A Review of Integrated On-Board EV Battery

Received April 13, 2020, accepted May 1, 2020, date of publication May 6, 2020, date of current version May
19, 2020.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2992741
A Review of Integrated On-Board EV Battery

Chargers: Advanced Topologies, Recent
Developments and Optimal Selection of FSCW
Slot/Pole Combination
MOHAMED Y. METWLY 1,3 , MAHMOUD S. ABDEL-MAJEED 1,3 ,
AYMAN S. ABDEL-KHALIK 2 , (Senior Member, IEEE),
RAGI A. HAMDY2 , (Senior Member, IEEE), MOSTAFA S. HAMAD3 , (Senior Member, IEEE),
AND SHEHAB AHMED 4 , (Senior Member, IEEE)
1 Smart-CI
Center, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21544, Egypt
2 Department
of Electrical Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21544, Egypt
3 Department
of Electrical and Control Engineering, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport, Alexandria 1029, Egypt
4 CEMSE Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia
Corresponding author: Ayman S. Abdel-Khalik ([email protected])

This work was supported by the ITIDA’s ITAC Collaborative Funded Project through the category type of Preliminary Research Projects
(PRP) under Grant PRP2018.R25.4.
ABSTRACT Integrated on-board battery chargers (OBCs) have been recently introduced as an opti-
mal/elegant solution to increase electric vehicle (EV) market penetration as well as minimize overall EV
cost. Unlike conventional off-board and on-board battery chargers, integrated OBCs exploit the existing
propulsion equipment for battery charging without extra bulky components and/or dedicated infrastructure.
OBCs are broadly categorized into three-phase and single-phase types with unidirectional or bidirectional
power flow. This paper starts with surveying the main topologies introduced in the recent literature employing
either induction or permanent magnet motors to realize fully integrated slow (single-phase) and fast (three-
phase) on-board EV battery charging systems, with emphasis on topologies that entail no or minimum hard-
ware reconfiguration. Although, permanent magnet (PM) motors with conventional double-layer distributed
winding layouts have been deployed in most commercial EV motors, the non-overlapped fractional slot
concentrated winding (FSCW) has been the prevailing choice in the most recent permanent magnet motor
designs due to its outstanding operational merits. Hence, a thorough investigation of the impact different
FSCW stator winding designs have on machine performance under the charging process is presented in this
paper. To this end, the induced magnet losses, which represent a challenging demerit of the FSCW, have
been used to compare different topologies under both propulsion and charging operation modes. Based on
the introduced comparative study, the optimal slot/pole combinations that correspond to the best compromise
under both operational modes have been highlighted.
INDEX TERMS Integrated chargers, on-board battery chargers (OBCs), multiphase machines, fractional
slot concentrated winding (FSCW), battery charging, optimal slot/pole combinations, reviews.
I. INTRODUCTION of the EV battery constitute vital challenges for commer-

Automotive market analysis shows that the market share cialization. In addition to numerous electrochemistry and
of electric vehicles (EVs) will be about 30% by 2030 material challenges, the performance of battery modules is
[1]. Battery technology has a great effect on the expan- affected by module design/packaging as well as electrical
sion of EVs. The cost, weight, charging time and lifetime charging and discharging characteristics [2], [3]. There is
significant correlation between charging time, lifetime of
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and the battery and the characteristics of the employed battery
approving it for publication was Atif Iqbal . charger [4].
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
85216 VOLUME 8, 2020
M. Y. Metwly et al.: Review of Integrated On-Board EV Battery Chargers
EV battery chargers can be broadly classified into The three-phase machine requires extra nonintegrated com-
off-board and on-board configurations with unidirec- ponents during the three-phase fast charging process to nul-
tional or bidirectional power flow capability [5]. Unidirec- lify the average torque production resulting from the flow of
tional charging reduces hardware requirements and simplifies three-phase currents through the machine windings. Standard
interconnection with the grid. Whereas, bidirectional charg- three-phase machines may be suitable for single-phase slow
ing permits battery power injection back to the grid. Off- integrated OBC. The system introduced in [17] uses a syn-
board chargers are installed in dedicated charging stations chronous machine with an excitation winding to avoid torque
which are designed to offer higher power transfer capabil- production during charging. However, hardware reconfigu-
ities, albeit, at a high infrastructure cost. Numerous off- ration to allow transition between propulsion and charging
board charger topologies and control techniques have been mode is a necessity. Whereas, another solution that does
introduced in the available literature [5]. On the other hand, not require any hardware reconfiguration is introduced in
vehicle on-board charging systems can be directly connected [18]. It employs four propulsion motors and has zero-torque
to single-phase or three-phase mains, which off-loads infras- production during fast charging mode, albeit at a high cost.
tructure cost. However, power transfer capability is typically As a result of these limitations, multiphase machines have
limited due to several constraints/tradeoffs such as cost, gained significant attention because of the aforementioned
volume, and weight of the vehicle [6]. Various topologies and demerits of their three-phase counterparts in integrated OBC
control schemes of on-board chargers have been presented in applications.
[7]. Battery chargers are classified based on power level and Multiphase machines are advantageous over their three-
charging time in Table 1 [5]. phase counterparts in many ways. The converter rating per
In order to overcome the limitations of on-board battery phase is reduced by splitting the power among more phases,
chargers (OBCs) while preserving their advantages, the so- while offering improved fault tolerance [19]. As far as EV
called integrated OBCs exploit existing propulsion circuit drivetrains are concerned, multiphase machines can effec-
components, the electric motor and the inverter, for battery tively ensure zero torque production during the charging
charging instead of a separate charging circuit with bulky add- period by exploiting the extra degrees of freedom of mul-
on inductors [8]. The motor windings are used as filter induc- tiphase machines [20]. This enables viable realizations for
tances and/or as galvanic isolation. Whereas, the propulsion integrated OBCs for EV applications. Despite the above-
inverter is used as a bidirectional DC/AC converter. This mentioned advantages, multiphase machines need a more
technology has recently emerged as an interesting optimal complex inverter and controller. Additionally, the decou-
compromise between on-board and off-board battery charg- pling transformations utilized in multiphase systems are quite
ers. The effectiveness of this technique entails some techni- sophisticated when compared to their three-phase counter-
cal requirements, namely, limited/no winding reconfiguration parts [21].
and zero average torque and torque ripple production during Early electric/hybrid vehicles employed high speed motors
the charging process. Achieving these desirable features will with mechanical gear transmission (drivetrain) to reduce
highly depend on the motor type, number of phases, and motor speed and transmit motor power to the wheels.
employed power converter [9]. Recent designs, however, introduced low speed in-wheel-
The electric motor types utilized in EVs include induc- motor structures to avoid friction losses and maintain full
tion motors (IMs), permanent magnet (PM) machines, and torque capabilities [22]. However, the relation between the
switched-reluctance motors (SRM) [10]. According to the machine torque and size stands as the main challenge in
analysis of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) introduced in order to achieve this vision [23]. In this context, the FSCW
[11], the PMSM is the most commonly used type in current layout provides a powerful candidate when compared to a
BEVs. Nevertheless, most integrated onboard chargers in distributed winding (DW) in many of the aspects summarized
the available literature were based on IMs equipped with in Table 2. The FSCW helps reduce end turn length, simplifies
conventional distributed windings. The advantages of IMs manufacturing and enables a slot fill factor approximately
include low cost, robustness, reliability, and low maintenance equal to 78%, especially when coupled with segmented stator
requirement [12]. On the other hand, PMSMs have the highest structures [24]. These advantages result in a promising cost-
efficiency among all other EV drivelines [13]. SRMs are effective solution. Recently, it has been proven that the design
cost-effective and high performing, however, they have high of PM machines with a multiphase fractional slot concen-
torque ripple [14]. Continued interest in SRMs is mainly trated winding (FSCW) arrangement has a significant effect
due to their high starting torque, wide-speed range and fault on flux-weakening and fault-tolerance capabilities [25].
tolerance capabilities [15]. As an integrated OBC machine PM machines equipped with a FSCW offer high torque
candidate, SRMs can produce zero average torque during density, high efficiency, low cogging torque, flux-weakening
charging, and their flexible energy flow control in EV appli- capability and fault tolerance. Nevertheless, the FSCW tends
cations is discussed in [16]. to produce non-uniform flux density distributions in the air
Although the three-phase machine is preferred for propul- gap. The non-synchronous space harmonics with relatively
sion as evidenced by commercial deployments, additional high magnitudes, including sub and super harmonics, induce
considerations apply when considering an integrated OBC. eddy currents in the rotor core, which in-turn yield significant
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TABLE 1. Battery charger classification in terms of power levels [5].
TABLE 2. Diversity of distributed and concentrated winding layouts.
rotor losses [26]. Even though these losses are lower than the extends existing FSCW slot/pole combinations for EV appli-
stator losses, their effect is crucial on machine performance cations with new six and nine-phase order multiphase FSCW
[27]. The lack of ventilation in the rotor overheats the rotor arrangements. Furthermore, we present variations in rotor
magnets yielding inevitable thermal demagnetization [28]. loss indices with respect to various FSCW slot/pole combi-
Additionally, the interaction between these non-synchronous nations for multiphase machines under both propulsion and
low order harmonics causes noise and undesired vibrations in charging modes, which represents another key contribution
the mechanical structure, the degree of which mainly depends of this study/survey. Furthermore, non-overlapped FSCW
on the adopted slot/pole combination [29]. The key com- slot/pole combinations are compared with overlapped wind-
ponents that affect the preferred slot/pole combinations are ings ones (coil pitch of two) in terms of magneto motive force
cogging torque, fill-factor, net radial forces and rotor losses (MMF) distributions under different modes. Based on this
[25]. In the literature, several interesting stator slot/pole com- comparative study, optimal slot/pole combination(s) emerge
binations have shown promise in EV applications. Some of as a compromise between machine performance under both
them are based on non-overlapped FSCW windings such as propulsion and charging modes.
12-slot/10-pole [30] and 18-slot/16-pole [31] combinations,
while others are based on overlapped windings with a coil II. INTEGRATED ON-BOARD CHARGER TOPOLOGIES
pitch of two, such as the 24-slot/10-pole [32] and 18-slot/10- Integrated OBC chargers have been recently proposed to
pole [33] combinations. In the case of overlapped windings reduce the cost and weight of EVs. Integrated OBC chal-
with a coil pitch of two, the air gap flux distribution is highly lenges/drawbacks can be confined to average torque produc-
improved and the undesired slot harmonics are considerably tion during charging mode and hardware reconfiguration to
suppressed. switch between propulsion and charging modes. Considering
The key objective of this paper is to first present an exten- that most commercial EVs are based on three-phase motors,
sive up-to-date review of integrated OBCs for EV applica- various integrated chargers employing three-phase machines
tions utilizing either three-phase or multiphase machines, have been introduced in the literature [4], [36]. These topolo-
which have been the topic of a significant body of recent liter- gies are simple and are preferably utilized while charging is
ature. Integrated OBCs are reviewed with a further classifica- achieved through single-phase mains. If three-phase charging
tion by type of power supply: slow single-phase charging, fast is employed, the three-phase currents flowing in the stator
three-phase charging, and charging using a multiphase volt- windings will cause an average torque production, hence,
age source. Almost all indicated topologies support vehicle- a mechanical lock is required to prevent motor rotation.
to-grid (V2G) integration [34], [35]. The various types of This solution considerably affects efficiency due to the high
chargers are investigated in terms of types of converters, rotor copper and core losses. Moreover, mechanical wear is
technical challenges, advantages and limitations. Control likely and audible noise is inevitably introduced. To mitigate
techniques during charging mode (PQ control and voltage- this shortcoming, the application of multiphase machines
oriented control) are also introduced. Due to the fact that has been adopted as they can successfully offer zero torque
PM machines equipped with a FSCW have proven them- production during charging mode owing to their additional
selves as a competitive option for EV traction, this paper degrees of freedom. Various integrated onboard chargers
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FIGURE 1. Thyristor-based integral battery charger.
based on multiphase drivetrains are considered in [37], [38].

