body cavity
max  T

Constant
max = T furnace

max T = Constant
rock salt
The value of constant is about thermopile prism (transmits
2.9  103 mK is called Wein‟s constant. (radiation detector) and disperses all
wavelengths)
This law tells us that as temperature
increases, wavelength  shifts to shorter infrared
values. spectrometer

(iii) For all wavelengths, an increase in temperature causes an region of

visible
increase in energy emission. The radiation increases with spectrum
increase in wavelength and at particular wavelength max, it
has maximum value. With further increase in wavelength, T=1650 K
the intensity of radiation decreases.
(iv) Stephen’s Boltzman Law This law states that area under
Intensity f radiated energy

each curve represents the total energy emitted over all

wavelength at a particular temperature and is found to be 1450 K
directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature of black body.
1260 K
Mathematically
o

1000 K
E  T4
E = T4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Where  is constant called Stephen‟s constant and its value 
is 5.67  108 watt m2K4.
Planck’s Assumptions
Electromagnetic theory of radiation could not explain the above energy distribution curves
successfully. Maxwell Planck proposed quantum theory of radiation to explain energy distribution
curves. His theory is based on following assumptions
(i) The energy is radiated or absorbed by a black body is in the form of packets of energy rather
than in the shape of continuous wave. The packets of energy are called quanta. Each quantum
has an energy given by
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 271
E = hf
where h is constant and its value is 6.63  1034 J sec. and f is the frequency of radiation.
(ii) The atoms of the cavity behave as harmonic oscillator each having a particular frequency. The
energy is emitted or absorbed by the harmonic oscillator shifts from one the quantised state to
another of quantised state. The energy emitted is according to relation
E = nhf where n = 1, 2, 3, 
Max Planck proposed this theory in 1900 and got noble prize for it in 1918.

The Photon
The Planck suggested that as matter is not continuous but consist of large number of tiny
particles so is the radiation energy from a source. He assumed that granular nature of radiation from hot
bodies was due to some property of the atoms producing it. Einstein extended his idea and postulated
that packets or tiny bundles of energy are integral part of all electromagnetic radiation and that they
could not be subdivided. These indivisible tiny bundles of energy he called photons. The beam of light
with wavelength  consists of stream of photons travelling at speed c and carries energy hf. From the
theory of relativity momentum p of the photon is related to energy as

E = pc and E = hf  (i)
hf h
Thus pc = hf or p = c =  (ii)

The table relates the quanta Frequency, Hz Wavelength, m
emitted in different regions of the
23
electromagnetic spectrum with energy. 10
10
14
22
At the high end, -radiation with 10
21 Gamma rays 10
13 400 nm
10 12
energy ~ 1 MeV is easily detected as 20 10
10 11
quanta by a radiation detector and 10
19 10
10 450
counter. At the other end, the energy 10
18 X rays 10
9
1 mm
10
of photon of radio waves is only about 10
17
8

1010 eV. So millions of photons are

10
10
16
Ultraviolet 7
15 10 500
needed to detect a signal and hence 10
10
6
14
1m
wave properties
5 of radio waves 10
13 10
10 Infrared
predominate. The quanta are so close 12 10
4
550
10 3
together in energy value that radio 11 10
10 Microwaves 2
waves are detected as continuous 10
10 10
1 cm
1
radiation. Short radio waves 10
10
9
600
8 1 1m
10 Television and FM radio 1
The emission or absorption of 10
7 10
2
energy in steps may be extended to 6 AM radio 10
10 3 650
include any system such as a mass 5 10 1 km
10 4
10
oscillating on a spring. However, the 10
4
Long radio waves 5
3 10
energy steps are far too small to be 10 6 700
2 10
detected and so any granular nature is 10
10
7

invisible. Quantum effects are only 10

important when observing atomic

sized objects, where h is a significant
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 272
factor in any detectable energy change.

INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION WITH MATTER

Electromagnetic radiation or photon interact with matter in three different ways depending on
their energy, the three processes are:
(i) Photoelectric effect
(ii) Compton effect
(iii) Pair production
Q.5 What is photoelectric effect? What are its experiment results? How Einstein
explained it on the basis of quantum theory?
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The emission of electron from a metal surface when expose to light of suitable frequency is
called photoelectric effect.
incident
Demonstration of Photoelectric Effect light
The photoelectric effect is demonstrated by the apparatus C X
shown in the figure. An evacuated glass tube X contain two electrode. A
The electrode A is connected to positive terminal of the battery and is colour V

filter
called anode. The electrode C is connected to ve terminal of battery
V
and is called cathode.
When monochromatic light is allowed to fall on cathode, it
begins to emit electrons, these photoelectrons are attracted by the
anode and the current is shown by ammeter. The current stops when Fig. Experimental arrangement to
light is cut off which shows emission of electrons with light. observe photoelectric effect.

Calculation of Maximum Energy of Photoelectrons

The max energy of photoelectrons can be calculated by reversing the connection of battery in
above circuit. The anode A is at ve potential and cathode C is at +ve potential. In this condition, the
photoelectrons emitted are repelled by anode A and photoelectric current decreases. If the potential is
made more and more negative at a certain value of potential which is called stopping potential. The
current just stops even the electron of max energy are not able to reach the collector plate C. The
maximum energy of photoelectrons is given by
1 2
mv max = Voe
2
where m is the mass and e is charge of electron. Vmax is max velocity of electron and Vo is the stopping
potential. The above experiment was repeated by changing frequency and intensity of incident light, and
the following results were obtained
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 273
(1) There is minimum frequency (called threshold frequency) Photoelectric
current
below which no electron are emitted whatever may be the
intensity of light. The threshold frequency depends upon
the nature of the metal.
(2) The electrons are emitted with different energies. The
maximum energy of photoelectron depends upon
particular metal surface and frequency of incident light. If
the frequency is made different keeping the intensity as Fig. Characteristic curves of photo-
constant, the current is same but stopping potential is current vs. applied voltage for two
intensities of monochromatic light.
different as shown for different frequency which shows
that maximum K.E of the photoelectrons is proportional
to the frequency of incident light. Ip
f2>f1
(3) The number of electron emitted is directly proportional to
f2
the intensity of light e.g., when light beam of higher f1
intensity is made incident on metal surface the amount of -V 0 +V
current increase but current stops for same value of Fig. Characteristiccurvesof photo-
stopping potential Vo. currentvs. appliedvoltageforlight
ofdifferentfrequencies.

Quantum Theory of Light

Einstein using the idea of Maxwell Planck, proposed that light is emitted or absorbed in the form
of quanta called photons. The energy of each photon is given by
E = hf
where h is the Planck‟s constant and f is the frequency of light.
Failure of Electromagnetic Theory to Explain Photoelectric Effect
According to electromagnetic theory of light, the increase of intensity of incident light should
increase the K.E of emitted electron which experimentally is not correct. Also classical theory of light,
fails to explain the threshold frequency.
Explanation of Photoelectric Effect on the Basis of Quantum Theory
When photon falls on metal surface, it disappears after giving its energy to the electron of the
metal. If this energy is more than the energy required to pull out an electron from the metal surface, the
electron is instantaneously emitted. But if the energy is less than that value, no emission of electron
takes place from the metal surface whatever may be the intensity of light. The minimum energy required
to pull out an electron from metal surface is called work function of metal surface and is expressed as
 (work function) = hf.
Einstein Photoelectric Equation
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 274
Let a photon of energy “hf” falls on the metal surface. A part of
photon energy is used to eject the electron from the metal surface and
remaining energy is taken up by the electron in the form of K.E.
Incident photon energy  Work function = K.E of electron
K.E max
hf  hfo = K.E of electron
1 2
hf   = 2 mvmax 0
fo f

This is known as Einstein photoelectric equation.

