Ar.

Arthur Cutinho

TOS 1: UNIT 2
SIMPLE STRESSES
AND STRAINS
Elasticity-
1. To Understand Axial Stress, Strain, Elastic
Stress and
Limit and Modulus of Elasticity
Strain
2. To Understand Elasticity, Plasticity and
other properties of materials
3. To Study Lateral Deformations and other
Moduli of Elasticity.
4. To Understand principle of Superposition
on a body.
5. To Understand the Composite Materials
6. To Understand the concepts of Bulk
Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity.
7. To Understand Stress Strain Curve of
different Materials.
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TOS 1: Unit 2: Simple Stresses and Strains

2.1 Stress, Strain and Elasticity:
A force may change the shape of a body. It may cause Compression, cause Tension, cause Bending
Compression and Bending Tension in a spanning Member, cause Torsion or cause Shearing on a
body on which it is acting.
When a Force acts axially on a
body it causes
1. Axial or Direct
Compression
2. Axial or Direct Tension

Definitions:
2.1.1 Stress: Force applied per
unit cross sectional area (area
perpendicular to the direction of
the force) is defined as Stress. Unit
of Stress is N/m² or N/mm² or
kN/m²
Expressed as σ = P/A where P is the force and A is the cross sectional area
1Pascal (Pa) = 1N/m² = 106 Mega Pascals (MPa) = 106N/mm²
The effect of an axial force on a body is not seen in the stress (not a physical effect) but in the
shortening or elongation of the body which can be measured and recorded. This effect is known as
strain
2.1.2 Axial Strain or Linear Strain: Linear Strain is change in length (dimension parallel to the
direction of the force) per unit original length. Strain has No Units.
Strain is expressed as e = δL/L where δL is the change in length and l is the original length
2.1.3 Elastic Limit: For every material there is a limiting value of load for a given resisting section
up to and within which the strain or deformation disappears on removal of the load (The
property of Elasticity). The value of intensity of stress corresponding to the limiting load is
known as Elastic Limit.
2.1.4 Hooke’s Law: It states that when a material is loaded within its Elastic Limit, the stress
produced is directly proportional to the strain. The stress strain curve is dealt with lastly.
Stress α Strain, that is σ α e or σ/e = Constant
2.1.5 Modulus of Elasticity: The Ratio of stress and strain which is a constant within the elastic
limit is called Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus and is denoted by E.
E = σ/e. Unit of E is N/mm².
σ =

e = 

/

E= Hence δL =
/ 
E for copper = 1 x 10⁵N/mm², E for Steel = 2 x 10⁵N/mm², E for teak wood = 0.0942 x 10⁵N/mm²
E for concrete grade M20 = 0.25 x 10⁵N/mm²
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2.2 Strength of Materials:

A force deforms a body on which it is applied. Stress is the resistance offered by a body to
come back to its original shape and size after removal of force. The ability of the material or
body to regain or retain its shape is specific to the body and is the property which will help us in
deciding its use in construction. Accordingly let us define the following Mechanical Properties of
Materials
2.2.1 Elasticity: It is the property of the material due to which it regains its original size and shape
after removal of the external forces causing the deformation. E.G. Steel

2.2.2 Plasticity: Lack of Elasticity is known as Plasticity. The plasticity of the material is ability to
change its shape without destruction under the action of external action and to retain the shape
given to it when the loads are removed. E.G Clay is a plastic Material
Most materials are elastic up-to certain point or load and then they become plastic

2.2.3 Ductility: Large deformations occur on application of a small load. Ductile materials can be
reduced from large sections to thinner and thinner sections i.e. they can be drawn into wires.
Ductility is measured in terms of percentage elongation. Ductility increases with increase in
temperature. e.g. – Gold, Silver, Aluminum, Copper etc.

