UNIT 1.

THE FRAGMENTATION OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

At the beginning of the Middle Ages, there were three great civilisations occupying the lands of
the ancient Roman Empire.
The Eastern Empire, Byzantium, survived, and after the fallo f Rome, the imperial insignia were
sent to Constantinople.
In the west, many Germanic kingfoms were established that eventually adopted Roman
traditions and the Christian religión. This was the beginning of feudal Europe.
Finally, a new religión called Islam appeared in Arabia in the 7th century and spread throghout
the south of the Mediterranean, the Iberian Peninsula and the Middle East.

1. WHAT HAPPENED TO THE ANCIENT ROMAN EMPIRE?

The Germanic invasions of the 5th century destroyed the already weak Roman Empire, which
had been divided into Eastern and western halves in 395. The fallo f Rome (476) marks the end
of Ancient History and the begginging of the Middle Ages.
Moreover, the Islamic civilisations that emerged in the 7th century put and to the cultural,
economic and political unity of the Roman era. Three great civilisations now shared the
territory of the Roman Empire.

THE END OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE

In the early 5th century, a nomadic Asian people called the Huns invaded Eastern Europe led
by their ruler Attila.
The Germanic peoples fled from the Huns to the Western Roman Empire and ended up
conquering and controlling the territory.
Various rival Germanic kingdoms began to form from the end of the 5th century:
- The Ostrogoths occupied Italy and Dalmatia.
- The Visigoths expanded from the south of Gaul to Hispania.
- The Franks established themselves in Gaul and conquered territories from other
kingdooms.
- The Burgundians occupied Eastern Gaul.
- The Alemanni settled on the Rhine.
- The Angles and Saxons invaded Britain.

THE BIRTH OF THE GERMANIC KINGDOMS

The Germanic way of life was very different from the Roman.
The Germanic peoples had no formal writing, laws or state structure. They worked the land
and raised livestock.
The Germanic peoples lived in family tribes. Their military leader, who also acted as King, was
initially elected by the chieftains of each tribe, but later the position became hereditary. When
the Germanic tribes occupied the territory, they imposed their military power and traditions,
but also adopted some Rome customs.
The kings surrounded themselves with Roman counsellors, used Roman monet and respected
the privileges of important landwners.
Latín continued to be the oficial language and Christianity prevailed.
Germanic customs.
They choose their kings base don nobility, and their chieftains for their bravery. The kings do
not have absolute or perpetual power (…).
The Germanic tribes do not live in closed cities (…). They make a drink from barley and wheat,
which is similar to wine. Their food is simple: apples, fresh venison and curdled milk.
THE EASTERN EMPIRE AND THE INVASION OF ISLAM
While the Western Empire succumbed to the Germanic tribes and became an agrarian
subsistence economy, the Eastern Roman Empire maintained its wealth and resisted invasión.
From the 6th century, the Eastern Roman empire, also called Byzantium (the Greek name for
its capital Constantinople), was Hellenised: the Greek language and Eastern political and
cultural practices were adopted.
In the 7th century, many territories formerly governed by Rome were taken over by followers
of Islam, a new religión from Arabia.
This monotheistic religión invited its believers to fight a holy was to expand the new faith.
Through military conquest, Islam extended into the former Roman Empire.

2. A GERMANIC KINGDOM: THE VISIGOTHS IN HISPANIA

THE FORMATION OF THE VISIGOTHIC KINGDOM OF TOLEDO

From 415, the Visigoths pushed the Vandals and Alans into North Africa and the Suebi into
present-day Galicia. In the middle of the 5th century, they settled in sourthern Gaul, where
they formed the Kingdom of Tolosa.
Later, the Franks, who came from the north of Gaul, defeated the Visigoths (Battle of Vouillé,
507) and drove organised a kingdom that survived foro ver two hundred years with its capital
in Toledo (554).

THE ORGANISATION OF THE GERMANIC KINGDOM

The Visigoths were a minority (about 150.000 of a population of six million) but held mosto f
the land and, along with the great Hispano-Roman landowners, formed the aristocratic and
privileged social group.
The Visigothic monarchy established a kingdom base don:
 A strong monarchy. Theoretically elected but often hereditary, the monarch relied on
institutions, such as the Aula Regia (advisory body of nobles and clergy) and the Councils of
Toledo (religious and civil assemblies), where laws were made.
 Control of the entire Peninsula. They expelled the Suebi (585), conquered Byzantine
territories in southern Spain (572-623) and stopped the advance of the Franks in the north.
 The legal and religious unification of the Visigoths and Hispano-Romans. King Liuvigild
rerealed the law banning mixed marriages, Reccared achieved religious unity by converting
to Catholicism (587) and, Recceswinth established a single law for the kingdom, the Liber
ludiciorum (654).
However, internal divisions between the nobles in the early 8th century allowed a Muslim
army to defeat the last Visigothic King (Roderic) and conquer most of the Iberian Peninsula
(711).

VISIGOTHIC ART AND CULTURE

Over two hundred years, a cultural fusión took place between the Hispano-Romans and the
Visigoths.
The role of the Christian clergy was very important in this process. They knew how to read and
write and where great conservers of Roman culture. St. Leander and St. Isidore of Sevilla are
examples of clergy who were also intellectuals in Visigothic Hispania.
The importance of the Church and the fusion of Roman tracition with Germanic influences is
also reflected in art and architecture. Many small churches were built. Stone blocks, marble,
columns and reliefs from the Roman era were used in the construction of these churches.
 Metal and gold work was also important, and influenced by Germanic tastes and techniques.
3. VALERIO BECOMES A PEASANT

VALERIO LEAVES THE CITY

Valerio has always lived and worked as a Shoemaker in the city, but life has become
increasingly difficult. Attacks by Germanic tribes have made travel by sea nad land very
dangerous. There is les trade now and many people come to Valerio´s workshop.
The city has been in decline since trade and industry slowed down. Many people have left the
urban centres for safer places to live.
Valerio has deciden to seek a better life in the countryside, working the land of a Visigothic
noble or a wealthy Hispano-Roman landowner.
THE PROTECTION OF THE LORD
Like most of the population, Valerio has decided t olive in the countryside and work a plot of
land, so that his family Will have food toe at.
Only wealthy landowners have fortified houses and armed soldiers to protect them.
Valerio, who does not own, and other peasnts who do, agree to entrust themselves to a lord
who Will protect them in return. In this way, many European peasant become serfs.
RURALISATION: LIFE IN THE VILLAGE
Valerio´s family´s life has changed completely. They now life in the countryside where they
have to work all day. There is no free time or entertainment like the circus of termal baths.
Their life is not easy. The men and women in Valerio´s village work hard: the look after their
homes, work the land and raise livestock to obtain food. They produce almost everything that
they consume, which means they are self-sufficient.

4. BYZANTIUM, THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST

THE AGE OF JUSTINIAN

At the height of its Golden age, the Byzantine Empire was ruled by Justinian I (527-565), who
aimed to restore the Roman Empire.
He conquered some of the western provinces that had been lost (the Dalmation Coast, Italy,
the Balearic Islands, parto f North Africa and the south of Hispania).
Justinian held considerable political, military and religious power and compliled the Justinian
Code, a collection of Roman laws.
THE EASTERNISATION OF THE EMPIRE
Between the 7th and 8th centuries, Byzantium lost a large pasto f its Justinian conqueste. The
Empire retreated to its easterns zone and was Hellenised: Greed became the oficial language.
In the 9th and 10 th centuries, it managed to regain parto f the territory it had lost and the
economy strengthened. This new period was know as the secong Golden age of Byzantium.
The emperor (basileus in Greek) enjoyed absolute power and was considered the head of the
Roman world and also of Christianity. However, there were many differences between the
churches and religious ceremonies of the east (Orthodox) and the west (Catholicism). Most
importantly, it was the emperor rather tan te Pope who had authority over the Byzantine
Church.
THE DECLINE OF BYZANTIUM
From the 11th century, Byzantium´s prosperity started to decline, and the Empire slowly fell
apart as a resulto f the constant attacks by the Turks, who finallu conquered Constantinople in
1453.
5. THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE
Charlemagne´s empire was the last attempt to rebuild the unit of the Roman Empire.

THE FRANKISH KINGDOM

The Frankish Kingdom was very large, covering present-day France (Gaul) and territories in
Italy, Swizerland, Germany, Belgium and Holland.
In the early 7th century, a Frankish nobleman called Charles Martel successfully stopped
Muslims from Al-Andalus from invading France, defeating them near Poiters in 732.
His son Pepin the Younger became King of the Franks and founded the Carolinngian dynasty.
Later, Pepin´s son and successor Charles the Great (Charlemagne) reunited mosto f the Wstern
Roman Empire.

CHARLEMAGNE, THE EMPEROR

Charlemagne conquered a large pasrt of western Europe, stopped the advance of Islam and
secured borders in the entire territory. He made everyone convert to Christianity and
strengthened the union between political and religious power, forcing the bishops of each
región to declare their loyalty to him.
In 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperar of the Romans by Pope Leo III. He set up his court
in Aachen and supported the Carolingian Renaissance.

THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE

Charlemagne ordered the construction of a palace to be his oficial residence in Aachen, which
became the centre of imperial power.
To restore the splendour of the Roman Empire, Charlemagne began a cultural revival. He
established schools, brought back the teaching of Latin, and monks copied the Works of Greco-
Latin writers.

6. HOW DID CHARLEMAGNE GOVERN HIS EMPIRE?

To manage such a vast empire and keed order in his terriotories, Charlemagne had to devise a
new way of governing. In a world with limited circulation of money and difficult
comuunications, the solution was to give land to the nobles to administer on his behalf.

ORGANISSING AND ADMINISTERING THE EMPIRE

Charlemagne divided the territory of the Empire into around 250 countries. At the head of
each one, he appointed a count, a trusted landowner, warrior or personal friend.
To defended the border áreas, Charlemagne established the marcas led by a military
commander, a marquis.
He also established a corps of royal commissioners, missi dominici, to enforcé the laws and
control the counts and marquis.
These posts were not inherited or even guaranteed for life. If a noble lost the trust of the
emperor, he could be removed from office. Furthermore, his descendants may not inherit the
post.
Charlemagne met his counts, marquis and clergy in court to discuss government affairs.
 COUNT: charged with administering justice, collected taxes, recruting soldiers and
protecting the people.
 CAPITULARIES: agreed laws that were written and preserved.
 MARQUIS: exerciced his authority over the counties in his marca.
 MISSI DOMINICI (meaning “envoy”): commissioners who inspected the counts and
marquis.
A SYSTEM BASED ON PERSONAL LOYALTY
Charlemagne devised a system of goverment base don a chain of personal relationshhips base
on the principles of loyalty and protection (see unit 3).
Charlemagne protected the nobles, he granted them lands and the right to govern them; they
became his vassals and swore loyalty to him, promising him respect and military aid.
In turn, these nobles (counts and marquis) received an oath of allegiance from lesser vassals,
and gave them lands and protection in return.
TOWARDS A FEUDAL EUROPE
When Charlemagne died, the Crown passed to his son, Louis the Pious (814 -840). On Louis
´death, his teritories were shared between his three sons: Lothair, Louis and Charles. Lothair,
as the first-born, also received the title of emperor and tried to impose his authority.
Louis the German and Charles the Bald rebelled against their brother. They defeated him and
forced him to sign the Treaty of Verdun (843), after which independent kingdoms began to
form.
A wave of invasions by Muslims, Vikings, etc. From the 9th century caused terror and
insecurity among the population. The invasions were very difficult to contain because there
was no longer a central power strong enough to withstand them. The population could only be
protected by local lords (see unit 3).
As a result, the system of government was transformed. The count became practically
independent, and the power of the monarchs became more theorical. This was the beggining
of feudalism in Europe.

7. THE EMERGENCE OF ISLAM

ARABIA, MUHAMMAD´S LAND

The Arabian Peninsula is predominantly desert, and in the 6th century mosto f its inhabitants
lived in travelling groups called caravans. They used camels to trasport godos from the east
towards the Mediterranean. There were also nomadic herders and farmers who lived by oases.
Mecca, the birthplace of Muhammad, was a large city with a population of more than 10.000.
it was a crossroad for caravans and was governed by a council of powerful merchant families,
including Muhammad´s family.
The people of Arabia wew polytheist, and Mecca was an important religious centre. The Kaaba,
the famous black Stone housed in the temple in Mecca, Drew pilgrims to the city from all over
the Peninsula.
MUHAMMAD, THE PROPHET
Muhammad Ibn Abdullah was born in 570. His parent died when he was very Young and he
raised by his uncle, a rich merchant. He took Muhammad on trading journeys, where he came
into contact with Christians and Jews. Muhammad married a rich widow and had seven
children.
Muhammad often went to meditate in a cave on Mount Hira. Here, according to the Koran, the
ángel Gabriel appeared to him and announced that he was the new prophet chosen by Allah
(“God” in Arabic) to preach a new monetheist religión: Islam.
His teachings had few followers and the authorities persecuted him because of his ideas. In
622, Muhammad fled to the city of Medina. This event is called the Hijra (“flight” in Arabic) and
marks the begining of the Islamic calendar.
The prophet converted the people of Medina to the new religión and, with their help, attacked
Mecca and destroyed their idols. Many Arabian tribes converted to Islam from 630 onwards
and were united under the autority of Medina. Muhammad died in 632. By this time, most
Arabs were Muslims and the Arabian Peninsula has been politically unified.