A graph of the maximum kinetic
If (K.E)max = 0 then f = fo (threshold frequency). energy of photoelectrons vs. light
frequency. Below a certain frequency,
Therefore hfo   = 0 fo, no photoemission occurs.

hfo = 
Hence Einstein equation can be written as
(K.E)max = hf  hfo
It is to be noted that all the emitted electrons do not possess the maximum kinetic energy, some
electrons come straight out of the metal surface and some lose energy in atomic collisions before coming
out. The above equation holds good only for those electrons which come out with full surplus energy.
Albert Einstein was awarded Nobel Prize in physics in 1921 for his explanation of photoelectric
effect.
Note: The phenomenon of photoelectric effect cannot be explained if we assume that light consists of
waves and energy is uniformly distributed over its wavefront. It can only be explained by
assuming light consists of corpuscles of energy known as photon. Thus it shows the corpuscular
nature of light.

Q.6 What is photocell?

quartz or glass tube
PHOTOCELL
A photocell is based on photoelectric effect. A simple photocell cathode
is shown in figure. It consists of an evacuated glass bulb with a thin
anode rod and a cathode of an appropriate metal surface. The material
of the cathode is selected to suit to the frequency range of incident
radiation over which the cell is operated. For example sodium or
potassium cathode emits electrons for visible light, cesium coated anode
oxidized silver emits electrons for infrared light and some other metals
respond to ultraviolet radiation. When photo-emissive surface is
exposed to appropriate light, electrons are emitted and a current flows cathode

in the external circuit which increases with the increase in light

intensity. The current stops when the light beam is interrupted. The cell
has wide range of applications. Some of these are to operate
(1) Security systems anode

(2) Counting systems Fig. Simple photo-emissive cell

(3) Automatic door systems

[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 275
(4) Automatic street lighting
(5) Exposure meter for photography
(6) Sound track of movies

(a)
Fig. Sound track on a film which
varies the intensity of light
reaching the photo cell.

light

sound track
load resistor

R
(b) to amplifier
Fig. Photocell detection circuit for
sound track of movies.

Q.7 Explain Compton effect.

Detector
COMPTON EFFECT Scattered
Arthur Holly Compton at Washington University in 1923 photon
lS
studied the scattering of X-rays by loosely bound electrons from a 
graphite target. He measured the wavelength of X-rays scattering at an li
angle  with the original direction. He found that wavelength s of the
scattered X-rays is larger than the wavelength i of the incident X-rays. X-rays
(a)
This is known as Compton effect. The increase in wavelength of
Fig. (a) Compton's scattering
scattered X-rays could not be explained on the basis of classical wave experiment.

theory. Compton suggested that X-rays consist of photons and in the

process of scattering the photons suffer collision with electrons like
pi = h/i
billiard balls. In this collision, a part of incident photon energy and Photon
momentum is transferred to an electron. Applying energy and Free electron
momentum conservation laws to the process, he derived an expression Ei
for the change in wavelength  known as Compton shift for scattering (b)
angle  as
pS = h/S
h
 = m c (1  cos )  (i)
o

h
where mo is the rest mass of the electron. The factor m c has dimensions Ee
o
pe
of length and is called Compton wavelength and has the numerical (c)
value.
Fig. (b) A photon collides with an
34
h 6.63  10 Js electron and (c) Both are scattered

moc = 9.1  1031 kg  3  108 ms1

[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 276
= 2.43  1012 m
If the scattered X-ray photons are observed at  = 90, the Compton shift  equals the Compton
wavelength. The eq. (i) was found to be in complete agreement with Compton‟s experimental result,
which again is a striking confirmation of particle like interaction of electromagnetic waves with matter.
Arthur Holly Compton was awarded Nobel Prize in physics in 1927 for his discovery of the
effect named after him.

Q.8 Explain pair production and annihilation of matter.

PAIR PRODUCTION
If a very high energy photon such as -rays photon attempted to be slowed down by introducing
heavy nucleus in its path, but without any physical interaction, the photon energy is changed into an
electron position pair.
The phenomenon of creation of electron and positron in the process of slowing down of an
energetic photon is called pair production or materialization of energy.

