Classical mechanics

Classical mechanics describes the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts
of machinery, and astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars and galaxies.

If the present state of an object is known it is possible to predict by the laws of classical
mechanics how it will move in the future (determinism) and how it has moved in the past
(reversibility).

The earliest development of classical mechanics is often referred to as Newtonian

mechanics. It consists of the physical concepts employed by and the mathematical methods
invented by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and others in the 17th century to
describe the motion ofbodies under the influence of a system offorces. Diagram of orbital motion of a
satellite around the earth,
Later, more abstract methods were developed, leading to the reformulations of classical showing perpendicular
mechanics known as Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics. These advances, velocity and acceleration
made predominantly in the 18th and 19th centuries, extend substantially beyond Newton's (force) vectors.
work, particularly through their use of analytical mechanics. They are, with some
modification, also used in all areas of modern physics.

Classical mechanics provides extremely accurate results when studying large objects that are not extremely massive and speeds not
approaching the speed of light. When the objects being examined have about the size of an atom diameter, it becomes necessary to
introduce the other major sub-field ofmechanics: quantum mechanics. To describe velocities that are not small compared to the speed
of light, special relativity is needed. In case that objects become extremely massive, general relativity becomes applicable. However,
a number of modern sources do include relativistic mechanics into classical physics, which in their view represents classical
[note 1]
mechanics in its most developed and accurate form.

Contents
Description of the theory
Position and its derivatives
Velocity and speed
Acceleration
Frames of reference
Forces; Newton's second law
Work and energy
Beyond Newton's laws
Limits of validity
The Newtonian approximation to special relativity
The classical approximation to quantum mechanics
History
Branches
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Description of the theory
The following introduces the basic concepts of classical mechanics. For simplicity, it
often models real-world objects as point particles (objects with negligible size). The
motion of a point particle is characterized by a small number of parameters: its
position, mass, and the forces applied to it. Each of these parameters is discussed in
turn.

In reality, the kind of objects that classical mechanics can describe always have a
non-zero size. (The physics of very small particles, such as the electron, is more
accurately described by quantum mechanics.) Objects with non-zero size have more
complicated behavior than hypothetical point particles, because of the additional
degrees of freedom, e.g., a baseball can spin while it is moving. However, the results
for point particles can be used to study such objects by treating them as composite
The analysis of projectile motion is a
objects, made of a large number of collectively acting point particles. The center of
part of classical mechanics.
mass of a composite object behaves like a point particle.

Classical mechanics uses common-sense notions of how matter and forces exist and
interact. It assumes that matter and energy have definite, knowable attributes such as location in space and speed. Non-relativistic
mechanics also assumes that forces act instantaneously (see alsoAction at a distance).

Position and its derivatives

The position of a point particle is defined in relation to a coordinate system centered on an arbitrary fixed reference point in space
called the origin O. A simple coordinate system might describe the position of a particle P with a vector notated by an arrow labeled
r that points from the origin O to point P. In general, the point particle does not need to be stationary relative to O. In cases where P
is moving relative to O, r is defined as a function of t, time. In pre-Einstein relativity (known as Galilean relativity), time is
considered an absolute, i.e., the time interval that is observed to elapse between any given pair of events is the same for all
observers.[1] In addition to relying onabsolute time, classical mechanics assumesEuclidean geometry for the structure of space.[2]

Velocity and speed

The velocity, or the rate of change of position with time, is defined as thederivative of the position with respect to time:

In classical mechanics, velocities are directly additive and subtractive. For example, if one car travels east at 60 km/h and passes
another car traveling in the same direction at 50 km/h, the slower car perceives the faster car as traveling east at 60 − 50 = 10 km/h.
However, from the perspective of the faster car, the slower car is moving 10 km/h to the west, often denoted as -10 km/h where the
sign implies opposite direction. Velocities are directly additive as vector quantities; they must be dealt with usingvector analysis.

