COM UTE NET: Internetworking

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r a n s fe m e d ū o m o n e n o d e to a n o th e r n o d e v ia
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fa c ility o f r e s o u r c e s h a r in g R e s o u r c e s h a n n g
w ith th e s h a rin g o f r e s o u rc e s (
s u c h a s p n n te
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a m o n g v a r io u s n o e s o r c lie n t o f a c o m p u te r n e D
e s h 1o p o lo g y (fıg u r e
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2)
4) M e s h T o p o lo g y In a m
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ith e a c h o th e r v ia n e tw o r k w h e re n e tw o r k p ro v id e s s u b s titu te s o u
th e c o m p u te r ç a r
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d a n t c o n n e c tio n s su ppı y F o r e x a n ıp le , a c lie n t c a n d u p lic a te
n i u te r to a iro th e r o n [w o o r m o re ih a n tw o n o d e s in a n e tw o rk s o
d ta d e liv e ry fr o m o n e o pc
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6 ) In y O n C o m p u te r
n e tw o r k t
a c m (w w w a c m o r8 ) a n d h e te e e o r lp u t
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o c e s c a n be han dl w o
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l li n e ]î o r
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h T h m a jo r P r o b le m i
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a s e d n e tw o k w o r ld a n d its u s e is g r o w in g r a p id ly
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en no o ne
h (c lie n t) c a n
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o r th e s e c u ń t ti p e r s o n c h a t
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te x t a n p ic tu r e s A m u ı
b a c k u p s a n e a lw a y s ta k e n b e c a u s e c r h is o n e in w h ic h a g ro u p o f p e o p le c a n ty p e
as ın a y r e s u lt in ro om
th e lo s s o f d y s a n d e v e n in m o n th o f ti e s s a g e s fo r a ll to s e e
m e a n d d a ta m
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n
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ą n u n a u th o r iz e d re o n
e m p lo y c a n a c c e s s c la s s iñ e d innnation it s s ib le s e le c t a n m o v ie
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im p 】 e m e n ta t io n o f s e c u r it is n e c te le v is io n d e , in c o u n tr y
y e s s a ry p ro g ra m ev er m a an y ,
an d h av e it d is p la y e d on y o u r s c re e n in s ta n tly
3) ï T iv a c y P t iv a c y is a b ĵ g is s u e in n e tw o ŕ k F o r e x a m le
p ,
o n e c a n (Ľ k e y o u r b o s s ) r e a d iv ) E le c tr o n ic C o m m e r c e T h e fo u n h c a te g o l y ıs
y o u r p r iv a te m a ils b y
c h a n g in g s o m e p r iv ile g e s e ttin e le c tr o n ic c o m m e r c e H o m e s h o p p in g is a h e a d y
g in th e n e tw o k r
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O r th e s e c a ta lo g s w ill s o o n p r o v id e th e a b ility to g e t
W h a t a r e th e m a in a p p lic a tio n s o f n e tw or k? an in s ta n t v id e o on an y p ro d u c t b y ju s t c lic ld n g

o n th e p ro d u c t' s n am e
A ns U se s o f N e tw
k s /A p p lic a tio n s o f N e tw o r k
or
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th e r a r e a
p a ce
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g
So m e c o m m o n a p p ı ic a tio n s a re a s b e lo w M a n y p e o p le a lr e a d y p a y th e ir b iı
\s M a n a g e tııe ir .
ı) B lıs in e s s A p p lic a tio n s M a n y c o m p a n ie s h a v e a b a n k a c c o ū n ts , a n d h a n d le th e i, in v e s tm e n ts

b s ta n tia l ber f E e le c tr o n ic a lly
su n um o com pu te r s o r exam pı
e, a
co m pan y m ay have se p a r a te c o Įn p u te r s to m o n ito r 3) M b ile U
o se rs M o b ile c o m p u te r s , s u c h a s n o te b o o k
p r o d u c tio n , k e e p tra c k o f in v e n to r ie s , an d do th e co m d p e rs o n a l d ig ita l a s s is ta n ts (P D A s ) w a iıt
p u te r s a n
p a y ro ll In itia lly e a c h o f th e s e ,
co m p u te r s m ay ha v e to b e c o n n e c te d to th e ir o ffic e o r h o m e e v e n w h e n
w o rk e d in is o la tio n fr o m th e o th e rs , b u t a t s o m e p o in t ħo m h o m e o r e n t o u te S in c e h a v in g
, aw ay a d
m a n a ge m e n t m a y h a v e d e c id e d to c o n n e c t th e m to b e c o n n e c tio n is im p o s s ib le in c a r s a n d a ir la n e s th e r e is
p ,
a b le to ex tr a c t a n d c o n e la te in fo r m a tio n a b o u t th e a lo t o f in te re s t in w ire le s s tıe tw o r k s
e n tıre c o m pan y
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t s e c u r e r e a e a n g p e r o r m a n c e
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p r o to c o f
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t c o s a n
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c o m m u n ic a tio n p a r tie s o n h o w
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p r o c e e d A ñ v e la y e r n e tw o r s u s r a e n
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Internet P r o to c o l a ls o s u p p o r ts
ls tik e A R 】 ?
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a d ja c e n t la e rs th e re is a n
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, e d e fin e s
s e r v ic e s th a t tł w hic h o p e r a tio n s a n d
ıe lo w e r la o typ e s o f e r ro r c o n tr o l
it A lis t o f r o y e r o fĺ e rs to u p p e r la y e r th ro u g h 3) E rro r C on tr o l T w
p ta c o ı s u se d b
y c e r ta in s y s te m o n e p ro to c o l d e te c tin g co de
i) E rr o r
p e r la y e r is c a u e d a de
p ro to c o l s ta c k ・ ii) E r r o r c o rr e c tin g co
Q u es 1 3 ) E x p la in th e l 4) Sequ e n c in O rde r o f th e P a c k e ts /F ra m e s Itlu

a y e r e d a r c h ite c t g
u r e o f c o m p u te r be r
n e tw o r k A ls o d i
s c u ss th e d e s i e n su re d by im p le m en t se qu e n ce num m
g n is s u e s fo r M e la y e rs b e r is n ee d e d fo
fr a m e s S e q u e n c e nu m r e rr o '
"n
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e c tu r e o f C o m
D e c o m p o s itio n o f th p u te r N e h v o r k
e o rg a n iz a tio n i K e e p fa s t s e n d e r
n to o ffİ c e s a n d e a c h 5) F lo w C o n tr o l H o w to
o f[ic e in to M e ra r c h ic a l fu n c ti
in te ra c tio n
o n a ı le v e ls and th e s w a p p in g a s lo w r e c e v e w th d a ta A g r e e m e n t u o
i i
p r o c e d u r e s d e fin e th e o v e r a ]] o a n iz a tio n p n
a r c h ite c tu r e qg tr a n s m is s io n r a te
p a c k e t S iz e A p a c k e t s iz e is to b e s p e c ifi
s ta ııd a r d
A c o m p u te r n e tw is s io n
o rk is a ls o p a r titio n e d in to e d
n s y s te m s
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co m
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p ro c e s s is d e c o m p o s e d in to h ie ra r c h ic a l
fu n c tio n a l la y e r s (fı u r e 1 12 )
g
7) M u ıtip le )đn g M u l[ip ı e x in g is u s e d in th e
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la y e r M u ı tip le x in g is n e e d e d w h e n a s in le
g m e d ia o r
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8) L aw s T he c o m m u n ic a ū o n /tr a n is s io n
sm c an be o
L a ye r N + ı tw o ty p e s (o n th e b a s is o f la w an d a u th o ń ty )
i) L e a s e d L in e D y n a m ic ro u tin g s tr a te g y
ji) D e d ic a te d L in e S ta tic ro u tin g s tr a te g y
Ea m æ In te r fa c e 9) R ou tin g S tr a te g y R o u tin g o f th e p a c k e t fo m ıs o u
rce
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i) S ta tic R o u tin
g In th is s tr a te
g y r o u te s
p r e d e fin e d A v ir tu a l c ir c u it i
s e s ta b lis h e d be fo
s e n d in g fr a m e s
a n d th e fr a
m e c o n ta in s V ir t
C ir c u it N u m b e r V
L a ye r N ( C N ) in its fra Jn e
ii) D y n a m ic R
o u ti彆 (D a t
F ig u r e l 1 2 L a y e r e d c h o o se
a gr a n ı ) W n ic h ro u t
a n d w h ic h
n o t are base d o n
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g y e a c h p a c k e t c a n ta k
J u s t lik e o w n c o u rs e [
m ffic e e a c h la y e r h a s a d is tin c t id e tit
an o o r e a c h th e
n y an d d e s tin a tio n
a s p e c ific s e t o f fu n c tio n s a s s ig n e d to it E a c h la
ye r h a s an Q u e s 14 ) W h a t a r e th e
a c tiv e e le m e n t a p ie c e o f h a r d w a re a d v a n ta e s
o r s o ftw a r e w h ic h g o fı
a y e r in g ?
cam es o u t th e la y e r fu n c tio n s Jt is c lıd
a e ı
a y e r e n tity A n s A d v a n ta
g e s o f L a y e r in
I) It d iv id e s h g
r e fe r e ce m o d e l is t e n e tw o r k
a c o n c e p tu a l b lu e p rin t o f h o ų co m m u n ic a tio n
sm a ıle r a n d s im l pr
co m u n ic a t ľo n s h o u ld ta k ė p la c e It a d d r e s e s a lıU re p er cqm
p o n e q ts , th ı
p ro c e s s e s ļre d ・
re c ū v e co m m u n ı
caton a nd 2 ) It
d e t th e s p ło c e s a llo w s
n to le d m u ltip le v e d
o g ic i g ro u p J lg s ca n or d e v e lo
S ta n d a r diz a tio n o f n e tw p Ħe iıt
o rk c o m
p Q n e n ts
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n pu
w (ıd o d u le 1)
e n c o u ra g
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b y d e Ħn in
fu n c tio n s o c c u r a t e a c h l g 5) It p te v c n ts c h a n g e s
rv h a
t a y e r o f U re m
o deı
ll s v a r io u s t p e s 1日y e rs . s o it d o e s n o t
Il il o w y o f n e tw o r k h a r d
w a te
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and
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Q u es O
v ic æ
r
r e tb e
d iH eren t M )e s o f s e r v ic e s ?
wbat a
te r fa c e s a n d S e * v ic e s
A n s In
e s s p ro v id e s a c o m n o n te c h n i u e f
w ie pro c q o r th e la
y e r to c o m m u n ic a te w h o th e r T he s t4ı d a rd te tın in o lo g y u sed
e d n e tw o r k s to re q u e s t s e r v ic e s is ro i ith eac n
fo r ı
a ye r
p v ded
h lig u re
ı1 3 th e la y e rs (N + n N , an d (N 1) a r e ;n v o lv e d in th e c o m m u n i a t i o n p r o c e s s fo r ı
a ye r c o m m u n ic a tio n ,
w ith
ea c h
oth e r
IC Ţ
F ig u re 1 ı3 C o m m u n ic a tio n b e tw een L a y e rs
p o llo w in g c o m p o n e n ts a r e in v o lv e d a n d th e ir fu n c tio n is a s fo llo w s