Integrated chargers connected to a single-phase supply (slow
charging), a three-phase grid (fast charging), or a multiphase
FIGURE 2. Integrated charger based on two-motor drive.
voltage source (fast charging) are thoroughly reviewed in the
following subsections.
A. SLOW SINGLE-PHASE CHARGING where an interleaving switching technique was introduced

Widespread availability of single-phase mains outlets man- to effectively improve the efficiency and current waveforms
dates the need for single phase charging capability. However, concurrently. This way, the grid current ripple diminishes
single-phase charging can only offer slow charging levels. when compared to the phase current ripple due to the effective
Moreover, single-phase charging corresponds to a pulsating tripling of its ripple frequency. The main drawback of this
charging power that undesirably affects battery lifetime [4], topology is the pulsating nature of the battery charging power
[37], [39]. This section will cover integrated OBC topologies at the double line frequency since it is still based on a single-
based on both three-phase and multiphase machines con- phase supply.
nected to a single-phase supply during the charging process. Another solution that incorporates a single-phase-based
The single-phase integrated charger initially introduced charger is depicted in Fig. 3 [43]. It employs powertrain
in 1985 [40] is shown in Fig. 1. During propulsion, switch elements, namely a three-phase induction motor and con-
S is open, the machine is driven using a three-phase inverter. ventional three-phase inverter, in association with three addi-
Charging mode is initiated by connecting a single-phase out- tional relays K1, K2, and K3. These relays are utilized for
let between the machine star point and a fourth inverter leg reconfiguring the motor windings during various modes of
when switch S is closed. During charging, the three inverter operation. Under propulsion, K1 is closed, while K2 and
legs are controlled to ensure zero-sequence stator currents. K3 are open, resulting in a conventional three-phase propul-
This requirement for a fourth leg to allow for neutral current sion system. The relays swap their opening and closing con-
return is regarded as the main drawback of this technique, ditions during the charging mode (K2 and K3 are closed and
since the current rating of this additional leg is three times K1 is open). During charging, the motor leakage inductances
the other legs. On the other hand, both average and pulsating act as boost inductors. Two legs of the inverter, specifically
torques can be eliminated. switches S3-S6, are controlled using pulse width modulation
In the approach described in [41], the integrated charger (PWM) and operate as a boost converter. The battery voltage
consists of a bidirectional DC power source, two IMs, is selected to be of greater value than the grid peak voltage in
two voltage-fed inverters, and a control unit, as depicted order to ensure unity power factor operation can be achieved.
in Fig. 2. This topology can be implemented using two dif- The filter block, shown in Fig. 3, is used to minimize line
ferent approaches either two separate IMs or a single motor current harmonic distortion. This solution underpins the V2G
with dual three-phase stator winding sets. During propulsion concept and is currently used in some commercial cars. The
mode, power is transferred from the DC supply, battery, to the existence of the relays constitutes the main drawback of this
two motors sharing the total driving torque. During the charg- topology because it may increase conduction losses.
ing process, the single-phase grid is attached to the neutral A four motor-drive based integrated charger has been intro-
points of the two motors. The main advantages of this solution duced in [44]. It consists of four induction motors (IMs), four
include zero average torque production during the charging three-phase inverters, a battery, and a transfer switch. The
process, no need for mechanical a differential during propul- transfer switch allows the transition between the propulsion
sion mode, and the ability to inject battery energy back to and charging modes (hardware reconfiguration is needed).
the grid. An improved solution for controlling such a system, Fig. 4 presents the equivalent charging scheme of this solu-
that incorporates the same configuration, is discussed in [42], tion, where the single-phase source is connected to the neutral
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FIGURE 3. Single-phase integrated charger based on IM-drive.
FIGURE 4. Charging scheme of integrated four-wheel drive.
equipment into the charging process, where the charger is

mounted on an electric scooter. The three-phase inverter is
used as a single switch when charging. The lower IGBTs
connected to the negative DC-bus are concurrently switched,
while keeping the upper ones in the off state. Due to the
utilization of the three IGBTs in parallel, current flow through
these parallel branches will be the same. As a result, a reduc-
tion in conduction losses and an increase in efficiency are
FIGURE 5. Single-phase integrated charger based on PM-drive.
likely achieved. However, extra components are added such
as a power rectifier and an LC line filter.
In [45], experimental verification is carried out using a
points of motors IM1 and IM2; while the neutral points of 6kW axial flux PM machine, a 180V-12Ah lead-acid battery
the other two motors (IM3 and IM4) are connected to the pack and a 50A-600V IGBT drive with a switching frequency
battery. Motors 1 and 2 along with their allocated inverters of 25kHz. Moreover, an auxiliary 12V battery is used to
are employed as a single-phase boost converter, unity power supply the drive and control circuit. The latter is charged
factor operation at the grid side can therefore be obtained. through a small size DC/DC converter fed from the drive
Motors 3 and 4 act as a part of DC/DC buck converters. battery during both traction and charging modes. Despite the
The three-phase currents in any individual motor are equal above-mentioned advantages of this charger, it is unidirec-
in magnitude and phase, resulting in zero average torque tional and is limited to slow charging. A similar solution
production from the four motors during the charging mode has recently been introduced in [46], however, it employs
of operation. This solution is significantly more expensive an interior permanent magnet (IPM) propulsion drive as well
than previous option and can only be used when four in-wheel as lithium-ion (Li-Ion) batteries with a bidirectional DC/DC
motors are envisioned. conversion stage. A power factor correction (PFC) boost
An interesting solution based on an axial flux permanent rectifier is achieved with additional hardware. This solution
magnet (PM) machine has been described in [45], and is requires no passive elements, offers potential unity power
shown in Fig. 5. It also integrates the existing propulsion factor operation, and limits harmonic content. The IPM drive
85220 VOLUME 8, 2020

voltage. Furthermore, the APF removes the second-order

harmonic content. During the propulsion process, S1 and
S2 are switched ON, while S3 is OFF. Once S1 and S2 are
switched OFF with S3 ON, the converter can be connected
to a single-phase supply and the charging process starts. The
main drawback of the topology is the use of passive elements
(L, C) to construct the APF circuit.
Various topologies based on multiphase (greater than
three) machines are discussed in [50]–[52], as shown
in Fig. 8. These topologies can support either slow single-
phase charging or fast three-phase charging. The proposed
system in [50] considers a non-isolated solution for the slow
FIGURE 6. SRM-based integrated on-board charger. charging of EVs that incorporates a nine-phase machine.
While the one presented in [51] introduces an isolated system
located outside the vehicle, that employs a six-phase machine
(both symmetrical and asymmetrical configurations, which
are explained later in the following subsection). A five-phase
machine approach (non-isolated method) is utilized in [52].
Zero average torque production during the charging process
is concurrently achieved with unity power factor operation at
the grid side by all previous topologies.
In the case of an integrated OBC based on a nine-phase
machine in [50], no hardware reconfiguration is necessary
between the propulsion and charging modes of operation.
On the other hand, the proposed systems in [51], [52], which
FIGURE 7. Single-phase integrated charger with APF. are based on a six-phase machine and five-phase machine
respectively, require hardware reconfiguration. The concept
in [51] uses four additional switches in order to achieve
also provides improved performance during propulsion when hardware reconfiguration, while only two switches are used
compared to an IM or surface-mounted PM machine. in [52].
An integrated on-board battery charger using a switched An efficiency analysis of the various integrated charger
reluctance motor (SRM) is described in [47]. It employs topologies shows that a nine-phase charger corresponds to
a four-phase SRM along with an improved converter [48] the highest efficiency (reaching 86% during the charging
in addition to two intelligent power modules. These two mode). During charging, the efficiency varies from 79% to
intelligent modules form the SRM electrical drive using five 86% based on the applied topology. While, the efficiencies
inverter legs. Additionally, bidirectional power flow is possi- are slightly higher, between 81% and 89%, during the V2G
ble using the additional leg acting as DC/DC converter. The mode.
main function of the buck-boost converter is to adjust the
DC-bus voltage during motoring mode, while it is disabled B. FAST THREE-PHASE CHARGING
during charging. The charger is suitable for both low-speed Fast battery charging can be achieved using either dc (off-
and high-speed applications but with simple modifications. board) or three-phase charging, as depicted in Table 1. Recent
Moreover, a power factor correction (PFC) control is per- literature has introduced many topologies for IOBCs that
formed. Fig. 6 presents the block diagram of the SRM-based offer fast battery charging by simply connecting the vehicle
integrated battery charger and motor driver. Accordingly, to three-phase mains. An interesting high-power integrated
the
symbol refers to charging position while, the symbol
R charger that supports fast three-phase charging has been
refers to propulsion position. described in [53] and is shown in Fig. 9. In this case, ac
A single-phase integrated OBC charger achieving a power three-phase mains is connected to the mid-points of each
factor of 0.992 has been presented in [49]. The proposed winding of a three-phase machine (IM or PM) through an
topology comprises: a single-phase inverter, a bidirectional electromagnetic interference (EMI) filter and other protection
Quasi-Z-source converter, an active power filter (APF) and devices. The main function of the EMI filter is to reduce high-
a single-phase surface-mounted permanent magnet syn- frequency electromagnetic noise [54]. No additional compo-
chronous (SMPMS) machine, as depicted in Fig. 7. During nents are required. The three-phase machine is connected to
charging, the inverter in association with an inductor and three H-bridges (also known as a six-leg inverter) followed
capacitor are used to construct the APF. The APF integration by a front-end converter and a battery. The existence of the
considerably reduces the charger size, especially the capaci- DC/DC conversion stage leads to a dramatic increase in sili-
tor size that is mainly responsible for smoothing the dc output con surface ratio (SSR) when compared to the case in which
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FIGURE 8. Topologies of integrated single-phase battery chargers employing: (a) a nine-phase machine, (b) a six-phase machine, and (c) a
five-phase machine.
FIGURE 9. High power integrated charger on the basis of split-phase

machine. FIGURE 10. Air gap magnetizing flux distribution: (a) during propulsion
mode. (b) during charging mode.
the inverter is directly fed by the battery. No hardware recon-

figuration is required to change from one mode of operation ing in each winding of the employed machine are equally
to another. split in two opposite directions. The currents in each coil
During the charging process, the 6-phase inverter acts as cancel the effect of the other on the MMF. The MMF
a boost rectifier with PFC capability. The currents flow- along the whole stator is, therefore, eliminated. As a result,
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FIGURE 11. Isolated onboard charger based on PMSM: (a) winding configuration. (b) Arrangement of stator winging sets during
motoring. (c) Arrangement of stator winging sets during charging.
FIGURE 12. Isolated 9-phase 6-terminal on-board battery charger. (a) Winding layout. (b) Propulsion mode. (c) Charging mode.
the magnetic coupling between the rotor and the stator is lost. distributed stator winding is employed. As a matter of fact,
Fig. 10 presents the flux distribution: (a) during the propul- the winding leakage inductance (including zero-sequence)
sion mode and (b) during the charging mode. Although the mainly depends on the winding layout; therefore, a partic-
rotor is at standstill, slight vibrations may occur due to space ular winding configuration is necessary. Several solutions
harmonics if permanent magnets are employed. Moreover, employing the same arrangement are presented in the liter-
the total air gap magnetizing flux will ideally be zero and ature [55]–[58]. Charging from both single-phase (slow) and
the machine equivalent inductance as seen from the grid side three-phase (fast) grid is applicable with some modifications
will be equal to the winding leakage inductance, which may such as the use of only two H-bridge inverters, as well as
not be sufficient for achieving high quality grid currents if a two coils of the machine [56]. The main disadvantages of
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FIGURE 13. Integrated on-board battery charger utilizing PM machine with FSCW. (a) Winding arrangement. (b) Equivalent
scheme during both charging and motoring mode of operation.
the proposed topology are the control complexity and the An integrated on-board battery charging system that
relatively low stator leakage inductance if machines with employs a surface-mounted PM machine with a FSCW
distributed windings are utilized. arrangement is discussed in [61]. A 12-slot/10-pole combi-
An isolated charger that employs a PMSM with two three- nation, which is shown promising for EV applications, is,
phase stator winding sets is manifested in [59], as depicted therefore, adopted. The proposed charger consists of dual
in Fig. 11. The two separate winding sets are connected three-phase stator windings, two three-phase voltage source
in series while the propulsion mode is activated, as shown inverters (VSIs), a switch, and a battery, as depicted in Fig.
in Fig. 11(a). On the other hand, the two three-phase winding 13. In motoring mode, switch S is off, and the two three-
sets act as a rotating transformer during charging mode. phase stator winding sets are connected in series. Two VSIs
Initially, the inverter side three-phase winding set (Wind- feed the two winding sets of the stator. This connection is
ing 1 in Fig. 11(b)) is used to synchronize the rotor with similar to an open-end three-phase winding which results in
the grid and a mechanical clutch disconnects the motor better voltage waveforms as well as high reliability. During
from the mechanical transmission. The grid side winding charging, switch S is on, the grid is connected to the two
(Winding 2) is connected to the grid upon synchronization, bidirectional converters after synchronization. The grid line
and consequently, the machine will act as a three-phase to current is shared by the two three-phase winding sets and
three-phase rotating transformer. Battery charging is con- the relative current directions between the two winding sets
trolled using the three-phase inverter based on the induced is reversed compared to the propulsion mode. Although the
three-phase voltages across Winding 1. Since the voltage torque producing flux component should be nullified, similar
is halved compared to the propulsion mode, the maximum to the topology given in Fig. 9, the other sub and super space
charging power is also limited to half of the rated motoring harmonics contribute to the total equivalent stator inductance,
power. leading to improved filtering of the grid charging current,
An isolated solution using an interior permanent magnet when compared to a conventional distributed winding. The
(IPM) machine has recently been investigated in [13] using average torque production should be zero with a very low
a novel nine-phase six terminal stator winding layout as torque ripple component. Unity power factor operation at the
shown in Fig. 12. The high phase order improves the machine grid side can also be ensured.
fault-tolerance under both motoring and charging modes, and One of the major drawbacks of high phase order converters
allows for a limp home mode, where the machine can still is the relatively higher number of semiconductor switches
run with a whole three-phase inverter disabled. It adopts a and the complexity of the corresponding driving circuit. The
9-slot/8-pole combination, or its multiples, with a FSCW. literature has, therefore, introduced several reduced-switch-
The system is more advantageous to a conventional three- count converters to overcome this drawback. An interesting
phase one having the same slot/pole combination because the solution that utilizes a nine-switch converter (NSC) along
average torque is increased by 3% and torque ripple is dramat- with the machine winding is presented in Fig. 14 [62]. This
ically decreased by 35%, if for no other reason than because charger topology employs a symmetrical six-phase machine
of the suppression of MMF subharmonics. A similar connec- with zero torque production during charging mode, while
tion was introduced for a high-power multiphase induction unity power factor operation is obtained at the grid side.
machine in [12], [60]. This study showed that the nine-phase Moreover, the phase transposition principle was not needed
six-terminal connection corresponds to a lower copper loss for this case [63]. During the motoring mode, the six-phase
and a higher produced torque under various modes when machine with two isolated neutral points is fed from the
compared to an asymmetrical six-phase one. NSC which simply acts as a six-phase inverter, by closing
85224 VOLUME 8, 2020

FIGURE 14. Integrated charger based on six-phase nine-switch converter.
FIGURE 15. Topologies of integrated three-phase battery chargers employing: (a) a nine-phase machine, (b) a six-phase machine, and (c) a
five-phase machine.
S1 and S2 with S3 open. When these switches change their The investigated topologies typically comprise a multiphase
conditions, the charging mode is initiated and the NSC acts as machine, multiphase inverter, battery, and DC/DC converter.
an active rectifier. The six-phase windings are, therefore, used The operating principles, advantages, and limitations of these
as the grid-side filters. Despite the above-mentioned advan- systems have been already stated in the previous section.
tages of the topology, hardware reconfiguration between the The isolated chargers described in the previous subsection,
propulsion and charging mode is needed and is executed incorporating either symmetrical or asymmetrical six-phase
using three additional switches. configurations are shown in Figs. 16 and 17, respectively.
Additionally, the relatively low dc-link utilization of NCSs Another solution that offers the cheapest integration tech-
generally stands as a challenging drawback of such a topol- nique with a charging power equal to motoring power is
ogy. discussed in [64]. The topology uses a six-phase machine
The topologies introduced in [50]–[52] are based on fast (non-isolated system), with zero average torque during the
three-phase charging, and they are depicted in Fig. 15. charging mode of operation. Unity power factor operation
VOLUME 8, 2020 85225

FIGURE 16. Isolated charger using symmetrical six-phase topology.
FIGURE 17. Isolated charger using asymmetrical six-phase topology.
at the grid side is also guaranteed. However, hardware solution due to the omission of a second conversion stage
reconfiguration is considered as the main drawback of the [68]. At full load, the power factor at the grid side is almost
topology. Whereas, the one in [65] employs an asymmetrical unity and total harmonic distortion (THD) reaches 4.77%
six-phase induction motor with the option of two-source with an efficiency up to 92.6%. An innovative charger that
charging through the integration of a photovoltaic (PV) based underpins the same concept has also been presented earlier
energy source. Newly added techniques to eliminate torque in [8]. It supports single-phase charging using an add-on
production during the charging operation on the basis of mul- diode instead of the three-phase interface converter with an
tiphase machine degrees of freedom have been investigated efficiency reaching 93.1%.
in [66], [9]. Other solutions have been introduced in the available lit-
Although most of the previous topologies were mainly erature based on direct DC charging. In this context, a DC
based on multiphase stator windings, recent literature has also supply-based integrated OBC is depicted in Fig. 19 [69].
proposed some alternative topologies compatible with the off- The proposed topology has significant advantages includ-
the-shelf three-phase based drivetrains. However, this entails ing charging at several voltage levels (higher or lower than
extra hardware components to achieve the previously men- the battery voltage), simultaneous motoring/charging opera-
tioned charging requirements. A simple solution that employs tion, and bidirectional power flow with fault tolerant capabil-
an additional three-phase interface converter to obtain a high- ity. Therefore, the cost of charging is significantly reduced.
power three-phase integrated on-board charging has been Besides, the proposed configuration can be applied to both
investigated in [67] and is shown in Fig. 18. An additional three-phase and multiphase topologies employed for EV
three-phase interface converter is used to avoid hardware applications. The machine windings are utilized for filtration
reconfiguration. The proposed charger is more advantageous during the charging process. In addition, zero average torque
than conventional ones (with the same ratings) because it production can be ensured.
allows charging at a high-power level with moderate size and Another three-phase integrated charger that adopts a novel
weight. Moreover, it may be considered as a cost-effective technique for charging the battery without changing the motor
85226 VOLUME 8, 2020

FIGURE 18. High-power three-phase integrated charger.
FIGURE 19. Fast integrated charger based on DC supply.
FIGURE 20. Fast integrated charger based on two-level DC converter.
winding connection is shown in Fig. 20 [70]. The suggested together through different modes of operation. However, this
charger utilizes dual inverters which allows multilevel oper- topology entails an extra current source converter for the
ation while employing a two-level three-phase VSI. It allows charging process, which adds to the total system cost.
a buck-boost operation at unity power factor as well. Sim-
ply, the motor windings are integrated into a current source
rectifier topology and behave as DC inductors. The control C. FAST MULTIPHASE CHARGING
technique ensures the intermediate storage which is a critical The previous sections discussed the charging of EVs using
aspect of the rectifier by utilization of motor windings. In this either the single-phase or three-phase grid. Another solution
manner, the dual inverters and rectifier are synchronized is to connect the EV to a multiphase supply, which seems
VOLUME 8, 2020 85227

FIGURE 21. Topologies of integrated multiphase charging: (a) a six-phase machine. (b) a five-phase machine.
to be a rather theoretical idea that can only be applied in stant current–constant voltage (CC-CV) approach. The sys-
practice upon the availability of such supplies. From the tem controller is similar to a grid-tie inverter controller, where
practical point of view, a multiphase voltage source can the machine winding acts as an integrating filter inductance.
be obtained using either a three-phase to n-phase trans- The machine connections given in Fig. 15 ensure zero net
former [71], [72] or power electronic converters [73], [74]. magnetizing flux, and hence, zero-torque production. Either
Integrated chargers employing a multiphase voltage source PQ control or voltage-oriented control is applied to charge
are manifested in [75]–[77], and their proposed configura- the battery pack under constant current or constant voltage,
tions are depicted in Fig. 21. Integrated chargers on the basis respectively. In the former technique, the dq grid current
of an asymmetrical six-phase [75], a five-phase [76], and a components are set based on the required reference charging
symmetrical six-phase [77] power supply are demonstrated in current magnitude and the intended grid power factor. While
the literature. Whilst, isolated asymmetrical and symmetrical in the voltage-oriented control approach, the reference dq
six-phase voltage sources are presented in [51]. Unity power current components are obtained based on the dc-link voltage
factor operation at the grid side is ensured. The phase transpo- error and the desired grid power factor. The inner current con-
sition block, shown in Fig. 21, is required to interconnect the troller structure will, however, differ based on the available
machine terminals to the grid since the phase order will be dif- supply, namely fast three-phase charging or slow single-phase
ferent under both modes of operation (propulsion and charg- charging, as shown in Fig. 22.
ing modes) in order to excite the proper machine subspace
under each mode [63]. The presented cases in Fig. 21 are
given for charging mode only, where the machine sec- A. THREE-PHASE CHARGING
ondary subspace is excited to ensure zero average torque In three-phase charging, the machine stator winding is recon-
production, while enabling power exchange between battery figured based on the available number of phases to integrate
and grid. the power converter with the grid, while ensuring a nulli-
To sum up the different aspects of the previously men- fied net flux inside the machine core during charging. For
tioned topologies, all addressed topologies are compared the multiphase based integrated OBC system, which is the
according to the number of machine phases, number of con- main target of this study, this can be carried out using two
verter legs, average torque production during the charging current control techniques. The first current control technique
process, hardware reconfiguration between the propulsion assumes that grid line currents are equally shared among
and the charging mode, galvanic isolation, pulsating torque, the converter legs (Figs. 15(a) and (b) for the nine-phase
and the charging power as a ration of the propulsion power. and six-phase based OBCs, respectively). Hence, the system
The broad comparison of these topologies is revealed in can be regarded as an equivalent three-phase grid connected
Table 3. inverter. This assumption, however, discards possible mis-
matches between phases, which may be a challenge to achieve
in practice. The controller block diagram for this case is
III. CONTROL ALGORITHMS shown in Fig. 22(a). First, the grid currents (iabc
g ) are trans-
This section sheds light on the common charging control tech- formed into their synchronous reference frame components
niques of integrated OBCs based on multiphase machines. (idg , iqg ) using Park’s transformation. Considering that all
All battery chargers are generally based on the so-called con- variables must be synchronized with the grid phase voltage,
85228 VOLUME 8, 2020

TABLE 3. Broad comparison of various topologies of integrated chargers.
a Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is utilized to obtain the grid a predefined threshold value known as a safety limit at which
angular position (θs∗ ). Ultimately, the reference value of the constant voltage (CV) control begins. The charging curve is
direct component (i∗d ) is adjusted according to the desired depicted in Fig. 23. In CV mode, the voltage across the DC-
charging level, while the reference value of the quadrature link is maintained constant until the current drops to preset
component (i∗q ) is set to zero to guarantee unity power factor minimum values from its maximum indicating a full charge
operation at the grid side. Then, the dq current errors are
used is fulfilled [80]. Typically, these values depend on the battery
to derive the reference voltage components vd , vq using
∗ ∗ type.
two PI controllers. The reference voltage components are On the other hand, the second current control approach
transformed back to their three-phase components using the exploits the additional machine subspaces to charge the bat-
inverse Park‘s transformation to formulate the reference volt- tery through the non-torque-producing subspaces, while con-
age of the PWM. Considerable constant current is supplied trolling the torque producing current components (iαβ1 ) to
to the battery till it reaches 80% of its full capacity. To fully zero. Although this current control technique offers supe-
charge the battery, the reference power is set to about 10% of rior performance, it corresponds to a more complex current
its initial value to complete the rest of the charging process, controller. As an example, the current controller for a nine-
as thoroughly explained in [78]. Under the voltage-oriented phase system based on vector space decomposition (VSD) is
control method [79], the battery is charged with a constant shown in Fig. 22(b). The nine-phase currents are decomposed
maximum current until reaching the cut-off voltage, which is into four decoupled subspaces and a single unidirectional
VOLUME 8, 2020 85229

FIGURE 22. Charging control: (a) Three phase charging based on equivalent three-phase grid connected inverter. (b) Three phase charging
using VSD based current control (c) Single-phase charging.
85230 VOLUME 8, 2020