Mathematically, if the velocity of the first object in the previous discussion is denoted by the vector u = ud and the velocity of the
second object by the vector v = ve, where u is the speed of the first object, v is the speed of the second object, and d and e are unit
vectors in the directions of motion of each object respectively
, then the velocity of the first object as seen by the second object is

Similarly, the first object sees the velocity of the second object as
When both objects are moving in the same direction, this equation can be The SI derived "mechanical"
simplified to (that is, not electromagnetic or thermal)
units with kg, m and s
position m
angular position/angle unitless (radian)
Or, by ignoring direction, the difference can be given in terms of speed
only: velocity m·s−1

angular velocity s−1

acceleration m·s−2

angular acceleration s−2

Acceleration
The acceleration, or rate of change of velocity, is the derivative of the jerk m·s−3
velocity with respect to time (the second derivative of the position with "angular jerk" s−3
respect to time):
specific energy m2·s−2

absorbed dose rate m2·s−3

moment of inertia kg·m2

Acceleration represents the velocity's change over time. Velocity can momentum kg·m·s−1
change in either magnitude or direction, or both. Occasionally, a decrease angular momentum kg·m2·s−1
in the magnitude of velocity "v" is referred to as deceleration, but
force kg·m·s−2
generally any change in the velocity over time, including deceleration, is
simply referred to as acceleration. torque kg·m2·s−2

energy kg·m2·s−2
Frames of reference power kg·m2·s−3
While the position, velocity and acceleration of a particle can be described pressure and energy density kg·m−1·s−2
with respect to any observer in any state of motion, classical mechanics
surface tension kg·s−2
assumes the existence of a special family of reference frames in which the
mechanical laws of nature take a comparatively simple form. These spring constant kg·s−2
special reference frames are calledinertial frames. irradiance and energy flux kg·s−3

An inertial frame is a frame of reference within which an object interacting kinematic viscosity m2·s−1
with no forces (an idealized situation) appears either at rest or moving dynamic viscosity kg·m−1·s−1
uniformly in a straight line. This is the fundamental definition of an
density (mass density) kg·m−3
inertial frame. These are characterized by the requirement that all forces
entering the observer's physical laws originate from identifiable sources density (weight density) kg·m−2·s−2
caused by fields, such as electro-static field (caused by static electrical number density m−3
charges), electro-magnetic field (caused by moving charges), gravitational
action kg·m2·s−1
field (caused by mass), and so forth.

A key concept of inertial frames is the method for identifying them. For practical purposes, reference frames that do not accelerate
with respect to distant stars (an extremely distant point) are regarded as good approximations to inertial frames. Non-inertial
reference frames accelerate in relation to an existing inertial frame. They form the basis for Einstein's relativity. Due to the relative
motion, particles in the non-inertial frame appear to move in ways not explained by forces from existing fields in the reference frame.
Hence, it appears that there are other forces that enter the equations of motion solely as a result of the relative acceleration. These
forces are referred to asfictitious forces, inertia forces, or pseudo-forces.

Consider two reference frames S and S'. For observers in each of the reference frames an event has space-time coordinates of (x,y,z,t)
in frame S and (x',y',z',t') in frame S'. Assuming time is measured the same in all reference frames, and if we require x = x' when t = 0,
then the relation between the space-time coordinates of the same event observed from the reference frames S' and S, which are
moving at a relative velocity ofu in the x direction is:

This set of formulas defines a group transformation known as the Galilean transformation (informally, the Galilean transform). This
group is a limiting case of the Poincaré group used in special relativity. The limiting case applies when the velocity u is very small
compared to c, the speed of light.

The transformations have the following consequences:

v′ = v − u (the velocity v′ of a particle from the perspective ofS′ is slower by u than its velocity v from the perspective
of S)
a′ = a (the acceleration of a particle is the same in any inertial reference frame)
F′ = F (the force on a particle is the same in any inertial reference frame)
the speed of light is not a constant in classical mechanics, nor does the special position given to the speed of light in
relativistic mechanics have a counterpart in classical mechanics.
For some problems, it is convenient to use rotating coordinates (reference frames). Thereby one can either keep a mapping to a
convenient inertial frame, or introduce additionally a fictitiouscentrifugal force and Coriolis force.

Forces; Newton's second law

Newton was the first to mathematically express the relationship between force and momentum. Some physicists interpret Newton's
second law of motion as a definition of force and mass, while others consider it a fundamental postulate, a law of nature.[3] Either
interpretation has the same mathematical consequences, historically known as "Newton's Second Law":

The quantity mv is called the (canonical) momentum. The net force on a particle is thus equal to the rate of change of the momentum
of the particle with time. Since the definition of acceleration is a = dv/dt, the second law can be written in the simplified and more
familiar form:

So long as the force acting on a particle is known, Newton's second law is sufficient to describe the motion of a particle. Once
independent relations for each force acting on a particle are available, they can be substituted into Newton's second law to obtain an
ordinary differential equation, which is called the equation of motion.