1) S D U T r a n s fe r u se r d a ta b y la y e r (N + l ) [o la y e r N a n d (N l)
2) P C I T o p e r fo rm s e r v ic e fu nc ūo n ,
it is u se d to ex c h a n g e in fo r m a đo n b y p e e r e n titie s a t d iffe r e n t s ıte s o n th e n e tw o r k
3) P D U C om b in a tio n o f th e S D U and PC I
4 ) IC I It p a s s e s te m p o r a l y p a ra m e te r b e tw e e n N a n d N l to in v o k e s e r v ic e fu nc ūon
ID U T h e to ta l u n it o f in fo rm a tio n tra n s fe r r e d a c r o s s th e la y e r b o u n d a ń e s
W n e n th e ID U fr o m la y e r N + 1 p a s s e s to la y e r N ,
it b e c o n ae s th e S D U to th a t la y e r P C I is a d d e d to S D U a t la y e r N IC I
p e rfo m a s its fu n c tio n a n d is d is c a r d e d
A n o th e r IC I is a d d e d to P D U a t ¡
aye N an d it b e c o m es ID U to la y e r N 1 T hu s a fu ll p r o to co lu n it is p a s s e d th r o u g h e a c lı
la ye r
m ch ıa y e r a d d s h e a d e r to d a ta T h is h e a d e r is u s e d b y th e p e e r la y e r en tity a t a n o th e r n o d e o f th e n e tw o r k to in v o k e
fu n c tio n T h is ro c e s s r e e a ts its e lf th ro u g h e a c h la y e r
p p
n s e a c h u n it tra v e r s e s th r o u h th e la e r it h Ŕ a h e a d e r
y , a d de d to it, i e u se r d a ta an d h e a d e r (S D U an d p C 1) T h İ s fu ı
l
g ,
Pro to c o l Ŕ ta u n it is p a s s e d o n to th e c o m m u n ic a tio q p a th , w h e r e it m r iv e s a t th e r e c e iv in g s ite

\
In sh o n e a h l d p a s s e s to its n e x t la y e r T h is la y e r p ro c e s s
a y e r a d d e d its h e a d e r to u s e r s d a ta a n
'
c o n th a t d a ta an d a dds ts
ow n h e a d e r a n d r o v id e s to lıe x t la y e r fo r p r o c e s s n g T h r o u g h tr a n s m is s io n c h a n n e l d a ta p a s s e s to
i r e c e iv in g s ite
p
Ħg n r e 1 M s h o w s th e c o m m u n ic a tio n b e tw e e n tw o s ite s in a n e tw o r k
,
IZ N c tw m k ! (T P S O lų
C o m p u te r
ı N + 1 L aye r
r
1 D a ta
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re 1 14 C o m m u n ic a tio n b e tw een t Ħu a
T yp es f S e r v ic e s
o
iv ) A m e s sa ge can b e in te r c e p te d b y a th ird p a rt
H
a n d p a s s e d o n to th e i n t
ı
e n vo p ń m a r y ry p e s o f s e r v ic e s w h ic h a re m a d e co p ie d or lo g g e d ,
a v a b l e b y a p a r tic u la r n e tw o r k l
a y e r a n d w h ic h a c tu a lly r e c e iv e r
a r e a ls o u s e fu l c la s s ific a tio
n s fo r m a n
y n o n te r h n ic a ıty p e s
o f s e r v ic e in d u s m e s a r e k n o w b a s ic a lly im p o s s ib le
n a s c o n n e c tio n o r ie d d n te an T hese o p e r a tio n s a re ti
c o n n e c tio n le s s c o m m u n ic a tio n
'
n n e c tio n o ń e n te d s e r v ic e
l) C o n ııe c tio n O r ie n te d S e r v ic e s G iv e n
T
v a lid in p u t
p a r a m e te r s , th e s e r v ic e 1 6 ) W h a t a r e th e s e r v ic e p r im itiv e s ?
Q u es
i) E s ta b lis h e s th e c o n n e c tio n
A llo w s m e to u tiliz e th e c o n n ecū o n ,
A S e r v ic e P r im itiv e
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, o f tħe o v e r a ll c o m m u n ic a tio n s u b s y s te m It o p e ra te s
w h ic h is c o n c e r n e d w ith th e p r o to c o ls a n d s ta n d a r d s
a c c o r d in g to a d e fin e d p r o to c o l b y e x c h a n g in g m e s s a g e s
r e la tin g to th e d if fe r e n t ty p e s o f u n d e r ly in g d a ta
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co m m u n ic a t io n n e tw o r k s
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P P D U P r e s e n ta tio n P r o to c o l D a ta U n it
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T PD U T r a n s p o rt P r o to c o lD a ta U n it
Th e d iffe r e n t la y e r s o f th e O S I r e fe r e n c e a r e a s b e Į o w
l) A p p lic a tio n L a y e r T h e a p p Jic a tio n la y e r s e r v e s a s a w in d o w fo r u s e rs a n d a p p lic a tio n p r o c e s s e s to a c c e s s n e t
u r c e a llo c a tio n e tc N ris la y e r is n o t a n applica
s e r v ic e s Rt h a n d le s is s u e s s u c h a s n e tw o r k tra n s p a re n c y re s o ,
its e lf a lth o u g h s o m e a p p lic a tio n s m a y p e rfo m i a p p lic a tio n la y e r fu n c tio n s T h is la y e r p r o v id e s n e tw o r k s e r v ic e s to

li ti s a re M a il, F T P T e ln e t D N S , M S N F S
e n d u s e r s E x a m p le s o f n e tw o r k a p p c a o n ,
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ii) F ile A c c e s s,
iii) D ir e c to r y S e r v ic e s P r o v id e s a c c e s s to g lo b a l in fo r m a tio n a n d d a ta b a s e so u rc e s
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i a n d o u tg o in g d a ta fr o m o n e p r e s e n ta tio
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p s s e m b le th e m
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a th e p a c k e ts w ill b e s e n i u s in
g a s in g le p a th o r n o t
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a n d o th e r fa c to r s T h e n e tw o r k la e r i ,
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6) D a ta L in k L a y er T h e d a ta lin k la y e r js r e s o
p n s ib le fo r e a o r ħe e tr a n s fe r o f d a ta fra m es T h is la y e r p r o v id e s
s y n c h ro n iz a t io n r th e p h y s ic a l le v e l D a ta L in k la
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T h e IE R F Ethernet D a ta L in k h y e r w o r k s w ith tw o s u b l
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ii) M e d ia A c c e ss C o n tr o l (M A C ) 80 2 3 M A C is lin k b e tw th e L L C
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ll) A r b itr a « o n A r b itr a tio n s im p ly m e a n s d e te rm in in g h o w 1o ne g o tia te a c ć e s s to a s in g le d a ta ch an n e l w hen

