DJJ3103 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TOPIC 1: FORCES ON MATERIALS

TOPIC 1
FORCES ON MATERIALS

At the end of this topic, student should be able to:

General objectives Specific objectives
1 Apply the forces on Explain the effects of forces on materials.
materials a. static load
b. dynamic load
c. impact load
d. fatigue and alternating loads
Differentiate between tensile, compression and shear forces.
Define the following:
a. tensile and compressive stress.
b. tensile and compressive strain.
c. modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus).
2 Apply Hooke’s Law State Hooke’s Law.
Sketch the general shape of stress versus strain
Define and calculate problems related to the following;
a. stress and strain
b. young’s modulus
c. safety factor
d. Poisson’s ration
e. strain energy
3 Classify the shear Differentiate between single shear and double shear.
stress and shear Define modulus of rigidity
strain Solve problem on forces on materials, Hooke’ Laws, shear
stress and shear strain.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

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When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. Due
to cohesion between the molecules, the body resists deformation. This resistance by which
material of the body opposes the deformation is known strength of material. The subject
Strength of Materials deals with the strength or the load-carrying capacity of variuos body
such as beams, shafts and columns. It also considers their stability and rigidity. Force
acting on a body is termed as load.

1.2 TYPES OF LOADS AND EFFECTS

No. Types of loads Descriptions Examples
1 Static load Any load, that does not Weight of body, building
change in magnitude or
position with time.
2 Dynamic load load are changing Car by a bridge
3 Impact load loads acting suddenly weight falling on the
design object, knock nails
4 Cyclic load repeated or fluctuating Turbine, windmil, piston
load on components. engine

1.3 TYPES OF FORCES

No Types of forces Descriptions Figure
1 Tensile force The force which points away
from the body

2 Compressive The force which points toward

force to the body
3 Shear force The force which acts
tangentially or parallel to the
surface

1.4 STRESS
The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against deformation is known as
stress. The load is applied the body while the stress is induced in the material of the body.
The stress may be normal stress or a shear stress.

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1.4.1 Normal stress

Normal stress is the stress which acts in a direction perpendicular to the area. The normal
stress is either tensile stress or compressive stress. Members subject to tensile force is
under tensile stress which there is an increase in length of the members.

While members subject to compressive force are under compressive stress which there is
decrease in length of the members. The Unit of stress is N/m 2 or Pascal(Pa). In numerical
problem it is always is convenient to express the unit of stress mentioned in MPa and Gpa.
1 Mpa = 1X106 N/m2 and 1 GPa = 1x109 N/m2

Force
Stress=
Crossectional area
P
σ=
A

1.4.2 Shear Stress

When equal and opposite forces act tangentially on any cross-sectional plane of a body,
tending to slide its one part over the other at that plane, this body is said to be in a state of
shear. The corresponding stress induced in it is called shear stress. In figure a rivet
connecting two plate tends to shear off at section XX, producing shear stress in the cross-
section of the rivet.

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shear force
Shear stress=
area
V
τ=
A

1.4.3 Single shear and double shear

1.5 STRAIN

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When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of dimension of
the body. Strain is a measure of the deformation produced in a body by loads. It is a ratio
between change in dimension and original dimension, and as such it has no unit.

change∈dimension
Strain , ε=
original dimension
1.5.1 Normal Strain
The normal strain is either tensile strain or compressive strain.
Tensile strain is when there is some increase in length of the body due to external force.
Meanwhile, the compressive strain is when there is some decrease in length of the body.

deformation∈length
Strain=
original length
δL
ε=
L

Normal strain can be divided into two, there are Longitudinal strain and Lateral strain.

1.5.1.1 Longitudinal strain.

When a body is subjected to an axial tensile force, there is an increse in the length of the
body. But the same time there is a decrease in other dimensions of the body at right angles
to the line action of the applied load. Thus the body is having axial deformation and also
deformation at right angles to the line of action of the applied load (lateral deformation).
The ratio of axial deformation to the original length of the body is known as longitudinal
strain.
Elongation∈length
Longitudinal strain=
original length
δL
ε x=
L

1.5.1.2 Lateral Strain

The strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain. Let a
rectangular bar of length L, breadth b and depth d is subjected to an axial tensile load P as

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shown in figure. The length of the bar will increase while the breadth and depth will
decrease.
Let δL = increase in length
δb = decrease in breadth
δd = decrease in depth
δL δb δd
Then longitudinal strain , ε x = and Lateral strain , ε y = or
L b d

1.5.1.3 POISSON’S RATIO

The ratio between the Lateral strain and longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio.
Lateral strain
Po isso n' s ratio=
Longitudinal strain
εy
ν=
εx
As lateral strain is opposite in sign to longitudinal strain, hence algebraically is written as
−ε y
ν=
εx
For most metal ν lies between 0.25 and 0.33

1.5.2 SHEAR STRAIN

A rectangular element of the body is distorted by shear stress as shown in figure. If the
lower surface is assumed to be fixed, the upper surface slides relative to the lower surface
and the corner angles are altered by angle Φ. Shear strain is defined as a change in the
right angle of the element measure in radians and is dimensionless.