As an example, assume that friction is the only force acting on the particle, and that it may be modeled as a function of the velocity of
the particle, for example:

where λ is a positive constant, the negative sign states that the force is opposite the sense of the velocity. Then the equation of motion
is

This can be integrated to obtain

where v0 is the initial velocity. This means that the velocity of this particle decays exponentially to zero as time progresses. In this
case, an equivalent viewpoint is that the kinetic energy of the particle is absorbed by friction (which converts it to heat energy in
accordance with the conservation of energy), and the particle is slowing down. This expression can be further integrated to obtain the
position r of the particle as a function of time.

Important forces include the gravitational force and the Lorentz force for electromagnetism. In addition, Newton's third law can
sometimes be used to deduce the forces acting on a particle: if it is known that particle A exerts a force F on another particle B, it
follows that B must exert an equal and opposite reaction force, −F, on A. The strong form of Newton's third law requires that F and
−F act along the line connecting A and B, while the weak form does not. Illustrations of the weak form of Newton's third law are
often found for magnetic forces.

Work and energy

If a constant force F is applied to a particle that makes a displacement Δr,[note 2] the work done by the force is defined as the scalar
product of the force and displacement vectors:

More generally, if the force varies as a function of position as the particle moves from r1 to r2 along a path C, the work done on the
particle is given by theline integral

If the work done in moving the particle from r1 to r2 is the same no matter what path is taken, the force is said to be conservative.
Gravity is a conservative force, as is the force due to an idealized spring, as given by Hooke's law. The force due to friction is non-
conservative.

The kinetic energy Ek of a particle of mass m travelling at speed v is given by

For extended objects composed of many particles, the kinetic energy of the composite body is the sum of the kinetic energies of the
particles.

The work–energy theorem states that for a particle of constant mass m, the total work W done on the particle as it moves from
position r1 to r2 is equal to the change inkinetic energy Ek of the particle:

Conservative forces can be expressed as thegradient of a scalar function, known as thepotential energy and denoted Ep:

If all the forces acting on a particle are conservative, and Ep is the total potential energy (which is defined as a work of involved
forces to rearrange mutual positions of bodies), obtained by summing the potential ener
gies corresponding to each force

The decrease in the potential energy is equal to the increase in the kinetic energy
This result is known asconservation of energy and states that the totalenergy,

is constant in time. It is often useful, because many commonly encountered forces are conservative.

Beyond Newton's laws

Classical mechanics also describes the more complex motions of extended non-pointlike objects. Euler's laws provide extensions to
Newton's laws in this area. The concepts of angular momentum rely on the same calculus used to describe one-dimensional motion.
The rocket equation extends the notion of rate of change of an object's momentum to include the fects
ef of an object "losing mass".

There are two important alternative formulations of classical mechanics: Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics. These,
and other modern formulations, usually bypass the concept of "force", instead referring to other physical quantities, such as energy,
speed and momentum, for describing mechanical systems ingeneralized coordinates.

The expressions given above for momentum and kinetic energy are only valid when there is no significant electromagnetic
contribution. In electromagnetism, Newton's second law for current-carrying wires breaks down unless one includes the
electromagnetic field contribution to the momentum of the system as expressed by the Poynting vector divided by c2, where c is the
speed of light in free space.

Limits of validity
Many branches of classical mechanics are
simplifications or approximations of more accurate
forms; two of the most accurate being general
relativity and relativistic statistical mechanics.
Geometric optics is an approximation to the quantum
theory of light, and does not have a superior
"classical" form.

When both quantum mechanics and classical

mechanics cannot apply, such as at the quantum level
with many degrees of freedom, quantum field theory
(QFT) is of use. QFT deals with small distances and
large speeds with many degrees of freedom as well as
the possibility of any change in the number of
particles throughout the interaction. When treating
large degrees of freedom at the macroscopic level,
Domain of validity for Classical Mechanics
statistical mechanics becomes useful. Statistical
mechanics describes the behavior of large (but
countable) numbers of particles and their interactions as a whole at the macroscopic level. Statistical mechanics is mainly used in
thermodynamics for systems that lie outside the bounds of the assumptions of classical thermodynamics. In the case of high velocity
objects approaching the speed of light, classical mechanics is enhanced by special relativity. In case that objects become extremely
heavy (i.e. their Schwarzschild radius is not negligibly small for a given application), deviations from Newtonian mechanics become
apparent and can be quantified by using the Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism. In that case, General relativity (GR) becomes
applicable. However, until now there is no theory of Quantum gravity unifying GR and QFT in the sense that it could be used when
objects become extremely small and heavy.[4] [5]
The Newtonian approximation to special relativity
In special relativity, the momentum of a particle is given by

where m is the particle's rest mass,v its velocity, v is the modulus of v, and c is the speed of light.

If v is very small compared toc, v2/c2 is approximately zero, and so

Thus the Newtonian equationp = mv is an approximation of the relativistic equation for bodies moving with low speeds compared to
the speed of light.

For example, the relativistic cyclotron frequency of acyclotron, gyrotron, or high voltage magnetron is given by

where fc is the classical frequency of an electron (or other charged particle) with kinetic energy T and (rest) mass m0 circling in a
magnetic field. The (rest) mass of an electron is 511 keV. So the frequency correction is 1% for a magnetic vacuum tube with a
5.11 kV direct current accelerating voltage.

The classical approximation to quantum mechanics

The ray approximation of classical mechanics breaks down when the de Broglie wavelength is not much smaller than other
dimensions of the system. For non-relativistic particles, this wavelength is

where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum.

Again, this happens with electrons before it happens with heavier particles. For example, the electrons used by Clinton Davisson and
Lester Germer in 1927, accelerated by 54 V, had a wavelength of 0.167 nm, which was long enough to exhibit a single diffraction
side lobe when reflecting from the face of a nickel crystal with atomic spacing of 0.215 nm. With a larger vacuum chamber, it would
seem relatively easy to increase the angular resolution from around a radian to a milliradian and see quantum diffraction from the
periodic patterns of integrated circuit computer memory.

More practical examples of the failure of classical mechanics on an engineering scale are conduction by quantum tunneling in tunnel
diodes and very narrow transistor gates in integrated circuits.

Classical mechanics is the same extreme high frequency approximation as geometric optics. It is more often accurate because it
describes particles and bodies with rest mass. These have more momentum and therefore shorter De Broglie wavelengths than
massless particles, such as light, with the same kinetic ener
gies.

History
The study of the motion of bodies is an ancient one, making classical mechanics one of the oldest and largest subjects in science,
engineering and technology,
Some Greek philosophers of antiquity, among them Aristotle, founder of Aristotelian physics, may have been the first to maintain the
idea that "everything happens for a reason" and that theoretical principles can assist in the understanding of nature. While to a
modern reader, many of these preserved ideas come forth as eminently reasonable, there is a conspicuous lack of both mathematical
theory and controlled experiment, as we know it. These later became decisive factors in forming modern science, and their early
application came to be known as classical mechanics.

In his Elementa super demonstrationem ponderum, medieval mathematician Jordanus de Nemore introduced the concept of
"positional gravity" and the use of componentforces.

The first published causal explanation of the motions of planets was Johannes Kepler's
Astronomia nova, published in 1609. He concluded, based onTycho Brahe's observations on
the orbit of Mars, that the planet's orbits were ellipses. This break with ancient thought was
happening around the same time that Galileo was proposing abstract mathematical laws for
the motion of objects. He may (or may not) have performed the famous experiment of
dropping two cannonballs of different weights from the tower of Pisa, showing that they
both hit the ground at the same time. The reality of that particular experiment is disputed,
but he did carry out quantitative experiments by rolling balls on an inclined plane. His
theory of accelerated motion was derived from the results of such experiments and forms a
cornerstone of classical mechanics.

Three stage Theory of Newton founded his principles of

impetus according to Albert of
natural philosophy on three proposed
Saxony.
laws of motion: the law of inertia, his
second law of acceleration (mentioned
above), and the law of action and reaction; and hence laid the foundations for
classical mechanics. Both Newton's second and third laws were given the proper
scientific and mathematical treatment in Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis
Principia Mathematica. Here they are distinguished from earlier attempts at
explaining similar phenomena, which were either incomplete, incorrect, or given
little accurate mathematical expression. Newton also enunciated the principles of
conservation of momentum and angular momentum. In mechanics, Newton was
also the first to provide the first correct scientific and mathematical formulation
of gravity in Newton's law of universal gravitation. The combination of
Newton's laws of motion and gravitation provide the fullest and most accurate
description of classical mechanics. He demonstrated that these laws apply to
Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), an
everyday objects as well as to celestial objects. In particular, he obtained a
influential figure in the history of physics
theoretical explanation ofKepler's laws of motion of the planets.
and whose three laws of motion form the
basis of classical mechanics
Newton had previously invented the calculus, of mathematics, and used it to
perform the mathematical calculations. For acceptability
, his book, the Principia,
was formulated entirely in terms of the long-established geometric methods, which were soon eclipsed by his calculus. However, it
was Leibniz who developed the notation of thederivative and integral preferred[4] today.

