INTRODUCTION :

It is the branch of engineering which deals with the mesurement, monitoring, display etc of the
various of energy exchanges which take place during process operations. "In short
Intrumentation is the study of Instrument."

INSTRUMENT :

Instrument is a devics which is used to measure, moniter, display etc of a process variable.

1. Q. : What are the process Variable ?

As. : The process Variable are :
1. Flow
2. Pressure
3. Temperature
4. Level
5. Quality i. e. % D2, CO2, PH etc.

2. Que. : Define all the process Variable and state their unit of measurement. ?
Ans. : FLOW : Kg / hr, Litter / min, Gallon / min. M3 / NM3 / HR.
( GASES)
PRESSURE : Force acting per unit Area. P = F/A
Units : Bar / Pascals / Kg / CM /, Pounds
LEVEL : Different between two heights.
Units : Meters, M M, C M, %.
TEMPERATURE : It is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
Units : Degree Centigrade, Degree Farenheit, Degree Kelvin, Degree Rankin.
QUALITY : It deals with analysis
PH, % CO2, % 02, Conductivity, Viscosity.

3. Que. : What are the primary elements used for flow measurement. ?
Ans. : The primary elements used for flow measurement are :
1. Orifice Plate.
2. Venturi tube.
3. Pitot tube.
4. Annubars.
5. Flow Nozzle.
6. Weir & Flumes.

4. Que. : What are the differnt types of orifice plates and state their uses ?
Ans. : The different types of orifice plates are :
1. Concentric.
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 2. Segmental.
3. Eccentric.

CONCENTRIC :

The concentric orifice plate is used for ideal liquid as well as gases and steam service.
This orifice as a hole in concentric and hence known as concentric orifice.

Eccentric & Segmental :

The accentric orifice plate has a hole eccentric. The use this is made in viscous and
sherry flow measurement.

The segmental orifice place has the hole in the form segment of a circle. This is used for
colloidal and sherry flow measurement.

5. Que. : How do you identify an orifice in the pipe line. ?

Ans. : An orifice tab is welded on the orifice plate which extends our of the line giving an
indication of the orifice plate.

6. Que. : Why is the orifice tab provided. ?

Ans. : The orifice tab is provided due to the following reasons.
1. Indication of an orifice plate in a line.
2. The orifice diameter is marked on it.
3. The material of the orifice plate.
4. The tag no. of the orifice plate.
5. The mark the inlet of an orifice.

7. Que. : What is Bernoulli's theoram and where it is applicable. ?

Ans. : Bernoulli's theoram states the "total energy of a liquid flowing from one point to
another remains constant." It is applicable for non compressible liquids.

8. Que. : How do you identify the H. P. side or inlet of an orifice plate in line. ?
Ans. : The marking is always done H. P. side of the orifice tab which gives an indication
of the H. P. side.

9. Que. : How do you calibrate a D. P. transmitter. ?

Ans. : The following steps are to be taken which claribrating :
1. Adjust zero of the Xmtrs.
2. Static preasure test : Give equal pressure on both sides of the transmitter. Zero
should not shift. If it is shifting carry out static aligntment.

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 3. Vaccum test : Apply equal vaccum to both the sides. The zero should not
shift.
4. Calibration Procedure :
1. Give 20 psi air supply to the transmitter.
2. Vent the L.P. side to atmosphere.
3. Connect output of the Instrument to a standard test gauge. Adjust zero.
4. Apply required pressure to high pressure side of the transmitter and adjust the
span.
5. Adjust zero again if necessary.

10. Que. : What is the seal liquid used for filling impulse lines on crude and viscous liquid ?
Ans. : Glycol.

11. Que. : How do you carry out piping for a Different pressure flow transmitter on
liquids, Gas and steam services ? Why ?
Ans. : Liquid lines :

On liquid lines the transmitter is mounted below the orifice plate. Since liquids have a
property of self draining.
Gas Service :
On gas service the transmitter is mounted above the orifice plate because Gases have a
property of self venting and secondly condensate formation.
Steam Service :
On steam service the transmitter is mounted below the orifice plate with condenlate pots.
The pots should be at the same level.

12. Que. : Draw and explain any flow control loop ?

Ans. :

13. Que. : An operator tells you that flow indication is more ? How would you start
checking ?
Ans. : 1. First flushing the transmitter. Flush both the impulse lines. Adjust the zero
by equalizing if necessary. If still the indication is more then.
2. Check L.P. side for choke. If that is clean then.
3. Check the leaks on L.P. side. If not.
4. Calibrate the transmitter.

14. Que. : How do you do a zero check on a D.P. transmitter ?

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 Ans. : Close one of the valve either H.P. or L.P. open the equalizing valve. The O/P
should read zero.

15. Que. : How would you do Glycol filling or fill seal liquids in seal pots 7 Draw and
explain.
Ans. : The procedure for glycol filling is :
01. Close the primary isolation valves.
02. Open the vent on the seal pots.
03. Drain the use glycol if present.
04. Connect a hand pump on L.P. side while filling the H.P. side with glycol.
05. Keep the equalizer valve open.
06. Keep the L.P. side valve closed.
07. Start pumping and fill glycol.
08. Same reeat for L.P. side by connecting pump to H.P. side, keeping equalizer
open and H.P. side isolation valve closed.
09. Close the seal pot vent valves.
10. Close equalizer valve.
11. Open both the primary isolation valves.

16. Que. : How do you calculate new factor from new range using old factor and old range. ?
Ans. : New Factor = _/New Range
Old Factor = _/Old Range
Flow = K_/Range
Q = Factor X Unit Flow
New Factor = Old Factor / _/Old Range X _/New Range.

17. Que. : How will you vent air in the D.P. cell ? What if seal pots are used ?
Ans. :
1. Air is vented by opening the vent plugs on a liquid service transmitter.
2. On services where seal pots are used isolate the primary isolation valves and
open the vent valves. Fill the line from the transmitter drain pluge with a pump.

18. Que. : Why is flow measured in square root ?

Ans. : Flow varies directly as the square root of different pressure F = K square root of
AP. Since this flow varies as the square root of differential pressure the pen does not
directly inlicate flow. The flow can be determinded by taking the square root of the
pen.Say the pen reads 50% of chart.

D E F I N A T I O N.
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ACCURACY :
A number or quantity which defines the limit of error under reference conditions.

ATTENUATION :
A decrease in signal magnitude between two points, or between two frequencies.

DEAD TIME :
The interval of time between initiation of an impect change or stimulus and the start of
the resulting response.

DRIFT :
As undesired change in output over a pakiod of time, which change is unrelated to input,
operating conditions, or load.

ERROR :
The difference between the indication and the true value of the measured signal.

SPAN ERROR :
It is the difference between the actual span and the specified span and is expressed as the
precent of specified span.

ZERO ERROR :
It is the error of device operating under the specified conditions of use when the input is
at the lower range value.

STATIC GAIN :
It is the ratio of the output change to an input been change after the steady sttate has been
reached.

HYSTERESIS :
The maximum difference between the upscale and downscale indications of the measured
signal during a full range traverse for the same input.

INTERFERENCE :
Interference is any spurious voltage or current aristug from external sources and
appeearing in the circuits of a device.

COMMON MODE INTERFERENCE :

It is the form of interference which appears between the measuring circuit terminals and
ground.

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NORMAL MODE INTERFERENCE :
It is the form of interference which appears between measuring circuit terminals.

LINEARITY :
The closeness to which a curve approximate a straight line.

RANGE :
The region between the limits within which a quantity is measured received or
transmitted, expressed by stating the lower and upper range values.

REPEATABILITY :
The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the output
for the same value of the measured signal under the same operating conditions.

REPRODUCIBILITY :
The closeness of agereement among repeated measurements of the output for the same
value of the input made under the same operating conditions.

RESPONSE :
It is the general behaviour of the output of a device as a function of input both with
respect to time.

SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO :

Ratio of signal amplitude to noise.

TIME CONSTANT :
The time required for the output to complete 63.2 % of the total rise or decay.

SPAN :
The algeabric difference between upper and lower range values.

ZERO SHIFT :
Any parallel shift of the input output curve.

P R E S S U R E.

PRESSURE CONVERSIONS :

1psi = 27.74 " H2O

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 1 Kg/cm2 = 14.223 psi

1 Bar = 14.504 psi

1 Kpa = 0.145 psi
1 Kg/cm2 = 10.000mm of H20

1 Bar = 1.0197 Kg/cm2

1 Kg/cm2 = 0.98 Bar

1 Torr = 1 mm of lig

1. Que. : What is absolute pressure ?

Ans. : Absolute pressure is the total pressure present in the system
Abs.pressure = Gauge pressure + Atm. pressure.