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C C'
Shear strain , ∅=
BC

1.6 HOOKE’S LAW

Hooke’s Law states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is
proportional to the strain. Thie means the ratio of the stress to the corresponding strain is a
constant within the elastic limit. This constant is known as Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus
of Rigidity.

1.7 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (OR YOUNG’S MODULUS)

The ratio of normal stress to the corresponding normal strain is a constant. This ratio is
known as Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity.
Normal Stress
Youn g' s Modulus=
Normal strain
σ
E=
ϵ
Strain has no unit as it is a ratio. Thus E has the same unit as stress.

1.8 MODULUS OF RIGIDITY

The ratio of shear stress to the corresponding shear strain within the elastic limit, is known
as Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus.

Shear Stress
Modulus of Rigidity=
Shear Strain
τ
G=
∅
Strain has no unit as it is a ratio. Thus G has the same unit as stress.

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1.9 STRAIN ENERGY

When a gradual or static load is applied to a body of an elastic material, the internal
resistance or the stress increase linearly with the increase in deformation and therefore,
the load-elongation or resistance-deformation diagram is a straight line within elastic limits.
The maximum or the final resistance of the body is equal to the applied load. The work
done in straining a material is equal to the area under the diagram at any instant or is the
work done against the average resistance acting throughout.

Area under the graph

δL
1
Thus Strain energy= 2 X ( Average resistance ) X ( elongation )
1
U = ( P )(δL)
2

1.10 FACTOR OF SAFETY

A machine component must be designed so that the load carried by it under normal
conditions of utilisation is considerably below its ultimate load. This smaller load is referred
as the allowable load or the design load or the working load. This is done to ensure safe
working of the component against uncertainties of various factors during the operation of
machine, e.g., homogeneousness of the material, number of loadings during the life of
component, type of loading(static or sudden), method of analysis used, nature cause, etc.
Thus a large portion of the load carrying of the component is kept as reserve for safe
performance of the component. The ratio of the ultimate load to the allowable or working
load is known as factor of safety. Thus,

ultimate load
Factor of safety =
allowable load

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As the stress is the load per unit area, factor of safety is also define as,

ultimate stress
Factor of safety =
allowable stress

1.11 STRESS –STRAIN DIAGRAM FOR DUCTILE MATERIAL

Stress-strain diagram of variuos materials vary widely and different tensile test conducted
on the same material may yield different results, depending on the temperature of the
specimen and the speed of loading. Ductile materials, which comprise structural steel, as
well as many alloys of other metals, are characterized by their ability to yeild at normal
temperature.

b) Sample test specimen

Example Tensile test machine

c) Test specimen after conducted the tensile test.

Low-carbon steel Aluminium alloy

d) Example Stress-strain diagram

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The behaviour of a ductile material, such as steel, subjected to an increase tensile load is
studied by testing a specimen in a tensile machine. The plot between strain and the
corresponding stress is represented graphically by a tensile test diagram. Figure shows a
stress vs strain diagram for mildsteel in which the stress is calculated on the basis of
original area of the steel bar. Most of the other engineering materials show a similar pattern
to a varying degree.

The following are the salient features of the diagram.

a) When the load is increased gradually, the strain is proportional to load or stress upto
a certain value. Line OP indicates this range and is known as the line of
proportionality. Hooke’s Law is applicable in this range. The stress at the end point
P is known as the proportional limit.
b) If the load is increase beyond the limit proportionality, the elongation is found to be
more rapid, though the material may still be in the elastic state, i.e. on removing the
load, the strain vanishes. The point E depicts the elastic limit. Hooke’s law cannot be
applied in this range as the strain is not proportional to the stress. Usually, this point
is very near to P and many times the difference between P and E is ignored and
thefore elastic limit is taken as the limit of proportionality.
c) When the load is further increased, plastic deformation occurs i.e. on removing the
load, the strain is not fully recoverable. At point Y, metal shows an appreciable strain
even without further increasing the load. Actually, the curve drops slightly at this
point to Y’ and the yielding goes upto point Y’’. The point Y’ and Y’’ are known as the
upper and lower yield points respectively.