and having the same rotor poles are shown in Figs. 24(a)
and 24(b), respectively, along with their MMF distributions.
Clearly, the resultant MMF distribution of FSCW is highly
distorted with respect to the high-quality MMF distribution of
the DW layout. Different space harmonics induce excessive
eddy currents in the rotor core. The resultant power losses by
these induced eddy currents severely affect the rotor magnets,
since it is very hard to release the heat from the rotor, which
may cause thermal demagnetization [27]. Also, the inter-
action between these low order harmonics causes audible
noise and vibrations in the mechanical structure [29]. In the
FIGURE 23. Battery charging characteristic curve.
available literature, the utilization of multiphase windings
was adopted to mitigate the aforementioned demerits while
increasing fault-tolerance capability [84]. However, more
complicated power electronics converters will necessarily be
zero sequence component. The torque/flux production is reg- required.
ulated by controlling the αβ1 subspace. Balanced three-phase A FSCW refers to a winding having a fractional number of
grid currents can be ensured by controlling the current com- slots per pole per phase, q, given by (1). While, a DW corre-
ponents of the subspace αβ3 and the zero sequence current sponds to an integral q. The realization of balanced windings
component based on the desired charging current level [50]. in case of symmetrical multiphase machines depends on the
All other sequence current components should be controlled condition given in (2).
to zero during charging, which entails a total of nine current
controllers (the first technique corresponds to two current S
q= (1)
controllers only). 2p.m
S
= mC (2)
B. SINGLE-PHASE CHARGING [GCD (S, 2p)]
In single-phase charging, the OBC system is regarded as a where S is the number of slots, p number of pole pairs, C
single-phase grid connected inverter. For multiphase-based is a positive integer, m is the number of phases, and GCD is
integrated OBCs, the charging current is regulated by con- the Greatest Common Divisor. The procedure of selecting an
trolling the zero-sequence current component of the stator optimal layout of a three-phase concentrated windings was
currents of the different three-phase sets. The controller block presented in [85]. Furthermore, it was expanded to include
diagram is shown in Fig. 22(c), which is applicable to all multiphase concentrated winding configurations (for e.g. 4,
topologies given in Fig. 8 [37]. Unlike three-phase charging, 5, and 6 phases) in [25]. As far as the rotor eddy current
the battery current under single-phase charging will experi- losses are concerned for this winding layout, many models
ence a pulsating current component at double the line fre- were introduced to compute the rotor losses [86], [87], while
quency, which has been addressed using innovative converter some other indices were introduced to assess the severity of
topologies in [49]. The voltage-oriented control technique this loss component for a given winding design [88].
can also be utilized for single-phase charging taking into Since the machine is an essential element in integrated
account that there is no decoupling transformation applied to OBCs, the effect of the adopted winding layout should be
either the grid voltage or the machine currents. carefully considered. This point has not been comprehen-
sively addressed in the available literature so date. Most of
IV. DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF INTEGRATED OBCS the available systems produced in early studies were adopting
EMPLOYING MACHINES WITH FSCW machines with double layer windings. A common assumption
PM machines with a FSCW arrangement have shown out- that has been widely used is the zero/neglected flux produc-
standing merits in recent studies when compared to conven- tion under charging mode.
tional machines having DW layouts. Fractional slot windings However, this assumption cannot, in principle, be general-
are broadly categorized into non-overlapped concentrated ized for FCSW layouts. Although the torque producing flux
(FSCW) and overlapped (doubled through) windings. Several component can be nullified under charging mode, the MMF
FSCW layouts have shown promise in EV applications due to spectrum will still be showing space harmonic components
their myriad advantages. These advantages include high slot with relatively high magnitudes [61], which may have serious
fill factor, low cogging torque [81], short end turns, high effi- effects during the charging process. In this section, different
ciency, and flux weakening capability [82], [83]. On the other slot/pole combinations that have been shown in literature as
hand, the air gap flux distribution of FSCWs is extremely viable selections for EV applications are investigated under
distorted due to different sub and super space harmonics both motoring and charging modes of operation. The induced
with relatively high magnitudes [26], [27]. As an illustrative eddy current rotor losses have been used as a potential qual-
example, the layouts of two machines with DW and FSCW itative measure to compare different topologies. From the
VOLUME 8, 2020 85231

FIGURE 24. Winding layouts with corresponding MMF distribution. (a) DW layout 24-slot/4-pole combination. (b) FSCW layout
6-slot/4-pole combination.
authors’ viewpoint, the most promising layouts for integrated that can practically/easily be utilized as a viable drivetrain
OBCs, among the previously introduced topologies in the for available EV designs, namely six-phase and nine-phase
previous section, are those based on six-phase and nine- designs.
phase layouts, which facilitate the employment of the well- As a rule of thumb, the number of stator slots should be an
established three-phase based converters with no/limited integer multiple of the number of phases, while the number of
extra hardware components. Hence, the study herein is lim- poles is preferably selected as 2p = S ± 1 or 2p = S ± 2 with
ited to these phase orders and their possible winding layouts, regard to odd and even number of slots, respectively. The
namely, symmetrical six-phase, asymmetrical six-phase, dual selection of a suitable FSCW slot/pole combination is subject
three-phase, symmetrical nine-phase, and asymmetrical nine- to many factors such as machine winding factor, torque ripple
phase layouts. A selection criterion of the optimal slot/pole magnitude, rotor losses, noise and vibration. These factors are
combinations, which seemly optimize the machine perfor- presented comprehensively in the literature [92]–[95]. The
mance in terms of core losses under both charging and propul- winding factor (kw ) of the torque producing MMF compo-
sion modes of operation, is also introduced. Moreover, in this nent, which is likely not the fundamental component when
section, the effect of using the stator shifting on slot harmon- a FSCW is applied, should be as close to unity as possible.
ics suppression will be investigated for some slot/pole combi- The higher the winding factor is, the higher the effective
nations as a comparison between the non-overlapped FSCW number of turns will be. Accordingly, the torque density is
and overlapped fractional slot windings. The latter layout has enhanced. Low cogging torque is a distinguishing feature
shown promise to significantly suppress the induced rotor of a good PM machine design. The machines with a higher
losses [89], [90]. lowest common multiple (LCM) between their slot and pole
numbers offer lower cogging torque [25]. So, the number of
A. ROTOR LOSS INDEX FOR DIFFERENT SLOT/POLE poles is selected to be closer to the number of slots to maxi-
COMBINATION AND DIFFERENT NUMBER OF PHASES mize the LCM (S, 2p). The greatest common divisor (GCD)
Various slot/pole combinations have been introduced in the of the number of slots and poles represents the machine
literature employing three-phase [91], four-phase [25], five- symmetry and is preferred to be an even number to avoid
phase [89], and six-phase [25] configurations. Due to the unbalanced magnetic pull. The GCD (S, 2p) should also be
above-mentioned benefits of multiphase machines over their maximized to decrease the net radial force. Hence, noise and
three-phase counterparts, this study addresses optimal com- vibrations produced by the net radial force will likely be
binations of slot and pole numbers for multiphase machines reduced.
85232 VOLUME 8, 2020

TABLE 4. Six-phase FSCW configurations.
TABLE 5. Nine-phase FSCW configurations.
Rotor losses induced by the MMF harmonic content con- where v is the harmonic order, ξ is the specific wave-
stitute the major disadvantage of FSCW-based PM machines. length for each harmonic order, kgap is the ratio of the
The rotor loss index (Ri ) has been introduced in literature to air gap to rotor diameter, kw the winding factor of the
assess the rotor loss impact of different slot/pole combina- fundamental harmonic, and kwv the winding factor of v
tions and is governed by (3) [87]; harmonic order. The rotor index (Ri ) is calculated based
on the study in [87] and is extended herein to the six-
ξ4 kwv 2 v

Ri =
X
q kgap (3) phase and nine-phase machines with a further classification
k p by possible six-phase and nine-phase configurations. The
v
4
ξ4 + π4 w
VOLUME 8, 2020 85233

FIGURE 25. Dual three-phase winding layouts. (a) 12-slot/10-pole. (b) 24-slot/10-pole.
FIGURE 26. MMF harmonic spectra for a dual three-phase winding configuration under propulsion mode. (a) 12-slot/10-pole.
(b) 24-slot/10-pole.
FIGURE 27. MMF harmonic spectra for a dual three-phase winding configuration under charging mode. (a) 12-slot/10-pole.
complete steps on how the rotor index is calculated can be modate different six-phase and nine-phase configurations,
found in [87]. addressing the synchronous winding factor (kw ), lowest com-
Tables 4 and 5, respectively, present a comprehensive common multiple [LCM (S, 2p)], and greatest common divisor
parison between valid slot/pole combinations that can accom- [GCD (S, 2p)]. Moreover, the rotor index (Ri ), which is a
85234 VOLUME 8, 2020