2. Que. : What is absolute zero pressure ?

Ans. : Absolute zero = 760 mm Hg Vaccum.

3. Que. : What is the maximum Vaccum ?

Ans. : The maximum Vaccum = 760 mm Hg.

4. Que. : What is Vaccum ?

Ans. : Any pressure below atmospheric pressure is vaccum.

Atm = 760 mm 0 Vaccum Zero Gauge

Maxm. Vaccum 760 mm HG
Zero Absolute.

5. Que. : What are the primary elements for measuring pressure ?

Ans. : The primary elements used for measuring pressure are :
1. Bourdon tube.
2. Diaphragm.
3. Capsule.
4. Bellows.
5. Pessure Springs.
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 The above are known as elastic defermation pressure elements.
Type of Bourdon tubes.
1. ' C ' type.
2. Spiral.
3. Helix.

Diaphragm : The diaphragm is best suited for low pressure meassurement.

Capsules : Two circular diaphragms are welded together to form a pressure capsule.
Material Used : phospher bronze, Ni-spanc stainless steel.

Bellows : Bellows is a one - piece, collapsible, seamless mettalic unit with deep folds formed
from very tin walled tubing.
Material used : Brass, phosphor bronze, stainless steel. Used for high pressure.

PRESSURE SPRINGS : Pressure springs of helical or spiral shape used for measuring high
pressures.

6. Que. : What is the principle of a pressure gauge ?

Ans. : Pressure works on Hooks law.
Principle : "Measuring the stores in an elastic medium"

7. Que. : Draw and explain a pressure gauge ? What is the used of a Hair spring ?
Ans. : The parts of a pressure gauge are :
1. 'C' type Bourdn tube.
2. Connecting link.
3. Sector gear.
4. Pinion gear.
5. Hair Spring.
6. Pointer.
7. Dial.
Uses of Hair Spring : Hair spring serves two purposes name
1. To eliminate any play into linkages.
2. It serves as a controlling torque.

8. Que:Hw will you calibrate an absolute pressure transmitter vaccum manometer Range
0-400mm abs ?
Ans. : The procedure for calibration is as follows :
1. Connect air supply to the transmitter.
2. Connect a test gauge of 0-1.4 Kg/cm2 to the output.
3. Connect Vaccum pump with tee off to the manometter.
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 4. Apply 760 mm Vaccum ( or Hearest ) and adjust zero.
5. Apply 360 mm Vaccum adjust span. ( 760 - 360 = 400 mm abs. )

9. Q : You are given a mercury manometer range 0 -760 mm ? A vaccum gauge reads 60
mm vaccum. The test manometer reads 50 vaccum ? Which of the two in correct.
Ans. : The transmitter is correct because 760 - 50 = 710 mm abs.

LEVE L

10 Q : Explain the different methods of level measurement in brief ?

Ans. : There are two ways of measuring level :
( 1 ) Direct & ( 2 ) Indirect.

( 1 ) DIRECT LEVEL MEASUREMENT :

1. BOB AND TOP :

2. SIGHT GLASS : This consists of a graduated glass tube mounted on the side of the
vessel. As the level of the liquid in the vessel change, so does the level of the liquid in the
glass tube.

( 2 ) INDIRECT LIQUID LEVELMEASUREMENT :

1. PRESSURE GAUGE : This is the simplest method, for pressure gauge is located at
the zero level of the liquid in the vessel. Any rise in level causes an invrease of
pressure which can be mesured by a gauge.

2. PURGE SYSTEM : In this method a pipe is installed vertically with the open and at
zero level. The other end of the pipe is connected to a regulated ai r supply and to a
pressure gauge. To make a level measurement the air supply is adjusted so that pressure
is slightly higher than the pressure due to height of the liquid. This is accimplished by
regulating the air pressure until bubbles cab be seen slowly leaving the open end of the
pipe.

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The method above are suitable for open tank applications. when a liquid is in a pressure
vessel, the liquid column pressure can't be used unless the vessel pressure is balanced
out. This is done through the use of different pressure meters.

DIFF.PRESSURE METHOD : Connection are made at the vessel top and bottom, and
to the two columns of the D.P. meter. The top connection is made to the L.P. column of
the transmitter and the bottom to H.P. column of the transmitter. The difference in
pressure in the vessel is balanced out, since it is fed to both the column of the meter. The
difference in pressure deducted by the meter will be due only to the changing, level of the
liquid.

DISPLACER TYPE LEVEL MEASUREMENT :

The level trol is one of the most common istruments used measuring level in closed
tanks. This instrument works of Archimedes principle. The displacer in immensed in the
liquid due to which there is loss of weight depending on the specified gravity of the
liquid. This displacer hangs freely on a knif transmitted to the pneumatic or electronic
counterpart at the other end.

Que. : Explain how you will measure level with a different pressure transmitter.
Ans. : The bottom connection of the vessel is connected to high pressure side of the
transmitter.
Different Pressure = H X D
This difference pressure is applied to H.P. side of the transmitted and calibrated.

Que. : How is D.P. transmitter applied to a close tank ?

Ans. : In close tank the botton of the tank is connected to the high pressure side of the
transmitter and top of the tank in connected to L.P. side of the transmitter. In this way the
vessel pressure is balanced.

Que. : How is D.P. transmitter applied to an open tank ?

Ans. : On an open tank level measurement the L.P. side is vented to atmosphere.
Whatever pressure acts is on the H.P. side which is a measure of level.

Que. : What is purge level system ?

Ans. : This method is also known as bubbler method of level measurement. A pipe is
installed vertically with its open end at the zero level. The other end of the pipe is
connected to a regulated air supply and to a pressure gauge or to ^P transmitter. To make
a level measurement the air supply is adjusted so that pressure is slightly higher than the
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pressure dite to the height of the liquid. This is accomplished by regulating the air
pressure until bubbles can be seen slowly leaving the open end of the pipe. The gage then
measures the air pressure needed to over come the pressure of the liquid.
/\ P = H X D
USE : On for corrosive liquids where the transmitter cannot be directly connected to
process eg... Acids, Some organic liquids.

Que. : Explain the working of a level trol.

Ans. : The level trol is used for measuring level 0 liquids in a closed vessel.
PRINCIPLE. : It works on archimedes principle "The loss in weight of a troly immersed
in a liquid is equal to amount of liquid displaced by the body". The level trol basically
consists of the following :

DISPLACER : It is consists of a cylinderical shape pipe sealed and filled inside with
sand or some weight.The purpose of this is to convert change in level to primary motion.
The variation in buyoancy resulting from a change in liquid level varies the netweight of
the displacer increasing or decreasing the load on the torque arm. This change is directly
propertional to change in level and specific gravity of the liquid.

RELAY : Amplifies pressure variations at the nozzles.

REVERSING ARC : It is used for the following purposes.

1. Motion take of from Torque tube.
2. Means of rever control action.
3. Adjustment for specific gravity.

PROPERTIONAL UNIT. : Converts primary motion to a propertional output air

pressure.

CONTROL SETTING UNIT : Provides a motions of varying the set point.

Que. : Explain the working an electronic level trol.

Ans. : The variation in buyoancy resulting from a change in liquid level, varies the net
weight of the displacer increasing or decreasing the load on the torque arm. This change
is directly proportional to the change in level and specific gravity of the liquid. The
resulting torque tube movement varies the angular motion of the rotor in the RVDT
(Rotary variable diff. Transfermer) providing a voltage change proportional to the rotor
displacement, which is converted and amplified to a D.C. current.

Que. : How will you reverse an action of the level trol.?

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Ans. : The reversing are serves as motion take off arm from the torque tube. It is
provided with a slot on each side of the centre so that link can be connected either for
reverse or direct action.

Que. : What is interface level ? How do you calculate it ?

Ans. : When a vessel is filled with two liquids of two different specific gravities the level
measurement regers to as interface level.
DP = H ( D - d )On a level set the difference of two specific gravities.

Que. : How will you calibrate a level trol in the field ?

Ans. : 1. First close both the primary isolation valves and drain the liquid inside the
chamber.
2. Adjust the zero to get 0% output.
3. Connect a transparent PVC tube to the drain point as shown in hook up.
4. Fill it to the centre of the top flange.
5. Adjust the specific gravity or span adjustment ( Electronic Level ).
6. Fill it up to 50 %, check linearity.