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d) After the yield point, further straining is possible only by increasing the load. The
stress strain curve rises upto point U, the strain in the region Y to U is about 100
times that from O to Y’. The stress value at U is known as the ultimate stress and is
mostly plastic which is not recoverable.
e) If the bar is stressed further, it begins to form a neck or a local reduction in cross-
section occurs. After this, somewhat lower loads are sufficient to keep the specimen
elongating further. Ultimately, the specimen fractures at point R.
f) If the load is divided by the original area of the cross-section, the stress is known as
the nominal stress. This is lesser at the rupture load than at the maximum load.
However, the stress obtained by dividing with the reduced area of cross-section is
known as the actual or true stress and is greater at the maximum load. It is shown in
the figure by dotted line.

In the case of aluminium and many other ductile material, the onset of yield is not
characterized by a horizontal portion of stress-strain curve. For that case, the yield strength
can be defined by the offset method. The yield strength at 0.2% offset for example is
obtained by drawing through the point of the horizontal axis of strain, ε = 0.2% (or ε =
0.002) , a line parallel to the initial straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram see fig.
The stress corresponding to the point Y obtained in this fashion is defined as the yield
strength at 0.2% offset.

Determination of yield strength by offset method

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1.12 STRESS –STRAIN DIAGRAM FOR BRITTLE MATERIAL

Brittle material, which comprise cast iron, glass and stone are characterized by the fact
that rupture occurss without any noticeable prior change in the rate of elongation. Thus for
brittle material, there is no difference between the ultimate strength and the breaking
strength. So from this observation that normal stress are primarily responsible for the
failure.

rupture

Test specimen for brittle material

ε

1.13 DEFORMATIONS OF MEMBERS UNDER AXIAL LOADING

Consider a homogeneous rod BC of length L and uniform cross-section of area A
subjected to a centric axial load P . If the resulting axial stress σ = P/A does not exceed the
proportional limit of material, we may apply Hooke’s law and write:

σ
E=
ε
σ
ε=
E
δL P
Recalling that ε = L …..∧σ = A
P
A
E=
δL
L
PL
δL=
EA
Example 1

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A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a tensile load of 400 kN.
Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120 MN/m 2.

Solution
Force
Stress=
Area
P
σ=
A
P
A=
σ
400 X 103 N
A=
N
120 X 106 2
m
¿ 3.333 X 10−3 m 2
π
A= ( D 2−d 2 )
4
π
3.333 X 10−3= ( D 2 −0.12 )
4
4 ( 3.333 X 10−3 )
D 2= + 0.12
π
D2=0.0142
D=0.1193 m∨119.3 mm

Example 2
A rod 1.5 m long and of diameter 20 mm is subjected to an axial pull of 20 kN. If the
modulus of elasticity of material of rod is 200 GPa. Determine:
i) The stress
ii) The strain
iii) The elongation of the rod
Solution
Given: Length of the rod, L = 1.5 m
Diameter of the rod, D =20 mm
Axial force, P = 20 kN
Young’s modulus E = 200 GPa

i) Stress,σ

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force
Stress=
area
P
σ=
A
π
A= D 2
4
π
A= (0.02¿¿ 2) ¿
4
¿ 3.142 X 10−4 m 2
20 X 103
∴ σ=
3.142 X 10−4
¿ 63.66 X 106 Pa∨63.66 MPa

ii) Strain, ε
stress
Young Modulus=
strain
σ
E=
ε
σ
ε=
E
63.66 X 10 6
ε=
200 X 10 9
¿ 3.18 X 10−4

iii) Elongation,δL

elongation
Strain=
length
δL
ϵ=
L
δL=ε X L
¿(3.18 X 10−4 ) X 1.5
¿ 4.77 X 10−4 ∨0.477 mm

Example 3

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A 1.5 m long steel wire of 6 mm diameter steel wire is subjected to a 3.4 kN tensile load.
Knowing that E = 200 GPa. Determine:
a) The elongation of wire
b) The corresponding normal stress.