m u ltip le h o s ts a r e a tte m
p tin g [o u s e it a t th e s a m e tim e
ü i) P h s ic a l A d đr e s s jn
y g P h y s ic a l a d d æ s s in g is d iffe r e n t fr o m n e tw o r k a d d r e s s in g N e tw o r k a d d e s
r s e s d ift
b e tw e e n n o d e s o r d e v ic e s î n a n e tw o r k a llo w in g tr iıffic [o b e r o u te d o r
s w itc h e d th r o u h th
,
g e n e tw o r k
fo ī m o f p h y s ic a l a d d r e s s in is th e īn e d ia a c c e s s c o n u o ı(M A C a d d .
g ) re $ s
o c c u rrE
d du n n g Th e (
E r ro l D e te c e rr o rs
tio n E rr o r d e te c tio n is th e ro cess o f d n te c tin g w h e th e r
p
th a t's iť s s e n t [o th e P h y s iţ a l l3
p la c e d in to th fr a m e b e fo re
e D a ta L in k tra ile r th a ť s a dded [o th e m e s s a g e
) E th o d o f d e s ig n ill
v n ca psu ı a ,tï o n a tio n
js a m e g
D L L id e n tifie s e n c a s u la te d d a m
p E n c a psu ł o rk a re a b s tr a c te d f
e n e tv
co m Jn u n ic a ti ł
t h ro
o n
p r o to c o ls in w h ic h lo g ic a lly s e p a r a te fu n c tio n s in
e v e ıo j
u n d e r ly in s b e s c t
g tr u c tu re s b i l he r ı
y n c u s io n o r in fo n n a tio n h id in g w ith in h ig
7) P h y s ic a ıL a i n e t, th ic k n e L u n s hie ld e d 1
y e r p h y s ic a t l
a y e r d e fin e s th e c a b le o r p ħy s ic n ım e d iu m its e
lf e g Th n
P a ir s (u T P
) A ll m e d ia a m f lie n c e a n d c o s t o f instalı a
u n c tio n a lly e q u iv a le n t T h e m a in d iffe re n c e
is in e o n v e i
m a in te n a n c e e p h y s ic a
l la y e r is r e s p o n sió
C o n v e r te r s f M is le v e l T h j
ro m o n e m e d ia to a n o th e r o p e r a te a t
P a c k a g in g a n d tr a n th e b it s tr e a m th r o u g h th e n e tw o ıìi
s m iu jn s
e le c ◆ c a l a n d g d a ta o n th e p h y s ic a ım e d ia T h is la y e r c o n v e y
m ech a n ic a l le v e l
Ŕ n c tı
o n s o f P h y s ic a l L
ayer
i) L in e C o n tig u r a tio be c o n n e c te
d p h y s ic a lly
D fi d e v ic e s c an
n e n e s th e w a y in w h ic h tw o o r m o re
ii) D a ta T 山e n e tw o r k
ra n sm is s io n D e fin e s th e is s io n d e b e tw e e n th e tw o d e v ic e s o n
tra n s m m o
iii) T o p o lo g y D e [e r m irıe s th e w a y in w h ic h th e n e tw o r k d e v ic e s a re a r r a n ge d
i ) S ig n a ı
s D tio n
e te n n jn e s th e t e
yp o f s ig n a l th a i is u se d fo r tr a n s m ittin g in fo r m a
Q u es 1 9 ) W h a t is T c M p /Ip r e te r e n c e m o d e l?
r e fe r e n c e m o deı
? w hata re a yers o f T c I
th e d i« e r e n t ı
a n s l l@ p a p r e fe m
ren ce o del
A s th e n u m be r o f n e tw o r k s th a t w
e r e c o n n e c te d to th e
g th e c o m p u te r s b
A R pA n e t jn c r e a s e d c o m i n u n ic a tio n a m on
P ro b le m C o m m o n s tiu r d a r d s w e r f tw a r e th a t w e r e u s e d w e d th e so
q u ir e d e re fo r c o m m u n ic a tio n b e c a u s e th e h a r d w a r e a n
ïe
v e n do r s
p e c ific A c o m m o n p r o to c o l w a s n e c e s s a r fo r c o u tm u n ic a tio n b e tw e e n th e c o m p u te r s T h is le d to th e c r e a tio n o l
T C P a n d IP W i山山 y
e in c r e a s e in l w e r e c r e a te d to a d d r e s s a ll ı
th e n u m b e r o f r e q u ir e m e n ts s e v e r a l p r o to c o s h
r e q u ir e m e n ts T h i P /IP r e fe r e n c e m o d e ı T h e T C Ï w
s a ls o le d to th e c r e a tio n o f a n e w f
r e e re n c e m o d e l c a ı
1 e d th e T C
c o n s is ts o f fo u r la
y e r si A p p lic a tio n , T r a n s p o r t Internet a n d N e tw o r k In te r fa c e a s s h o w n in fıg w e 1 1 8
T C P /ï P R e fe r e n c e M o de l
O SIM o de l
p
A p p lic a tio
re s e n ta t io n
n
11 A p p ļ ic a tio n
s e s s io n
T
T " T r a n s p o rt
ra n s po rt
N e tw o r k ïn te n \e t
D a ta ı
in k N e tw o r k
p h y s ic a l In te r fa c e
F ig u re 1 18 T C P FIP R e fe r e n c e M o d e ıis u S ı a n d a rd
R e fe r e n c e M o d e ıfo r C o m m u n ic a tio n In th e ın te r n e ı
A ll p r o to co ls th a t b e lo n g T C P /IP p ro to c o l s u ite a r e Į o c a te d in th e to p th re e la y e r s o f th e m o d e l T h e T C
to th e
re k re n c e m o d e l is b a s e d o f p r o to c o ı
on a s u ite
s in w hic h e a c h p r o to c o l s o lv e s a p a r tic u ı a r n e tw o r k c o m m u m c
p r o b le m T h e T C P /IP m o d e ıc a n b e u s e d in a h e te ro g e n e o u s e n v iro n m e n t th a t h a s e q u ip m e n t fr o m m a n y d iffe r e n t v e n d i

A s s h o w n in fig u r e 1 1 9 la y e r o f T C P /1P M o d e l c o r re s p o n d s to o n e o r m o r e la y e r s o f th e s e v e n la y e r O e iıS
p y
In te r c o n n e c tio n (O S I) r e fe r e n c e m o d e l p r o p o s e d b y th e In te m a tio n a 】S ta n d a r d s O r g a n iz a tio n (IS O )
了C ĦJP \
T C PN P P r ïo c o Į S u ı
p ıo
A pp lic a tio n
La ye r
巨石ニコ仁
百万コı ・・。 1叵三コ巨石コ仁石コ郫
ı
nıe r fa c e
La ye r
F Ig u re 1 19
o》er N Ðh v o tx a n a 《 e tċ r e
n ce M o d e ls (加权心u le 1
e oa Þ )
t la y e r s o f T c P /】 P m o d e ls a r e iv
diffe r e n g e n b e lo w
ille k A c c e s s L
N e tw o r a y e r T h e n e tw o r k a c c
I) fo r d e liv e r in g d a ta b e tw e e n tw o d i
e s s la
y e r is r e s o ib h
a ild ev ces p n s le fo r e x c h a n g in g d a ta b e 【w e e n a o s t
o n t h e lo c a l o n th e s a m h i l a d d s s a r e u se
d e liv y r s e
e r netwo e n e tw o r k N o d e p y s c a e
f
F u n c tio n s p e r o rm e d a t th is le v e l in c lu d e e n
o l ) in to th e fr a m e s tr a
c a p su l
a tio n o f Ip d a t r a m (i e th e p a c k e t fo r m a t defined b y
w t o c n s m itte d b
y th e n e tw o r k
ag
b U ie n e tw o r k , a n d th e m a p p in g o f
w a d d re s s e s in to th e p h y s ic a l a
u se d y
T C P /IP n e tw o r k a c c e s s la y e r c a n e n c o m a s de ı
p s th e ti n n c ū o n o f a ll th re e ı o w e r la y e r s o f ? e o s
1 re fe re n c e m o
(N e ttv o rk L a y e r D a ta L in k L a y e r , a n d p h y s ic a l L a
,
ye r )
h te r n e t L a y e r T h e internet ayer is r e
2) s p o n s ib le f w o rk o n th e in te m e tw o rk
g s o u rc e p a c k e ts fr o m a n y n e
o r s e n d in 【
d b a s th e m a r r iv e a t th e ir d e s tin a tio n re
a tı
g a r d le s s o f th e p a th th e to o k
y
b ı P r o to c o ļ (1P ) is u s e d in S
et
em la y e r a n d it r i b a s e d , IP
p o v d e s th e p a c k e t d e liv e ry s e r v ic e o n w h ic h rh c T c p H P is
to c o im p le m e n ts a s y s te m o f lo ic l
l
p ro
g a h o s t a d d re s s e s c a lle d 1p a d d r e s s e s T h e 1p a d d re s s e s a r e u s e d b y e internet
a n d h ig h e r a y e r s to id e n tify d e v ic e s a n d to
l
p e r tb r m in te m e tw o r k ro u tin g
T+ a p o r t L a y e r T h t f d a ta b e in g
3) n s e r a n s p o rt ı
a y e r is r e s o
p n s ib ı e fo r th e r e liä b ū ity n o w c o n tro l a n d e r r o r c o n e c t io n o
h
se n t a c ro s s t e n e tw o r k Its m a in p r o to c o l is c a ll
,
lia b le d a ta
e d th e tr a n s m is s io n c o n tr o ı ro to c o l (T c p ) T c p p r o v id e s re
p
d e liv e r y s e r v ic e w ith e n d to e n d e r r o r d e te c tio n a n d
c o r re c ū o n
U s e r D a ta g r a m P ro to c o l (U D P ) is a n o e r ro to c o l u d i le s s d a ta g ra iıı
p se w h ic h p r o v id e s s lo w o v e r h e a d , c o n n e c t o n
d e liv e ry s e r v ic e U D P is u n r e ı ia b le b u t e n h a n c e s n e t o r k th ū i t q u ir e d a t th e
h à st
w r o u g h p u t w h e n e r r o r c o r re c o n s n o t e
to h o s t la y e r B o th p r o to c o ls d e liv e r d a ta b e tw e e n th e A L
p p lic a tio n L a y e r a n d th e ln te m e t a y e r
4) A pp ıic a ū o n L a y e r T h e a p p c a o n la y e r is r e s p o n s ib le fo r h a n d lin g M g h le v e l p ro to c o ls is s u e s o f r e p re s e n ta ū o n ,
li ti
,
en co d in g a n d d ia lo g c o n tr o t T h is ı a y e r is b r o a d l e u iv a le n t to th e a
y q p p lic a tio n p r e s e n ta tio n a n s
d e s s io n la y e r s o f th e
,
OS m o
I d e l ıt g iv e s a n a li ū
p p c a o n a c c e s s to th e c o m m u n ic a tio n e n v ir o n m e n t
E x a m p le s o f p r o to c o ls fo u n d a t th is la y e r T e ln e t, F Ľp (F ile T r a n s fe r f T o to c o l) S N M P (S im p le N e tw o rk
a re .
M a n a g e m e n t ĺ T o to c o l) H T FP (H y p e r T e x t T n
, m ) a n d S M T p (S im p le M a il T r a n s fe r P ro to c o l)
s fe r p r o to c o ı
Q u e s 20 ) W iıa t is d ifEe r e n ce b e tw een O SI an d T C P /IP r e fe r e n c e m o d e l?
A ı]s C o m p a r is o n b e tw e e n O S I a lıd T C P M ? R e fe r e n c e M o d e ı
s
T be dilfe re ırc e b e tw e e n O S I a n d T C P M ? is s h o w n in ta b le 1 3
T a b le 13 0 S1 w T C PN P
B a s is O SI T C P /ı
P
No o fh 7 L aw 4 L a y e rs
y e rs
细声m e n ta tio n M o delw as fiī s t d e fin e d b e fo r e im p ıe m e n ta ū o n ta k e s p la c e M o d e l d e fin e d a fte r p n ļ to c o ıw a s i m u Ġ m c n
O S I n a o d e l b a s e d o n th re e c o n c e p ts i e s e r v ic e In te r fa c e T C P /IP m o d e l d id n o t o ń g in a lly c le a r ly d is ū n g u is h b e tw een
M od el C o n c e p ts s e w ic e In te đa c e a n d p r o to c o l
a n d p ro to c o l
T ra n s p o rt tey e r d o e s n o t a lw a y s g u a r a n te e th e re lia b le d e liv e ry
D d ir e r y o f f r e lia bı
e d e liv e ry f p a c ke t
O SI m ode l g iv e s g u a ra n te e o o
o f p a c ke t
pa ck e ı
s
T C P /1P p p o r t internet w o rk in
ı
n ie m e t W o r k in g IO S I d o e s n o t s u p p o r t internet w o r k i su g
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n g th e AT M id e i de i c
w ea
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re q u e s t ı h a t th e n a il :m ] l n j
s e ￡fesofliJ￠edr z e c a lle d c e ı In c c n u n g ¸ tï b
ķ o ra rily
o r s to p te m p
d b e fo re th e y c a n b e d
V E ķ s iz e
ia b ı F ram in g In
V a r ia b le s iz e a n d p ro c e s s e
in is o fte n s lo w e r m a 】
ta m ın g, o n e n e eds a w a
y to de ĥ
th e e n d o f th ne s u c h p ro c e s s g
e
tr a n s m is s io n F o r flo w c o n tr o l th e r e tw o a p p r o a
fr a m e a n d th e b e g in m ııg o f th e n e x t H is to ń c a ı ly ,
se d
a r e c o m m o n ly t
ı
»o a p p ro a c h e s w e re u s e d fo r th is u r o s e
p p C o n tr o l In th is a p p r o a c
C h a r a c te r O r ie n te d P r o to c o ı i) F e e d b a c k B a s e d F lo w n de r
aJ s In a
re c e iv e r s e n d s
b a c k in fo rm a tio n to th e s e
C h a r a c te r o ń e n te d P to to c o l d a ta to t l a st
be is s io n to s e n d m o r e d a ta o r a e
g iv in g it p e rm
,
c a n ie d a r e 8 b it c h a ra c te r s fr o m
a c o d in
g te llin g th e s e n d e r o
h w th e r e c e iv e r is d o in g
s y s te m s u c h a s A S C II T h e h e a d
e r w hic h
l In th is ¸ e p r o to c o l a
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n o r m a lly c a rr ie s th e s o u r c e a n d d e s ti ii) R a te B a s e d F lo w C o n tr o
n a tio n ic h
h
is m th a t lim its th e r a te a t
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a d d r e s se s a n đ o th e r c o n tr o l in fo r m a ti a b u ilt in m e c h a n
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th e tr a ile r , w h ic h c a r r ie s e r r o r d e te c tio n o s e n d e r s m a y tra n s m ,
r
c n o r c o r r e c tio n r e d u n d a n t b its fr o m th e re c e iv e r
a re aı so ,
m u ltip le s o f 8 b its F Ig u r e 2 2 s h o w s th e .
fo r m a t o f a fr a m e in a c h a r a c te r o r ie n te d T h e tw o c a te g o r ie s o f R o w c o n 往日1 a r e
p ro to c o l a) S to p a n d W a it
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l a ta fl o m w er
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a b le numberJ 4) E rro r C tr o ı E n o r c o n tr o l p ro v id e s
on
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in g w ith e r r o rs T h e s e a r e
s tr a te
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F ig u 22 F ra in C h a r a c te r i) T o in c lu d e on ly e n o u g h r e d u tıd a 】ıc y to a llo w
re m e o r ie n te d
o c c u r r b u t n o t
P r o to c o l r e c e iv e r to c o n fh ın th a t a n e n o r
t it f
C h a r a c te r o ń e n te d fr a m in g a w a re o f w h ic h e rr o r a n d th e re fo r e r e q u e s o r
w as p o p u la r
w h e n o n ly te x t w a s e x c h a n g e d b y th e d a ta r e tr a n s m is s io n
a iıte d
也出 la y e r s T h e fla g c o u ı d b e s e le c te d to b e ii) S e c o n d m e th o d is to in c lu d e e n o u g h u n w
k f t t n a b le
an y c h a r a c te r not u se d fo r te x t d a ta a lo n g w ith e a c h b lo c o ¸ ta s e n o e
r e c e iv e r e x tr a c t h at th e tr a n s m itte d
c o m m u n ic a tio n to to w
c h a r a c te r m u s t h a v e b e e n
B it O r ie nte d P r o to c o ls In a b it o ń e n te d
P r o to l th e d a ta s e c tio n o f a fla m e is a
co , M ec h a n ic s fo r e r r o r h a n d lin g a t tiıis la y e r a r e b a s e d
s e q u e n c e o f b its to b e in te 中 r e te d b y th e ith th e e n o r
o n e r r o r d e te c tio n a n d r e tr a n s m is s io n w
u pp e r 】 a y e r a s te x t, g r a p h e , a u d io v id e o a n d u s in g g o ń th m s
aı
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h a n d lin g u s u a lly p e r fo r m e d
H i d ¸ t i h d e r s (a n d
so o n o w e v e r ,
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im p le m e n te d in s o ħw a r e s u c h a s c h e c k s u m in e rr o r
il ), il l d d lim ite r to
p o s s ib ı e tr a e rs s t n e e a e
d e te c tio n an d c o r re c tio n
s e p a r a te o n e fr a m e fr o m t h e o th e r M o st
p r o to c o ls u s e a s p e c i a l 8 b i t pattern n a g Q u es 3 ) D is c u ss th e d iĦe r e n t m te g o r ie s o f Ðo w
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F ig \ır e 2 3 Fram e in a B it o r le n te d th e s o u rc e s e n d s a p a c k e t a n d o n ly a fte r r e c e iv in g th e
a c lçn o w le d g e m e n t fr o m th e d e s ū n a tio n it s e n d s n e x t ,
p a c k e t T h is is a s im p le p r o to c o ı b u t it r e s u ı ts in lo ts
n o w C o n tr o l Ħ o w c o n tr o l is a s e t o f p ro c e d u r e s ,
it o f d e la y , a n d th c b a n d w id th is n o t u s e d e ffic ie n tl
b a t lc ı ls th e s e ııd e r h o w m u c h d a ta it c a n tr a n s m y
d f h
t e
o r e t m u s t w a it fo r a n a c k n o w le g m
e n t ro m
d
llo w e 1o W h e n th e s o u rc e (e n d s y s te m A ) s e n d s th e lir s t a c k e t
e i' re r T h e flo w o f daı a m u st n o t be a p
to th e d e s tin a tio n (e n d s y s te m B ) a n d w a its fo r 1
i i n g d e v ic e h a s a
tw h e m th e te c e w e r A n y r e c e v
itıg d a ta a c k n o w le d g m e n t th e n B s e n d s a n a c k n o w le d e m e
te \ e d a t w h ic h it c a n p r o c e s s in c o m :
,
i w h i c h to s to r e pa c ke t
m Lte d a m o u n t o f m e m o w n
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n u m be r o s u s
P r o Į o c o ls ) In th e c a s e f IE E lo tte d A L O H A w a s d e v e ı
o E 8 0 2 3 L L C , th is sc h em e c a lle d s o
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a d d e d a t th e e n d c h a n n e l is c le a r to s e n
d a fr a m e F u l lh e r ] m
o f th e f a m e
p r o v id e s e r r o r d e te c tio n
in th e c a se w h e re lin e e r r o r s (o r tr a n s m is s io n can b e r e a lis e d b y a m o r e s o p h is tic a te d
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M u ltip le A c c e s s w ith
n c o r r u p tio n o f th e M A c
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A n D e te c tio n (C S N W C D )
b y th e M A C r e c e iv e r
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p r o c e s s in g T h e 2) C a r r ie r S e n s e M u ltip le A c c e s s (C S M A ) c '
M A C p r o to c o l d o e s n o t
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d e te c t th e p r e s e n c e o f a n e n c o d e d s ig n a l fro
Q u es 15 )D e līn e th e v a r io u s m u ltip le a c c e ss co n tr o l
s ta tio n b e fo r e a tte m p tin g to tr a n sm it
p ro to c o ls
If a c a r r ie ris s e n s e d , th e s ta tio n w a its

A n s M lü p ]e A c c e s s P r o to c o ls
u
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g a m u ltip le a c c e s s c h a n n e l o w n tr a n s m is s io n
a re k n o w n P r o to c o ls w h ic h a r e u s e d in a lĮ o c a ń n
g a
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d e s c ń b e s th e fa c t th a t
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n
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c o m m u n ic a tio n s schem e in w h ic h e ach s o u rc e
n a n s m is s io n s b y o n e n o d e a re lly
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a ll o th e r s ta tio n s u s in g th e m e d iu m
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th e d e s tin a tio n (r e c e jv e r ) t l】e n e x t fr a m e is s e n t If

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A LO H A p r o to c o l is m a in te n tio n g y
a con p r o to c o ı
(A to th e d iu m fr o m
sen se p r o to c o ls
cc e ss m e m an y e n try p o in ts is
c a lle d c o n te n tio n It is c o n o J l e d w ith a c o n te n tio n
C a r r ie r S e n se M u ltip ıe A
p r o to co l) c c e ss (C S M A
p e rfo r m a n c e w he n th e r e is a N ghe
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w a y I ll l A L O H A w o r k s p e r fe c tly B u t a s n e tw o r k s g
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the s u b te c b n o lo g y fo r w h ic h th e y a re re s p o n s
d i i n t r e v is io n s o r c h a n g e s to th e
itte e L e tte r s a fte r t eh e s g n a t o n s r e p re s e
G m u p w itM n tlıe L A N /M A N S ta n d a r d s C o m m l i t d is c u s s n e w tr e n d s w ith in e i r
T h e s e g ro u p s m e e t s e v e r a t m e s a y e a r o
oıis in a l s ta n d a r d s fo r th e w o r k in g g r o u p
d d
a c u n e n t s ta n a r
Ėıdu s ū y o r to c o n tin u e (h e p r o c e s s o f r e fin in g
d rd e le v a n t to s u pp o r tin g th e T C P N P
li t o f th e ı E E E 80 2 L A N a n d M A N s ta n a s r
为由ı e 2 2 s h o w s a fa u ly c o m p le te s
P o to c o ls .
As o f m id 2 0 1 1
ıd a r d s
E 80 2 L A N a n d M A N s ta ı
T a b le 2 2 IE E
to c o ls (B ń dg jn g )
8 8 02 1 Highq L a y e r L A N P ro
g E E 802 2 LLC
ıE g e m et
IT o ke n ri嘤聞し w J "
02 5
80 2 4 1 lANs Q g D iB N) , u s in g C o a x ia ıC a b le
M W L A N )&
rp n n p m
JU n u se d
J4
C a b le m o d e m s
IE 3E 8 0 2 J 5
W ir e le s s P A N
Æ E E 8 0 2 15 1 B lu e to o th c e r tific a tio n
IB E E §0 2 15 2 lE B E 8 0 2 15 a n d IE E E 8 0 2 11 c o e x is te n c e
ÆEE 80 2 15 3
H i h PA N ( g
g e ,
UW B ,
e tc )
IE E E 80 2 ]5 4 ir e le s s P A N
L ow R a te w
IE E E 80 2 5 5
ı M e s h n e tw o r k in g fo r W P A N
IE E E 8 0 2 15 6 B o d y a re a n e tw o r k
IE E E 8 0 2 15 7 V is ib le lig h t c o m m u n ic a tio n s
IE E E 80 2 16 ]E r o a d b a n d W ire le s s A c c e s s (W IM A X )
c e r tifİ c a tio n
IE E E 8 0 2 16 1 lım M uı ip o ju t D is tr ib u tio n S e m
ı
IE E E 8 0 2 ı6 2 1匡圈里is te n c e w ire ie s s a c c e s s
IF m 8 0 2 17
lĦe s ilie n t p a c k e t r in g
IE E E 8 0 2 18
ï R e g u la to r y T A G
IE E E 80 2 19
]Bxistence T A G
tE b E 8 0 2 2 0 l ıE n e B ro a d b a n d W ire le s s A c c e s s
IE E E 8 0 2 2 1 Im ia īn d e p e n d e n t H a n d o fF
IE E E 8 0 2 2 2 iıĦiir e le s s R e g io n a l A r e a N e tw o r k
IE E E 8 0 2 2 3 )ı
mergency s e rv ic e s w o r k in g G ro u p
ie e e 8 0 2 24 ı
ı@m a rt g r id t a g
80 2 2 5 lni R an \ A re a N e tw o r k
Q 1 7 ) D is c u s s IE E E 8 0 2 3 s ta n d a r d in d e ta il
u es
O r
W Ða t is ethernet ? W n a t is th e fr a m e fo r m a t o f e t h p m p t ?
O r
W ia t a r e th e a d v a n ta g e s A n d d is a d v a n ta e s o f ethernet ?
g
A n sı E E E 8 0 2 3 S ta n đa r d E th e r n e t
E 【h e m e t is th e m o s t p o p u la r p h y s ic a l ı
a e r L A N te c h n o lo
g y in u s E to d a y Ethernet w a s in v e n te d b e n in e e r R o b
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q r e fo r a c o n n e c tio n th e p e rfo r m a n c e th r e s h o ld s th a t c a i
e x p e c te d a n d p r o v id e s th e fr a m e w o r k fo r d a ta tr a n s m i i
,
s s o n A s ta n d a r d Ethernet
n e tw o r k c a n tr a n s m it d a ta a t a ra te
ı0 M e g a b its p e r s e c o n d (1 0 M b p s )
Ethernet S p o p u ı a r b e c a u s e it s trik e s a g o o d b a la n c e b e t
w een s eed
p ,
c o st an d e a se o f in s ta ı
la tio n T h e s e b e n e fits c o m bin
w ith w id e a c c e p ta n c e in th e c o m p u te r m a r k e t la c e a n d th
p e a b ilit to
,
y su p p o r t v ir tu a lly a ll p o p u la r n e tw o r k
protoçol m
T h e In s titu te fo r E le c tric a l a n d E le c tro n ic E n g in e e rs d e v e lo d

p e a n Ethernet s ta n d a r d k n o w n a IE
s ta n d a r d d e fin e s ru le s fo r c o n fig u r in g a n E th e m e L n e tw o r k s E E S ta n d a r d 80 2 3
a n d a ls o s e c ifie s h
in te r a c t w ith o n e a n o th e r B y a d h e r in g to th e IE E E s ta n d a d p o w th e e le m n ts in a n Ethernet n e
r , n e tw o r k e u i
ę
q p m e n t a n d n e tw o r k p r o to c o ls c a n c o n m ıu
e ffic ie n tly
F r a m e F o r ın a t o f E th e r n e t
T h e f a m e fo n n a t o f Ethernet S g iv e n b e lo w
2 or 6
J by te
ı- u y le s 1 tj w n y te s ・
T h is is a s tr e a m o f b its u s e d to a llo w th e tr a n s m itte r a ild

r e c e iv e r (o
an alternatingpattern o f b in a r y 56 o nes aı
ıd z e ro e s
D e s ig ņ Is s u e s (M o d u le 2 )
3) Pesı
ation M A c T h is is d īe M A
c ą d dre s s o f th e m ac M n e r e c e iv in g d a ta w n en
ı̧ c e M A C T h is is e
4) s o M A c a d d r e s s o f th e
m a c h in e lr a h
s m ittin g d a ta
u ng th T lıis is th e le n g th o f th
5) e e n tir e Elhernet
f a ln e in b te s A lth o u h th is fie ld c a n h o ld a n y v a lu e b e tw
6 5 , 53 4 It is r a r e ly la r g e r th a n 1 5 o o a
r een
y g
s th a t is
u s u a lı th i tr a n s m is s io n fr a m e s iz e fo r m o st
co p n e c tİ o n s Ethernet n e tw o r k s te n d to y e m a x m u m
u se se ñ a l d
e v ic e s to a c c e s s th e Internet
/p a d d in g (P a y lo a d ) T h e d a t i
6 ) D a ta a s in s e r te d h
e r e T h is is w h e re th e Ip h e a d e r a n d d a ta is p ia c e d if y o u ¸ e r u n n tng
】P o v e r Ethernet T h is fie ld c o n ta in s Jp x
in fo rm a tio n if l) c o n ta in e d in th e
a d d in g s e c tio n o f a n IE E E
y o u a r e n m n in g Ip x /s p x (N o v e ł w ıŔ
d a ta /þ 8 0 3 2 fr a m e a r e f
o u r s e c ific fie ı d
i) D S A P D e s tin a tio n S e r v ic e A c c e s s p o i p s
nt
ii) S S A P S o u r c e S e r v ic e A c c e s s p o in t
iii) C T R L C o n tr o l b its fo r Ethernet
omm uni cat ion
iv ) N L I N e t w o r k L a y e r In te r fä
ce
7) F C S T h is ñ e ı
d c o n ta in s th e F r a J n e C h e c k s e u
q e n c e (F c s ) w h ic h is c a lc u la te d u s in g a c y c lic R e d u n d a n c y C h e c k
(C R C ) T h e F C S a llo w s Ethernet to d e te c t e rr o r s in th e Ethernet fr a m e a n d r e je c t th e fr a m e if it a p p e a r s d a m a g e d
Q ııe s 1 8 ) W h a t a re th e s Lia n d ar d e th ern e t? D is c u s s th

二
em
A n s S ta n d a r d E th e r n e t
S ta n d a r d E t h e r n e t c o m e s in fo u r incarnations d e p e n d in g o n th e ty p e o f c a b le u s e d to s tr in g th e n e t w o r k t o g e th w a s s h o w n
,
b e lo w
1) 1 0 B a s e 5 10 B a s e 5 c a b lin g is p o p u la đy c a lle d th ic k Ethe rnet T h e n o ta tio n 10 B a s e 5 m e a n s th a t it o p e r a te s a t 1 0 M b p s ,
u s e s b a s e b a n d s ig n a lin g , a n d c a n s u p p o r t s e g m e n ts o f u p to 5 0 0 m e te r s T h e first n u m b e r is th e s p e e d in M b p s
o p e ra æ s a t
10 B a se5 5 00 s iz e s e g m e n t s u ppo rt
10 M b p s
B a se ban d s ig n a lin g
in d ic a te b a s e b a n d tr a n is s io T h e re u se d to b e a
Th en co m e s th e w o rd "
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"
(
or so m e tim e s
"
B A SE "
) to sm n
b ro a d b a n d v a r ia n t
m u ch c he a pe r d e a s ie r to 1 b u t it
in s ta 】
Ethernet b e n d s e a s ily T h in Eth ern et S a n can ru n
2 ) 1 0B a se 2 10 B a se 2, o r th in ,
i h n h a n d le o n ly 3 0 m a c h in e s
fo r on ly 1 8 5 m e te r s pe r se gm en t e ach o f w h c c a
,
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3) 1 0 B T 1 0 B a s e 3 p r o b le m s a s s o c ıa te d w it
ase
c e n tr a ıh u b ni h i c h th e y a r e a J 1 c o n n e c te d e le c tr ic a lly (a s if
a c a b le r u n n in g to a
w
pattern, in w h ic h a ll s ta tio n s h a v e i t d i i s t ffic e b u ild in g s a r e
th e s e w ir e s a r e te le p h o n e c o m p a n y tw s e p a r s s n c e m o o
th e y w e r e s o ld e r e d to g e th e r ) U s u a lly ,
,
i are a v a a il b l e T h is s c h e m e is c a ll e d 1 0 B a s æ T H u bs do n o t
a lr e a d y w ir e d th is w a y a n
d n o r m a lly p le n ty o f s p a r e p a r s
,
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K jn đs o f E th e m e t c a b ]ln g (a )
26 T hr e e
g lır e 2
Fı ıO B a s e 2 (e ) 1 0 B a s T
ıo B a s e 5 (b )
er N e t w o n cs \ a o ı ed
34 C o n ıp u t
a lıd is th e m e th o d o f c h o ıc e
ro th e c o s t o m u n ity
f th e c o n n e c to
ıs a n d æ rm in a to rs b u r
it h a s e x c e lle n t n o is e im It a ls o o ffe rs g o o d secuđ
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n g s o r w id e l s e p a ra te d h u s R u n s o u p o
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w iı e ￠a p p in y
g fib e r is m u c h m o d iffic u lt th a n w ir e ta p p in g c o p p e r w ire
re
QU es 19 ) D is c u s s I
E E E 802 4
s tałn ? rd In d e ta il
Q U. 2 0 )W n i. t ı
s to k . . . ￡
'
L A N ? W h a t is th . Fr a m c ı
bm aa t o f to k e n b . LAN ?
A n s IE E E 8 0 2 4
S ta n d a r d T o k
en B u s a c e n tr a l c a b l%
A ty p e o f lo c ı o n n e c te d to led
o a】
a a re a n e tw
o r k (L A N ) th a t h a s a b u s [o p o lo g y in w h ic h a ıi d e v ic e s a r e c
th e b u s o r b a c k th b u s Ethernet s y s te m s ils e a b
b o n e a n d u se s i l te tr a ffic o n e
us
p a s s in g m e c h a n s m o
a to k e n t re g u a
to p o lo g y
A to k e n b u s h d p o in ts o f th e b u s d o
is v e ty s rm ilm t a t k n r in n e tw o r k th e m a in d iffe re n c e b e in g th a t t e
en
n e tw o r k
m e e t to fo rm
o o e g ,
a h i
p y s c a l rin g T h e 1E E E 80 2 4 s ta n d a r d d e fin e s to k e n b u s n e tw o r k s
T o k e n b u s lo c a ıa a liz in g g u a r a n te e
d re s p o n s e
re a n e tw o rk w e o b je c tiv e o f r e
a s d e s ig n e d fo r p r o d u c tio n Jjn e s w ith tlı
]s v e ry s im ilm 【o to k e n r in l f th e n e t w o r k İ s b u s b u t th e s M
g o c a l a re a n e tw o r k in o \ ra ū o n Th e p h y s ic a l to p o lo g y o
a re c o n n e c te d u ı l
a o g ic a l r in
g to p o lo gy (fig u r e 2 2 7 i
T h e lo g ic a 】to o ı e c te d to th e s ta tio ı
ıw j
p o g y fo u o w s th e a d d re s s h ie ra r c h y w ith th e s ta ū o n w ith lo w e s t a d d r e s s c o n n
M g h e s t a d d re s s E a c h u c c e e d in g s ta tio n T h e re is n o r e la l
s m tio n k n o w s th e id e n tit o f th e
y p r e c e d in g s ta tio n a n d th e s
b e tw e e n th e h rs ic a l l
p j o c a tio n o f a s ta tio n o n th e b u s to jts a d d te s s
T h e b a s ic o p e ra ıio n o f a to k e n b u s L A N in a s fo llo w s
I ) T h e a c c e s s [o th e in te r e ö n n e c tin b u s is re u la te d b a to k e n A t a n tim e o n l th e s ta tio n th a t h ld h
g g y y y o t e to k e n h a s ll
ń g h t to tr a n s m it its d a ta fr a m e s o n th e b u s e a c h fr a m e c a rr ie s s o u r c e a n d d e s tin a tio n a d d r e s s e s a
s ta tio n m a y s e
o n e o r m o n e fıa m e s w h ile it js h o ı d in g th e to k e n
2 ) A ll s ta tio n s a ie re a d ıo r e c e iv e fr a m e s a t a n tim e e x c e t w h e n h o ld in a to k e n
y y p g
3 ) 7 1be to k e n m u s t b e r e le a s e tl b e fo r e tim e o u t w ith th e a d d r e s s o f th e n e x t s ta ū o n in th
e se q u e n c e
4 ) T h e r e le a s e d to k e n is ta k e n o v e r b th e s m tio n w h o s e a d d r e s s is o n th e t k
y o en T o m a i n c o n tin u it
c o m m u n ic a tio n it is n e c e s s a r fo r e a c h s ta tio n (o la k e o v e r th e to k e if i
, y n e v e n t d o cs n o t hav e a n
y fra n ıe ş to s e n a
c a n r e le a s e th e lo k e n im m e d ia te l fo r th e n e x t s ta tio n
y
5 ) In o n e c y c le . E a c h s ıa tio n g e ı s o n e o p p o rtu n ity to tra n s m it T h u s e a c ı ıs ta tio n g e ts a fa ir c h a n c e to s e n d its ū a 】
tn u n d ło b in fa s h io n Jt ĵ s o s s ib le to
p g iv e m o r e th a n o n e o p p o r tu n ity [o a s ta tio n in o n e c y c le b y a s s i ilin ıt m a
g g
o n e a d d re s s ı o Jt
F n u n e F o r m a t o r T o lĺ e ï ıB u s L A N
E 80 2 A M A C s u b la y e r o f to ke ı】 b u $ o ra te s u n d e r L L C b ı
p su a y e r F ig u re 2 sho w s th e M A C fr am e s u u o tw t
S p tįç ilie d in lE B E 8 0 2 4 It c o lıs ķ ts o f th e f ı ie ld s
o lo w in g ł
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區 1區 1国【o a・园 1 只o
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TD e lim ite r (S D ) I t is y n iz a ü o n
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ng u ni u
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d e s c ń b e d la te r g 2 9 lis tË th F f ft a a
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IF IR im l ľ 11 '
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1 。园巨 1困図丁旧日
(e ) R e s o lv e c o n te n tio n lm l m lııĖI I
ı
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l ľ lıı ļt 】Ľ l ı
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m ıiı
lm ı l
F ig u re 2 2 9 F C F ie ı
d o F IE E E 8 0 2 4
e s tin a tio A dd (D A ) T h e d e s tin a tio n a d d r e s s fie ld is 6 o c te ts lo n g

4) D n r e ss
d e s tin a tio n d so u rc e a d d r e s s fields

a d dre s s fie ld is 6 lo g A b e fo re th e an
5) S o m ce A d d r ess (S A ) T h e s o u rc e o c te ts n s
o c te t lo n d d re s s e s a r e s e ld o m d
ıb e
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f th e M A C fla m e e x c lu
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6) D a ta D a ta
excee d is 8 1 9 1 o c te ts
CR C It c h e c k s o n D A SA FC
lo d c o n ta in s , ,
(F C S ) F r a m he c k seq u e n c e is 4 o c te t s n g an
7) F r a lııe C heck Sequ en ce e c
It is o n e o c te t lo n g A s in to k e n r in g, E D
w h ic h m a r k s th e e n d o f th e fr a m e
8) E n d D e ı iıııite r It İ s u n iq u e b it pattern
f
des o r id e n tific a tio n
c o n ta in s n o n Ą a ta c o
d d is a d v a n ta g e s o f to k e n b u s ?
th e dv a n ta g e s a n
Q u e s 2 ]) W 】
ia t a re a
f c a b le to c o n n e c t th e c o m p u te r s
u ir e s th e le a s t
am oun t o
1) T h e c a b lin g c o s t is le s s a s th e bu p o lo g y r e q
s to
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lan d fo r s m a ll n e tw
d e r s ta n d , in s ta ı
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2 ) T h e b u s to p o lo g y is e a s y to u n
d in c r e a s e th e d is ta n ce
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n be u s e d to
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4 ) In th e ex p a iıs io n o f a bu s to p o lo g y
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o
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) T he B N C n e tw o r k c a u s in g a ll n e tw o r k
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3) A c a b le bre a k o f lo o se
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【 2 2 )D ißc ııs s Æ E E 8 0 2 s ta n
t ď to k e n r in g?
fo m a
ı
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is th e fr a n ıe
n e t w o r k s w ith a
a s s in g ń n g
in c o m m ıın ic a tio n
k p th e
e o n e s ta tip n to
to n n (
r d fD r a e Į w u r k fto m
ke n t in g is th e ĐEE E 8 0 2 5 s ta n d a be C o n ım u n ic a ĺ io n n
u nd t e s s u n it)
t a v e l a ro A U (m u ı tis ta tio n a c c
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lbu b c al
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A n k c n R in g n e tw o r k u u te rs a r e c
is a lo c a ıa r e a n e tw o r k (L A N ) in w h ic h a c o p
m
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o r lo k e n a a
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a m e tim e T h T k c o l is th e s e c o n
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EemeL
ts e r s e c o n d T O k e
IE E E 8 0 2 5 T k e n R in te c h tr a n s fe r r a te s o f e ith e r
4 o r 16 m e g a b i p
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ir a n s m it m u st w a it T h e r e fo in T o k e n R in g n e tw o r k s
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e o e n o r d a ta /c o m m a n d fra m e T h i fi
s e ld a ls o c o n ta in s b its to in d ic
d a m a g e d fr a m e a n d id e n tif th e fra
y m e th a t is th e la s t in a lo ic a l s e u e
g q nce
2 ) D a ta /c o m m a n d F r a n ıe F ie ld s D a ta /c
o m m a n d fra m e s h a v e th e s a m e 【 h r e e fie ld s a s T o k e n F r a m e s
o th e r s T n e D a İ a /c o m m a n d fr
a m e fie ld s illu s tra te d in fi u r e 2 3 0
, p lu s
g a r e d e s c r ib e d in th e fo lı o w in g s u m m a r ie s
i) S ta r t D e lim ite p A le r ts e a c h
s ta tio n o f th e a r r iv a l o f a to k e
n (o r d a ta /c o m m a n d fr a m e
th a t d is tin g ı
Jis h th e b te fr o
) T h is fie ld in c lu d e s
y m th e r e s t o f th e fr a m e b v io ı a tin g th e e n c o d in
y g s c h e m e u s e d e ls e w h e r e in th e j
ji) A c c e s s C o n tr o l B te
y Conuins th e p r io rity fie ld (th e m o s t s i n ific t 3 b
s ig n ific a n t 3 b its g an its ) a n d th e R e s e r v a tio n fie ld m
), a s w e u a s a to k e n b it (u s e d to d iffe re n tia te a t k f
o e n r o m a d a ta /c o m m a n d f
b it (u s e d b y tb e a c tiv e m ra m e ) a n d a
o n ito r to d e te rm in e w h e th e r
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g tlıe r iııg e n d ı e s s ly )
ü i) 】 i+ a n ıe C o n tr o l B te s
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y In d ic a te s w h e th e r lh e fr a m e c o n t i d
b y te s p e e itiç s a ns a ta o r c o n a o l in io r m a tio n I
n c o n [rı=o ı= f di
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typ e o f c o n tr o l in fo rm a tio n
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u r c e A d d r e ss e s c o
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ce
ic a l s e q u e n
jn d ic a te a d a m a g e d » a m e a n d id e n tify (h e fra m e th a t is th e ı a s t in a lo g
S ta tm fie ld
s ta tu It is fr a n le T he F l a m e
Fra m e 1 b y te fie ld te rm in a tin
s a a n d/d a ta
v iin g a co m m
a d d re s s r e c o g n is e d in d ic a to r a n d fr u n e c o p ie d in d ic a tü r
s s th e w o r k in f to k e n r in g?
23 )D js c u g o
Q ıJe s
W o r k in g o f T o k e n R in g
A ı】s f to k e n r in g a r e as b e lo w
w o r k ip g s o
1 1e a u
f s im p ly c h a n g in g
c o n s is t o
m p u te r h a s a m e s s a g e to s e n d it in se rts a to k e n in ap e m p ty fra m e (th is m a y
w n en a c o
io n fo r th e
i
se e s th a t t
is th e d e s tin a t
is th e n in e d b y e a c h s u c c e s s iv e w o r k s ta tio n If th e w o r k s ta tio n
fra m e e x am
3) T he Iıa s b e ė n
d th a t th e m e ssag e
to k e n h a s b e e n chan g e d to o an
n th e fr a m e g e ts b a c k to th e o ń g in a to r , it s e e s th a t th e
4 ) v n ıe
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k s ta tio n w
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a an
e s o f T o k e n R iıı g
A n s A đv a n ta g
i t to p o in t d ig ita l n o a n a lo g
e e n g in e e r in g b e c a u s e t s p o n
i l i i
1) S m p
i n d c o r r e c tio n o f c a b le fa iıu re s
2 ) E Ŕ y d e te c t o n a
f
f d a ta r e q u ir e d in r a m e s o fra m e s a r e s h o rt
3) N o p a d d in g o ,
lim iL
ń n g , rin g s iz e h a s n o p r a c tic a l
irin g in to h a t is e ffe c tiv e ly one
5) s in c e r ni g s can b e b ń d g e d b y th e ir w c o n c e n tr a to r s w
D is a d v a n ta g e s o fT o k e n R in g
d, e v e n th o u gh n e tw o r k is id ı
e
k e n to c o m e a ro u n
d itio n s o f lo w lo a d , su b s ta n ū a l d e la y w a itin g fo r to
2) u n de r c o n
ir e to b e ru n th a n b u s a r c h ite c tu re
3) C a n r e q u ir e s ig n ffic a n tly n o re w
ı
to k e n b u s an d to k e n r in g?
t is d iĦe r e n c e b e tw e e n e th e r n e Ļ
Q u es 2 5 )W n a
8 02 3 , 8 0 2 4 a n d 8 0 2 5 S ta n d a r d s
A ııs C om p a r is o n b e tw een
) 802 5 (T o k e n R in g )
8 0 2 4 (T o k e n B u s
8 0 2 3 (Ethernet '
1s i o re a n d fo rw a r d
lw cast
Ethernet IP m to c o ıis so m e w hat co m pı
ex
p r o to c o l n o t a s s im p le a s
siın p ı
e an d ro b u s t p r o to c o l F in ite d e la y s a t lo w lq a d
l d
p in ite d e la y s a t lo w o a
Lo w d e ł
a ys a t lo w lo a d D e la y s at M gh lo a d a ie m gh . B u t a ie
P rio ń tie s h a n d le d
lp ty tie s ed
han dı
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o f th e fra m e
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fra m m in im um fł
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es
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um
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ńa o d e m s a re r e q u ire d
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e n o t re {ł
its ty p e s
i2 6 ) W h a t ą r e b r id g e s ? D is c u ss
L a y e r b u t is m o r e p ń m itiv e w h e n c o m p a E e d to a
id g e is a ls ó d e v ic e w h ic h in th e D a ta L in k
w o fks
,
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a
h e m o s t re c e n t o n e s p e rfo rm s m a r o p e ra tio n a s th e s w
2 L A N s, bu t t
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:e s w e re u s e d to c o n n e c t o n ly d d f th p o rts
ia tio īl u s in g t
he M A C a r e s s e s o e
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J 0
T ħe o n ly [
a ls o
be c o n n e c te d v ia b r id g iĺ ıg
ft d ßN ca n
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r k s in th e
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A ls o b r id g e a ta a】e c a n n o t b e u s e d to to th e
,
, a con nect
kn he h ı em et
o w le d g e o f th e Ip A d
d r e s s e s . w h ic h a re u s e d in t
b ile s c an c o n tin u e
bńdge a u to m o
A b r id g e is u s e d to a lle y , s o ų s in g
a riv e r o r v
c o n n e c t th e r o a d s a c ro s s h p u rp o se
ls o s l s t e sam e
tw o r k , b r id g e a
o n e s iŔ to a n o th o v e
e r S im ila r ly , in c o n a p u te r n e
f c o m p u te r n e tw o r k d a ta tr a v e ls ū o m o ne nE
H e re b r id g e s c o n n e c t t w o o r m o r e n e tw o r k s (L A N s ) In c a se o
t to r e d u c e th e a m o u n t o
f tr a ffic
B r id g e s a ls o filte r th e tr a ffic It d iv id e s th e L A N in to se gm e n
O
e
g
i%
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tw o r ı ııa tl
In co m in g ı
ra ffic a re in s p e c ts b y th e b ń d g e s to d e c id e w h e th e r d a ta a r e fo r w a r d e d o r d is c a r d e d F o r e x a m p le
E ıħe m e t f ra m e s (it c o n ta m s s o u rc e a n d d e s tin a tio n M A C a d d r e s s e s ) a r e in s p e c ts b y th e Ethernet B ń d g e to d e c id e
fra m e s a r e fo r w a r d e d o r n ot
Som e tim e s s w itc h e s a r e a ls o k n o w n a s m u ltip o r t b r id g e s b e c a u s e tr a d itio n a l b ń d g e s s u p p o r t o n ly o n e n e tw o r k b