2.2.4 Brittleness: Lack of ductility is called Brittleness. Non ductile materials are brittle.
Brittleness is also defined as a property of Breaking, Fracturing or Shattering a material without
prior warning or without much permanent distortion under load. E.G. Cast iron, Concrete, Glass.
These materials are good for resisting Compressive loads but less to extremely less suitable for
Tensile Loads

The following are important properties used to define the strength of materials but out of
context in our syllabus
Other Mechanical Properties of Materials:
2.2.5 Strength: The Strength of a material is its ability to sustain loads without undue distortion,
collapse or rupture. E.G. The material of a column should have adequate Compressive Strength.
2.2.6 Hardness: Hardness of material is defined as the resistance of material to Wear, Abrasion,
Scratching, or Indentation.
2.2.7 Malleability: It is the ability of a material to be get permanently by compression without
rupture and hence can be rolled into thin sheets without cracking or breaking. E.G. Gold, Silver,
Aluminum.
2.2.8 Fatigue: The property or phenomenon of failure under fluctuating or repeated loading is
called Fatigue or Endurance Limit
2.2.9 Stiffness: The ability of a material to resist elastic deformation is called Stiffness.
2.2.10 Creep: Certain parts of a building like a Column sustain loads for a long period of time. The
materials of such parts continue to deform and finally break. Creep continues as long as the load
is applied. The greater the time, the more will be the Creep. The continuous deformation with
time which the material undergoes due to application of external loads is called Creep

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2.3 Lateral Strain:

It can easily be seen from the sketch that if the load elongates the body along the direction of
the force, it compresses the body in the other two directions and vice versa.
Linear Strain or Axial Strain or Primary Strain or simply Strain is the strain caused in the
direction of the force.
2.3.1 Lateral Strain is the strain in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the applied force.
Lateral Strain = Change in Lateral dimension/Original Lateral Dimension
= δb/b or δt/t, where b and t are the width and thickness of a rectangular bar
And δb and δt are the change in width and thickness of the bar
Lateral strain has No Unit
For a circular rod Lateral Strain = δd/d where d is the diameter and δd is the change in diameter
2.3.2 Poisson’s Ratio: When a homogenous material is loaded within its elastic limit, the ratio of
the lateral strain to linear strain is a constant and is known as Poisson’s Ratio denoted by μ or
1/m.
μ = Lateral Strain/ Linear Strain. Hence Lateral Strain = μ x e
The value of μ for most metals is between 0.25 to 0.4
For Structural Steel the Modulus of Elasticity E = 2.0 X 10⁵ N/mm² and Poisson’s Ratio μ = 0.3
If the linear strain is tensile and hence positive, lateral strain will be compressive and hence
negative
If the linear strain as compressive and hence negative, lateral strain will be tensile and hence
negative
Problem 1 A rectangular bar of 50 width and 40 thickness, 1500mm long is subjected to an axial pull of
80kN along its length. Its length increases by 0.3 mm and thickness decreases by 0.0024mm.
•Calculate Young’s Modulus and Poisson's Ratio.
•Calculate Nominal Stress and Axial Strain and Lateral Strain
•If the same rod is applied a push of 450kN along its length, find the change in length.
Solution:
• Nominal Stress = Force/Area = P/A = 80 x 10³ / 50 x 40 = 40N/mm² = σ
• Axial Strain = Change in Length/Original Length = δL/L = 0.3/1500 = 0.0002 = e
• Young’s Modulus = Stress / Strain = σ/e = 40/0.0002 = 2 x 10⁵N/mm² = E
• Lateral Strain = Change in thickness/Original Thickness = 0.0024/40 = 0.00006
• Poisson’s Ratio = Lateral Strain / Linear Strain = 0.00006/0.0002 =0 .3 = μ
• δL = PL/AE = 450 x 10³ x 1500/ 40 x 50 x 2 x 10⁵ = 1.68mm for a load of 450kN

Problem 2 A 1200mm long bar of 30mm diameter is subjected to an axial push of 600kN along its
length. Calculate the change in length and diameter if E=2 x 10⁵ N/mm² and µ=0.3
Solution:
• Area = 3.14 x 30²/4 = 706.5mm², L = 1200mm.
• δL = PL/A E = 600 x 10³ x 1200/ 706.5 x 2 x 10⁵ = 5.095mm
• Linear Strain = 5.095/1200 = 0.00424 = e

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• Lateral Strain = μ x e = 0.00127