Solution
Given Length, L = 1.5 m
Force , P = 3.4 kN
Diameter, D = 6 mm

PL
δL=
AE
π
A= D 2
4
π
¿ (6 X 10¿¿−3 m)2 ¿
4
¿ 2.827 X 10−5 m 2
( 3.4 X 103 ) ( 1.5 )
δL=
( 2.827 X 10−5 ) ( 200 X 109 )
¿ 9.019 X 10− 4 m∨0.902mm
Example 4
Determine the deformation of steel rod shown under the given loads ( E = 200GPa)
Given AABC = 600 mm2 and ACD = 200 mm2

330 kN 200 kN

130 kN
D
A B C

0.3 m 0.3 m 0.4 m

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Solution

330 kN 200 kN
 
130 kN
D
A B C

P1 130 kN

P2 200 kN   130 kN

330 kN 200 kN
P3   130 kN

¿ ∑ F x =0 ¿
Expressing that each of bodies diagram is in equilibrium, that means + →

≈P3 = 130 kN
≈P2 = 130 -200 = - 70 kN
≈P1 = 130 – 200 + 330 = 260 kN

PL
δL=∑
AE
1 PL PL PL
δL=
E {( ) ( ) ( ) }
+
A 1 A 2
+
A 3

( 130 X 10 3 ) ( 0.4 ) (−70 X 103 ) ( 0.3 ) ( 260 X 103 ) ( 0.3 )

¿
1
200 X 10
9
{( ( 200 X 10−6 ) 1)( +
( 600 X 10−6 ) 2 )(
+
( 600 X 10−6 ) )}
3

1
¿ 9
( 260 X 106−35 X 106 +130 X 106 )
200 X 10
¿ 1.775 X 10−3 m∨1.775 mm

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Example 5
An axial load of 56 kN is applied to a bar of 36 mm diameter and 1.2 m length. The
extension of the bar is measured to be 0.265 mm whereas the reduction in diameter is
0.002 mm. Calculate:
i) The stress
ii) The longitudinal strain
iii) The lateral strain
iv) The poisson’s ratio
v) The Young’s modulus
vi) The strain energy
vii) Factor of safety if maximum stress is 150 MPa.
Solution
Given
:
Axial force, P= 56 kN
Diameter, D = 36 mm
Length, L = 1.2 m
Elongation, δL = 0.265 mm
Decrease in diameter, δD = -0.002 mm

i) Stress, σ
force
Stress=
area
P
σ=
A
π
A= D 4
4
π
¿ ( 0.036 m )2
4
¿ 1.018 X 10−3 m 2
56 X 10 3
∴ σ=
1.018 X 10−3
N
¿ 55.02 X 10 6 ∨55.02 MPa
m2

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ii) Longitudinal strain, εx

elongation
ε x=
length
δL
¿
L
0.265 mm
¿
1200 mm
¿ 2.21 X 10−4

iii) Lateral strain, εy

δD
ε y=
D
−0.002 mm
¿
36 mm
¿−5.55 X 10−5

iv) Poisson’s ratio, ν

εy
v=
εx
−5.55 X 10−5
¿
2.21 X 10−4
¿−0.25

v) Young’s modulus, E
stress
E=
longitudinal strain
σ
E=
εx

55.02 X 106
¿
2.21 X 10−4
N
¿ 2 48.96 X 109 ∨248.96 GPa
m2

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vi) Strain energy, U

1
U = P ( δL )
2
1
¿ ( 56 X 103 N ) (0.265 X 10−3 m)
2
¿ 7.42 Joules

vii) Factor of safety, F.S

maximum stress
F . S=
working stress
σ max
¿
σ
150 X 106
¿
55.02 X 106
¿ 2.73

Example 6
What force is required to punch a 20 mm diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm thick?
The shear stress is 350 MN/m2.
Solution

shear force
Shear stress=
area
V P
τ= ∨τ=
A A
Note : In this case V= P
A=πDt
¿ π ( 0.02m ) ( 0.025 m )
¿ 1.57 X 10−3 m2
∴ P=τ A
¿ ( 350 X 106 ) ( 1.57 X 10−3 )
¿ 549.8 X 103 N ∨549.8 kN

Example 7

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Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis shown if P = 400 kN. The
shearing stress of the bolt is 300 MPa.

Solution
The bolt is subject to double shear.
shear force
Shear stress=
area
V
τ= V
A
P
P
τ= V
2A Area
P
A=
2τ
400 X 103
¿
2 ( 300 X 106 )
¿ 666.66 X 10−6 m 2

π
A= D 2
4
4A
D=
√ π

4 X ( 666.66 X 10−6 )
¿
√
¿ 0.0291 m∨29.1 mm
π

Example 8

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A tensile test was conducted on a mild steel bar. The following data was obtained from the
test.
i) Diameter of the steel bar =3 cm
ii) Gauge length of the bar =20 cm
iii) Load at elastic limit =250 kN
iv) Extension at a load of 150 kN =0.21 mm
v) Maximum load =380 kN
vi) Total extension =60 mm
vii) Diameter of the road at the failure =2.25 cm

Determine :
a) The Young’s modulus.
b) The stress at elastic limit.
c) The percentage elongation.
d) The percentage decrease in area.