Newton, and most of his contemporaries, with the notable exception of Huygens, worked on the assumption that classical mechanics
would be able to explain all phenomena, including light, in the form of geometric optics. Even when discovering the so-called
Newton's rings (a wave interference phenomenon) he maintained his owncorpuscular theory of light.

After Newton, classical mechanics became a principal field of study in mathematics as well as physics. Several re-formulations
progressively allowed finding solutions to a far greater number of problems. The first notable re-formulation was in 1788 by Joseph
Louis Lagrange. Lagrangian mechanics was in turn re-formulated in 1833 byWilliam Rowan Hamilton.
 Some difficulties were discovered in the late 19th century that could only be resolved by
more modern physics. Some of these difficulties related to compatibility with
electromagnetic theory, and the famous Michelson–Morley experiment. The resolution of
these problems led to the special theory of relativity, often still considered a part of classical
mechanics.

A second set of difficulties were related to thermodynamics. When combined with

thermodynamics, classical mechanics leads to the Gibbs paradox of classical statistical
mechanics, in which entropy is not a well-defined quantity. Black-body radiation was not
explained without the introduction of quanta. As experiments reached the atomic level,
classical mechanics failed to explain, even approximately, such basic things as the energy
levels and sizes of atoms and the photo-electric effect. The effort at resolving these
Hamilton's greatest
problems led to the development ofquantum mechanics.
contribution is perhaps the
reformulation of Newtonian
Since the end of the 20th century, classical mechanics in physics has no longer been an
mechanics, now called
Hamiltonian mechanics. independent theory. Instead, classical mechanics is now considered an approximate theory to
the more general quantum mechanics. Emphasis has shifted to understanding the
fundamental forces of nature as in the Standard model and its more modern extensions into
a unified theory of everything.[5] Classical mechanics is a theory useful for the study of the motion of non-quantum mechanical, low-
energy particles in weak gravitational fields. Also, it has been extended into the complex domain where complex classical mechanics
[6]
exhibits behaviors very similar to quantum mechanics.

Branches
Classical mechanics was traditionally divided into three main branches:

Statics, the study of equilibrium and its relation to forces

Dynamics, the study of motion and its relation to forces
Kinematics, dealing with the implications of observed motions without regard for circumstances causing them
Another division is based on the choice of mathematical formalism:

Newtonian mechanics
Lagrangian mechanics
Hamiltonian mechanics
Alternatively, a division can be made by region of application:

Celestial mechanics, relating to stars, planets and other celestial bodies

Continuum mechanics, for materials modelled as a continuum, e.g.,solids and fluids (i.e., liquids and gases).
Relativistic mechanics (i.e. including the special and general theories of relativity), for bodies whose speed is close
to the speed of light.
Statistical mechanics, which provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and
molecules to the macroscopic or bulkthermodynamic properties of materials.

See also
Dynamical systems
History of classical mechanics
List of equations in classical mechanics
List of publications in classical mechanics
Molecular dynamics
Newton's laws of motion
Special theory of relativity
Quantum Mechanics
 Quantum Field Theory

Notes
1. The notion of "classical" may be somewhat confusing, since this term usually refers to the era of classical antiquity in
European history. While many discoveries within themathematics of that period are applicable today and of great
use, much of the science that emerged from that time has since been superseded by more accurate models. This in
no way detracts from the science of that time as most of modern physics is built directly upon those developments.
The emergence of classical mechanics was a decisive stage in the development of science, in the modern sense of
the term. Above all, it is characterized by an insistence that more rigor be used to describe the behavior of bodies.
Such an exacting foundation is only available throughmathematical treatment and reliance onexperiment, rather
than speculation. Classical mechanics established a way to predict the behavior of objects in a quantitative manner
and ways to test these predictions through carefully designedmeasurement. The emerging globally cooperative
endeavor provided increased scrutiny and testing of both theory and experiment. This remains a key factor in
establishing certainty in knowledge and in bringing it to the service of society
. History shows how closely the health
and wealth of a society depend on nurturing this investigative and critical approach.
2. The displacement Δr is the difference of the particle's initial and final positions: Δr = rfinal − rinitial .

References
1. Knudsen, Jens M.; Hjorth, Poul (2012).Elements of Newtonian Mechanics(https://books.google.com/books?id=rkP1
CAAAQBAJ) (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 30.ISBN 978-3-642-97599-8. Extract of page
30 (https://books.google.com/books?id=rkP1CAAAQBAJ&pg=P A30)
2. MIT physics 8.01 lecture notes (page 12)(http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-01-physics-i-fall-2003/lecture-notes/b
inder1.pdf) Archived (http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20130709154423/http%3A//ocw .mit.edu/courses/physics/8%2D0
1%2Dphysics%2Di%2Dfall%2D2003/lecture%2Dnotes/binder1.pdf)2013-07-09 at the Library of Congress Web
Archives (PDF)
3. Thornton, Stephen T.; Marion, Jerry B. (2004). Classical dynamics of particles and systems(5. ed.). Belmont, CA:
Brooks/Cole. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-534-40896-1.
4. Jesseph, Douglas M. (1998). "Leibniz on the Foundations of the Calculus: The Question of the Reality of
Infinitesimal Magnitudes". Perspectives on Science. 6.1&2: 6–40. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
5. Page 2-10 of the Feynman Lectures on Physicssays "For already in classical mechanics there was indeterminability
from a practical point of view." The past tense here implies that classical physics is no longer fundamental.
6. Complex Elliptic Pendulum(https://arxiv.org/abs/1001.0131), Carl M. Bender, Daniel W. Hook, Karta Kooner in
Asymptotics in Dynamics, Geometry and PDEs; Generalized Borel Summation vol.(https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-
I
88-7642-379-6_1)

Further reading
Alonso, M.; Finn, J. (1992).Fundamental University Physics. Addison-Wesley.
Feynman, Richard (1999). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Perseus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7382-0092-7.
Feynman, Richard; Phillips, Richard (1998).Six Easy Pieces. Perseus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-201-32841-7.
Goldstein, Herbert; Charles P. Poole; John L. Safko (2002).Classical Mechanics (3rd ed.). Addison Wesley.
ISBN 978-0-201-65702-9.
Kibble, Tom W.B.; Berkshire, Frank H. (2004).Classical Mechanics (5th ed.). Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-
86094-424-6.
Kleppner, D.; Kolenkow, R.J. (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-035048-9.
Landau, L.D.; Lifshitz, E.M. (1972).Course of Theoretical Physics, Vol. 1 – Mechanics. Franklin Book Company.
ISBN 978-0-08-016739-8.
Morin, David (2008). Introduction to Classical Mechanics: With Problems and Solutions(1st ed.). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-87622-3.*Gerald Jay Sussman; Jack Wisdom (2001). Structure and
Interpretation of Classical Mechanics. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-19455-6.
O'Donnell, Peter J. (2015).Essential Dynamics and Relativity. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4665-8839-4.
Thornton, Stephen T.; Marion, Jerry B. (2003). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (5th ed.). Brooks Cole.
ISBN 978-0-534-40896-1.
External links
Crowell, Benjamin. Light and Matter (an introductory text, uses algebra with optional sections involving calculus)
Fitzpatrick, Richard. Classical Mechanics (uses calculus)
Hoiland, Paul (2004). Preferred Frames of Reference & Relativity
Horbatsch, Marko, "Classical Mechanics Course Notes".
Rosu, Haret C., "Classical Mechanics". Physics Education. 1999. [arxiv.org : physics/9909035]
Shapiro, Joel A. (2003).Classical Mechanics
Sussman, Gerald Jay & Wisdom, Jack &Mayer,Meinhard E. (2001). Structure and Interpretation of Classical
Mechanics
Tong, David. Classical Dynamics (Cambridge lecture notes on Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalism)
Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL)
Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an e-
book library of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering.
MIT OpenCourseWare 8.01: Classical Mechanics Free videos of actual course lectures with links to lecture notes,
assignments and exams.
Alejandro A. Torassa, On Classical Mechanics

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