• Lateral Strain = δd/d = 0.00127
Hence δd = 0.00127 x 30 = 0.0382mm

Problem 3 A Copper wire of length 600mm is subjected to a pull of 6.2kN along its length. If stress is not
to exceed 70N/mm² calculate the diameter. Also calculate its elongation if E = 10⁵N/mm²
Solution:
• If d is the diameter Area = πd²/4 = A
• σ (Stress) = P/A = 6.2 x 10³/ πd²/4
• Hence 6.2 x 10³/ πd²/4 = 70N/mm² as stress is not to exceed 6.2kN
Hence d² = 112.82, d = 10.62mm
• Area = 3.14 x 10.62²/4 = 88.53mm²
• δL = PL/AE = 6.2 x 10³ x 600/88.53 x 1 x 10⁵ = 0.42mm

2.4 Deformation of a Body Subjected to Axial Forces (Principle of Superposition):

Principle of Superposition: When a number of forces are acting on a body, the resulting strain will be
the algebraic sum of strains caused by individual forces.

Problem 4 A steel rod of varying diameters is subjected to various forces along its length as shown and
it is in equilibrium. If E = 2 x 10⁵N/mm²
a. Find P for equilibrium.
b. Calculate the Stresses in each part of the rod
c. Calculate the total change in length.

Solution:
Area AB = 3.14 x 140²/4 = 15386mm²
Area BC = 3.14 x 200²/4 = 31400mm²
Area CD = 3.14 x 160²/4 = 20096mm²
a. Calculate P for equilibrium
ΣFH = 0 will give 150 + P + 200 – 550 = 0. Hence P = 200kN

b. Calculate Stresses in each part of the rod

Draw free body diagrams of each part and find Force and type acting on each part. As shown below

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Accordingly Force on AB= 150kN compressive, hence σ AB = 150 x 10³/15386 = 9.75N/mm²

Force on BC = + 150 + 200 = 350kN compressive hence σBC = 350 x 10³/31400 = 11.14N/mm²
Force on CD = 550kN compressive Hence σCD = 550 X 10³/20096 = 27.36N/mm²

C. Calculate Total Deformation (Note negative sign indicates compression)

δL AB = PL/AE = 150 x 10³ x 1200/15386 x 2 x 10⁵ = - 0.05854mm
δL BC = PL/AE = 350 x 10³ x 1400/31400 x 2 x 10⁵ = - 0.07802mm
δL CD = PL/AE = 550 x 10³ x 1000/20096 x 2 x 10⁵ = - 0.1368mm
Hence Total Deformation = - 0.05854 - 0.07802 - 0.1368 = - 0.27mm (The - sign indicates
compression)

Problem 5 A steel bar of area 200mm² uniform area all through-out is subjected to axial loads along its
length as shown and it is in equilibrium. If E = 2 x 10⁵N/mm²
a) Find P for equilibrium.
b) Calculate the total change in length.

Solution:
Area = 200mm²
a. Calculate P for equilibrium
ΣFH = 0 will give - 50 - P - 20 + 50 = 0. Hence P = -20kN.
Hence direction of P shown is wrong and should be reversed as shown in the free body diagrams
below

TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
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b. To Calculate the total change in Length draw free body diagram of each part

c. δL AB = PL/AE = 50 x 10³ x 1000/200 x 2 x 10⁵ = + 1.25mm Tensile

δL BC = PL/AE = 30 x 10³ x 1000/200 x 2 x 10⁵ = + 0.75mm Tensile
δLCD = PL/AE = 50 x 10³ x 1000/200 x 2 x 10⁵ = + 1.25mm Tensile
Total Elongation of the bar = +3.25mm (The + sign indicates elongation)

Problem 6 A steel bar of square sections as shown is subjected to axial loads along its length and it is in
equilibrium. If E = 2 x 10⁵N/mm²
1. Find Pin magnitude and direction for equilibrium.
2. Find stresses in each part of the bar
3. Find Total change in length

Solution:
Area AB = 30 X 30 = 900mm², Area BC = 25 X 25 = 625mm²
1. Let us assume P towards right
ΣFH = 0 will give + 50 + P +100 = 0. Hence P = -150kN. Hence direction assumed is wrong.