FIGURE 28. Asymmetric six-phase winding layouts. (a) 12-slot/10-pole. (b) 24-slot/10-pole.
FIGURE 29. MMF harmonic spectra for asymmetric six-phase winding configuration under propulsion mode. (a) 12-slot/10-pole.
FIGURE 30. MMF harmonic spectra for asymmetric six-phase winding configuration under charging mode. (a)
12-slot/10-pole. (b) 24-slot/10-pole.
◦
notable contribution of this study, is calculated for each com- namely, symmetrical six-phase (δ = 60 ), asymmetrical six-
◦ ◦
bination and different winding configuration. This is carried phase (δ = 30 ), and dual three-phase (δ = 0 ) configu-
out for the three possible six-phase winding configurations, rations, where δ is the spatial phase angle between the two
VOLUME 8, 2020 85235

three-phase winding sets. For the nine-phase case, there are are limited to asymmetrical nine-phase configurations. These
◦
two possible topologies, namely a symmetrical (δ = 40 ) have been favored in most available literature due to a better
◦
and an asymmetrical (δ = 20 ). The definition of a specific quality of flux distribution [50].
slot/pole combination viability is based on the corresponding
star of slots [96], which is first determined based on motoring B. COMPARISON BETWEEN OVERLAPPED AND
mode. For the same layout, the MMF spectra under both NON-OVERLAPPED FRACTIONAL SLOT WINDINGS
propulsion and charging modes are then obtained. To com- To further investigate the results given in Tables 4 and 5,
pare different possible slot/pole combinations equipped with the winding layouts and the corresponding MMF harmonic
a specific winding layout under both propulsion and charging spectra of some selected cases are investigated, namely
modes, the rotor loss index defined in (3) is found to be 12/10 and 18/16 for the six-phase and nine-phase configu-
suitable in this respect. The best compromise is the one which rations, respectively.
minimizes the losses under both modes. The given tables also The 18/16 example is employed instead of the 9/10 combi-
include the possible converter topologies that can be used nation, which may be considered as an impractical example
under different cases. due to the significant rotor losses and the unbalanced radial
As is clear from Table 4, the following conclusions may be forces. The effect of stator shifting on the suppression of
drawn: undesirable space harmonics will also be investigated using
two examples, namely, 24/10 and 18/10 for the six-phase and
• Some slot/pole combinations can accommodate only
nine-phase configurations, respectively.
a single winding configuration (dual, symmetri-
Considerable reported work has been aimed at reducing the
cal, or asymmetrical), while others can fit all possible
effect of eddy current loss, the associated noise, and undesir-
configurations.
able vibration due to sub, super, and slot harmonics [90], [97],
• The rotor index is significantly affected by the selected
[109]. Compared to the different slot harmonics suppression
slot/pole combination. As the slot/pole combination
techniques, the concept of stator shifting has recently been
increases, the rotor index will generally decrease. As an
considered as the most effective solution to suppress the effect
example, the rotor index under the propulsion mode
of slot harmonics [90], [97]. As a result of employing this
is 6.4018 and 1.0381 for the 12-slot/10-pole and 36-
technique, several interesting slot/pole combinations have
slot/34-pole machines (with asymmetric six-phase con-
shown promise in EV applications, namely 24-slot/10-pole
figuration), respectively.
[32], [99] and 18-slot/10-pole [33]. These slot/pole combi-
• Although the rotor index increases when the number
nations are based on overlapped windings with a coil pitch
of poles is higher than the number of slots during the
of two. It can be noted from Table 4 that the rotor index
propulsion process (e.g. the rotor index is 3.6716 and
under the propulsion mode (asymmetric configuration) is
6.4028 for 18-slot/16-pole and 18-slot/20-pole, respec-
6.4018 and 1.1225 for 12-slot/10-pole and 24-slot/10-pole,
tively), the rotor index decreases during the charging
respectively. This yields a significant reduction in machine
process (e.g. the rotor index is 2.3315 and 2.2926 for
losses. Whereas, a slight difference in the rotor index can be
18-slot/16-pole and 18-slot/20-pole, respectively).
noticed under the charging mode. To further investigate the
• It can also be concluded that the asymmetrical six-phase
reason behind this improvement, the MMF spectra of both
winding generally minimizes the rotor loss index under
windings are plotted.
propulsion mode, thanks to its superior MMF spectra
Fig. 25 shows the FSCW winding configuration when
under this mode. The same conclusion cannot be gener-
applied to the 12-slot/10-pole and 24-slot/10-pole machines
alized for the charging mode. This point will be verified
(dual three-phase configuration). The MMF spectra produced
in the following subsection.
in the propulsion mode are shown in Fig. 26, where a sub-
• The concept of stator shifting [90], [97] has also shown
stantial reduction in the dominant slot harmonic (h = 7) can
promise to significantly suppress the induced rotor
be noticed for the 24-slot/10-pole machine when compared
losses by simply doubling the number of stator slots for
to the 12-slot/10-pole one. On the other hand, the torque
a given pole number, while the coil span is increased to
producing component, h = 5, is completely cancelled under
two slots. As an example, by comparing the 12/10 and
charging mode, as shown in Fig. 27. Therefore, zero average
24/10 combinations in Table 4, the rotor loss indices
torque production during the charging process is guaran-
for both motoring and changing modes are significantly
teed. Additionally, FSCW winding layouts for the 12-slot/10-
decreased for the 24/10 combination due to the sig-
pole and 24-slot/10-pole machines equipped with asymmet-
nificant reduction in the dominant slot harmonic. This
ric six-phase configuration are presented in Fig. 28, while
case will also be presented in more details in the next
their MMF spectra under propulsion and charging modes are
subsection.
shown in Figs. 29 and 30, respectively. Clearly, the asym-
Table 5 shows the possible slot/pole combinations that can metrical six-phase topology will suppress all sub harmonics
accommodate a nine-phase winding. Since a symmetrical under propulsion mode, which contributes to the reduction in
winding can simply be deduced from the asymmetrical nine- rotor eddy losses. The same conclusion can be noted under
phase by reversing the middle three-phase set, the given cases charging mode.
85236 VOLUME 8, 2020

FIGURE 31. Asymmetric nine-phase winding layouts. (a) 18-slot/16-pole. (b) 18-slot/10-pole.
FIGURE 32. MMF harmonic spectra for asymmetric nine-phase winding configuration under propulsion mode.
(a) 18-slot/16-pole. (b) 18-slot/10-pole.
FIGURE 33. MMF harmonic spectra for asymmetric nine-phase winding configuration under charging mode. (a) 18-slot/16-pole.
For the 18-slot/16-pole and 18-slot/10-pole examples, charging modes are shown in Figs. 32 and 33, respectively.
the corresponding FSCW winding arrangements are shown The 18/16 example represents a nonoverlapped winding lay-
in Fig. 31, while the MMF spectra for both motoring and out, where the dominant slot harmonic (h = 10) is as high
VOLUME 8, 2020 85237

as the torque producing component (h = 8). The asymmetri- • Experimental investigation of different slot/pole combi-
cal winding configuration also suppresses all subharmonics, nations commonly suggested for EV applications.
which adds to the total improvement in the induced eddy • Development of SRM-based integrated chargers that can
current losses when compared with conventional three-phase be applied to low-speed applications.
machines. Under charging mode, the torque producing com-
ponent (h = 8) is completely cancelled, which ensures zero D. CONTROLLERS ENHANCEMENTS
torque production under this mode of operation. • Employing recent model-based current controllers
When comparing the 18/10 example having an overlapped instead of conventional PI-based control.
winding layout, with the 9 /10 case equipped with a single • Parameter resilience in advanced controllers.
tooth (nonoverlapped) winding, the first slot harmonic (h = • Charger compliance with grid standards.
4) is completely cancelled for the 18-slot/10-pole machine,
which significantly reduces the machine eddy current loss
and improves the overall efficiency. In charging mode, both VI. CONCLUSION
sub and super harmonics are significantly reduced, which This paper surveyed the state-of-the-art in integrated on-
highly improves the machine core loss under this mode of board chargers for electric vehicle applications. Various types
operation. Other slot-pole combinations could also be inves- of chargers were discussed, while investigating their advan-
tigated to maximize the machine performance, in terms of a tages and limitations. Additionally, different types of convert-
higher torque density, lower magnet and core losses, a higher ers, drivetrains that are employed in EVs, charging control
efficiency, an improved flux weakening capability, and an techniques, and technical challenges have been presented.
improved fault tolerant capability. Moreover, the employment of either three-phase or mul-
tiphase machines in slow (single phase) and fast (three-
phase) charging was illustrated. Additionally, an analysis
V. FUTURE RESEARCH TRENDS
of FSCW PM machines, which are preferably proposed
This section forecasts the possible future research trends
for EV application, was presented. In this study, vari-
covering the main challenges and/or opportunities in the field
ous FSCW slot/pole combinations introduced in the litera-
of integrated OBC technology. The following aspects are
ture for three-phase machines have been extended to six-
identified as the major challenges in this context:
phase and nine-phase topologies. These slot/pole combina-
tions have also been compared based on screening factors
A. INTEGRATED OBCs ENHANCEMENTS and their harmonic spectra under charging and propulsion
• Improving the charger reliability, durability, and safety modes of operation. The rotor index, a quantitative mea-
through optimal design of different components. sure of the rotor loss, was calculated for these different
• Performing additional functionalities in order to be com- topologies. It has been concluded that the slot/pole combi-
patible with smart grid functionalities [110]. nations that accommodate asymmetrical six-phase winding
• Optimization of V2G and G2V operational modes by topologies seem to be the best compromise minimizing the
employing information and communication enabling induced rotor losses under propulsion mode for all feasi-
technologies [111]. ble slot/pole combinations, while possessing an acceptable
• Maximizing the charging efficiency [39]. value for the rotor loss index under charging mode. The
• Charging infrastructure/grid challenges for the various concept of stator shifting is also effective to further reduce the
approaches. induced losses under both charging and propulsion modes of
operation.
B. CONVERTER TOPOLOGY ENHANCEMENTS
• Converter design considerations that benefit from, REFERENCES
if necessary, new wide bandgap power devices [36], [1] IEA, ‘‘Global EV outlook 2019: Scaling-up the transition to electric
[110]. mobility,’’ OECD, Paris, France, 2019.
• Development of advanced converter topologies based on [2] S. Bala, T. Tengner, P. Rosenfeld, and F. Delince, ‘‘The effect of low
frequency current ripple on the performance of a lithium iron phosphate
resonant converters in order to curtail the losses [112]. (LFP) battery energy storage system,’’ in Proc. IEEE Energy Convers.
• Feasibility of contactless integrated OBCs. Congr. Exposit. (ECCE), Sep. 2012, pp. 3485–3492.
[3] F. L. Mapelli, D. Tarsitano, and M. Mauri, ‘‘Plug-in hybrid electric
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machines with concentrated windings for ship application,’’ in Proc. Int. of the Alexandria Engineering Journal.
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[108] H. Dhulipati, S. Mukundan, W. Li, J. Tjong, and N. C. Kar, ‘‘Investigation
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[110] A. Khaligh and M. D’Antonio, ‘‘Global trends in high-power on-board
chargers for electric vehicles,’’ IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 68, no. 4, RAGI A. HAMDY (Senior Member, IEEE)
pp. 3306–3324, Apr. 2019. received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees from Alexan-
[111] M. Y. Metwly, M. S. Abdel-Majeed, A. S. Abdel-Khalik, dria University, Alexandria, Egypt, in 1991 and
M. Torki, R. A. Hamdy, M. S. Hamad, and S. Ahmed, ‘‘IoT-based
1994, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree from
supervisory control of an asymmetrical nine-phase integrated on-
Heriot-Watt University, U.K., in 1999. He is
board EV battery charger,’’ IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 62619–62631,
2020. currently a Professor with the Department of
[112] N. Bodo, E. Levi, I. Subotic, J. Espina, L. Empringham, and Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
C. M. Johnson, ‘‘Efficiency evaluation of fully integrated on-board EV Alexandria University. His current research inter-
battery chargers with nine-phase machines,’’ IEEE Trans. Energy Con- ests include electric machines, electric drives, and
vers., vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 257–266, Mar. 2017. power electronics.
VOLUME 8, 2020 85241

MOSTAFA S. HAMAD (Senior Member, IEEE) SHEHAB AHMED (Senior Member, IEEE)
received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in electrical received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering
engineering from Alexandria University, Alexan- from Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt,
dria, Egypt, in 1999 and 2003, respectively, and in 1999, and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from
the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Department of Electrical and Computer Engi-
Strathclyde University, Glasgow, U.K., in 2009. neering, Texas A&M University, College Station,
From 2010 to 2014, he was an Assistant Profes- TX, USA, in 2000 and 2007, respectively. He
sor with the Department of Electrical and Control was with Schlumberger Technology Corporation,
Engineering, College of Engineering and Tech- Houston, TX, USA, from 2001 to 2007, devel-
nology, Arab Academy for Science, Technology oping downhole mechatronic systems for oilfield
and Maritime Transport (AASTMT), Alexandria, where he is currently a service products. He was with Texas A&M University at Qatar from 2007 to
Professor. His research interests include power electronics applications in 2018. He joined the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology
power quality, electric drives, distributed generation, HVDC transmission (KAUST), Saudi Arabia, in 2018, where he is currently a Professor of elec-
systems, and renewable energy. trical engineering with the CEMSE Division. His research interests include
mechatronics, solid-state power conversion, and electric machines.
85242 VOLUME 8, 2020

A Review of Integrated On-Board EV Battery

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Received April 13, 2020, accepted May 1, 2020, date of publication May 6, 2020, date of current version May

A Review of Integrated On-Board EV Battery

Corresponding author: Ayman S. Abdel-Khalik ([email protected])

I. INTRODUCTION of the EV battery constitute vital challenges for commer-

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TABLE 1. Battery charger classification in terms of power levels [5].

TABLE 2. Diversity of distributed and concentrated winding layouts.

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FIGURE 1. Thyristor-based integral battery charger.

based on multiphase drivetrains are considered in [37], [38].

A. SLOW SINGLE-PHASE CHARGING where an interleaving switching technique was introduced

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FIGURE 3. Single-phase integrated charger based on IM-drive.

FIGURE 4. Charging scheme of integrated four-wheel drive.

equipment into the charging process, where the charger is

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voltage. Furthermore, the APF removes the second-order

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FIGURE 9. High power integrated charger on the basis of split-phase

the inverter is directly fed by the battery. No hardware recon-

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FIGURE 14. Integrated charger based on six-phase nine-switch converter.

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FIGURE 16. Isolated charger using symmetrical six-phase topology.

FIGURE 17. Isolated charger using asymmetrical six-phase topology.

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FIGURE 18. High-power three-phase integrated charger.

FIGURE 19. Fast integrated charger based on DC supply.

FIGURE 20. Fast integrated charger based on two-level DC converter.

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TABLE 3. Broad comparison of various topologies of integrated chargers.

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TABLE 4. Six-phase FSCW configurations.

TABLE 5. Nine-phase FSCW configurations.

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