Positron is a positive electron. The creation of two particles with e (Electron)
equal and opposite charge is essential for charge conservation. Positron
is also called anti-electron. The process of pair production takes place in
hf
the electric field close to the nucleus. This process also takes place
according to Einstein mass energy equation that is E = mc2. For an e or
position, the rest mass energy is equal to 0.511 MeV. Thus to create two
positron, 2  0.511 MeV or 1.02 MeV energy is required. So, pair +
e (Positron)
production takes place when photon energy hf > 2moc2 or hf > 1.02 MeV
is used pair and the remaining energy is taken up by the pair in the form
of K.E. So,

Energy of incident photon = 2moc2 + (K.E)e + (K.E)e+

hf = 2moc2 + (K.E)e + (K.E)e+

ANNIHILATION OF MATTER
-rayselectron-positron
The phenomenon in which photon is pair combine together to form two
called annihilation of matter.
(OR)
The reverse process of pair production is called annihilation of matter.
The two -ray photons produced move in the opposite direction, so, that momentum is
conserved. Each photon has energy 0.511 MeV equivalent to rest mass energy of a particle.
e + e+   + 
Each particle has antiparticle. For example, proton has antiparticle antiproton. Similarly,
antineutron and so on, when particle and antiparticle combine together. They annihilate each other to
form another form of energy. The existence of positron was predicted by Dirac in 1928 and it was
discovered in the cosmic radiation in 1932 by Carl Anderson. It gradually became clear that every
particle has a corresponding antiparticle with the same mass and charge (if it is a charged particle) but of
opposite sign. Particles and antiparticles also differ in the signs of other quantum numbers that we have
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 277
not yet discussed. A particle and its antiparticle cannot exist together at one place. Whenever they meet,
they annihilate each other. That is, the particle disappear, their combined rest energies appear in other
forms. Proton and antiproton annihilation has also been observed at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.

Q.9 Describe the wave nature of particles. Also discuss Davisson and Germer
experiment.
WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLES
It has been observed that light shows a dual nature. It acts as waves in interference and
diffraction and particle nature in photoelectric and Compton effect.
Loius de-Broglie proposed in 1924 that particles like electrons or protons should also possessed
wave like particle. As momentum of photon is given by
h
P =

de-Broglie suggested that the momentum of particle of mass m moving with velocity v may also
be given by similar expression
h
P = = mv

Lightis
,inshort
,themos
tre
fin
e d
f
o r
m ofmatter(
L o
uisdeBr
o g
lie
h 1892-1987
).
mv =

h
 = mv

This is known as de-Broglie equation. It gives wavelength  associated with a particle of mass m
moving with velocity v.
Example
An object of large mass and ordinary speed has such a small wavelength that its wave effects
such as interference and diffraction are negligible. When a rifle bullet of mass 20 g and flying with
speed 330 ms1 will have a wavelength  given by

 =
mv
6.63  1034
=
2  102  330
= 1  1034 m
This wavelength is so small that it is not measurable or detectable by any of its effects.
On the other hand for an electron moving with a speed of 1  106 ms1.
6.63  1034
 =
9.1  1031  1  106
= 7  1010 m
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 278
This wavelength is in the X-rays range. Thus, diffraction effects for electrons are measurable
whereas diffraction or interference effects for bullets are not.
Davisson and Germer Experiment
The de-Broglie equation was confirmed by Davison and Electron
gun
Germer. They showed that electrons are diffracted from metal crystals
in the same way as x-rays or any other wave. The apparatus used is Detector
shown in figure. The electrons are obtained by heating a filament and
are accelerated in electron gun by potential difference applied between
filament and anode of electron-gun.
Nickel
1 2 crystal
Thus, 2 mv = Ve
mv2 = 2Ve Fig. Experimental arrangement of
2 2 Davisson and Germer for electron
m v = 2Vem diffraction.

mv = 2Vem
Putting the value in de-Broglie equation
h
 =
2Vem
6.63  1034
 =
2  54  1.6  1019  9.1  1031
 = 1.66  1010 m
The electron beam of energy Ve is made incident on a nickel crystal (Ni). The beam is diffracted
and is recorded by moveable detector. The first order (n = 1) was obtained for an angle 65. According
to Bragg‟s equation
2d sin  = n
where, n = 1
 = 65
d = 0.91  1010 m
2  0.91  1010  sin 65 = 1  
 = 1.65  1010 m
Thus experimental result of wavelength agrees with the theoretical result. The wave like property
of diffraction pattern have also been observed for protons, neutrons, hydrogen atoms and helium atoms.
For his work on the dual nature of particles, de-Broglie awarded a Nobel Prize in 1929 in physics
Davison and Germer also shared the Nobel Prize in 1937 for this experimental conformation of the wave
nature of particle.

Q.10 Describe the wave particle duality.

WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 279

Interference and diffraction of light confirm its wave nature,

while photoelectric effect proves the particle nature of light. Similarly,
the experiments of Davisson and Germer and G.P. Thomson reveal
wave like nature of electrons and in the experiment of J. J. Thomson to Double slit

find e/m we had to assume particle like nature of the electron. In the
same way we are forced to assume both wavelike and particle like
properties for all matter electrons, neutrons, molecules etc. and also Image of the
Beam of double slit
light, X-rays, -rays etc. have to be included in this. In other words, electrons
matter and radiation have a dual „wave-particle‟ nature and this new
concept is known as wave particle duality. Niels Bohr pointed out in
(a)
stating his principle of complementarity that both wave and particle Screen
aspects are required for the complete description of both radiation and
matter. Both aspects are always present and either may be revealed by
an experiment. However, both aspects cannot be revealed
simultaneously in a single experiment, which aspect is revealed
simultaneously in a single experiment, which aspect is revealed is
determined by the nature of the experiment being done. If you put a Beam of
diffraction grating in the path of a light beam, you reveal it as a wave. electrons

If you allow the light beam to hit a metal surface, you need to regard
(b)
the beam as a stream of particles to explain your observations. There is
(a) If electrons behaved as
no simple experiment that you can carry out with the beam that will discrete particles with no wave
require you to interpret it has a wave and as a particle at the same time. properties, they would pass
through one or the other of the
Light behaves as a stream of photons when it interacts with matter and two slits and strike the screen.
behaves as a wave in travelling from a source to the place where it is Causing it to glow and produce
exact images of the slits. (b) In
detected. In effect, all micro-particles (electrons, protons, photons, reality the screen reveals a
atoms etc.) propagate as if they were waves and exchange energies as if pattern of bright and dark fringes
similar to light is used, and
they were particles - that is the wave particle duality. interference occurs between the
light waves coming from each slit.
Use of Wave Nature of Particles
The fact that energetic particles have extremely short de-
Broglie wavelengths has been put to practical use in many ultra-
modern devices of immense importance such as electron microscope.

Q.11 Write a note on electron microscope.

[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 280

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
electron source
Electron microscope makes practical use of the wave nature of
electrons which is thousands of time shorter than visible light which
enables the electron microscope to distinguish details not visible with
optical microscope. In an electron microscope, electric and magnetic magnetic
fields rather than optical lenses are used to focus electrons by means of condenser
electromagnetic forces that are exerted on moving charges. The
specimen
resulting deflections of the electrons beams are similar to the refraction
effects produced by glass lenses used to focus light in optical magnetic
microscope. The electrons are accelerated to high energies by applying objective
voltage from 30 kV to several megavolts. Such high voltages give
extremely short wavelength and also give the electron sufficient energy
to penetrate specimen of reasonable thickness. A resolution of 0.5 to 1 first image
nm is possible with a 50 kV microscope as compared to best optical
resolution of 0.2 m. A schematic diagram of the electron microscope intermediate
is shown in the figure. The magnetic conducting lens concentrates the image projector
beam from an electron gun on to the specimen. Electrons are scattered
out of the beam from the thicker parts of the specimen. The transmitted
beam therefore has spatial differences in density that correspond to the
features of the specimen. The objective and intermediate lenses produce a second stage
real intermediate image and projection lens forms the final image magnified image
which can be viewed on a fluorescent screen or photographed on
special film known as electron micrograph. A three dimensional image
of remarkable quality can be achieved by modern versions called
scanning electron microscopes. Fig. Electron microscope
(Block diagram)

I
n t
hesuba
tomi
c wor
ldf
ewthi
n g
s
canbe
pr
edi
cte
dwit
h10
0%pre
ci
sion
.

Q.12 State and prove the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
This principle states that “it is impossible to measure the momentum and position of particle
simultaneously with perfect accuracy”. The uncertainty in momentum and position measurements is not
due to measuring instrument but is related with wave particle duality of matter and radiation. This
uncertainty is completely negligible for measurements of positions and momentum of macroscopic
particles but is significant in the atomic particles. For examples a stream of light of photons scattering
from a flying tennis ball effects its path. But one photon strikes an electron alters its position very much.
Since, light has also wave properties, the accuracy of measurement of position is always of the order of
one wavelength. Thus in order to measure position of an electron with less uncertainty and to avoid
diffraction effect, light of very short wavelength must be used. Hence, for a microscopic particles
moving along x-axis, the value of uncertainty in position x is of the order of wavelength  used. So x
can be expressed as
x ~ 

[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 281
The light with short wavelength have large momentum. So, uncertainty in momentum of electron
is increased. The uncertainty in the momentum of electron can be of the order of momentum of photon.
So, the uncertainty in momentum of particle or electron along x-axis can be expressed as
h
P  
~

Multiplying the above relations Y

o uc
an ne v
e ra
ccu
rat
e lydes
cribe
a
lla
spec t
s ofasub
at
o m icp
art
icle
h a
tonce.
P . x ~
 .

P . x ~
 h
This is the mathematical form of uncertainty principle. It states that the product of the
uncertainty x in the position of a particle at some instant and the uncertainty P in the x-component of
its momentum at the same instant approximately equals Planck‟s constant h.
There is another form of uncertainty principle which relates the energy of a particle and the time
at which it had the energy. If E is the uncertainty in energy and if t is the time interval during which
the particle had the energy.
then E . t  h
Thus more accurately we determined the energy of a particle, the more uncertain we will be of
the time during which it has that energy.
According to Heisenberg‟s more careful calculations, he found that at the very best
x . p  ћ
and E . t  ћ
h
where ћ =
2
= 1.05  1034 Js
Werner Karl Heisenberg received Nobel Prize for physics in 1932 for the development of
quantum mechanics.
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 282

SOLVED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 19.1
The period of pendulum is measured to be 3.0 sec. in the inertial reference frame of the
pendulum. What is its period measured by an observer moving at a speed of 0.95 c with respect to
the pendulum?

Data
Proper time = to = 3.0 s
Velocity = v = 0.95 c

To Find
Time increased = t = ?

SOLUTION
Using
to
t =
v2
1  c2

3.0
=
(0.95 c)2
1 c2

= 9.6 sec.

Result
Time increased = t = 9.6 sec.

EXAMPLE 19.2
A bar 1.0 m in length and located along x-axis moves with a speed of 0.75 c with respect to
a stationary observer. What is the length of the bar as measured by the stationary observer?

Data
Proper length = lo = 1.0 m
Velocity = v = 0.75 c

To Find
Length contraction = l = ?
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 283
SOLUTION
Using
v2
l = lo 1  c2

(0.75 c)2
= 1.0 1 c2
= 0.66 m
Result
Length contraction = l = 0.66 m

EXAMPLE 19.3
Find the mass m of a moving object with speed 0.8 c.
Data
Speed of object = v = 0.8 c
To Find
Mass of object = m = ?

SOLUTION
Using
mo
m =
v2
1  c2

mo
=
(0.8 c)2
1  c2

= 1.67 mo
Result
Mass of object = m = 1.67 mo

EXAMPLE 19.4
Assuming you radiate as does a black body at your temperature about 37C, at what
wavelength do you emit the most energy?
Data
Temperature = T = 37C + 273
= 310 K
Wien‟s constant = 2.9  103 mK
To Find
Maximum wavelength = max = ?
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 284
SOLUTION
Using
max  T = Wien‟s constant
Wien's constant
max = T
2.9  103
= 310
= 9.35  106 m
max = 9.35 m
Result
Maximum wavelength = max = 9.35 m

EXAMPLE 19.5
What is the energy of a photon in a beam of infrared radiation of wavelength 1240 nm?
Data
Wavelength =  = 1240 nm
= 1240  109 m
To Find
Energy = E = ?