Que. : How will you calibrate on interface level control. ?

Ans. : On ')Pwo liquids of two different specific gravities.
1. The level will be zero when it is full of lighter liquid.
Zero % level = H X d.
H = Displacer length
d = Specific gravity of lighter liquid.
2. The level will be 100 % when it is full of heaviour liquid.
100 % level = H X D.
D = Specific gravity of heaviour liquid.
Calibration : ( with water )
1. Fill H X d level with water adjust zero.
2. Fill H X D level with water adjust Sp. gravity or span.
3. Check linearity.

Que. : How will you apply wt. lest calibration to a level trol.
Ans. : Wt. test calibration method :
1. Remove the displacer from the torque arm.
2. Apply equivalent weight on the torque arm that is equal to the wt. of the displcer.
Adjust zero % output.
3. For Span : V = TTr2h
Loss in weight = Wt. of float - wt. of the float immersed in liquid
Loss in weight = [ wt. of float - Vol. x d ]
Span wt. = (wt. of float - Loss in wt.)
r = radius of the displacer.
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 h = ht. of displacer.
4. Apply equivalent wt. equal to the (Wt. of float - Loss in weight). Adjust Span to get
100 % out put.
5. To check linerarity apply average of the two weights.

Que. : What will happen if the displacer has fallen down while in line ?
Ans. : The output will be minimum. ( wrong )
The output will be maximum (100 %) true.

Que. : What will happen if the displacer has a hole in it while in line ?
Ans. : The output will be maximum.

Que. : What is the used of Suppression and elevation ?

Ans. : Suppression and elevation are used on Level applications where (1) transmitters are not
mounted on some level (2) Wet leq. i.e. condesable vapars are present.

Que. : What are the limitations of level trol ?

Ans. : The limitations of a level control that it cannot be used for lengths more than 72".

Que. : How will you commission D.P. transmitter in field in pressurized vessel.
Ans. : 1. Close both the isolation valves, Vent the H.P. side.
2. Fill it with the sealing liquid.
3. Open the L.P. side vent valve.
4. Adjust zero with suprestion spring.
5. Close the L.P. side vent valve.
6. Open both the isolation valves.

Que. : How will you check zero of a level D.P. transmitter while is line ?
Ans. : 1. Close both the isolation valves.
2. Open the vent valve on L.P. leg and H.P. leg drain.
3. Check and adjust zero if necessary.

Que. : Explain the working of an Enraf level gauge ?

Ans. : The Enraf level precise level gauges are based on ser powered null balance technique. A
displacer serves as continous level censing element.
Principle :
A displacer A with a relative density higher than that of a product to be measured, is suspended
from a stainless steal wire B tat is attached to a measming drum. A two phase ser motor
controlled by a capacitive balance system winds unwinds the measuring wire until the tension
un the weight springs is in balance with the wt. of the displace part immersed in the liquid. The
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sensing system in principle measures the two capacitance formed by the moving central sensing
rod E provided with two capaciter plates and the si plates. In balance position the capacitence
are of equip value. A level variation will cause a difference in buyoan of the displacer. The
centre sensing rod will move in to direction of one of the side capaciter plates. This causes
difference in value of this capacitance. By an electrolyte rotation of the servo motors the can
driven transmitter continously change the veltage pattern to remote indicate of which the
receiver motor drives a counter indicating low variation.

TEMPRETURE

Que. : What are the different methods of tempreture measurement ? Explain.

Ans. : The different methods of tempreture measurement are :
1. MECHANICAL 2. ELECTRICAL.
MECHANICAL METHOD :
1. Mercury in glass thermometers : This consists of a glass tube of very fine bore joined to a
veservoier at the bottom and sealed at the top. A measured quantity of mercury is the enclosed.
When the thermometer is heated the mercury expands much more than the glass and is therfore
forced to rise up in the tubing A scale is fixed at the side.
2. Bimettalic Thermometer : Two metals whose coefficient of linear expansion is different are
welded and rolled together to the desire thickness. The actual movement of a bimetal is its
flexivity with one and fixed, a straight bimetal strip deflects in propertion to its tempreature, to
the square of its length and inversely with its thikness.

Pressure Spring Thermometers :

There are four classes of pressure spring thermometers.
1. Liquid filled.
2. Vapour pressure.
3. Gas filled.
4. mercury filled.

Liquid filled & Mercury filled :

Both type, operate on the principle of thermal expansion. Where the bulb is immersed in a
heated substance. The liquid expands causing the pressure spring to unwind. The indicating,
recording or controlling mechanisms are attached to pressure spring.

Compensated Thermometer System :

Compensations are provided inorder to nulity the effect of changes in ambient tempreature. The
compensation in liquid filled expansions thermal system consists of the second tubing and
belical element, both liquid filled. The two elements are so constructed that the measuring
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belical floats on a movable base the position of which is governedby the compensating belical.
The two tubing and belicals are matched in volume so that variation in tempreature at the
instrument case and along the capillary tubing produce equal motion from both belicals. Such
motion nullity each other so that only motion produced by varying the bulb tempreature actuals
the recorder pen.

Gas filled Thermometers :

This type depends upon the increase in pressure of a confirm gas (constant volume) due to
temp. increase. The relate between temp. and pressure in thiskind of system follow charles low
and may be expressed.
P1
P2
The system is filled under high pressure. The increase pressure for each degree of tempreature
rise is therefore greater than if the filling pressure were low. Nitrogen the gas most after used
for such systems, because it chemically insert and posseses a favourable coefficient thermal
expansion.

Vapour - Pressure Thermometers :

Vapour pressure thermometers depend upon vapour pressure of liquid which only partially fills
the system. At low tempreatures the vapour pressure increase for each unit tempreature charge
is small, at higher tempreature the vapour pressure change is much greater.

ELECTRICAL METHOD OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT :

1. THERMOCOUPLES : It is a simple device consisting of a dissimilar metal wires joined at
their ends. when an of each wire is connected to a measuring instrument thermocouples
becomes an accurate and sentive tempreture measuring device.
Type of Thermocouples :
1. Iron - Constantan (J) ---- 0 - 800'C.
2. Chromel Alumel ( K ) ---- 0 - 1000'C.
3. Platinum - Platinum %
Rhadium ---- 0 - 1500'C.
4. Platinum - Rhadium 13% (S) ---- 0 - 1700'C.
5. Chromel - Constantan (E) ---- 0 -700'C.
6. Copper - Constantan (T) ---- 0 - 400'C.

RESISTANCE - TEMPERATURE DETECTERS (RTD) :

RTD's are generally used for precise temperature measurement. It consists of a five wire
wrapped around an insulator and enclosed in a metal. The most shea of a resistance
thermometer resembles that of bimettalic thermometer bulb.
PRINCIPLE : "Resistance increases as temperature increase"
Rt. = Ro (1 + xt)
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Rt. = Resistance of Temperature to measured.
Ro. = Resistance of zero temperature.
x = Co. off of thermal (expansion).
t = Temperature to be measured.
These metals have a positive temperature co-officient of expansion. Therefore resistance
increases as the temperature increases.

CALCULATION OF RESISTANCE FOR Pt100.

Ro. = 100
x for platinum = 0.00385 /c.
To calculate Resistance at 100'c.
R100 = 100 [ 1+ ( 38.5 x 10 4 x 100 ) ]
= 100 + (100 x 0.385)
R100 = 138.5
Resistance at 100'c = 138.5

Que. : What is Pt 100 mean. ?

Ans. : Pt100 means 100 OHMS at 0'C for a platinum resistance bulb.

Que. : What is two wire and three wire R.T.D. system ?

Ans. : Two wire R .T .D. system :
Two wire RTD system use for short distance coke a ampressor field local panel.
Three wire System :
Three wire system use for long distance coke a field to control Run.
The third wire is used for compensation of lead wire resistance.

Que. :Draw a polentiometric temp. measuring circuits and explain its . ?

Ans. :

OPERATION :
The input to the instrument is a measurement of some in the procers using a sensing element
( such as thermocol ) or a device to produce direct voltage, which is the voltage (sinnal). This
voltage is subtracted from a voltage developed by a known constant voltage in a poteneiome
measuring circuit. The subtraction occurs by connecting two voltages in series with the
opposing potarity, differance between these two voltages produces signal, the voltage going to
the amplifier. The error will positive or negative depending on which of the two voltages
greater. When amplied, the error signal will drive servo balancing motor in appropriate direction
to adjust circuit ( actually drive the slide wire ) until the difference between the feedback
voltage and the input voltage is balance out. An error signal equal to zero results ( null point )
the balancing ( servo motor is be longer driven )

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Que. : What is the constant voltage unit ?
Ans. : The constant voltage circuit consists of a rectifier, CR, a filter capaciter C1, followed by
two stages of zener regulation. Abridge configuration is provided to 1amp line voltage
regulation zener CR3, R1 and R2 combine provide relatively constant current to zener CR4,
Thus variations. Resisters R2 and R3 form a bridge that any remoment line voltage effects.

Que. : Explain the working of a balancing motor.

Ans. : Signal in control win appears as due tank circuit formed by win and capaciter of amp.
board.
+ve signal : It lags 90' from due to line phase capacitor amp. board.
-ve signal : Leads 90' from line due to line phase capacitor of amp. board.
The servo ( balancing ) motor is an induction motor that functions bu creating a roting magnetic
field in the stator.
The rotor ( armature ) turns by following this field. The field is developed by the use of two
windings in the stator.
It has got two windings, one of which is continously energized by the line voltage. The other
winding is energized by the power emplifier, with a current whose phase with respect to line
current determines the direction of rotation of motor.

Que. : What is burnout feature ? Explain.

Ans. : Burnout provides the warnsug feature of driving indicator the end of scale if the input
circuit should open.
A burnout resistor is provided which develops a voltage drop betwen the measuring circuit and
the emplifier. The polarity of the signal determines the direction of the servo drive upon an open
circuit in the input.
Upscale burnout : R value 10 M
Downscale burnout : R value 2.2 M

Que. : Explain the block diagram of an emplifier in a temp. recorder.

Ans. :

Que. : Why is a converter used in a temp. recorder ?

Ans. : The converter is designed to convert D. C. input voltage into an A. C. input voltage
propertional in amplitube to the input.

Que. : Why are thermowells used ?

Ans. : In numerous application it is neither desirable nor proactical to expase a temperature
sensor directly to a process i = material Wells are therefore used toprotect against damage

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corression, arosion, abrosion and high pressure processes. A thermowell is also useful in
protecting a sensor from physical damage during handling and normal operation.

Selecting a thermowell :
The significant properties considered in nelecting a material for the well are as follows :
1. Resistance to corrossion and oxidation.
2. Resistance to mechanical and thermal shock.
3. Low permeability ( Resistance to gas leakage ).
4. Mechanical strength.
5. Thermal conductivity.

Material for Wells :

1. Stainless steal.
2. Inconel.
3. Monel.
4. Alloy steal.
5. Hastelloy 'C'.

Que. : How will you calibrate a temp. recorder using a potentiometer ?

Ans. : Connect the potentiometer output the input of temp. recorder.
1. Connect the ( +ve ) to the ( +ve ) and ( -ve ) to the ( -ve ).
2. If ambient conpensation is provided in potentiometer set it to the correct ambient temp.
3. If no ambient compensation is provided take a thermometer and measure the correct ambient
temp.. Find out the corrosponding m v s for that temp. for the given input type of thermocouple.
4. While feeding substract the ambient temp. m v s from the corrosponding temp. everytime.
5. Adjust the necessary adjustments.

MEASURING TEMPERATURE WITH A POTENTIOMETER :

1. Connect the input of the potentiometer to the thermocouple.
2. If no ambient compensation is provided find out the corrosponding millivolts for that ambient
temp. for the type of thermocouple used.
3. Add the ambient temp. millivolts to the corr. input millivolts measured. Find out from the
chart the corrosponding temperature.

Que. : What type of sensing element would you use to measure very low temperature ?
Ans. : The sensing element used for measuring very low temperature is R. T. D.

Que. : What are skin temperature thermocouples ?

Ans. : Skin thermocouples are those which are directly connected to the process without any
thermowell.
Used for measuring the skin temperature of heaters furnaces, flue gas etc.
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Que. : What is the speciality of thermocouples lead wires ?
Ans. : They should be of the same material as the thermocouple.

Que. : What is the difference the a wheatstone bridge and a potentiometer ?

Ans. : The difference between a potentiometer and a wheatstone bridge measureing instrument
is that potentiameter is a voltage measuring instrument and wheatstone bridge is a current
measuring instrument.

Que. : Explain the continous balance potentiometer system using R. T. D.'s.

Ans. : In a balance wheatstone bridge resistance thermometer a resistance bulb is connected
into one branch of a d.c. bridge circuit; in another branch is a variable resistence in the form of
a calibrated slidewire. Variations in temp. of the measured meduim cause a change in resistance
of the bulb and a consequent unbalance of the bridge circuit. A self balancing wheatstone bridge
recognises the condition of unbalance, determines its directionand magnitude and position the
slidewire contractor to rebalance the bridge and indicate the temp. on the scale.

The D. C. potentioal appearing at AA is converted by the converting stage to an A. C. voltage

appearing at BB and is maltiplied by the voltage amplifier to a large value at cc. It is then used
to control the power amplifier output DD which drives the balancing motor in the proper
direction to balance the bridge.

The polarity of the signal at AA determines the phase of the alternating voltage at BB which in
turn determines the direction of rotation of the balancing motor.

Que. : How is automatic Reference junction compensation carried out in temp. ? Recorders ect.
Ans. : For automatic reference junction compensation a variable nickel resister is used. As the
temperature changes, so does its resistance. This reference junction compensator is located, so
that it will be at the tempreature of the reference junction. The reference junction is at the poset
where the dissimilar wire of the termocouple is rejoined, which invariably is at the terminal
strip of the instrument.

CONTROL SYSTEMS
AUTOMATIC CONTROLLER :
It is a device which measured the value of variable quantity or condition and operates to correct
or lie it deviation of this measured value from a selected reference.

AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM :

It is any operable arrangement of one or more automatic controllers in closed loops with one or
more processes.

SELF OPERATED CONTROLLER :

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It is one in which all the energy needed to operate the final control element is derived from the
controlled medium through the primary element.

RELAY OPERATED CONTROLLER :

It is one in which the energy transmitted through the primary element is either supplemented or
amplified for operating the final control element by emploing energy from another sources.

PROCESS :
A process comprises the collective function performed in and by the equipment in which a
variable is to be controlled.

SELF REGULATION :
It is an interent characteristic of the process which aids in limiting the deviation of the
controlled variable.

CONTROLLED VARIABLE :
The controlled variable is that quantity and condition which is measured and controlled.

CONTROLLED MIDIUM :
It is that process energy or material in which a variable is controlled. The controlled variable is
a condition or characteristic of the controlled midium. For eg. where temperature of water in a
tank is automatically controlled, the controlled variable is temperature and controlled midium is
water.

MANIPULATED VARIABLE :
It is that quantity or condition which is varied by the automatic controller so as to affect the
value of the controlled variable.

CONTROL AGENT :
It is that process energy or material of which the manipulated variation is a condition or
characteristic. The manipulated variable is a condition or characteristic of the control agent. For
eg. when a final control element changes the fuel gas flow to burner the manipulated variable is
flow the control agent is fuel gas.

ACTUATING SIGNAL :
The actuating signal is the difference at anytime between the reference input and a signal
related to the controlled variable. This basically known as error signal.

DEVIATION :It is the difference between the actual value of the controlled variable and the
value of the controlled variable corresponding with set point.

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OFFSET :
It is the steady state difference between the control point and the value of the controlled
variable corrosponding with setpoint

CORRECTIVE ACTION :
It is the variation of the manipuolated variable produced by the controlling means. The
controlling means operates the final control element ( control value ) which in turn varies the
manipulated variable.

REFERENCE INPUT :
It is the reference signal in an automatic controller.

SET POINT :
It is the position to which the control point setting mechanism is set.

CONTROL POINT :
It is the value of the controlled variable which under any fixed set of conditions the automatic
controller operates to maintain.

PRIMARY FEEDBACK :
It is the signal which is related to the bJNtrJHÀå3œìÂdÒÂÄØÈ@À‘Ÿ21
˜‡ŸHŸ €ﾤ‚Ò ﾧ ÖMith the reference input to obtain the actuating signal. Simply stated primary
feedback is the actual measurement of the controlled variable which when compared with the
desired measurement of the controlled variable produces the actuating signal.

POSITIONING ACTION :
It is that in which there is a predeterminded relation between the value of the controlled
variable and the position of the final control element.

PROPORTIONAL ACTION :
It is that in which there is a continous linear relationship between the value of the actual
measurement of the controlled variable and the value position.

FLOATING ACTION :
It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between the deviation and speed of final
control element.

DERIVATIVE ACTION :
It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between a time derivative of the controlled
variable and position of final control element.

REST ACTION :
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It is the value movement at a speed proportional to the magnitude of deviation.

RATE ACTION :
It is that in which there is a continous linear relation between the rate of change of controlled
variable and position of final control element. Rate action produces avalue motion proportional
to the rate of change of actual measurement.

PROPORTIONAL BAND :
It is the range of values of the controlled variable which corrospond to the full operating range
of the final control element.

RESET RATE :
It is the number of times/minute that the effect of proportional position action upon the final
controlelement is repeated by proportional speed floating action.

There are two ways of expressing reset action :

1. Reset time and 2. Reset Rate

1. Reset Rate : It is commonly expressed as a number of "repeats" per minute. It is determined

by dividing.
a) Travel of final control element ( Value stroke ) in one minute as a result of the effect of
proportional speed floating action.
b) The travel as a result of the effect of proportional position action with the same deviation in
both cases.

2. Reset Time : It is the time interval by which the rate is commonly expressed in minutes. It is
determinded by subtracting.
a) The time required for a selected motion of the final control element resulting from conbined
effect of the proportional position plus rate action.
b) The time required for the same motion as a result of the effect of proportional position action
alone with the same rate of change of controlled variable in both cases or expressed in another
way. It is the time lead in terms of air pressure on the control value producted by rate action
compared with proportional position action for the same rate of change of actual measurement
in both cases.

Que. : Explain the application of proportional integral and derivative.

Ans. :
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL ONLY :
Proportional control only attempts to return a measurement to the set point after a load upset
has occured. How ever it is impossible for a proportional controller to return the measurement
exactly to the set point.

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USE : It is normally used for level controls. It reduces the effect of a load change but it can not
eliminate it.

PROPNT RESET CONTROL :

Reset action is introduced to eleminate offset. It will integrate any difference between
measurement and setpoint and cause the controller's output to change until the difference
between the measurement and set point is zero. Reset will act as long as theerror exists.
USE: Proportional + Reset controllers are by far the common types used in industrial process
control and where predominate dead times occure.

PROPNT RESET + DERIVATIVE :

Derivative or rate action helps the controller overcome system inertia and result in faster, more
procie control. Derivative action occurs whenever the measurement signal changes. Under
study conditions the rate action does not act. Derivative allows the controller to inject more
corrective action.
USED : On temperature controls.

Que. : What is difference gap control ?

Ans. : Differntial gap control is similar to on off control except that a band or gap exists around
the control point.
USE : In industry differential gap control is often found in non critical level control polications
where it is desirable only to prevent a tank from flooding or drying. When a measured variable
exceeds the upper gap the control valve will open fully or be closed fully. Similarly when it
exceeds the lower gap it will open or close fully.

Que. : Where is on off control used ?

Ans. : On off control is used when
1. Precise control is not needed.
2. Processes that have sufficient capacity to allow the final operator to keep up with the
mesurement cycle.
3. It is mainly used in refrigeration and are conditioning systems.

Que. :
Ans. : When reset action is applied in controllers Where the measurement is away from the set
point for long periods the rest may drive the output to its maximum resulting in rest wind up.
When the process starts again the output will no come off its maximum curfil the measurement
crosses the so point causing large overshoots. This problem can be avoide by including antireset
wind up circuit which eliminates the problem of output saturation.

Que. : Why is reset called integral and Rate derivative ?

Ans. : RESET is called integral because of the mathematical relationship to the output.
RATE is called derivative because
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Oi = rd (e) / dt +O0
Oi = Output at any instant
e = error signal
O0 = Output at zero error.
t = time.
PROPORTIONAL ACTION :
Oi = 100 / PB x e + O0

Que. : Explain tunning of controllers.

Ans. : Tunning basically involves adjustment of proportional. Integral and derivative
parameters to achieve good control. The gain, time constants, and dead times around the loop
will dictate the settings of various parameters of the controller.

Tunning methods are broadly classified into two :

1. Closed Loop Method : eg. Ultimate Gain Method.
2. Open Loop Method : eg. process Reaction curve.
ULTIMATE GAIN METHOD :
The term ultimate gain was attached to this method because its use require the determination of
the ultimate gain (sensitivity) and ultimate period. The ultimate sensitivity Ku is the maximum
allowable value of gain (for a controller with only Proportional mode) for which the system is
stable. The ultimate period is the period of the response with the gain set at its ultimate value.
PROCERS REACTION CURVE :
To deter mine the process reaction curve, the following steps are recommended. :
1. Let the system come to steady state at the normal load level.
2. Place the controller on manual.
3. Manually set the output of the controller at the value at which it was operating in the
automatic mode.
4. Allow the system to reach the steady state.
5. With controller on manual, impose a step changes in the output of controller, which is an
signal to value.
6. Record the responce of controlled variatle.
7. Return the controller output to its previous value and return the controller to auto operation.

Que. : Explain the working of an electronic P.I.D. controller.

Ans. :
Input from the mesurement transmitter is compared with the set point voltage to produce a
deviation signal. The deviation signal is combined with a characterized feed back signal to
provide the input for the function generator amplifier. This amplifiers output is delivered to the
feed back network, and to the final output which is a 10-50m.a. do signal for actualation of final
operators.
PROPN ACTION : It is a obtained by adjusting the magnitude of feed back signal. An increase
in negative feed back means less effective gain and thus a broader proportional band.
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REST ACTION : It is obtained by charging the reset capaciter at a rate determined by the
value of reset resister. The reset resister is variable, and constitutes reset adjustment.
DERIVATIVE ACTION : The connection of a derivative capaciter across the feedback circuit
delays feedback until the capaciter is charged to a value approaching amplifier output. This
delay is controlled by value of derivative resister. This resister is variable and constitutes
derivative adjustment.

Que. : What is an analogue integeator and an analogue differentiater ?

Ans. :
ANALOGUE INTEGRATOR :

ANALOGUE DIFFERENTIATER :

Que. : What is anti reset wind up ?

Ans. : If the limit acts in the feed back section of the control amplifiers integral circuit, the
controller output will immediately begin to drive in the opposite direction as soon as the
process signal crosses the set point. This approach is referred to as antireset wind up.

Que. : What are De saturators ?

Ans. : When, in some processes, e.g. batch process, long transient responses are expected
during which a sustained deviation is present the controller integral action continously drives
the output to a minimum or maximum value. This phenomenon is called "integral saturation of
the control unut". When this condition.

Que. : Explain the working of Rotameter.

Ans. : Variable area meters are special form of head meters. Where in the area of flow restrictor
is varied. So as to hold the differential pressure constant. The rotameters consists of a vertical
tapered tube through which the metered fluid flows in upward direction. A "float" either
spherical or coneshaped, actually more dense than the fluid being measured, creates an annular
passage between its maximum circumference and the wate of the topered tube. As the flow
varies the "float" rises or falls to vary the area of the passage so that the differential across it
just balances the gravitational force on the "float" i.e. the differential pressure is maintained
constant. The position of the "float" is the measured of the rate of flow.

Que. : Explain the working of a magnetic meter.

Ans. : An electric potential is developed when a conductor is moved across the magnetic field.
In most electrical machinery the conductor is a "wire"; the principle is equally applicable to a
moving, electrically condictive liquid. The primary device of commercial magnetic meters
consists of a straight cylindrical electrically insulated tube with a pair of electrodes nearly flush
with the tube wall and located at opposite ends of a tube diameter. A uniform a.c. megnetic field
is provided at right angles to electrode diameter and to the axis of the tube. The a.c. voltage
developed at the electrodes is proportional to the volume flow rate of fluid, and to a magnetic
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field strength. This device is limited to electrically conducting liquids. The magnetic meter is
particularly suited to measurement of slurries and dirty fluids, since there are no location for
solids to collect except the walls of the tube itself.

Que. : Explain the working of a turbine meter.

Ans. : Turbine meters consist of a straight flow tube within which a turbine or fan is free to
rotate, about its axis which is fixed along the centre line of the tube. Straighttening rances
upsteam of the turbine minimizes possible rotational components of fluid flow. In most units a
magnetic pick-up system senses the rotation of the rotar through the tube wall. The turbine
meter is a flow rate device, since the rotor speed is directly proportional to flow rate. The
output is useally in the form of electrical pulses from the magnetic pick-up with a frequency
proportional to flow rate. Turbine meter are primarily applied to measurement of dean
nonconosire hydrocarbons.

Que. : Explain the working of a pitot tube.

Ans. : The pitot tube measures the velocity at point in the conduct. If quantity rate measurement
is desired, it must be calculated from the ratio of average velocity to the velocity at the point of
measurement.

PRINCIPLE : If a tube is placed with its open and facing into a stream of fluid, then the fluid
impivging on the open end will be brought to rest, and the kinetic energy converted to pressure
energy. This the pressure built up in the tube will be greater than that in the free stream by the
impect pressure or pressure produced by loss of kinetic energy. The increase in pressure will
depend upon the square of the velocity of teh stream. The difference is measured between the
pressure in the tube and static pressure of the stream. The static pressure is measured by a
tapping in the wall of the main or by a tapping incorporated in the pitot static tube itself. The
difference between the pressure in the tube and static pressure will be a measure of the impact
pressure and therefore of the velocity of the stream oil.

Que. : Where is the integral orifice used ?

Ans. : Integral orifice is used to measure small flow rates. It is mounted directly on the
secondary device. The integral orifice diameter varies between 0.020 inch and 0.250 inch
diameter. The integral orifice finds considerable use in laboratory and pitot plants.
Calculation of flow rate :
Qn / Fc = Ks x Cwi x Fa x Fm x ( Gp / Ge ) hw

Que. : Explain the working of a target meter.

Ans. :
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The target meter combines in a single unit both a primary element and a force balance flow rate
transmitter. A circular disc (or target) supported concentrically in the pipe carrying the flowing
fluid results in an annular orifice configuration. Pressure difference developed by the fluid flow
through this annular orifice produces a force on target proportional to the square of the flow
rate. This force is carried out of the pipe through a rod passing through a diaphrgam seal, and is
measured by a pricumatic or electronic force balance system identical with the mechanism of
the force balance D.P. cell. The advantages of the target meter lies primarily in its single unit
construction the primary device and responsive mechanism in a single structure. This eliminates
the diff. pressure fluid connections in most heads meters. This is particularly used for sticky and
dirty material which may plug up differential connections and for liquids which requireelevated
temperatures to avoid solidification, this elimination of liquid connection is useful.
{Wm} 2
F = {------------------------------ }
{ Cst Fa Fm Fc cf }

Que. : Where is a quadrant orifice used ?

Ans. : If the fluid is viscous and the operating regnolds number is low quadrant orifice is
preferied

Que. : What are types of taps used for orifices ?

Ans. :
1. FLANGE TAPS :
This are most commonly used on pipe sizes of 2 inches or larger. They are located in the orifice
flange 2 inch from upstream and 1 inch downstream from the faces 0 orifice plate.

2. CORNER TAPS :
On pipe sizes less than 2 inches cornor taps located directaly at the face of the orifice plate.

3. VENA CONTRACTA AND REDIUS TAE :

Vena contracta taps located at 1 pipe diameter upstrean and at point of minimum pressure
downstream. There are mostly widely used for measurement of steam.
Redius taps are located 1 pipe diameter upstream and 1/2 pipe diameter downstream for the
inlet face of the orificeare a close approximation to vena contracta taps upto 0.72 d / D.

4. FACE FLOW TAPS :

Face flow taps are located at 2 1/2 pipe diameter upstream and B pipe diameter downstream.
Full flow taps at 2 1/2 and B pipe diameter have the same advantage as vena contracta or radius
taps.

QUE. : What is Raynold's number ?

Ans. : Dynamic similarity implies a correspondence of fluid orces in two systems. In general
situation there are many classes of forces that influence the behavior of fluids. Some of these
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are intertial viscous, gravitational, compressibility, pressure and elastic forces. Certain
diamensionless ratio are developed based on fluid properties. Velocities and dimension, which
are essentially force ratio.
The more important of these are reynolds number
SVD
u
For most applications in practical flow measurement the Reynolds number is taken to be
sufficient criterion of dynamic similarly. The magnitude of Reynolds number not only indicates
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent but also furnishes the probable shape of velocity
profile. Due to the strong role it plays as an indicator of varying flow characteristics, many of
the deviation from the theoretical equations are called Reynold number effects.

Que. : How would you choose differential range ?

Ans. : The most common diff. range for liquid measurement is 0-100" H20. This range is high
enough to minimize the errors caused by unequal heads in the seal chambers, differences in
temps. of load lines etc. The 100" range permits an increase in capacity upto 400" and a
decrease down upto 20" by merely changing range tubes or range adjustment.

Que. : What are positive Displacement meters ?

Ans. :
PRINCIPLE :
The principle of measurement is that as the liquid flows through the meter it moves a measuring
element which seals off the measuring chamber into a series of measuring compartments each
holding a definite volume. As the measuring element moves, these compartments are
sucessively filled and emptied. Thus for each complete of the measuring element a fixed
quantity of liquid is permitted to pass from the inlet to the outlet of the meter. The seal between
measuring element and the measuring chamber is provided by a film of measured liquid. The
number of cycle of the measuring element is indicated by means of a pointer moving over the
dial, a digital totalizer or some other form of register, driven from the measuring element
through an adjustable gearing.

The most common forms of positive displacement meters are :

1. Reciprocating Piston type.

2. Rotating or Oscillating Piston type.
3. Nutating Disc type.
4. Fluted Spiral Roter type.
5. Sliding vane type.
6. Rotating vane type.
7. Oval Gear type.

$$ CONTROL VALVES $$
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Que. : What is a control valves ?
Ans. : A control valve is the final control element, which directly changes the valve of the
manipulated variable by changing the rate of flow of control agent.

A control valve consists of an operator and valve body. The operator provides the power to vary
the position of the valve plug inside the body. The plug is connected to the operator by a stan,
which slides through a stuffing box. The air signal from the controller is applied above the
diaphragm. The increasing air signal from the controller is applied above the diaphragm. An
increasing air signal will push the operator steam downwards against the face exented by the
spring on the diaphragm plate. The valve is adjustedin such a way that the plug starts moving
when 3 psi is applied to the diaphragm and touches th% reat when 15 psa is apd)edÏ€—
‡ÀÀgm. Thus an increase in air pressure will close the valve. Hence the home "Air to Close".
Another type is "Air to open", such that 3 psi on the diaphragm the value is closed and 15 psi
air signal it in fully open.

Que. : What are the different types of control valves ?

Ans. : The commonly used control valves can be devided as follows.
1. Depending on Action.
2. Depending on the Body.
1. DEPENDING ON ACTION :
Depending on action there are two types of control valves, (1) Air to close, (2) Air to open.
2. DEPENDING ON BODY :
1. Globe valves single or double seated.
2. Angle valves.
3. Butterfly valves.
4. Three way valves.

Que. : What is the use of single seated valve ?

Ans. : The single seated valve is used on smaller sizes, and in valve of larger sizes, where an
absolute shut off is required. The use of single seated valve is limited by pressure drop across
the valve in the closed or almost closed position.

Que. : What is the use of double seated valve ?

Ans. : In double seated valves the upward and downward forces on the plug due to reduction of
fluid pressure are nearly equalized. It is generally used on bigger size valves and high pressure
systems. Actuator forces required are less i.e. A small size actuator.

Que. : What is Cv of a valve ?

Ans. : Cv is the capacity of a valve and is defind as :
"No of gallons per minute of water which passes through a fully open valve at a pressure drop
of 1 p.s.
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The valve codfficient Cv is proportional to the area 'A' between the plug and valve seat
measured perpendicularly to the direction of flow.

Que. : What are the different types of actuators ?

Ans. : The different types of actuators are :
1. Diaphragm Operated.
2. Pistess Operated.

Que. : What types of bonnets would you use of high temp. and low temp. ?
Ans. :
HIGH TEMP. : Bonnets are provided with adiation fins to prevent glad packing from getting
damaged.

ON VCF LOW TEMP. : Extended bonnets are used to prevent gland packing from getting
frcored.

Que. : How will you work on a control valve while it is line ?

Ans. : While the control valve is in line the control valve has to be got by passed and secondly
the line has to be drained and depressurized.

Que. : What is the use of a valve positioner ?

Ans. : The valve positioner is used for following reasons :
1. Quick Action control valve.
2. Valve hysteresis.
3. Valves used on viscous liquids.
4. Split Range.
5. Line pressure changes on valve.
6. Valve Bench set not standard.
7. Reversing valve operation.

Que. : When can a by pass be not used on a positioner ?

Ans. : A by pass on a positioner cannot be used when :
1. Split Range operation.
2. Reverse Acting Positioner.
3. Valve bench set not standard.

Que. : What is the use of link connected to the valve positioner ?

Ans. : The link serves as the feed back to the value. Ant valve movement is sensed by this link.
Sometimes due to line pressure changes on H.P. service the valve position may be changed, the
link in turn senses this change and the positioner will produce an output which will operate the
valve to the original position.
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Que. : What is the use of booster relays ?
Ans. : Booster relays are essentially air load, self contained pressure regulaters. They are
classified into three broad groups :
1. Volume Boosters : These are used to multiply the available volume of air signal.
2. Ratio Relays : Use to multiply or divide the pressure of an input signal.
3. Reversing Relays : This produces a decreasing output signal for an increasing input signal.

Que. : What is the use of Angle valves ?

Ans. : Angle valves are used where very high pressure drops are required and under very severe
conditions. Where the conventional type of valve would be damaged by erotion.

Que. : What is the use of butterfly valves ?

Ans. : Butterfly valves are used only in systems where a small pressure drop across the valve is
allowed. The butterfly is fully open when the disc rotates by 90. A drawback of this valve is that
even a very small angular displacement produces a big change in flow.

Que. : What is the use of three way valves ?

Ans. : Three way control valves are only used on special systems, where a dividing or mixlug of
flows according to a controlled ratio is required.

Que. : What is a cage valve ?

Ans. : A cage valve uses a piston with piston ring seal attached to the single seated valve
"plug". Here the hydrostatic forces acting on the top or the piston or below the valve plug tend
to cancel out. The seat ring is clamped in by a cage. Cage valves are generally used for noise
reduction.

Que. : What are the advantages of comflex valves ?

Ans. : Comflex valves are intermediates between globe valve and butterfly valve. The plug
rotates 60' for full opening.

ADVANTAGE :
1. Actuater forces required are very less.
2. Extended bonnet and hence can be used on any service i.e. on high temp. and very low temp.
3. Vanations in flow.
4. Light weight.

Que. : What are the different types of plugs ?

Ans. : The different types of plugs are generally used are :
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( 1 ) V. port plug ( 2 ) Contoured plug

V. PORT PLUG :
Ported plug are generally used on double seated valves. This is because ported plugs, have a
more constant off balance area.

CONTOURED PLUGE :
Contoured plugs are generally used on single seated valve with small trim sizes.

Que. : What are the different valve characteristic ?

Ans. : The different types of valve characteristic are :
1. Linear 2. Equal Percentage 3. Quick Opening.

LINEAR : The valve opening to flow rate is a linear curve

EQUAL PERCENTAGE :
For equal increments of valve opening it will give equal increment in flow rate range. At small
opening the flow will also be small.

QUICK OPENING :
At small opening the increments in flow rate is more. At higher opening the flow rate becomes
steady.

QUE. : What is a solenoid valve ? Where it is used ?

Ans. : A solenoid is electrically operated valve. It consist of a solenoid ( coil ) in which a
magnetic plunger moves which is connected to the plug and tends to open or close the value.
There are two types of solenoid valves :
1. Normally open 2. Normally closed
USE : It is used for safety purpose.

Que. : How will you change the valve characteristics with positioner ?
Ans. : The positioner contains different types of came in it. selection of the proper can the valve
opening characteristics can be changed.

Que. : How will you change the action of a control valve ?

Ans. :
1. If the control valve is without bottom cap. The actual needs to be changed.
2. If bottom cap is provided.
a) Disconnect the stem from the actuater stem.
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b) Separate the body from the bonnet.
c) Remove the bottom cap and the plug from body.
d) Datach the plug from the stem by removing the pin.
e) Fix the stem at the other end of the plug and fix the pin back.
f) Turn the body upside down. Connect it to the bonnet after inserting the plug and stem.
g) Connect back the stem to the actuator stem.
h) Fix back the bottom cap.
i) Calibrate the valve.

Que. : How will you select the control valve characteristics ?

Ans. : The graphic display of flow verious lift shows then the deside or inherent characteristic is
changed by variations pressure drop. This occurs as the process changes from condition where
most of pressure drop takes place at the control valve is a condition where most of the pressure
drop is generally distributed through rest of the system.
% Flow : This variation in where most of the total drop take place is one of the most important
aspects is choosing the proper valve characteristics for give process.
Flow control : Normally Equal percentage valve is used.
Pressure Control : Normally linear valve is used to maintain a constant pressure drop.
Temp. Control : Normally equal percentage valve is used.
Liquid Level Control : Normally linear valve is used.
Basically in selecting a valve characteristic two important point have to be taken into account.
a) There should be a linear relationship between the position of the plug and and the flow
through the valve in a wide range of change in the pressure drop across the valve.
b) The pressure drop accross a valve should be as low as possible.

Que. : An operator tells you that a control valve in a steech ? How wiil you stent checking ?
Ans. :
1. First of all get the control valve is passed from operation.
2. Check the lingual to the diaphragm of the control valve.
3. Disconnect it possible the actuator stem from the control valve stem.
4. Stroke the actuator and see whether the actuator operates or not. It not then the diaphragm
may be punctured.
5. If the actuator operates connect it back to the plug stem stroke the control valve. If it does
not operate loosen the gland nuts a bit and see if it operates. If it does not then the control valve
has to be removed from the line to w/shop.

Que. : Where is an Air to close and Air to open control valves used ?
Ans. :
AIR TO CLOSE :
1. Reflux lines.
2. Cooling water lines.
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3. Safety Relief services.
AIR TO OPEN :
1. Feed lines.
2. Steam Service.

Que. : Why does control valve operate at IS psi ?

Ans. : On higher pressure the actuator sizes becames bigger in area. The actual force produced
by the actuator.
Force = Pressure x Area.
= 15 psi x Area If Area = 15"
Force produced = 15 psi x 25" pounes.

$$ GENERAL QUESTIONS. $$

Que. : Explain Cascade Control system with a diagram. What would happier if a single
controller were used ?
Ans. : Cascade means two controllers is series. Oneof them is the Master or Primary and the
second is the secondary of slave controller. The output of the secondary controller operates the
final control element, that is the valve.

LOOP EXPLANATION :
The output of the temp. transmitter goes as measurement signal to the TIC which is the master
controller. Similarly the output of pressure transmitter goes as measurement signalto the PIC
which is the secondary controller.
The output of TIC comes at set point to PIC which is turn operates the valve. The reqd. temp. is
set on the TIC.

USE OF CASCADE SYSTEM :

Cascade loops are invariably installed to prevent outside disturbances from entering the
process. The conventional single controller as shown in the diagram cannot responds to a
change in the fuelgas pressure until its effect is felt by the process temp. sensor. In other words
an error in the detected temperature has to develop before corrective action can be taken. The
cascade loop in contrast responds immediately correcting for the effect of pressure change,
before it could influence the process temperature. The improvement in control quality due to
cascading is a function of relative speeds and time lags. A slow primary (Master) variable and a
secondary (Slave) variable which responds quickly to disturbances represent a desirable
ambination for this type of control. If the slave can respond quickly to fast disturbances then
these will not be allowed to enter the process and thereby will not upset the control of primary
(master) variable. It can be said that use of cascade control on heat transfer equipment
contributes to fast recovery from load changes or other disturbances.

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Que. : Explain ratio control system.
Ans. : A ratio control system is characterized by the fact that variations in the secondary
variable donot reflect bach on the primary variable. In the above diagram 0 a ratio control
system the secondary flow is hold in some proportion to a primary uncontrollable flow.
If we assume that the output of primary transmitter is A, and the output of the secondary
transmitter is B, And that multiplication factor of the ratio relay is K, then for equilibruim
conditions which means set valve is equal to measured valve, we find the following relation :
KA - B = 0
or B/A = K, where 'K' is the ratio setting of the relay.

Que. : Explain fuel to air ratio control of furnaces.

Ans. :

Que. : What is Furnace Draft control ?

Ans. : Balanced draft boilers are generally used negative furnace pressure. When both forced
draft and induced draft are used together, at some point in the system the pressure will be the
same asthat of atmosphere. Therefore the furnace pressure must be negative to prevent hot gas
leakage. Excussive vaccum in the furnace however produces hoat losses through air infiltration.
The most desirable condition is that the one have is a very slight ( about 0.1" H20 ) negative
pressure of the top of furnace.

