Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 1

Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia

Կիլիկիոյ Հայկական Թագաւորութիւն
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia

← 1198–1375
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Flag Coat of arms

Capital Tarsus (First capital), Sis

Language(s) Armenian, Latin, French

Religion Armenian Apostolic Church

Government Monarchy

Historical era Middle Ages

- Levon I becomes the first King of Armenian Cilicia. January 6, 1198

- Sis is conquered by the Mamluks, putting an end to the kingdom. 1375

Although the kingdom was established on 1198, its foundations were laid in 1080 by Ruben I when the Rubenid principality of Cilicia was founded.

The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (Classical Armenian: Կիլիկիոյ Հայկական Թագաւորութիւն Kilikio
Haykakan Tagavorutyun),(French: Le Royaume Arménien de Cilicie), also known as the Kingdom of Cilician
Armenia or New Armenia,[1] was an independent principality formed during the High Middle Ages by Armenian
refugees fleeing the Seljuk invasion of Armenia.[2] Located outside of the Armenian Highland and distinct from the
Armenian Kingdom of Antiquity, it was centered in the Cilicia region northwest of the Gulf of Alexandretta, in what
is today southern Turkey.
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 2

The kingdom had its origins in the principality founded c. 1080 by the Rubenid dynasty, an alleged offshoot of the
larger Bagratid family, which at various times had held the thrones of Armenia and Georgia. Their capital was at
originally Tarsus, and later became Sis. Cilicia was a strong ally of the European Crusaders, and saw itself as a
bastion of Christendom in the East. It also served as a focus for Armenian nationalism and culture, since Armenia
proper was under foreign occupation at the time. Cilicia's significance in Armenian history and statehood is also
attested by the transfer of the seat of the Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church, spiritual leader of the
Armenian people, to the region. In 1198, with the crowning of Levon the Magnificent of the Rubenid dynasty,
Cilician Armenia became a kingdom.[3] [4] In 1226, the crown was passed to rival Het'umids through Queen Zabel's
second husband, He'tum I. As the Mongols conquered vast regions of Central Asia and the Middle East, Het'um and
succeeding Het'umid rulers sought to create an Armeno-Mongol alliance against common Muslim foes, most notably
the Mamluks.[4] In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Crusader states disintegrated and the Mongols became
islamized, leaving the Armenian Kingdom without any regional allies. After relentless attacks by the Mamluks in
Egypt in the fourteenth century, Cilician Armenia of the Lusignan dynasty, mired in an internal religious conflict,
finally fell in 1375.[5]
Commercial and military interactions with Europeans brought new Western influences to the Cilician Armenian
society. Many aspects of Western European life were adopted by the nobility including chivalry, fashions in
clothing, and the use of French titles, names, and language. Moreover, the organization of the Cilician society shifted
from its traditional system to become closer to Western feudalism.[6] The European Crusaders themselves borrowed
know-how, such as elements of Armenian castle-building and church architecture.[7] Cilician Armenia thrived
economically, with the port of Ayas serving as a center for East to West trade.[6]

Early Armenian migrations to Cilicia

Cilicia under Tigranes the Great

Armenian presence in Cilicia dates back to the first century BC, when under Tigranes the Great, the Kingdom of
Armenia expanded and conquered a vast region in the Levant. In 83 BC, the Greek aristocracy of Seleucid Syria,
weakened by a bloody civil war, offered their allegiance to the ambitious Armenian king.[8] Tigranes then conquered
Phoenicia and Cilicia, effectively ending the Seleucid Empire. The southern border of his domain reached as far as
Ptolemais (modern Acre). Many of the inhabitants of conquered cities were sent to the new metropolis of
Tigranakert (Latin: Tigranocerta). At its height, Tigranes' Armenian Empire extended from the Pontic Alps (in
modern north-eastern Turkey) to Mesopotamia, and from the Caspian to the Mediterranean. Tigranes invaded as far
south as the Parthian capital of Ecbatana, located in modern-day western Iran. In 27 BC, the Roman Empire
conquered Cilicia and transformed it into one of its eastern provinces.[9]
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 3

Mass Armenian migration under the Byzantine Empire

After the 395 AD partition of the Roman Empire into halves, Cilicia became incorporated into the Eastern Roman
Empire, also called the Byzantine Empire. In the sixth century AD, Armenian families relocated to Byzantine
territories. Many served in the Byzantine army as soldiers or as generals, and rose to prominent imperial
positions.[10]
Cilicia fell to Arab invasions in the seventh century
and was entirely incorporated into the Rashidun
Caliphate.[9] However, the Caliphate failed to gain
a permanent foothold in Anatolia, as Cilicia was
reconquered in the year 965 by Byzantine Emperor
Nicephorus II Phocas. The Caliphate's occupation
of Cilicia and of other areas in Asia Minor led
many Armenians to seek refuge and protection
further west in the Byzantine Empire, which
created demographic imbalances in the region.[9]
In order to better protect their eastern territories
after their reconquest, the Byzantines resorted
Situation in the Armenian Highland during the Seljuk Empire.
largely to a policy of mass transfer and relocation
of native populations within the Empire's
borders.[9] Nicephorus thus expelled the Muslims living in Cilicia, and encouraged Christians from Syria and
Armenia to settle in the region. Emperor Basil II (976-1025) tried to expand into Armenian Vaspurakan in the east
and Arab-held Syria towards the south. As a result of the Byzantine military campaigns, the Armenians spread into
Cappadocia, and eastward from Cilicia into the mountainous areas of northern Syria and Mesopotamia.[11]

The formal annexation of Greater Armenia to the Byzantine Empire in 1045 and its conquest by the Seljuk Turks 19
years later caused two new waves of Armenian migration to Cilicia.[11] The Armenians could not re-establish an
independent state in their native highland after the fall of Bagratid Armenia as it remained under foreign occupation.
Following its conquest in 1045, and in the midst of Byzantine efforts to further repopulate the Empire's east, the
Armenian immigration into Cilicia intensified and turned into a major socio-political movement.[9] The Armenians
came to serve the Byzantines as military officers or governors, and were given control of important cities on the
Byzantine Empire's eastern frontier. The Seljuks also played a significant role in the Armenian population movement
into Cilicia.[9] In 1064, the Seljuk Turks led by Alp Arslan made their advance towards Anatolia by capturing Ani in
Byzantine-held Armenia. Seven years later, they earned a decisive victory against Byzantium by defeating Emperor
Romanus IV Diogenes' army at Manzikert, north of Lake Van. Alp Arslan's successor, Malik-Shah I, further
expanded the Seljuk Empire and levied repressive taxes on the Armenian inhabitants. After Catholicos Gregory II
the Martyrophile's assistant and representative, Parsegh of Cilicia's solicitation, the Armenians obtained a partial
reprieve, but Malik's succeeding governors continued levying taxes.[9] This led the Armenians to seek refuge in
Byzantium and in Cilicia. Some Armenian leaders set themselves up as sovereign lords, while others remained, at
least in name, loyal to the Empire. The most successful of these early Armenian warlords was Philaretos
Brachamios, a former Byzantine general who was alongside Romanus Diogenes at Manzikert. Between 1078 and
1085, Philaretus built a principality stretching from Malatia in the north to Antioch in the south, and from Cilicia in
the west to Edessa in the east. He invited many Armenian nobles to settle in his territory, and gave them land and
castles.[10] But Philaretus's state began to crumble even before his death in 1090, and ultimately disintegrated into
local lordships.[12]
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 4

The Rubenid dynasty

Emergence of Cilician Armenia

One of the princes who came after Philaretos' invitation was Ruben, who had close ties with the last Bagratid
Armenian king, Gagik II. Ruben was alongside the Armenian ruler Gagik when he went to Constantinople upon the
Byzantine emperor's request. Instead of negotiating peace, however, the king was forced to cede his Armenian lands
and live in exile. Gagik was later assassinated by Greeks.[13] In 1080, soon after this assassination, Ruben organized
a band of Armenian troops and revolted against the Byzantine Empire.[14] He was joined by many other Armenian
lords and nobles. Thus, in 1080, the foundations of the independent Armenian princedom of Cilicia, and the future
kingdom, were laid under Ruben's leadership. His descendants were called Rubenids.[10] After Ruben's death in
1095, the Rubenid principality, centered around the fortresses of Bardzrberd and Vahka, was led by Ruben's son,
Constantine I of Armenia; however, there were several other Armenian principalities both inside and beyond Cilicia,
such as that of the Het'umids. This important Armenian dynasty was founded by the former Byzantine general Oshin,
and was centered in Lampron and Babaron at the southern end of the Cilician Gates.[12] The Het'umids have always
contended with the Rubenids for power and influence over Cilicia. Various Armenian lords and former generals of
Philaretos were also present in Marash, Malatia (Melitene), and Edessa, the latter two being located outside of
Cilicia.[12]

First Crusade
During the reign of Constantine I, the First Crusade took place. An
army of Western European Christians marched through Anatolia and
Cilicia on their way to Jerusalem. The Armenians in Cilicia gained
powerful allies among the Frankish Crusaders, whose leader,
Godfrey de Bouillon, was considered a savior for the Armenians.
Constantine saw the Crusaders' arrival as a one-time opportunity to
consolidate his rule of Cilicia by eliminating the remaining
Byzantine strongholds in the region.[14] With the Crusaders' help,
they secured Cilicia from the Byzantines and Turks, both by direct Baldwin of Boulogne receiving the homage of the
military actions in Cilicia and by establishing Crusader states in Armenians in Edessa.

Antioch, Edessa, and Tripoli.[15] The Armenians also helped the

Crusaders; as described by Pope Gregory XIII in his Ecclesia Romana:

Among the good deeds which the Armenian people has done towards the church and the Christian world, it
should especially be stressed that, in those times when the Christian princes and the warriors went to retake the
Holy Land, no people or nation, with the same enthusiasm, joy and faith came to their aid as the Armenians
did, who supplied the Crusaders with horses, provision and guidance. The Armenians assisted these warriors
with their utter courage and loyalty during the Holy wars.
To show their appreciation to their Armenian allies, the Crusaders honored Constantine with the titles of Comes and
Baron. The friendly relationship between the Armenians and Crusaders was cemented with intermarriages frequently
occurring between them. For instance, Joscelin I, Count of Edessa married the daughter of Constantine, and Baldwin,
brother of Godfrey, married Constantine's niece, daughter of his brother T'oros.[14] The Armenians and Crusaders
were part allies, part rivals for the two centuries to come.
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 5