2. Free Body Diagram will yield the following calculations (Diagram given Below)

σAB = 50x 10³/900 = 55.55N/mm² Compressive

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σBC = 100x 10³/625 = 160N/mm² Tensile

3. δL AB = PL/AE = 50 x 10³ x 1500/900 x 2 x 10⁵ = -0.416mm

δL BC = PL/AE = 100 x 10³ x 2000/625 x 2 x 10⁵ = +1.6mm
Hence Net Change in Length = -0.416 + 1.6 = +1.18mm

2.5 Composite Materials:

Many a times two materials are used and bound together such
that they act like one unit. E.g. the steel rods and concrete in a
R.C.C Column
For a composite material as shown decrease or increase in
length of the bar should be equal. Hence strain in material 1
should be equal to strain in material 2
e1 = σ1/E1 Where σ1 is stress in material 1 and E1 is Young’s
modulus of material 1 (E = σ/e)
e2 = σ2/E2 Where σ2 is stress in material 2 and E2 is Young’s
modulus of material 2
AS e1 = e2, σ1/E1 = σ2/E2, Hence σ1/ σ2 = E1/E2.
The term E1/E2 is called modular Ratio which is defined as the
ratio of moduli of Elasticity of two different materials and
denoted by m = E1/E2
Hence σ1/ σ2 = E1/E2 = m and σ1 = m σ2

Equivalent area is defined as that area of material 1 which can carry the same load as an unit
area of material 2
Let us work out the equivalent area of concrete w.r.t steel
Let Aconc and σconc be area of concrete and stress in concrete respectively
Let Ast and σst be area of steel and stress in steel respectively
Load in concrete = Load in steel
σconc x Aconc = σst x Ast
Aconc = σst/ σconc x Ast
Aconc = m x Ast, where m = ESteel / EConc
If Ast = 1 then Equivalent area of concrete Aconc = m

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Problem 7 If ESteel = 2 x 10⁵N/mm² and EConc = 0.25 x 10⁵N/mm², find that area of concrete which can
take up the same load as a 20mm bar of steel. (This is for M20 grade concrete)
Let Aconc and σconc be area of concrete and stress in concrete respectively
Let Ast and σst be area of concrete and stress in steel respectively
Aconc = m Ast, m = ESteel/ EConc = 2 x 10⁵/0.25 x 10⁵ = 8
Ast = 3.14 x 20²/4 = 314mm²
Aconc = 8 x 314 = 2512mm² (Simply put a concrete of M20 Grade will have to be @ 56mm diameter
circular section or 50mm x 50mm square section to replace a 20mm bar of steel to carry the same
load)

Problem 8 A R.C.C Column of size 300 x 550 is reinforced with 12 No 20 diameter steel bars. If the load
carried by the column is 1800kN, calculate the stress in each material and load carried by
each material. Given EConc = 0.25 x 10⁵N/mm² and ESteel = 2 x 10⁵N/mm²
Solution:
Ag = Area Gross = 300 x 550 = 165000mm²
Ast = 12 x 3.14 x 20²/4 = 3678mm²
Hence Aconc = 165000 -3678 = 161322mm²
σst / σconc = ESteel / EConc = 2 x 10⁵/0.25 x 10⁵n = 8 = m
σst = 8 x σconc
Total Load on Column = Load by Concrete + Load by Steel
Hence 1800 x 10³ = σconc x Aconc + σst x Ast (As Load = Stress x Area)
1800 x 10³ = σconc x 161322 + 8 x σconc x 3678
1800 x 10³ = σconc x (161322 + 29424)
• σconc = 9.44N/mm² and Load by concrete = 9.44 x 161322 = 1522.87 x 10³N
• σst = 8 x 9.44 = 75.52N/mm² and Load by Steel = 75.52 x 3678 = 277.13 x 10³N

Problem 9 Find stresses in concrete and steel if an RCC column is subjected to axial compressive force
of 1200kN. Diameter of column is 400mm and it is reinforced with 8 bars of 16mm diameter
bars. Given ESteel = 2 x 105N/mm2, whereas EConc = 0.2 x 10⁵N/mm2.