Solution.
a) The Young’s modulus

π 2
Areaof the rod , A= D
4
π
A= ( 3 )2 cm2
4
¿ 7.068 cm2
¿ 7.068 X 10−4 m2

Force
Stress=
Area
P
σ=
A
150 X 1000
¿
7.068 X 10−4
¿ 212.22 X 10 6 N /m 2∨212.22 MPa

increase ∈length ( ¿ extension )

Strain=
original length ( ¿ gauge length )

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0.21mm
ε=
20 X 10 mm
¿ 1.05 X 10−3

stress
Youn g' s Modulus=
strain
σ
E=
ε
212.22 X 106
¿
1.05 X 10−3
¿ 202.114 X 10 9 N /m2∨202.114 GPa

b) The stress at the elastic limit is given by

load at elastic limit
Stress=
area
250 X 1000
σ=
7.068 X 10−4
N
¿ 353.71 X 10 6 ∨353.71 MPa
m2

c) The percentage elongation is obtained as,

Total increase∈length
Percentage elongation= X 100
original length ( ¿ gauge length )
60 mm
%δ= X 100
20 X 10 mm
¿ 30 %
d) The percentage decrease in area is obtained as ,
original area−area at the failure
Percentage decrease ∈area= X 100
original area
¿¿¿
32−2.252
¿ X 100
32
¿ 43.75 %

EXERCISE 1
1) Define stress and strain. Write down the S.I units of stress and strain.
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2) Define the terms of:

a) Young’s modulus
b) Modulus of rigidity
c) Elasticity
3) State the hooke’s law
4) Distinguish the tensile stress and compressive stress.
5) Distinguish the normal force and shear force.
6) List FOUR (4) types of loads with examples.
7) Identify the formulas and units of the following terms;
i) Poisson’s ratio
ii) Safety factor
8) A tensile test had been done on a steel. The result was shown in figure below. Give a
name of point A, B, C, D ,E and F.

E
F
B C  D
   
A  

9) A rod with a diameter of 35 mm is subjected to a compressive force of 150 kN. This

load causes a reduction in length of 0.17 x 10 -3 m. The original length of the rod is 200
mm. Determine the Modulus of Elasticity of this material.
10) A steel rod is 2.2 m long and must not strecth more than 1.2 mm when a 8.5 kN load
is applied to it. Knowing that E = 200 GPa. Determine:
a) The smallest diameter rod that should be used.
b) The corresponding normal stress caused by the load.
11) A rod with a 30 mm diameter and 80 mm length is subjected to a tensile force of 100
kN. As a result, the rod elongates by 0.0585 mm and the diameter becomes 29.994
mm. Determine:

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i. The tensile strain in x-x direction

ii. The tensile strain in y-y direction
iii. Poisson’s ratio.
12) A steel tube with outer diameter of 40 mm and inner diameter of 15 mm has been
given a tensile force of 65 kN. Given E steel = 206 GN/m2 . Calculate the stress occur in
the tube.
13) An 1130 mm2 crossectional area of 50 mm long steel bar is subjected to a tensile
force of 20 kN and cause the slongation of 0.0435 mm. Determine:
i) The stress in the bar
ii) Normal strain
iii) Young;s modulus
14) A 5.6 m rod with a cross sectional area of 1150 mm 2 elongates by 7.56 mm when a
70 kN tensile force is applied on both sides.
i) Draw a free body diagram for the above situation
ii) Calculate the tensile stress in the rod.
iii) Determine the strain in the rod.
iv) Determine the Young’s Modulus of the rod.
v) Calculate the safety factor if the maximum allowable stress (or ultimate stress)
is 330 MN/m2.
15) Three plates are connected using two rivets shown in the figure below. Get the
shear stress in the rivet.

5 kN
10 kN
5 kN  

16) The steel propeller shaft ABCD carries the axial loads shown in fig below. Determine
the change in the length of the shaft cause by these loads. Use E = 200 GPa.

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6000 N

D = 15 mm D = 22.5 mm

20000 N 40000 N
A B
C D

2.5 m 2m 2m

17) A steel bar of 20 mm diameter is loaded as shown in figure below. Determine the
stresses in each part and the total elongation. Take E = 210 GPa.

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