WHAT IS ISLAM?
The teaching of Muhammad were collected in the Koran, the holy book form Muslims, which is
made up of 114 chapters called surahs. It contains the Islamic creed and defines religious
obligations.
It also dictates codes of behaviour; it allows polygamy, defines the authority of the father in
the family and prohibits eating pork and gambling. All Muslims should spread their faith, and
those who die fighting in a holy war are given immediate entry to Paradise.
Imams are Islamic leaders who lead worship, and ulamas are scholars who interpret the Koran.

The pillars of Islam.

There are five basic, mandatory acts of Islam:
1. A declaration of faith: “There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet”.
2. Praying five times between sunrise and sunset, facing Mecca. This can be done
anywhere, alone or in a group and without a leader of worship. The call to prayer from
the mosque on Friday, the day of rest, is especially importante.
3. Giving to charity to show your gratitude to Allah for all he has give.
4. Fasting during the monsth of Ramadan.
5. Pilgrimage to Mecca once in your life for those who have the means to do so.

A mosque
The mosque is a place of worship, study of the Koran and a meeting place for Muslims.
 Minarete: tower used for the call to prayer.
 Fountain: this is used to perform ablutions (ritual purification) before prater.
 Prayer hall: the hall is divided into naves held up by pillars that fase the quibla
 Mihrad: niche in the quibla wall.
 Quibla: wall facing Mecca
 Mimbar: pulpit where the iman delivers sermons.

SOME IMPORTANT THINGS

The pillars of Islam. There are five basic, mandatory acts of Islam:
1. A declaration of faith: “There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet”.
2. Praying five times between sunrise and sunset, facing Mecca. This can be done anywhere, alone or
in a group and without a leader of worship. The call to prayer from the mosque on Friday, the day of
rest, is especially importante.
3. Giving to charity to show your gratitude to Allah for all he has give.
4. Fasting during the monsth of Ramadan.
5. Pilgrimage to Mecca once in your life for those who have the means to do so.

A mosque: is a place of worship, study of the Koran and a meeting place for Muslims.
 Minarete: tower used for the call to prayer.
 Fountain: this is used to perform ablutions (ritual purification) before prater.
 Prayer hall: the hall is divided into naves held up by pillars that fase the quibla
 Mihrad: niche in the quibla wall.
 Quibla: wall facing Mecca
 Mimbar: pulpit where the iman delivers sermons

Various rival Germanic kingdoms began to form from the end of the 5th century:
- The Ostrogoths occupied Italy and Dalmatia.
- The Visigoths expanded from the south of Gaul to Hispania.
- The Franks established themselves in Gaul and conquered territories from other kingdooms.
- The Burgundians occupied Eastern Gaul.
- The Alemanni settled on the Rhine.
- The Angles and Saxons invaded Britain.

HUNS: In the early 5th century, a nomadic Asian people called the Huns invaded Eastern Europe led by
their ruler Attila.
FAMILY TRIBES: The Germanic peoples lived in family tribes. Their military leader, who also acted as
King, was initially elected by the chieftains of each tribe, but later the position became hereditary. When
the Germanic tribes occupied the territory, they imposed their military power and traditions, but also
adopted some Rome customs
LATIN: continued to be the oficial language in Germanic Kingdoms and CHRISTIANITY prevailed.
EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE: While the Western Empire succumbed to the Germanic tribes and
became an agrarian subsistence economy, the Eastern Roman Empire maintained its wealth
and resisted invasion
BYZANTIUM: The Eastern Roman empire (the Greek name for its capital Constantinople).
ISLAM: a new religión from Arabia.
TOLEDO: From 415, the Visigoths pushed the Vandals and Alans into North Africa and the Suebi into
present-day Galicia. In the middle of the 5th century, they settled in sourthern Gaul, where they formed
the Kingdom of Tolosa.
Later, the Franks, who came from the north of Gaul, defeated the Visigoths (Battle of Vouillé, 507) and
drove organised a kingdom that survived foro ver two hundred years with its capital in Toledo (554).
THE ORGANISATION OF THE GERMANIC KINGDOM: A strong monarchy, Control of the entire Peninsula
and The legal and religious unification of the Visigoths and Hispano-Romans.
STRONG MONARCHY: Visigothic monarchy, Theoretically elected but often hereditary, the monarch
relied on institutions, such as the Aula Regia and the Councils Of Toledo, where laws were made.
AULA REGIA: advisory body of nobles and clergy)
COUNCILS OF TOLEDO: religious and civil assemblies.
LIBER LUCIORUM: a single law for the kingdom Visigoth, established by Recceswinth.
MUSLIM ARMY: internal divisions between the nobles in the early 8th century allowed a Muslim army
to defeat the last Visigothic King (Roderic) and conquer most of the Iberian Peninsula (711).
CULTURAL FUSION: Over two hundred years, a cultural fusión took place between the Hispano-Romans
and the Visigoths. The role of the Christian clergy was very important in this process.
SERFS: Like most of the population, Valerio has decided t olive in the countryside and work a plot of
land, so that his family Will have food to eat. Only wealthy landowners have fortified houses and armed
soldiers to protect them. Valerio, who does not own, and other peasnts who do, agree to entrust
themselves to a lord who Will protect them in return. In this way, many European peasant become serfs.
SELF-SUFFICIENT: They produce almost everything that they consume,
JUSTINIAN CODE: collection of Roman laws. Justinian held considerable political, military and religious
power and compliled the Justinian Code,
SECOND GOLDEN AGE OF BYZANTIUM: In the 9th and 10 th centuries, it managed to regain parto f the
territory it had lost and the economy strengthened.
CHARLES MARTEL: In the early 7th century, a Frankish nobleman called Charles Martel successfully
stopped Muslims from Al-Andalus from invading France, defeating them near Poiters in 732.
CHRISTIANITY: Charlemagne conquered a large pasrt of western Europe, stopped the advance of Islam
and secured borders in the entire territory. He made everyone convert to Christianity and strengthened
the union between political and religious power, forcing the bishops of each región to declare their
loyalty to him.
EMPEROR: In 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperar of the Romans by Pope Leo III. He set up his
court in Aachen and supported the Carolingian Renaissance
COUNT: charged with administering justice, collected taxes, recruting soldiers and protecting the
people.
Charlemagne divided the territory of the Empire into around 250 countries. At the head of each one, he
appointed a count, a trusted landowner, warrior or personal friend.
CAPITULARIES: agreed laws that were written and preserved.
MARQUIS: exerciced his authority over the counties in his marca.
To defended the border áreas, Charlemagne established the marcas led by a military commander, a
marquis.
MISSI DOMINICI (meaning “envoy”): commissioners who inspected the counts and marquis
He also established a corps of royal commissioners, missi dominici, to enforcé the laws and control the
counts and marquis.
CHARLEMAGNE devised a system of goverment base don a chain of personal relationships base on the
principles of loyalty and protection.
Charlemagne protected the nobles, he granted them lands and the right to govern them; they became
his vassals and swore loyalty to him, promising him respect and military aid.
In turn, these nobles (counts and marquis) received an oath of allegiance from lesser vassals, and gave
them lands and protection in return.
LOTHAIR, LOUIS and CHARLES: When Charlemagne died, the Crown passed to his son, Louis the Pious
(814 -840). On Louis´death, his teritories were shared between his three sons: Lothair, Louis and Charles.
Lothair, as the first-born, also received the title of emperor and tried to impose his authority.
Louis the German and Charles the Bald rebelled against their brother.
TREATY OF VERDUN: Louis the German and Charles the Bald rebelled against their brother. They
defeated him and forced him to sign the Treaty of Verdun (843), after which independent kingdoms
began to form.
FEUDALISM: The count became practically independent, and the power of the monarchs became more
theorical. This was the beggining of feudalism in Europe.
MECCA: the birthplace of Muhammad, was a large city with a population of more than 10.000. it was a
crossroad for caravans and was governed by a council of powerful merchant families, including
Muhammad´s family.
NEW PROPHET: Muhammad Ibn Abdullah was born in 570. His parent died when he was very Young and
he raised by his uncle, a rich merchant. He took Muhammad on trading journeys, where he came into
contact with Christians and Jews. Muhammad married a rich widow and had seven children.
Muhammad often went to meditate in a cave on Mount Hira. Here, according to the Koran, the ángel
Gabriel appeared to him and announced that he was the new prophet chosen by Allah (“God” in Arabic)
to preach a new monetheist religión: Islam.
HIJRA: “flight” in Arabic, and marks the begining of the Islamic calendar.
KORAN: The teaching of Muhammad were collected in the Koran, the holy book form Muslims, which is
made up of 114 chapters called surahs. It contains the Islamic creed and defines religious obligations.
CODES OF BEHAVIOUR: it allows polygamy, defines the authority of the father in the family and
prohibits eating pork and gambling. All Muslims should spread their faith, and those who die fighting in a
holy war are given immediate entry to Paradise.
IMANS: are Islamic leaders who lead worship ULAMAS: are scholars who interpret the Koran