Solution:
Ag = Area Gross = 3.14 X 400²/4 = 125600mm²
Ast = 8 x 3.14 x 16²/4 = 1607.68mm²
Hence Aconc = 165000 -3678 = 123992.32mm²
σst / σconc = ESteel / EConc = 2 x 10⁵/0.2 x 10⁵n = 10 = m
Hence σst = 10 x σconc
Total Load on Column = Load by Concrete + Load by Steel
Hence 1200 x 10³ = σconc x Aconc + σst x Ast (As Load = Stress x Area)
1200 x 10³ = σconc x 123992.32 + 10 x σconc x 1607.68
1200 x 10³ = σconc (123992.32 +16076.8)
• σconc = 8.57N/mm² and Load by concrete = 8.57 x 123992.32 = 1062.61 x 10³N
• σst = 8.57 x 10 = 85.7N/mm² and Load by Steel = 85.7 x 1607.68 = 137.38 x 10³N
TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
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2.6 The Other Moduli OF Elasticity:

2.6.1 Bulk Modulus:
Concept of Tri-Axial Loading: When a
body is acted upon by forces acting in three
mutually perpendicular directions, they are
called Tri-Axial Forces
Volumetric Strain ev: The ratio of the
change in volume to the original Volume is
known as Volumetric Strain denoted by ev
ev = δv/V
Bulk Modulus (K): When a body of a
material is subjected to three mutually
perpendicular like stresses of same
intensity then the ratio of direct stress
and the corresponding volumetric strain
is known as Bulk Modulus denoted by K
K = σ/ ev
Relationship between Young’s Modulus and Bulk Modulus is E = 3K (1 - 2 μ)
Bulk Modulus describes the volumetric elasticity of a body or material or its tendency to
deform in all directions when uniformly loaded in all directions. It is supposedly extension of
Young's modulus in three dimensions

2.6.2 Shear Modulus:

• Shear Load: A Load on a body which acts parallel or tangential to the plane under
consideration, tending to slide its’ one part over the other at a section is called a shear load or
shear force.
Consider a cube abcd of side y,
subjected to two equal and opposite
forces F on the top and bottom faces. If
the bottom face is fixed, the cube will
be distorted to ab’c’d.
Let x be the shear deformation at right
angles to length y.

• Shear Strain is defined as tanθ = x/y.

• Shear Stress is defined as F/Area at y and generally denoted by τ
• Modulus of Rigidity is defined as G = Shear Stress/Shear Strain.

Relationship between Young’s Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity is E = 2G (1 + μ)

Relationship between the three Moduli is E = 9KG/G +3K

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2.7 Stress Strain Curve and Permissible Stresses:

2.7.1 Stress Strain curve for mild steel
• A is the Limit Of
Proportionality i.e. the point
up-t0 which stress to strain
ratio is constant
• A to B is the point of
Elastic Limit where stress to
strain ratio is not a constant
but the material is still elastic
• B to C- C is called
Upper Yield Point up to where
there is an increase in strain
but no increase in load (This is
due to creep)
• D is called Lower Yield Point • E is called Ultimate Load Point •F is called Fracture Point
When we design structures if we use the Yield Stress Value and calculate are required, the structure
may fail because of not same quality but inferior quality of material used or load being greater than
applied load. Hence we make allowances and introduce a factor of safety to be on the safer side
Permissible Stresses = Yield Stress/ Factor of Safety.
Permissible stresses are always within the Elastic Limit of a material and hence guarantee a safety

2.7.2 Stress Strain curve for Concrete

Note the following

1. The curve for concrete is on the lower side of the graph as it is brittle material
2. The value of E is highest for Steel and Lowest for Concrete as per this graph (E =
Stress/Strain)

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Suggested Theory Questions: Unit 2

1. Define Stress, Strain, Hooke’s law, Young’s Modulus
2. Define Lateral Stress, Poisson’s Ratio and Volumetric Strain
3. Define Young’s Modulus, Bulk Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity
4. Define Volumetric Strain and Bulk Modulus
5. Define Shear Stress and Modulus of Rigidity
6. Write the Formulae for the relationship between the various Moduli
7. Define with examples in Architectural Materials the concepts of Elasticity, Plasticity,
Ductility and Brittleness
8. Define Modular Ratio. And Equivalent Area
9. Draw Stress Strain Diagram for Mild Steel showing important points
10. Draw Stress Strain Diagram for Concrete showing important points

TOS 1 Unit 2 Simple Stresses and Strains Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho