INSTRUMENTATION

INSTRUMENTATIONENGINEER’S
ENGINEER’SHANDBOOK
HANDBOOK
VOLUME
VOLUME- -11

Process
Process
Instrumentation
Instrumentation

Ashish
AshishGarg
Garg
TataSteel
Tata SteelLimited
Limited
 Instrumentation Engineer’s Handbook:
Process Instrumentation
Volume - 1
Ashish Garg

www.whitefalconpublishing.com

All rights reserved

First Edition, 2021
© Ashish Garg, 2021
Cover and Interior design by Ashish Garg

No part of this publication may be reproduced, or stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by means
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without prior written permission from the author.

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 Preface
The Monitoring and Measuring of industrial processing has become almost an art form. The
dipstick and the simple gauge has been given way to high technological innovation of such
complexity that the average engineer or technician can easily find himself or herself, at logger
heads with management or colleagues as to the true pressure, temperature, flow, level and
analysis of liquid and gas in a closed circuit. This is hardly surprising, when there are so many
methods and measurement systems on the market. Some are cost effective in the short term,
other requires long term investment. Naturally it depends on the degree of accuracy required,
the elimination of all misleading and the need for instant data on true flow, pressure
temperature, level and gas analysis. For this reason, book on “PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION”
has been written as a first source of reference for users which works in process or
manufacturing industry. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the fundamentals,
standards, principles and detail information on pressure, temperature, flow, level and process
gas analyzers measuring instruments, its application and effectiveness.
The book contains vital and useful information, data, tables and charts, to assist engineers,
technicians, designers and plant operators in solving their particular problems associated with
pressure, temperature, flow, level and process gas analyzer.
This handbook is dedicated to the next generation of instrumentation engineers working in
the fields of analysis, measurement, control, and safety. I hope that learning from this book will
increase their professional standing around the world.

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 Acknowledgments

Writing a book is harder than I thought and more rewarding than I could have ever imagined.
None of this would have been possible without my wife Neha and my parents, who stood by me
during my struggles and successes. That is true friendship, love and care.

At last, it is not without some relief, for it often goes unsaid but relief is concomitant with every
finished piece of work. A relief which accompanies joy and precedes praise, if deserved.

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Table of Contents

Pressure Measurement
1.1 What is Pressure ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.2 Types of Pressure ..................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.3 Pressure Measuring Instruments ............................................................................................................................. 13
1.4 Pressure Gauge ......................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.5 Measuring Principle of Pressure Gauge ................................................................................................................... 13
1.6 C -Type Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge .................................................................................................................... 14
1.7 Construction of C Type Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge ........................................................................................... 15
1.8 Differential Pressure Gauge ..................................................................................................................................... 17
1.9 Diaphragm Seals ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
1.10 Pressure Gauge Selection Guideline....................................................................................................................... 19
1.11 Pressure Gauge Installation.................................................................................................................................... 23
1.12 Special Conditions shall be referring before Installation ....................................................................................... 23
1.13 Accuracy w.r.t EN 873-1 & ASME B40.1 ................................................................................................................. 24
1.14 Pressure Gauge Limits ............................................................................................................................................ 25
1.15 Modes of Pressure Gauge Failure .......................................................................................................................... 26
1.16 Mounting of Pressure Gauge .................................................................................................................................. 27
1.17 Pressure Gauge – Accessories ................................................................................................................................ 27
1.18 Calibrating Pressure Gauge .................................................................................................................................... 29
1.19 Data Sheet of Pressure Gauge ................................................................................................................................ 31
1.20 Pressure Switch ...................................................................................................................................................... 32
1.21 Types of Pressure Switch ........................................................................................................................................ 32
1.22 Types of Switch Contacts ........................................................................................................................................ 33
1.23 Types of Pressure Elements.................................................................................................................................... 33
1.24 Accuracy Class ........................................................................................................................................................ 34
1.25 Calibrating Pressure Switch .................................................................................................................................... 34
1.26 Data Sheet of Pressure Switch: .............................................................................................................................. 35
1.27 Pressure Transmitter .............................................................................................................................................. 36
1.28 Sensing Technology of Pressure Transmitter ......................................................................................................... 36
1.29 Comparison of Sensing Technology: ...................................................................................................................... 39

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1.30 Essential Terms to Know ........................................................................................................................................ 40
1.31 Protocols Types ...................................................................................................................................................... 44
1.32 Communication Conditions .................................................................................................................................... 44
1.33 Standard Analog Output Signal vs NAUMER NE 43 Standard ................................................................................ 44
1.34 Loop Load Capacity ................................................................................................................................................. 45
1.35 Typical Applications of Pressure/ Differential Pressure Transmitters.................................................................... 46
1.36 Mounting Configuration for Pressure and Differential Pressure Transmitter ....................................................... 48
1.37 Impulse Piping ........................................................................................................................................................ 49
1.38 Remote Seal Pressure Transmitter ......................................................................................................................... 50
1.39 Selection Guidelines for Remote Seal Pressure Transmitter.................................................................................. 52
1.40 Selection Criteria of Fluid for Remote Seal Pressure Transmitter .......................................................................... 55
1.41 Level Measurement through Remote Seal Pressure Transmitter .......................................................................... 55
1.42 Determining Calibration Interval for Pressure Transmitter ................................................................................... 58
1.43 Calibration Management System ........................................................................................................................... 61
1.44 Calibration of Transmitter ...................................................................................................................................... 62
1.46 Data Sheet of Pressure Transmitter ....................................................................................................................... 65
1.47 Data Sheet of Remote Seal Pressure Transmitter .................................................................................................. 66
1.48 Basic Ordering Information Must Know for Pressure Transmitter ........................................................................ 67
1.49 References .............................................................................................................................................................. 67

Temperature Measurement
2.1 What is Temperature................................................................................................................................................ 68
2.2 RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector).................................................................................................................. 69
2.3 RTD Standard ............................................................................................................................................................ 73
2.4 Lead Wire Configuration........................................................................................................................................... 73
2.5 Thermal response time for RTD................................................................................................................................ 74
2.6 Ordering Information for RTD .................................................................................................................................. 75
2.7 Calibration of RTD..................................................................................................................................................... 75
2.8 Thermocouple .......................................................................................................................................................... 75
2.9 Measuring Junctions ................................................................................................................................................. 77
2.10 Types of Thermocouple .......................................................................................................................................... 78
2.11 Connecting Cables for Thermocouples................................................................................................................... 79
2.12 Thermocouple Tolerances ...................................................................................................................................... 80

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2.13 Maximum Operating Temperature for Thermocouple .......................................................................................... 81
2.14 Thermocouple Response Time ............................................................................................................................... 82
2.15 Mineral Insulated RTD and Thermocouple............................................................................................................. 82
2.16 Non-Mineral Insulated Thermocouples ................................................................................................................. 84
2.17 Thermowell /Protection Tube ................................................................................................................................ 84
2.18 Solid Bar Stock Thermowell Terminology ............................................................................................................... 86
2.19 Tubular Thermowell Terminology .......................................................................................................................... 88
2.20 Thermowell Failures ............................................................................................................................................... 88
2.21 Thermowell; Quality Pass Criteria .......................................................................................................................... 89
2.22 Ceramic Tube .......................................................................................................................................................... 89
2.23 Calibration of Thermocouple.................................................................................................................................. 89
2.24 Data Sheet of RTD................................................................................................................................................... 91
2.25 Data Sheet of Thermocouple.................................................................................................................................. 92
2.26 Colour Codes for Thermocouple Wires and Connector ......................................................................................... 93
2.27 Temperature Transmitter ....................................................................................................................................... 94
2.28 Various Units of Temperature Measurement ........................................................................................................ 95
2.29 Temperature Sensor Selection Guideline ............................................................................................................... 96
2.30 Data Sheet of Temperature Transmitter ................................................................................................................ 97
2.31 Non- Contact Temperature Measurement............................................................................................................. 98
2.33 Black Body Radiation .............................................................................................................................................. 99
2.34 Emissivity .............................................................................................................................................................. 101
2.35 Radiation Pyrometer ............................................................................................................................................ 105
2.36 Essential Terms to Know ...................................................................................................................................... 110
2.37 Data Sheet of Radiation Pyrometer...................................................................................................................... 111
2.38 Temperature Gauges ............................................................................................................................................ 112
2.39 Selection of Temperature Thermometers ............................................................................................................ 114
2.40 Thermometer Accuracy w.r.t ASME B40 vs. EN13190 ......................................................................................... 114
2.41 Scale Interval ........................................................................................................................................................ 116
2.42 Dial Size................................................................................................................................................................. 117
2.43 Filled System Thermometers ................................................................................................................................ 117
2.44 Data Sheet for Temperature Gauge ..................................................................................................................... 118
2.45 References ............................................................................................................................................................ 119

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Flow Measurement
3.1 What is Flow Rate ................................................................................................................................................... 120
3.2 Terminology used for Flow Measurement ............................................................................................................. 121
3.3 Type of Flowmeters ................................................................................................................................................ 124
3.4 Electromagnetic Flow Meter .................................................................................................................................. 124
3.5 Comparison Details of Coil Excitation..................................................................................................................... 127
3.6 Effect of the Liquid Conductivity ............................................................................................................................ 129
3.7 Reynolds Number Effect ......................................................................................................................................... 129
3.8 Layout of Electromagnetic Flow Meter .................................................................................................................. 129
3.9 Selection of Meter Sizes ......................................................................................................................................... 132
3.10 Liner ...................................................................................................................................................................... 134
3.10 Electrode............................................................................................................................................................... 135
3.11 Accuracy of Electromagnetic Flowmeter.............................................................................................................. 135
3.12 Empty Pipe Detection ........................................................................................................................................... 137
3.13 Grounding and Earthing ....................................................................................................................................... 138
3.14 Cleaning and Maintenance of the Primary Device ............................................................................................... 140
3.15 Measurement of Liquid Flow in closed circuit – Weighing Method..................................................................... 141
3.18 Data Sheet of Electromagnetic Flowmeter .......................................................................................................... 144
3.19 Orifice Plate .......................................................................................................................................................... 145
3.20 Pressure Taps & Pressure Profile.......................................................................................................................... 149
3.21 Venturi Tube ......................................................................................................................................................... 153
3.22 Classical Venturi Tubes ......................................................................................................................................... 154
3.23 Triple T Arrangement ........................................................................................................................................... 156
3.24 Differential Pressure Transmitter Location Based on the Application ................................................................. 158
3.25 Flow and DP Turndown ........................................................................................................................................ 159
3.26 Data Sheet of Orifice Plate ................................................................................................................................... 160
3.27 Data Sheet of Venturi Tube .................................................................................................................................. 161
3.28 Variable Area Flowmeter...................................................................................................................................... 162
3.29 Classes of Variable Area Flowmeter ..................................................................................................................... 165
3.30 Float Type and Material........................................................................................................................................ 165
3.31 Accuracy Classes for Variable Area Flowmeters .................................................................................................. 165
3.32 Coriolis Mass Flowmeter ...................................................................................................................................... 166
3.33 Accuracy of Coriolis Mass Flowmeter .................................................................................................................. 170

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3.34 Factors affecting Mass Flow Measurement ......................................................................................................... 171
3.35 Density Measurement .......................................................................................................................................... 171
3.36 Data Sheet of Coriolis Mass Flowmeter ............................................................................................................... 173
3.37 Pitot Tube ............................................................................................................................................................. 174
3.38 Data Sheet of Pitot Tube ...................................................................................................................................... 177
3.39 Ultrasonic Flowmeter ........................................................................................................................................... 178
3.40 Data Sheet of Ultrasonic Flowmeter .................................................................................................................... 185
3.41 References ............................................................................................................................................................ 186

Level Measurement
4.1 Radar....................................................................................................................................................................... 187
4.2 Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave Radar .................................................................................................... 189
4.3 Pulse Wave Radar ................................................................................................................................................... 194
4.4 Radar Antenna Size and Beam Angle ..................................................................................................................... 196
4.5 Antenna focusing and False Echoes ....................................................................................................................... 197
4.6 Radar Antenna ........................................................................................................................................................ 199
4.6 Measuring Tube Antennas ..................................................................................................................................... 204
4.7 Installation of Radar ............................................................................................................................................... 206
4.8 Ultrasonic Level Transmitter .................................................................................................................................. 207
4.9 Data Sheet for Ultrasonic Level Transmitter .......................................................................................................... 209
4.10 Level Measurement through Pressure or Differential Pressure .......................................................................... 210
4.11 Data Sheet for Level Measurement through Differential Pressure...................................................................... 212
4.12 Bubbler Level Measurement ................................................................................................................................ 213
4.13 References ............................................................................................................................................................ 214

Process Gas Analyzer

5.1 Process Gas Analyzer .............................................................................................................................................. 215
5.2 Sample Conditioning System .................................................................................................................................. 216
5.3 Gas Analyzer ........................................................................................................................................................... 230
5.4 Troubleshooting and Maintenance of Gas Analyzers............................................................................................. 253
5.5 General Terms to Know for Process Gas Analyzers ................................................................................................ 254
5.6 Specification Form for Sample System ................................................................................................................... 255

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5.7 Data Sheet for Process Gas Analyzers .................................................................................................................... 256
5.7 References .............................................................................................................................................................. 257

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 1
Pressure Measurement

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

Know about Pressure Gauges, Selection Guideline of Pressure Gauges

Know about Pressure Switch and Pressure Transmitter
Calibration Procedure of Pressure Sensors (Gauges, Transmitter and Switch)

1.1 What is Pressure

• Pressure is the force exerted per unit area

• Pressure is the action of one force against another force. Pressure is force applied to, or distributed
over, a surface. The pressure P of a force F distributed over an area A is defined as P = F/A

1.2 Types of Pressure

• Absolute Pressure
• Atmospheric Pressure
• Barometric Pressure
• Gauge Pressure
• Differential pressure
Now let us understand each term briefly

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Absolute Pressure
Measured above total vacuum or zero absolute. Zero absolute represents total lack of pressure.

Atmospheric Pressure
The pressure exerted by the earth’s atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.696 psia. The value
of atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude.

Barometric Pressure
Same as atmospheric pressure.

Gauge Pressure
The pressure above atmospheric pressure. Represents positive difference between measured pressure and
existing atmospheric pressure. Can be converted to absolute by adding actual atmospheric pressure value.

Differential Pressure
The difference in magnitude between some pressure value and some reference pressure. In a sense,
absolute pressure could be considered as a differential pressure with total vacuum or zero absolute as the
reference. Likewise, gauge pressure (defined above) could be considered as Differential Pressure with
atmospheric pressure as the reference.

GAUGE
COMPOUND

ABSOLUTE

BAROMETRIC RANGE

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
NOM. 14.7 PSIA

PRESSURE

TOTAL VACUUM - 0 PSIA

Fig.1 Types of Pressure

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1.3 Pressure Measuring Instruments
Types of Pressure Measuring Instruments:
• Pressure Gauges (Vacuum, Compound, Absolute, Gauge)
• Differential Pressure Gauge
• Pressure Switch (Vacuum, Absolute, Gauge)
• Differential Pressure Switch
• Pressure Transmitter (Vacuum, Absolute, Gauge)
• Differential Pressure Transmitter

Fig.2 Types of Pressure Measuring Instruments

1.4 Pressure Gauge

• A Pressure Gauge is used for measuring the pressure of a gas or liquid.
• A Vacuum Gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuum.
• A Compound Gauge is used for measuring both Vacuum and Pressure.
• Pressure Gauges are used for Indication only.

1.5 Measuring Principle of Pressure Gauge

Bourdon tube measuring element is made of a thin-walled C-shape tube or spirally wound helical or coiled
tube. When pressure is applied to the measuring system through the pressure port (socket), the pressure
causes the Bourdon tube to straighten itself, thus causing the tip to move. The motion of the tip is
transmitted via the link to the movement which converts the linear motion of the bourdon tube to a
rotational motion that in turn causes the pointer to indicate the measured pressure.

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 Fig.3 (Left) C Type Bourdon Tube, (Middle) Helical Bourdon, (Right) Coiled Bourdon

1.6 C -Type Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Fig.4 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Fig.4 illustrates, when pressure is applied, the tube will straighten out until the difference in force is
balanced by the elastic resistance of the material composing the tube. The working part of a Bourdon gauge
consist of a tube that is bent into a circular arc and is oval in cross-section so that it will tend to straighten
more easily when under pressure. The open end of the tube passes through a socket which is threaded
(Process Connection/pressure Connection) so that the gauge can be mounted. The closed end of the tube is
linked to a pivoted segment gear in mesh with a small rotating gear to which a pointer is attached.

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1.7 Construction of C Type Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

a) Cases:
Cases may be fabricated from various materials using various manufacturing processes. They may have solid
fronts or open fronts, and may or may not employ various case pressure relief means.
a.1) Cases with Pressure Relief Means: For gauges used to measure gas pressure of 400 psi and higher and
liquid pressure of 1000 psi and higher, cases with pressure relief means are recommended.
a.2) Solid Front with Pressure Relief Back: In the event of elastic element failure within its rated pressure
range, the solid front (partition between pressure element and window) and the pressure relief back shall
be designed to reduce the possibility of window failure and projection of parts outward through the front
of the gauge.
a.3) Open front with Pressure Relief: In the event of a slow leak of media through the elastic element, the
case pressure relief shall be sufficient to vent the case pressure increase before window failure occurs.

b) Dials:
b.1) Common Units: Three basic Classification of Units:
• SI: These unit are recognized by the CIPM (Comite International des Poids et Measures).
• MKSA (Meter, Kilogram- force, second, ampere): The former metric units, which are being replaced
by the SI units.
• Customary (inch, pound-force, second, ampere): Customary units are primarily in English Speaking
countries and are being replaced in most countries by SI units.

SI Abbreviation Unit Definition

Bar Bar 1 bar = 100 kPa
kPa Kilopascal 1 kPa = 1000 Pa
Mbar Millibar 1 mbar = 100 Pa
MPa Mega pascal 1 MPa= 1000000 Pa
N/m2 Newton per square 1 N/m2= 1 Pa
meter

MKSA Abbreviation Unit Definition

Kg/cm2 Kilogram per square centimeter 1 kg/cm2= 1 kilogram force
per square centimeter
mmHg Millimeters of 1 mmHg = 1 millimeter of
mercury mercury

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 3
Flow Measurement

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

Know about Orifice, Venturi Based Flow Meter

Know about ISO Standard for Differential Pressure Based Flow Measurement,
Electromagnetic Flow meter, Different Types of Flowmeter in Industrial Application, Calibration of Flow
Measuring Devices

3.1 What is Flow Rate

The quantity of fluid flowing through a cross section of a pipe per unit of time.

F= A* V

Where F= Flow rate

A= Area of Cross Section of pipe
V= Velocity of fluid flowing

Flow Rate classified as follows:

a) Base Flow Rate: The flow rate calculated from flowing conditions to base conditions of pressure and
temperature.
b) Mass Flow Rate qm: The rate of flow of fluid mass through a cross section of pipe.
c) Volume Flow Rate qv: The rate of flow of fluid volume through a cross section of pipe.

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3.2 Terminology used for Flow Measurement

a) Density (ρ): A Measure of Mass Per Unit of Volume (lb/ft3 or kg/M3).

b) Specific Gravity: The Ratio of The Density of a Material to The Density Of Water Or Air Depending
On Whether It Is A Liquid Or A Gas.
c) Base Pressure: A specified reference pressure to which a fluid volume at flowing conditions is
reduced for the purpose of billing and transfer accounting.
d) Base Temperature: A specified reference pressure to which a fluid volume at flowing conditions is
reduced for the purpose of billing and transfer accounting.
e) Compressible Fluid: Fluids (Such as Gasses) Where the Volume Changes with Respect to Changes in
The Pressure. These Fluids Experience Large Changes in Density Due to Changes in Pressure.
f) Non-Compressible Fluid: Fluids (Generally Liquids) Which Resist Changes in Volume as The Pressure
Changes. These Fluids Experience Little Change in Density Due to Pressure Changes.
g) Dynamic Pressure: The increase in pressure above the static pressure that results from the complete
isentropic transformation of the kinetic energy of the fluid into potential energy.
h) Linear: Transmitter output is directly proportional to the flow input.
i) Square Root: Flow is proportional to the square root of the measured value.
j) Beta Ratio (d/D): Ratio of a differential pressure flow device bore (d) divided by internal diameter of
pipe (D).
k) Flashing: The formation of vapor bubbles in a liquid when the line pressure falls below the vapor
pressure of the liquid.
l) Pressure Head: The Pressure At A Given Point In A Liquid Measured In Terms Of The Vertical Height
Of A Column Of The Liquid Needed To Produce The Same Pressure.
m) Laminar Flow: Flow under condition where forces due to viscosity are more significant than forces due
to inertia.
n) Reynolds Number: A dimensionless parameter expressing the ratio between inertia and viscous forces.
Re= Dvρ/µ
Where V= fluid velocity
D= Diameter of the pipe
µ= Dynamic viscosity of the fluid
ρ= Density of the fluid
Irrespective of the pipe diameter, type of fluid or velocity, Reynolds showed that the flow is:
Laminar: Re < 2000
Turbulent: Re> 4000
o) Turbulent Flow: Flow under condition where forces due to inertia are more significant than forces due to
viscosity.
p) Repeatability: The closeness of agreement between successive results obtained with the same method
under same condition.
q) Reproducibility: The closeness of agreement between results obtained when the conditions of
measurement differs.

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3.39 Ultrasonic Flowmeter

What is Sound and Ultrasound?

Sound is a pressure waves that travels across a media. Above 20000 Hz waves human cannot hear and
that’s called ultrasound.
Producing Ultrasound:
The ultrasonic signals required for the flow measurement are generated and received by transducers.
Piezoelectric transducers (barium titanate or lead zirconate-titanate) employ crystals or ceramics, which are set
into vibration when an alternating voltage is applied to the piezoelectric element. The vibrating element
generates sound waves in the fluid. Since the piezoelectric effect is reversible, the element will become
electrically polarized and produce voltages related to the mechanical strain when the crystal is distorted by
the action of incident sound waves. Because the acoustic impedance of the gas is much smaller than that of
the piezoelectric element, a layer of material is typically used between the gas and the piezoelectric element
to maximize the acoustic efficiency.
Transit time ultrasonic flowmeters employs two transducers located upstream and downstream of each
other. Each transmits a sound wave to the other, and the time difference between the receipt of the two
signals indicates the fluid velocity.
Fluid Velocity Measurement:
Several techniques can be used to obtain average speed of propagation of an acoustic signal in a moving
liquid. Two approaches generally utilise in Ultrasonic Flowmeters
a) Transit Time Difference
b) Frequency Difference
Transit Time Difference:
All ultrasonic flowmeter used in gas custody transfer employ transit time measurement. The advantage of
transit time approach is that only the time difference is used in the velocity calculations, this greatly reduces
the effect of changes in fluid properties such as pressure, temperature and composition. Ultrasonic
Flowmeter based on transit time principle shown in fig.47. It is assumed that the transducer element is in
direct contact with the liquid and that the acoustic signal propagates normal to the transducer/liquid
interface. In most of the cases, it is desirable to protect the transducers in direct contact with liquid by using
intervening materials. If such materials used then equation Vm shown in fig.47 changes:
Q = A*VA
Q = π D2/4*K*VL
Flow under normalised conditions:

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Q comp = π D2/4*K*VL*P/P0 * T0/T
Where K = VA/VL
Where Cu and Cd velocity of sound.
V is gas velocity
l is the distance between upstream and downstream sensors
ϕ is the angle between the pipe wall and the direction of acoustic propagation
k is conversion coefficient for the average flow velocity
Q-Volumetric Flowrate
VA - Cross Section Mean Velocity
VL- Linear Mean Velocity
Q comp – Compensated Volumetric Flow Rate
Due to actual fluid velocity distribution in the pipe cross section, linear mean velocity is not equal to the
cross section mean velocity. K is the correction factor between VA and VL.
For Ultrasonic meters, the velocity is the function of the time and the geometry of the meter body.

Fig.47 Ultrasonic Flowmeter Measuring Principle on Time Difference (Wetted Configuration)

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The velocity of an electromagnetic wave is the product of frequency and wavelength

C= f*ƛ

The frequency of pulse radar level transmitter may be 26GHz, the wavelength is 1.15centimeters.

The frequency remains uninfluenced by the changes in the propagation medium. However, velocity and
wavelength can change depending on the propagation medium change in which electromagnetic waves are
travel. The speed of electromagnetic waves in medium as:

C = C0/ sq.rt(µr*εr)

Where: C is the velocity of electromagnetic waves in the medium

C0 velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space
µr relative permeability
εr relative permittivity

Reflection of Electromagnetic Waves:

If a liquid or solid is non-conductive the value of the dielectric constant or relative permittivity becomes
more important. The amount of reflection from the dielectric layer can be calculated as:

Π =1- 4*Sq.rt (εr)/(1+sq.rt εr)^2

Π = W1/W2

Where W1- Transmitter Power

W2- Reflected Power

4.2 Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave Radar

The FMCW radar system transmits a series of continuous frequency modulated waves through the antenna
and receives the signal from the target. The frequency of the transmitted wave changes according to the
modulation voltage in the time domain. Commonly used modulated signals are sine wave, sawtooth wave
and triangular wave.

When triangular or sawtooth waves are used as FM waves, it is called as LFMCW (linear frequency
modulated continuous wave) Radar.
Working principle of LFMCW Radar:

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When a target object is relatively stationary, the transmitted signal is reflected back after hitting the object
and an echo signal is generated. The echo signal has the same shape as that of transmitted signal but it is
delayed in time by t.

T= 2*D/c

Where D- distance of target from Radar; c- velocity of light

Fig.2 Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave

Radar Stationary Target Echo Signal

Fig.2 shows the difference between transmitted frequency signal ft and the reflected frequency signal fr is
fb which is called beat frequency

Fb= ft-fr

Td= 2 D/c

Fig.3 Sweep Frequency, Beat Frequency and

Time Delay Relationship of FMCW Radar

Where fdev is sweep frequency, ts sweep time

Fdev/ts=fb/td

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