Armenian-Byzantine and Armenian-Seljuk contentions

The son of Constantine was T'oros I, who succeeded him in around 1100. During his rule, he faced both Byzantines
and Seljuks, and expanded the Rubenid domain. He transferred the Cilician capital from Tarsus to Sis after having
eliminated the small Byzantine garrison stationed there.[12] In 1112, he took the castle of Cyzistra in order to avenge
the death of the last Bagratid Armenian king, Gagik II. The assassins of the latter, three Byzantine brothers who
governed the castle, were thus brutally killed.[14] [15] Eventually, there emerged a type of centralized government in
the area with the rise of the Rubenid princes. During the twelfth century, they were the closest thing to a ruling
dynasty, and wrestled with the Byzantines for power over the region.
Prince Levon I, T'oros' brother and successor, started his reign in 1129. He integrated the Cilician coastal cities to the
Armenian principality, thus consolidating Armenian commercial leadership in the region. During this period, there
was continued hostility between Cilician Armenia and the Seljuk Turks, as well as occasional bickering between
Armenians and the Principality of Antioch over forts located near southern Amanus.[14] In this context, in 1137, the
Byzantines under Emperor John II, who still considered Cilicia to be a Byzantine province, conquered most of the
towns and cities located on the Cilician plains.[14] [15] They captured and imprisoned Levon in Constantinople with
several other family members, including his sons Ruben and T'oros. Levon died in prison three years later.[15] Ruben
was blinded and killed while in prison, but Levon's second son and successor, T'oros II, escaped in 1141 and
returned to Cilicia to lead the struggle with the Byzantines.[14] Initially, he was successful in repelling Byzantine
invasions; but, in 1158, he paid homage to Emperor Manuel I through a short-lived treaty.[16] Around 1151, during
T'oros' rule, the head of the Armenian Church transferred his see to Hromkla.[11] Ruben II, Mleh, and Ruben III,
succeeded T'oros in 1169, 1170, and 1175, respectively.

Principality becomes a kingdom

Prince Levon II, one of Levon I's grandsons
and brother of Ruben III, acceded the throne
in 1187. He fought the rulers of Konya,
Aleppo, and Damascus, and added new
lands to Cilicia, doubling its Mediterranean
coast.[17] At the time, Saladin of Egypt
defeated the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which
led to the Third Crusade. Prince Levon II
profited from the situation by improving
relations with the Europeans. Cilician
Armenia's prominence in the region is
attested by letters sent in 1189 by Pope
Clement III to Levon and to Catholicos
Little Armenia and its surrounding states in 1200.
Gregory IV, in which he asks Armenian
military and financial assistance to the
crusaders.[4] Thanks to the support given to Levon by the Holy Roman Emperors (Frederick Barbarossa, and his son,
Henry VI), he elevated the princedom's status to a kingdom. On January 6, 1199, the day Armenians celebrate
Christmas, Prince Levon II was crowned with great solemnity in the cathedral of Tarsus, in the presence of the
Syrian Jacobite patriarch, the Greek metropolitan of Tarsus, and numerous church dignitaries and military leaders.
While he was crowned by the catholicos, Gregory VI Abirad, Levon received a banner with the insignia of a lion
from Archbishop Conrad of Mainz in the name of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor.[4] [18] By securing his crown, he
became the first King of Armenian Cilicia as King Levon I.[17] He became known as Levon the Magnificent, due to
his numerous contributions to Cilician Armenian statehood in the political, military, and economic spheres.
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 6

In 1219, after a failed tentative by Raymond-Roupen to claim the throne, Levon's daughter Zabel was proclaimed the
new ruler of Cilician Armenia and placed under the regency of Adam of Baghras. Baghras was assassinated and the
regency passed to Constantine of Baberon from the Het'umid dynasty, a very influential Armenian family.[5] In order
to fend off the Seljuk threat, Constantine sought an alliance with Bohemond IV of Antioch, and the marriage of
Bohemond's son Philip to Queen Zabel sealed this; however, Philip was too "Latin" for the Armenians' taste, as he
refused to abide by the precepts of the Armenian Church.[5] In 1224, Philip was imprisoned in Sis for stealing the
crown jewels of Armenia, and after several months of confinement, he was poisoned and killed. Zabel decided to
embrace a monastic life in the city of Seleucia, but she was later forced to marry Constantine's son Het'um in 1226.[5]
Het'um became co-ruler as King Het'um I.

The Het'umid dynasty

The apparent unification in marriage of the two main dynasties of Cilicia, Rubenid and Het'umid, ended a century of
dynastic and territorial rivalry, while bringing the Het'umids to the forefront of political dominance in Cilician
Armenia.[5] Although the accession of Het'um I in 1226 marked the beginning of Cilician Armenia's united dynastic
kingdom, the Armenians were confronted by many challenges from abroad. In order to enact revenge for his son's
death, Bohemond sought an alliance with Seljuk sultan Kayqubad I, who captured regions west of Seleucia. Het'um
also struck coins with his figure on one side, and with the name of the sultan on the other.[5]

Armeno-Mongol alliance and Mamluk threat

During the rule of Zabel and Het'um, the
Mongols under Genghis Khan and his
successor Ögedei Khan rapidly expanded
from Central Asia and reached the Middle
East, conquering Mesopotamia and Syria in
their advance towards Egypt.[5] On June 26,
1243, they secured a decisive victory at
Köse Dağ against the Seljuk Turks.[19] The
Mongol conquest was disastrous for Greater
Armenia, but not Cilicia, as Het'um
preemptively chose to cooperate with the Fortress of Korikos in Cilician Armenia built ca. the thirteenth century.
Mongols. He sent his brother Smbat to the
Mongol court of Karakorum in 1247 to negotiate an alliance.[a][b][c] He returned in 1250 with an agreement
guaranteeing the integrity of Cilicia, as well as the promise of Mongol aid to recapture forts seized by the Seljuks. In
1253, Het'um himself visited the new Mongol ruler Möngke Khan at Karakorum. He was received with great honors
and promised freedom from taxation of the Armenian churches and monasteries located in Mongol territory.[4] Both
during his trip to the Mongol court and in his 1256 return to Cilicia, he passed through Greater Armenia. On his
return voyage, he remained much longer, receiving visits from local princes, bishops, and abbots.[4] Het'um and his
forces fought under the Mongol banner of Hulagu in the conquest of Muslim Syria and the capture of Aleppo and
Damascus from 1259 to 1260.[20] According to Arab historians, during Hulagu's conquest of Aleppo, Het'um and his
forces were responsible for a massacre and arsons in the main mosque and in the neighboring quarters and souks.[19]
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 7

Meanwhile, the Egyptian Mamluks had been replacing their former

Ayyubid masters in Egypt. Originally, the Mamluks were a cavalry
corps established from Turkic and other slaves sold to the Egyptian
sultan by Genghis Khan.[21] They took control of Egypt and Palestine
in 1250 and 1253, respectively, and filled the vacuum caused by the
Mongol destruction of the pre-existing Ayyubid and Abbasid
governments.[19] Cilician Armenia also expanded and recovered lands
crossed by important trade routes on the Cappadocian, Mesopotamian,
and Syrian borders, including Marash and Behesni, which further made
the Armenian kingdom a potential Mamluk target.[19] Armenia also
engaged in an economic battle with the Mamluks for control of the
A Cilician Armenian cavalryman spice trade.[22] The Mamluk leader Baibars took the field in 1266 with
the intention of wiping out the Crusader states from the Middle
[21]
East. In the same year, he summoned Het'um I to change his allegiance from the Mongols to the Mamluks, and
remit to the Mamluks the territories and fortresses the Armenian king had acquired through his submission to the
Mongols. After these threats, Het'um went to the Mongol court of the Il-Khan in Persia to obtain military support,
but in his absence, the Mamluks invaded Cilician Armenia. Het'um's sons T'oros and Levon were left to defend the
country. During the Disaster of Mari, the Mamluks under Sultan Al-Mansur Ali and the commander Qalawun
defeated the Armenians, killing T'oros and capturing Levon along with tens of thousands of Armenian soldiers.
Het'um ransomed Levon for a high price, giving the Mamluks control of many fortresses and a large sum of money.
The 1268 Cilicia earthquake further devastated the country.

In 1269, Het'um I abdicated in favour of his son Levon II, who paid large annual tributes to the Mamluks. Even with
the tributes, the Mamluks continued to attack Cilicia every few years. In 1275, an army led by the emirs of the sultan
invaded the country without pretext and faced Armenians who had no means of resistance. The city of Tarsus was
taken, the royal palace and the church of Saint Sophia was burned, the state treasury was looted, 15,000 civilians
were killed, and 10,000 were taken captive to Egypt. Almost the entire population of Ayas, Armenian, and Frankish
perished.[21]

Truce with Mamluks (1281-1295)

In 1281, following the defeat of the
Mongols and the Armenians under Möngke
Temur by the Mamluks at the Second Battle
of Homs, a truce was forced on Armenia.
Further, in 1285, following a powerful
offensive push by Qalawun, the Armenians
had to sign a ten year truce under harsh
terms. The Armenians were obligated to
cede many fortresses to the Mamluks and
were prohibited to rebuild their defensive
fortifications. Cilician Armenia was forced
to trade with Egypt, thereby circumventing a
Little Armenia, a Christian exclave in Anatolia, and its surrounding states in 1300.
trade embargo imposed by the pope.
Moreover, the Mamluks were to receive an
annual tribute of one million dirhams from the Armenians.[23] The Mamluks, despite the above, continued to raid
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 8

Cilician Armenia on numerous occasions. In 1292, it was invaded by Al-Ashraf Khalil, the Mamluk sultan of Egypt,
who had conquered the remnants of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in Acre the year before. Hromkla was also sacked,
forcing the Catholicossate to move to Sis. Het'um was forced to abandon Behesni, Marash, and Tel Hamdoun to the
Turks. In 1293, he abdicated in favor of his brother T'oros III, and entered the monastery of Mamistra.

Campaigns with Mongols (1299-1303)

In the summer of 1299, Het'um I's grandson, King Het'um II, again
facing threats of attack by the Mamluks, asked the Mongol khan of
Persia, Ghâzân, for his support. In response, Ghâzân marched towards
Syria and invited the Franks of Cyprus (the King of Cyprus, the
Templars, the Hospitallers, and the Teutonic Knights), to join his
attack on the Mamluks. The Mongols took the city of Aleppo, where
they were joined by King Het'um. His forces included Templars and
Hospitallers from the kingdom of Armenia, who participated in the rest
of the offensive.[25] The combined force defeated the Mamluks in the
Ghazan ordering the King Of Armenia Het'um II Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar, on December 23, 1299.[25] The bulk of
to accompany Kutlushka on the 1303 attack on
[24] the Mongol army was then obligated to retreat. In their absence, the
Damascus.
Mamluks regrouped, and regained the area in May 1300.

In 1303, the Mongols tried to conquer Syria once again in larger numbers (approximately 80,000) along with the
Armenians, but they were defeated at Homs on March 30, 1303, and during the decisive Battle of Shaqhab, south of
Damascus, on April 21, 1303.[26] It is considered to be the last major Mongol invasion of Syria.[27] When Ghazan
died on May 10, 1304, all hope of reconquest of the Holy Land died in conjunction.
Het'um II abdicated in favour of his sixteen-year-old nephew Levon III and became a Franciscan monk; however, he
emerged from his monastic cell to help Levon defend Cilicia from a Mamluk army, which was thus defeated near
Baghras.[28] In 1307, both the current and former kings met with Bularghu, the Mongol representative in Cilicia, at
his camp just outside Anazarba. Bularghu, a recent convert to Islam, murdered the entire Armenian party.[29] Oshin,
brother of Het'um, immediately marched against Bularghu to retaliate and vanquished him, forcing him to leave
Cilicia. Bulargu was executed by Oljeitu for his crime at the request of the Armenians.[30] Oshin was crowned new
king of Cilician Armenia upon his return to Tarsus.[28]
The Het'umids continued ruling a decadent and unstable Cilicia until the assassination of Levon IV in 1341, at the
hands of an angry mob. Levon IV formed an alliance with the Kingdom of Cyprus, then ruled by the Frankish
Lusignan dynasty, but could not resist attacks from the Mamluks.[31]
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 9

Demise of Cilician Armenia

Decline and fall with the Lusignan dynasty

There had always been close relations between the Armenians and the
Lusignans, who, by the 12th century, were already established in the
eastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus. Had it not been for their
presence in Cyprus, the kingdom of Cilician Armenia may have, out of
necessity, established itself on the island.[32] In 1342, Levon's cousin
Guy de Lusignan, was anointed king as Constantine II, King of
Armenia. Guy de Lusignan and his younger brother John were
considered pro-Latin and deeply committed to the supremacy of the
Roman Catholic Church in the Levant. As kings, the Lusignans
Constantin III of Armenia on his throne with the
attempted to impose Catholicism and the European ways. The
Hospitallers. "Les chevaliers de
Armenian nobles largely accepted this, but the peasantry opposed the Saint-Jean-de-Jerusalem rétablissant la religion
changes, which eventually led to civil strife.[33] en Arménie", 1844 painting by Henri Delaborde.

From 1343 to 1344, a time when the Armenian population and its
feudal rulers refused to adapt to the new Lusignan leadership and its
policy of Latinizing the Armenian Church, Cilicia was again invaded
by the Mamluks, who were intent on territorial expansion.[5] Frequent
appeals for help and support were made by the Armenians to their
co-religionists in Europe, and the kingdom was also involved in
planning new crusades.[34] Amidst failed Armenian pleas for help from
Europe, the falls of Sis to the Mamluks in 1374 and the fortress of
Gaban in 1375, where King Levon V, his daughter Marie, and her
husband Shahan had taken refuge, put an end to the kingdom.[5] The
final king, Levon V, was granted safe passage, and died in exile in
Cilicia retained a substantial Armenian
Paris in 1393 after calling in vain for another crusade.[33] In 1396, population until the Armenian genocide.
Levon's title and privileges were transferred to James I, his cousin and
king of Cyprus. The title of King of Armenia was thus united with the titles of King of Cyprus and King of
Jerusalem.[35] The title was held to the modern day by the House of Savoy.

Dispersion of the Armenian population of Cilicia

Although the Mamluks had taken over Cilicia, they were unable to hold it. Turkic tribes settled there, leading to the
conquest of Cilicia led by Timur. As a result, 30,000 wealthy Armenians left Cilicia and settled in Cyprus, still ruled
by the Lusignan dynasty until 1489.[33] Many merchant families also fled westward and founded or joined with
existing diaspora communities in France, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, and Spain.[6] Only the humbler Armenians
remained in Cilicia. They nevertheless maintained their foothold in the region throughout Turkish rule.
In the fifteenth century, Cilicia fell under Ottoman dominion and officially became known as the Adana Vilayet.
Cilicia was one of the most important regions for the Ottoman Armenians, because it managed to preserve Armenian
character well throughout the years.[6] [36] In 1909, Cilician Armenians were subjected to a massacre in Adana, and
during World War I, they fell victim to a genocide.[36] Descendants of the remaining Cilician Armenians are
currently dispersed in the Armenian diaspora, and the Holy See of Cilicia is based in Antelias, Lebanon. The lion,
emblem of the Cilician Armenian state, remains a symbol of Armenian statehood to this day, featured on the Coat of
arms of Armenia.
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 10

Cilician Armenian society

Culture
Demographically, Cilician Armenia was heterogeneous with a
population of Armenians who constituted the ruling class, Greeks,
Jews, Muslims, and various Europeans.[37] The multi-ethnic
population, as well as commercial and political links with Europeans,
particularly France, brought important new influences on Armenian
culture.[37] The Cilician nobility adopted many aspects of Western
European life, including chivalry, fashion, and the use of French
Christian names. The structure of Cilician society became more
synonymous with Western feudalism than to the traditional nakharar
system of Armenia.[6] In fact, during the Cilician period, Western titles
such as baron and constable replaced their Armenian equivalents
nakharar and sparapet.[6] [37] European tradition was adopted for the
knighting of Armenian nobles, while jousts and tournaments similar to
those in Europe had become popular in Cilician Armenia. The extent
An illuminated manuscript of John the Apostle by
of Western influence over Cilician Armenia is also reflected by the
Toros Roslin completed in 1268.
incorporation of two new letters (Ֆ ֆ = "f" and Օ օ = "o") and various
Latin-based words into the Armenian language.[37]

In other areas, there was more hostility to the new Western trends. Above all, most ordinary Armenians frowned on
conversion to Roman Catholicism or Greek Orthodoxy. Cultural influence was not merely one-way, however;
Cilician Armenians had an important impact on Crusaders returning to the West, most notably with their
architectural traditions. Europeans incorporated elements of Armenian castle-building, learned from Armenian
masons in the Crusader states, as well as some elements of church architecture.[7] Most Armenian castles made
atypical usage of rocky heights, and featured curved walls and round towers, similar to those of the Hospitaller
castles Krak des Chevaliers and Marqab.[38] The Cilician period also produced some important examples of
Armenian art, notably the illuminated manuscripts of Toros Roslin, who was at work in Hromkla in the thirteenth
century.[6]

Economy
Throughout the years, Cilician Armenia had become a prosperous state due
to its strategic position on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. It was
located at the juncture of many trade routes linking Central Asia and the
Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. The kingdom was thus important in
spice trade, among other goods such as livestock, hides, wool, and cotton.
Other important resources such as timber, grain, wine, raisins, and raw silk
were also exported from the country.[6]

During the reign of King Levon, the economy of Cilician Armenia

progressed greatly and became heavily integrated with Western Europe. He
secured agreements with Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, as well as the French
and the Catalans, and granted them certain privileges such as tax Coin of the Cilician Armenian kingdom, ca.
1080-1375.
exemptions in return for their business. In Ayas, Tarsus, Adana, and
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 11

Mamistra, important European merchant communities and colonies came into existence, with their own churches,
courts of law, and trading houses.[6] [39] As French became the secondary language of Cilician nobility, the
secondary language for Cilician commerce had become Italian due to the three Italian city-states' extensive
involvement in Cilician economy.[6] Ayas, a major coastal city of the kingdom, had revitalized as a heart for
East-to-West commerce during and after King Levon I's reign. This coastal city was a port and a market center,
where spices, silk, cotton cloth, carpets and pearls from Asia, and finished cloth and metal products from the West
were made available.[6] Marco Polo, for example, set out on his journey to China from Ayas in 1271.[39]
In the thirteenth century, under the rule of Toros, Cilician Armenia already struck its own coins. Gold and silver
coins, called dram and tagvorin, were struck at the royal mints of Sis and Tarsus. All foreign coins such as the Italian
ducat, florin, and zecchino, the Greek besant, the Arab dirham, and the French livre were also accepted by
merchants.[6]

Religion
The Catholicosate of the Armenian Apostolic Church
followed its people in taking refuge outside of the Armenian
highlands, which had turned into a battleground of Byzantine
and Seljuk contenders. Its seat was first transferred to Sivas
in 1058 in Cappadocia, where had existed a significant
Armenian population. Later, it moved to various locations in
Cilicia; Tavbloor in 1062; Dzamendav in 1066; Dzovk in
1116; and Hromkla in 1149. During King Levon I's rule, the
Catholicos was located in distant Hromkla. He was assisted
by fourteen bishops in administering the Armenian Church in
the kingdom, a number which grew in later years. The
archbishops' seats were located in Tarsus, Sis, Anazarba,
Lambron, and Mamistra. There existed up to sixty monastic
houses in Cilicia, although the exact locations of the majority
of them remain unclear.[6]

In 1198, the Catholicos of Sis, Grigor VI Apirat, proclaimed

a union between the Armenian Church and the Roman
Catholic Church; however, this had no notable effect, as the
local clergy and populace was strongly opposed to such a
union. The Western Church sent numerous missions to
The St. Gregory the Illuminator Armenian Cathedral at the Cilician Armenia to help with rapprochement, but had
Holy See of Cilicia in Antelias, Lebanon. limited results. The Franciscans were put in charge of this
activity. John of Monte Corvino himself arrived in Cilician
Armenia in 1288.[40]

Het'um II became a Franciscan monk after his abdication. The Armenian historian Nerses Balients was a Franciscan
and an advocate of union with the Latin Church. The papal claim of primacy did not contribute positively to the
efforts for unity between the Churches.[41] Mkhitar Skewratsi, the Armenian delegate at the council in Acre in 1261,
summed the Armenian frustration in these words:
Whence does the Church of Rome derive the power to pass judgment on the other Apostolic sees while she
herself is not subject to their judgments? We ourselves [the Armenians] have indeed the authority to bring you
[the Catholic Church] to trial, following the example of the Apostles, and you have no right to deny our
competency.[41]
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 12

After the sacking of Hromkla by the Mamluks in 1293, the Catholicosate was transferred to Sis, the capital of the
Cilician Kingdom. Again, in 1441, long after the fall of the kingdom, the Armenian Catholicos of Sis, Grigor IX
Musabekiants, proclaimed the union of the Armenian and Latin churches at the Council of Florence; this was
countered by an Armenian schism under Kirakos I Virapetsi, who moved the See of the Catholicos to Echmiadzin,
and marginalized Sis.[42]

Notes
a
•  Claude Mutafian in Le Royaume Arménien de Cilicie, p. 55, describes "the Mongol alliance" entered into by the
king of Armenia and the Franks of Antioch ("the King of Armenia decided to engage into the Mongol alliance, an
intelligence that the Latin barons lacked, except for Antioch"), and "the Franco-Mongol collaboration."
b
•   Claude Lebedel in Les Croisades describes the alliance of the Franks of Antioch and Tripoli with the Mongols:
(in 1260) "the Frank barons refused an alliance with the Mongols, except for the Armenians and the Prince of
Antioch and Tripoli".
c
•   Amin Maalouf in The Crusades through Arab eyes is extensive and specific on the alliance (page numbers refer
to the French edition): “The Armenians, in the person of their king Hetoum, sided with the Mongols, as well as
Prince Bohemond, his son-in-law. The Franks of Acre however adopted a position of neutrality favourable to the
muslims” (p. 261), “Bohemond of Antioch and Hethoum of Armenia, principal allies of the Mongols” (p. 265),
“Hulagu (…) still had enough strength to prevent the punishment of his allies [Bohemond and Hethoum]”
(p. 267).

References
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Internet Archive. . Retrieved June 22, 2010. "1080 A.D. Rhupen, cousin of the Bagratonian kings, sets up on Mount Taurus (over looking the
Mediterranean Sea) the kingdom of New Armenia which lasts 300 years."
[2] Der Nersessian, Sirarpie. " The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?type=article&
did=HISTORY. CRUSTWO. I0032& id=History. CrusTwo& isize=M)." in A History of the Crusades, vol. II. Kenneth M. Setton (ed.)
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962, pp. 630-631.
[3] (Armenian) Kurdoghlian, Mihran (1996). Պատմութիւն Հայոց (History of Armenia), Volume II. Athens: Հրատարակութիւն ազգային
ուսումնակաան խորհուրդի (Council of National Education Publishing). pp. 43–44.
[4] Der Nersessian. "The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia", pp. 645-653.
[5] Ghazarian, Jacob G. (2000). The Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades: The Integration of Cilician Armenians with the Latins
(1080-1393). Routledge. pp. 54–55. ISBN 0700714189.
[6] Bournoutian, Ani Atamian. "Cilician Armenia" in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume I: The Dynastic Periods:
From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997, pp. 283-290. ISBN
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[7] "Cilician Kingdom" (http:/ / www. globeweeklynews. com/ cilician_kingdom. htm). Globe Weekly News. . Retrieved 2009-12-28.
[8] "King Tigran II - The Great" (http:/ / www. hyeetch. nareg. com. au/ armenians/ prominent_p5. html). Hye Etch. . Retrieved 2007-01-17.
[9] Ghazarian, Jacob G. (2000). The Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades: The Integration of Cilician Armenians with the Latins
(1080-1393). Routledge. pp. 39–42. ISBN 0700714189.
[10] Dédéyan, Gérard (2008). "The Founding and the Coalescence of the Rubenian Principality, 1073-1129". In Hovannisian, Richard G.;
Payaslian, Simon. Armenian Cilicia. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series 8. United States: Mazda Publishers. pp. 79–83.
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[11] Donal Stewart, Angus (2001). The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and Diplomacy During the Reigns of Het'um II (1289-1307).
Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 33–34. ISBN 0928-5520.
[12] Runciman, Steven (1951). A History of the Crusades, Vol. I: The First Crusade and the Foundations of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 195–201. ISBN 0-5213-5997-X.
[13] Kurkdjian, Vahan (1958). "Chapter XXV: Magnificence to be soon followed by Calamity" (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/
Gazetteer/ Places/ Asia/ Armenia/ _Texts/ KURARM/ 25*. html). History of Armenia. United States of America: Armenian General
Benevolent Union of America. p. 202. .
[14] Kurkdjian, Vahan (1958). "Chapter XXVII: The Barony of Cilician Armenia" (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Gazetteer/
Places/ Asia/ Armenia/ _Texts/ KURARM/ 27*. html). History of Armenia. United States of America: Armenian General Benevolent Union
of America. pp. 213–226. .
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 13

[15] (Armenian) Kurdoghlian, Mihran (1996). Պատմութիւն Հայոց (History of Armenia), Volume II. Athens: Հրատարակութիւն
ազգային ուսումնակաան խորհուրդի (Council of National Education Publishing). pp. 33–36.
[16] Ghazarian, Jacob G. (2000). The Armenian Kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades: The Integration of Cilician Armenians with the Latins
(1080-1393). Routledge. pp. 118–120. ISBN 0700714189.
[17] (Armenian) Kurdoghlian, Mihran (1996). Պատմութիւն Հայոց (History of Armenia), Volume II. Athens: Հրատարակութիւն
ազգային ուսումնակաան խորհուրդի (Council of National Education Publishing). pp. 42–44.
[18] Nickerson Hardwicke, Mary. The Crusader States, 1192–1243.
[19] Donal Stewart, Angus (2001). The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks: War and Diplomacy During the Reigns of Het'um II (1289-1307).
Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 43–46. ISBN 0928-5520.
[20] "The king of Armenia and the Prince of Antioch went to the military camp of the Tatars, and they all went off to take Damascus". Le
Templier de Tyr. Quoted in Rene Grousset, Histoire des Croisade, III, p. 586.
[21] Kurkdjian, Vahan (1958). "Chapter XXX: The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia — Mongol Invasion" (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/
Thayer/ E/ Gazetteer/ Places/ Asia/ Armenia/ _Texts/ KURARM/ 30*. html). History of Armenia. United States of America: Armenian
General Benevolent Union of America. pp. 246–248. .
[22] Luscombe, David; W. Hazard, Harry (2004). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: c. 1024-c. 1198. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. p. 634. ISBN 0521414113.
[23] (French) Luisetto, Frédéric (2007). Arméniens et autres Chrétiens d'Orient sous la domination mongole. Geuthner. pp. 128–129.
ISBN 9782705337919.
[24] (French) Mutafian, Claude (2002). Le Royaume Arménien de Cilicie, XIIe-XIVe siècle. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series.
France: CNRS Editions. pp. 74–75. ISBN 2271051053.
[25] Demurger, Alain (2005). The Last Templar: The Tragedy of Jacques de Molay, Last Grand Master of the Temple. London: Profile Books.
p. 93. ISBN 1-8619-7529-5.
[26] Demurger, Alain (2005). The Last Templar: The Tragedy of Jacques de Molay, Last Grand Master of the Temple. London: Profile Books.
p. 109. ISBN 1-8619-7529-5.
[27] Nicolle, David (2001). The Crusades. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. p. 80. ISBN 1-8417-6179-6.
[28] Kurkdjian, Vahan (1958). "Chapter XXX: The Kingdom of Cilician Armenia — Mongol Invasion" (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/
Thayer/ E/ Gazetteer/ Places/ Asia/ Armenia/ _Texts/ KURARM/ 30*. html). History of Armenia. United States of America: Armenian
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[29] Angus, Stewart, "The assassination of King Het'um II". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 2005 pp. 45-61.
[30] (French) Recueil des Historiens des Croisades, Documents Armeniens I, p.664 (http:/ / visualiseur. bnf. fr/
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[31] (French) Mahé, Annie; Mahé, Jean-Pierre (2005). L'Arménie à l'épreuve des Siècles. France: Découvertes Gallimard. p. 77.
ISBN 207031409X.
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(1080-1393). Routledge. p. 150. ISBN 0700714189.
[33] (Armenian) Kurdoghlian, Mihran (1996). Պատմութիւն Հայոց (History of Armenia), Volume II. Athens: Հրատարակութիւն
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ISBN 207031409X.
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 14

Further reading
• (Armenian) Poghosyan, S.; Katvalyan, M.; Grigoryan, G. et al. «Կիլիկյան Հայաստան» (Cilician Armenia)
Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. vol. v. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1979, pp. 406–428.
• Boase, T. S. R. (1978). The Cilician Kingdom of Armenia. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press.
ISBN 0-7073-0145-9.
• Ghazarian, Jacob G. (2000). The Armenian kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades. Routledge. p. 256.
ISBN 0700714189.
• Hovannisian, Richard G. and Simon Payaslian (eds.) Armenian Cilicia. UCLA Armenian History and Culture
Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 7. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2008.
• Luisetto, Frédéric (2007). Arméniens et autres Chrétiens d'Orient sous la domination Mongole. Geuthner. p. 262.
ISBN 9782705337919.
• Mahé, Jean-Pierre. L'Arménie à l'épreuve des siècles, Découvertes Gallimard, 2005, ISBN 9782070314096

External links
• Cilician Armenian Coins (http://www.paroiancollection.com)
• "Giligia" song with lyrics (http://www.yerkaran.org/giligia/)
Article Sources and Contributors 15

Article Sources and Contributors

Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=427660599  Contributors: 52 Pickup, ASALA7.08.1982, Adam Bishop, Aivazovsky, Alex Middleton,
Altzinn, Angusmclellan, Aram-van, Aram33, Aramgar, Artaxiad, Auntof6, Awwiki, Behemoth, Bellatores, BerndGehrmann, Bill Thayer, Bobo192, Brianboulton, Brianga, CALR,
Caeruleancentaur, Catalographer, Cemsentin1, CharlesMartel, Choess, Choster, Chris the speller, Closeapple, CommonsDelinker, Cplakidas, D6, Dane 1981, Davo88, Dbachmann, Dbpackers,
Denizz, Dikran2, DougsTech, Downwards, Ecostar2005, Edward, El C, Elonka, Ericleb01, Eupator, Fedayee, Folantin, Franco aq, G.-M. Cupertino, Ghepeu, Gidonb, Gilgamesh, Greenshed,
Hardscarf, Hasam, Havard, HayasaArmen, Hetoum I, Heyheyheyhohoho, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Iridescent, Isomorphic, JaGa, Jedravent, Jeff5102, John Vandenberg, Kansas Bear,
Kbdank71, Kentronhayastan, Khoikhoi, Kintetsubuffalo, KnightRider, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Macrakis, Makalp, Manougian, MarshallBagramyan, Mattis, Menikure, Meowy, Mike J B, Mill
cleaner, Mywood, Nedim Ardoğa, Odejea, Ohconfucius, Olahus, Orange Tuesday, Paroian, PaulWalter, Per Honor et Gloria, Pulu-Pughi, RafaAzevedo, Remuel, Rich Farmbrough, Richardprins,
Rovoam, Rrostrom, Ryulong, SJK, Saguamundi, Santetjan, Santosga, Sardanaphalus, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Sfan00 IMG, Shauni, Static Universe, Stijn Calle, Suannassau, Sémhur,
TA-ME, The Anome, Tigranyan77, TimBentley, Tiptoety, TreasuryTag, Vartan84, VartanM, VirtualDelight, Volker89, Vonones, Wavelength, Wetman, White Cat, William Allen Simpson,
William Avery, Xenophon777, Zannah, Zarniwoot, Zigger, Zntrip, Zscout370, 73 anonymous edits

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