SOLUTION
Using
E = hf
c
But f =


hc
E =


6.63  1034  3  108

=
1240  109
= 1.6  1019 J
E = 1.0 eV
Result
Energy = 1.0 eV
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 285
EXAMPLE 19.6
A sodium surface is illuminated with light of wavelength 300 nm. The work function of
sodium metal is 2.46 eV. Find
(a) Maximum energy of the ejected electron.
(b) Determine the cutoff wavelength for sodium.
Data
Wavelength =  = 300 nm
= 300  109 m
Work function =  = 2.46 eV
= 2.46  1.6  1019 J
To Find
(a) Maximum K.E. = ?
(b) Cutoff wavelength o = ?

SOLUTION
(a) For maximum K.E of ejected electron
hc
E =

6.63  1034  3  108
=
300  109
= 6.63  1019 J
E = 4.14 eV
K.Emax = hf  
= 4.14  2.46
= 1.68 eV

(b) Now  =
o
hc
o =

6.63  1034  3  108
=
3.94  1019
= 5.05  107 m
= 505  109
= 505 nm
Result
(a) (K.E)max = 1.68 eV
(b) Cut off wavelength = 505 nm
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 286
EXAMPLE 19.7
A 50 KeV photon is Compton scattered by a quasi-free electron. If the scattered photon
comes off at 45 what is its wavelength?
Data
Energy = E = 50 KeV
= 50  103 eV
= 5  104  1.6  1019 J
Scattering angle =  = 45
To Find

Scattering wavelength = s = ?

SOLUTION
Using
hc
E =

hc
i = E

6.63  1034  3  108

=
5  104  1.6  1019
19.89  1026
=
8  1015
= 2.486  1026 + 15
= 2.486  1011 m
= 0.0248
i = 0.0248 nm
Now using
h
 = m c (1  cos )
o

6.63  1034
 s  i = (1  cos 45)
9.1  1031  3  108
6.63  1034  8 + 31
= (1  0.707)
27.3
= 0.2429  1011 (0.293)
= 0.07  1011
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 287
= 0.0007  109 m
= 0.0007 nm
 s = i + 0.0007
= 0.0248 + 0.0007
= 0.0255 nm
Result
s = 0.0255 nm

EXAMPLE 19.8
A particle of mass 5 mg moves with speed 8.0 m/s. Calculate its de-Broglie wavelength.
Data
Mass of particle = m = 5 mg
= 5  106 kg
Speed = v = 8 m/s
To Find
Wavelength =  = ?

SOLUTION
Using
h
 =
mv
6.63  1034
=
5  106  8.0
6.63 28
40  10
=

 = 1.66  1029 m
Result
Wavelength =  = 1.66  1029 m

EXAMPLE 19.9
An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 50 V. Calculate its de-Broglie
wavelength.
Data
Potential difference = V = 50 V
To Find
 = ?
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 288
SOLUTION
Using
h
 =
2mVe
6.63  1034
=
2  9.1  1031  50  1.6  1019
 = 1.74  1010 m
Result
 = 1.74  1010 m

EXAMPLE 19.10
The life time of an electron in an excited state is about 106 s. What is its uncertainty in
energy during this time?
Data
t = 108 s
To Find
E = ?

SOLUTION
Using
E t  ћ
~
ћ
 E =
t
1.05  1034
=
108
E = 1.05  1026 J
Result
E = 1.05  1026 J

EXAMPLE 19.11
An electron is to be confined to a box of size of the nucleus (1  1014 m). What would the
speed of electron be if it were so confined?
Data
x = 1  1014 m
To Find
V = ?
[CHAPTER 19] DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS 289
SOLUTION
Using
ћ
P 
x
ћ
m V =
x
ћ
V =
mx
1.05  1034
=
9.1  1031  1  1014
1.05
= 9.1  1034 + 31 + 14

= 0.115  1011
V = 1.15  1010 m/s
Result
V = 1.15  1010 m/s