Que. : What is feed back control ? What is feed forward control ? Discuss its application ?
Ans. :
FEEDBACK CONTROL :
Feed back control involves the detection of the controlled variable and counteracting of charges
ib its valve relative to set point, by adjustment of a mainpulated variable. This mode of control
necessiates that the disturbance variable must affect the controlled variable itself before
correction can take place. Hence the term 'feedback' can imply a correction 'back' in terms of
time, a correction that should have taken place earlier when the disturbance occurred.

FEED FORWARD CONTROL :

Feed forward control system is a system in which corrective action is based on measurement of
disturbances inputs into the process. This mode of control responds to a disturbance such that is
instantancenaly compensates for that error which the disturbance would have otherwise caused
in the controlled variable letter in time.
Feed forward control relies on a prediction. As can be seen from the figure of feed forward
control a necessary amount of input goes to the process. This measurement goes to the
controller which gives output to the control valve. The control valve regulates the flow.

FEED BACK CONTROL :

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In feed forward control no differance between the desired result and actual result need exist
before corrective action is taken in feed back control a difference must exist. Hence, open loop
or feed forward control is capable of perfect control, but feed back is not. Due to economic
imprectibility of precisel , predicting the amount of correction necessary to achieve satisfactory
results with feed forward control, foed back control is most often used. In order to properly
choose the type of feed back controller for a particular process applicationtwo factors time and
gain must be considered.

$$ GENERAL QUESTION - II $$

Que. : Drow an electronic two wire system control loop.

Ans. :

Que. : What are Intrinsically safe system ?

Ans. : Intricsic safety is a technique for designing elecrtical equipment for safe use in locations
made nazandous by the presence of flammable gas or vapours in air.

"Defn. :" Intrinsically safe circuit is one in which any sparkor thermal effect produce either
normally or under specified fault conditions is incapable of causing ingition of a specified gas or
vapor in air mixture at the most easily ignited concentration.

HAZARDOUS AREAS :
The specification of products or systems sold as intrinscially safe must state in what hazardous
areas they are infact intrinsically safe. Universal cooling of hazadous areas has not,
unfortunately, been adopted in all countries. However two sets of codiva in common use are.

Que. : What does a transmitter output stant from 3-15 psi or (0.2 - 1 Kg/Cm2) or 4 - 20 m.a. etc
?
Ans. : The transmitter output stance from what is known as "live zero". This system has specific
advantages :
1. The systems automatically alarms when the signal system becomes inoperative.
2. The output areas is linear ( Ratio of 1 : 5 ).

DEAD ZERO SIGNAL :

The advantage is that it does not have to be biased to true zero. A "Live zero" gives the
computer additional information, so that it can takes appropriate alarm action in case of a
measurement failure, because it can discriminate between a transmitter operating, but
transmitting a zero measurement and a failure, in the signal system.

Que. : What is force balance and motions balance principle ?

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Ans. :
FORCE BALANCE PRINCIPLE :
"A controller which generates and output signal by opposing torque’s".

The input force is applied on the input bellows which novas the beam. This crackles nozzle
back pressure. The nozzle back pressure is sensed by the balancing bellows which brings the
beam to balance. The baffle movement is very less about 0.002" for full scale output.

MOTION BALANCE PRINCIPLE :

"A controller which generates an output signal by motion of its parts".

The increase in input signal will cause the baffle to move towards the nozzle. The nozzle back
pressure will increase. This increase in back pressure acting on the balancing bellows, will
expands the bellows, there by moving the nozzle upward. The nozzle will move untilits motion
(almost) equals the input (baffle) motion.
Advantages of force Balance :
1. Moving parts are fever.
2. Baffle movement is negligible.
3. Frictional losses are less.

E LE CTR O N I C S

Que. : What is a di37È$€|;89ü!â„!i1 “â Bä.L„‘Ñ 37everse bias ?

Ans. : A diode consists of two electrodes (1) Anode (2) Cathode. The current flow is only in
one direction.
A diode is the most basic solid state (semi conductor) device. The above figure shows a P.N.
junction. The P. material has holes and the N. material has electrons.

FORWARD BIAS :

REVERSE BIAS :

( 1 ) Where the applied voltage overcomes the barrier potential (the p side is more positive than
the n side) the current produce is large because majority carriers cross the junction in large
numbers. This condition is called forward bias.
( 2 ) When the applied voltage aids the barrier potential (n side + ve than p side) the current in
small. This state is known as Reverse Bias.

Que. : What is a half wave, full wave and bridge rectifier ?

Ans. :
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HALF WAVE RECTIFIER :

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER :

BRIDGE RECTIFIER :

PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE : Maximum Reverse voltage across the diode during the cycle.

Que. : What is a filter used for ?

Ans. : The half wave and full wave signals are pulsating D . C . voltages. The use of such
voltages is limited to charging batteries, running D. C. motors, and a few other applications.
What we really have is a D.C. voltage that is constant in valve, similar to the voltage from a
battery. To get a constant voltage from this, we can use a capacitor input filter.

Que. : What is zever Diode ? What is a voltage Regulator ?

Ans. : The breakdown region of a p n diode can be made very sharp and almost vertical Diodes
with almost vertical breakdown region are known as Zever Diodes.

A zever diodes operating in the breakdown region is equivalent to a battery. Because of this
current through zever diode can change but the voltage remains constant. It is this constant
voltage that has made the zever diode an important device in voltage regulation.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR :

The output remains constant despite changes in input voltage due to Zever effect.

Que. : What is transistor ? What are the different types ?

Ans. : A transistor is a three lagged semi conductor device. Basically a transistor means
(transfer - resister).
Whether the transistor is pnp or npn it resembles two diodes (back to back). The one of the left
is called emitter diodes, and the one on the right is the collector diode. Since two types of
charges are involved transistor : are classified as bipolar devices.
Biasing the transistor :
Emitter - Base- Forward Bias.
Collector - Base - Reverse Bias.

Que. : What is CB, CE and CC contiguration ?

Ans. :
Buffer : A device or a circuit used to isolate two pt'ne circuits or slages. The emitter follows is a
example of buffer.
Alpha = IC / IE
Beta = IC / IB
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Que. : How will you test a transistor with a multimeter. ?
Ans. :
1. Emitter +ve of meter and Base -ve output = Low resistance
2. Emitter -ve of meter and base +ve output = High resistance.
3. Collector +ve and Base -ve output = Low.
4. Collector -ve and base +ve output = High.
Emitter : Collector = High Resistance.
PNP : Opposite Results.

Que. : What is a thyristor ? What are its uses ?

Ans. : A thristor is a special kind of semi conductor device that uses internal feedback to
produce latching action.
Use : Used for controlling large amounts of load power in motors, heaters, lighting systems etc.
Explanation : Because of the unusual connection we have a +ve feedback also called
regeneration. A change in current at any point in the loop is amplified and returned to the
starting point with the same phase. For instance if the 02 base current increases, the 02
collector current increases. This force base current through 01. In turn this produces a large 01
collector current which drives the 02 base harder. This build up in currents will continue until
both transistors are driven in satoration. In this case the latch acts like a closed switch.

On the other hand , if something causes the 02 base current to decrease, the 02 collector current
will decrease. This reduces the 01 base current. In turn, there is less 01 collector current, which
reduces the 01 base current even more. This regeneration continues until both transistors are
driven into cut off. At this time the latchacts like a open switch. This latch will always stay in
open or close position.

Que. : What are logic gates ? Explain with truth table.

Ans. :
GATE : A gate is a logic circuit with one output and one or more inputs . An output signal
occurs only for control conbination of input signals.

1. OR - GATE :

SYMBOL :
TRUTH A B Y
TABLE :
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
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Defin : An OR Gate has one output if any or all of its input are 1's.

2. AND GATE :

Defin : An AND Gate has output when all inputs are present.

SYMBOL :
TRUTH A B Y
TABLE :
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

3. NOT GATE :
A not gate is also known as an inverter. This circuit has one input and one out put . All it
does is invert the input signal; if the input is high, the output is low and vice versa.

TRUTH Input Output

TABLE :
0 1
1 0

Buffer : This is a non inverting gate, used to drive low impedance loads.

NOR GATE : This is an OR GATE followed by an inverter.

SYMBOL :

TRUTH A B Y
TABLE :
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
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 Exclusive OR A B Y
GATE
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NAND GATE : This is an AND GATE followed by an inverter.

TRUTH A B Y
TABLE :
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
.
Que. : Explain the working of TIL - NAND GATE.

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