W h e sw itc h e s p r o v id e s fo u r o r m o re th a n fo u r p o rt s
T y p e s o f B r id g e s
ı) T r a n s p a r e n t B r id g e s Ha rd wr e n e tw o r k a dŔ e ss (c o n ta in s u n iq u e a dŔ e ss ) a re u se d b y th e tr a n s p a r e n t b
id e n tify th a t w h ic h d a ta is to b e p a s s e d a n d w h ic h to filte r
A ta b le ĵ s u se d to s to r e th e p o r t in fo m ia tio n so w h e n d a ta is r e c e iv e d th e n th e s to r e s ta b ı
e is u se d to co m p a ie
th e d e s tin a u o n Ħd tł
re ss
2) S o u r c e R o u te B r iđg e s G e n e r a lly s o u r c e r o u te b r id g e s a re u s e d b y ń n g n e tw o r k s T h e y d o n o t u s E th e M A C
fo r th e id e n tific a tio n w h ile th e y u s e d th e to k e n rin g fr a m e s
'
in fo rm a tio n r th e id e n tific a tio n (w h e th e r to p a s s
or n ot )
3) T r a n s la 【tio n a ıB r id g e s T o c o n n e c t th e d is s im ila r n e tw o r k s to g e th e r tr a n s la tio n a l b r id e s a r e u e d T h
g s , e y h av e
th e v a r io u s k in d s o f n e tw o r k s a n d th e p r o c e s s u s e d to p a s s th e d a ta d e e n d s o n th e
c o n n e c te d n e tw o r k s
p
Th ey c o n s id e r th e m e d ia a c c e s s m e th o d to h a n d le th e c o n v e r s a tio n o f th e fra m e fr o
m th e o n e ty \ to a n o th e r
Q u es 2 7) W h a t a re sw itc h e s ?
A ns S w itc h e s
A s w itc h ĵ s a n in te u ig e n t d e v ic e th a t w o r k s in th e Ŕ ta li k l
n a y e r T h e te rm in te llig e n t re fe r s to th e
c a p a c iı
y o f th e S w itc h S in c e it w o d cs in th e D a ta lin k la y e r it h a s k n o w le d e
g , o f th e M A C a dd re s se s o
n e tw o r k
T h e d g ita l s w itc h is tł ıe h e a r t (c o r e ) o f th e m o d e m n e tw o r k
s y s te m w h ic h r o v id e s a ı
p ra
p a ir o f a tta c h e d d e y ic e s T his c o n n e c tio n a llo w s fu ll d u l
p e x tr a n s m is s io n s
Sw itc h e s m īh ı
LAN 2
F ig u re 2 3 2 B r id
g es c t T ra m e
m ecu n
oı
g LAN s w ilh F re qu en
cs c o n n e c te d to a h u b s c a l
a b ility a n d
la n e t
w o .
1ä te n c i s ı
ith o u t je o p a r d is i y p ro b le m itc h p ro id e s a lı a n s w e r to
g r o w th A
w s o ccu r sw v
Ctrsing c a tl o tıb e t w e e n
n g p e r fo r m
an c e T he
s w itc h c o n n e c ts tw o o r m o re d e v ic e s o n th e n e tw o r k
m m u tu
no
sı
o th c o n o de s
s are ex ecu te d in h a r d w a r e a d
s w itc b e n a ls o s o ftw
a re a n d a s a re su lt ll c o n n e c tio n s o p e ra te ta n e o u s ı
s im u ı y
tio n s fa s t
C o m p u te r s c o n n e c te d to a s w itc h
a
o p e ra o r hu b s h av e n b a tıd w id M
o co m p e tiū o n fo r
is o n e d iffe re n c e th e c o llis io n
B u r rh e r e , s an d n e tw o r k fa ilu re are le s s in d e v ic e s c o n n e c te d to a s w itc h as \
d th d to hu b h e r e d e v ic e s
ban dw i p a re
co m a w n ëe d to s h a r e th e b an d w id th w ith e v e r y d e v ic e o n U ıe h u b
W t d o yo d e r s ta d b y H ig h S p e e d L A N S T
Q u e s 28)
n a u u n n
O r
d g ig a b it e th t?
W ia t is F a s t a n er n e
O r
W n a t is F D D I ?
d L A N S
A n s E ig h S p e e d Ħb e r h a v e m gh
d lo n g d is ta n c e L A N s fib e r o p ū c s o r h ig h ly p a ra lle l c o p p e r n e tw o r k s a r e u se
Fo r M g h s p e e d a n ,
es
a c h in e r y , P o w e r s u r g
i a d lig h t w e ig h t is n o t a ffe c te d b y e le c tr o m a g n e tic in te r fe re n c e fr o m h e a v y m
b a n d w id th is th n n
,
e x c e lle n t s e c u ń ty
H e n c e fa s t L A N S u s e fib e r
an d h a v e
d d fo r d a ta tra lıs m is s io n o n fıb e o p ıc

t
b t d D a t a In te r fa c e ) is a s e t o f A N S I a n d IS O s ta iı a r s
I) F D D I F D D I (F ib e r D is tń u e l
D D 1 p r o to c o ı b a s e d on
d in ra n \ u p to 2 0 0 k m (12 4 m ile s ) T h e F
s
i l l a r e a n e t w o r k (L A N ) th a t c a n e x te n
lin e s n a o c a
th e to k e n r in g p r o to c o
l
r k c a n s u p p o r t th o u s a n
d s o f u s e rs F D D I i
e o g r a p h ic a lı y a n F D D I lo c a l m e a n e tw o
In a d d itio n to b e i n g l a r g e g ,
n e tw o r k (W A N )
fre q tı s e d o n th e b a c k b o n e fo r a w id e a r e a
u e n y u
T h e p ń m ar y m
f e b a c k u p in c a s e e
o s s ib ı p ń m a r y ń n g fa ils
i t w o to k e n r in g s o n e o r p
A n F D D I n e tw o r k c o n t a n s ,
e a d u a l ń n g c a n e x te
n d 10 0 (62 m ile s )
te n d th e m a x im u m d is ta ııc
M b p s T b e s in g le ń n g
c a n e x
c a p a c ity to 2 0 0
d d s c o m m itte e in t
i n a l S ta n d a r d s
In s titu te (A N S I) X 3 7 9 5 s ta iı a r
i n N a t o
th e A n ıe r c a
Æ D I w a s D e v e lo p e d b y
Ethernet a n d to k e n ń n g
a r e a n e tw o r k s (L A N s ) b a s e d on
a n d th e ir n ew d is tr ib u te d a p p l ic a tio n s
il su p p o rt th e s e w o rk s ta tio n s
h t c o u ld e a s y
e e de d t a
A n ew LAN m e d ia w as n
n e e ds
FD D I w as d e v e lo p e d to fıll th e s e
w o rk s
e r s to n e t
ic a tio n s fr o m la r g e c o m p u t
c r itic a l a p p ı s
h e lnternational o r g a n is a tio ı】
A N sI su b m itte d F D D I to t
ic a t io n ,
F D D I s p e c if
A fte r com p le tin g th e
an d sec o n d a r y F D D I r in g s
a ry
r in ı
iiìeure 2 3 3 th e c o u n te r r o ta tin g p
F a st Et he r ne t In ll tiv e te r m fo r a n u m b e r o
f Etbe rnet s ta n
c o m p u te r n e tw o r k in
g , fa s t Ethernet is a c o e c
c a r ry tr a ffic at th e n o m in a l r a te o f 1 0 0 M b it/s a a in s t th e o ń g in a l ethernet ps e e d o f 1 0 M b it/s O f th e 10
, g
ethernet d
s a n a r d s 1o o b a s e T x a d is s u p p o r te d b y
t (T = T w is te d p a ir c o p p e r ) is b y fa r th e m o s
' " t c o m m o n n
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d iffe r e n t fu n c tio n s s u c h a s te le p h o n e s n o te b o o k s , c o m p u te r s (d e s k to p a n d la p to p ) c a m e r a s p ń n te is a n d so o
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an
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a c b a lg o ń th m h a s a d iffe re n t m i p a c t o n
n e tw o r k a n d
3) D is ta n c e V e c to r R o u tin g
to u te r r e s o u rc e s
4) F lo o d B a s e d R o u tin g A lg o r ith m
Ħn a lı y ro u u n g a lg o r ith m s u s e a v a r ie ty
,
f
o n e
ı tn c s
a tio n o f o p tim a l r o u
h a l a ffe c t c a lc u ı
ı te s
Q u es 4) D e fin e th e r o u tin g ta b le
D ts ig n G o a ls o f R o u tin g A lg o r ith m s A n s R o u tin g T a b le

O p tim a lity O p tim a lity r e fe rs to th e c a p a b ilit o f th e R 山 a t s to
y o u ū n g ra b le is a n e le c tr o n ic d o c u m en t re s r o u te s
to u u n g a lg o ń th m to s e le c t th e b e st ro u te , w h ic h to v a r io u s n o d e s in a c o m p u te r n e tw o r k ay T he n o des m
de p e n d s o n th e m e tr ic s an d m e tr ic w e ig h tin g s u se d to be k i d f l t i d i t d to th e n e tw o r k
an y n o e e c ro n c ev ce co n n e c e
m a k e th e c a lc u ı
a t ıo n
T he r o u tin g ta b le is u s u a lly s to r e d in a r o u te r o r n e tw o r k e d
com p u te r in th e fo r m o f a d a ta b a s e or İ ile
F o r e x a m p le , o n e ro u tin g a ıg o rith m m a y u s e a n u m b e r
o f h o p s a n d d e la y s B u t it m a y w e ig h d e l r m o r e
a
c a v ity in tlıe c a lc u la tio n N a tu r a ı 1y r o u ū n g p ro to c o ls
,
m u s t d e fin e ¸ e ir m e u ic c a lc u la t io n a lg o r ith m s s tr ic tly
2) S im p lic î tj a n d L o w O v e r h e a d R o u tin g a lg o r ith m s

aı s o a re d e s ig n e d 【 o b e a s s im p le a s p o s s ib le In o th e r F ig u r e 3 1 rro r m a t o f
w o td s e ro u ū n g a ]g o ń tıu n m u st o« er its R o u tin g T a b le
fu n c ū o n a ıity e ffic ie n tly , w ith a m in im u m o f s o ftw a r e
W h e n d a ta n ee d s to b e se n t fr o m o n e no d e to a n o th e r o n
a ıı d u ū lis a ū o n o v e r h e a d E ffic ie n c y is p a r tic u la r ı y
th e n e tw o r k th e r o u tin g ta b ı e is r e fe r r e d to in o r d e r to fin d
im p o rta n t w h e n th e s o ftw a r e im p le m e n tin g th e ro u tin g
th e b e s t p o s s ib le r o u te fo r th e tr a n s fe r o f in fo rm a ū o n
a lg o ń th m m u s t ru n on a c o m p u te r w ith lim ite d
ph y s iċ a l r e s o u rc e s
T he tin g ta b le c o n s is ts f le a s t th r e e in fo
ro u o at rm a ĺ io n
31 R o b u s m ess an d S ta b iliw R o u tin g a ı g o ń th m s m u s t fie ld s
b e ro b u s t w h ic h m e a n s th a t th e y s o u ld p e rfo rm
h 1) N e tw o r k ID ie ,
1h e d e s tin a tio n n e tw o r k id
m m cı ly m th e fa c e o f u n u s u a l o r u n fo r e s e e n 2) C o st ie h e c o s t o r m e tr ic o f th e p a th
u re s h ig h lo a d
【 though w h ic h
c u c» m s la n e c s s u c h a s h a r d w a r e fa iı ,
th e p a c k e t is to b e s e n t
m ditio n s An d u ı c o r r e c t ım p ı e m e n ta tio n s B e c a u se
he y c an
3) N e x t H o p T h e n e x t h o p , o r g a te w a y Is th e a d ¸ e s s o f
ro u ie ls a r e lo c a te d a t n e tw o r k ju n c tio n p o i n t s t ,
,
th e n e x t s ta tio n to w h ic h th e p a c k e t is to b e s e n t o
e m s w h e n th e y a f il T h e be s t n
c a u s e c o n s id e r a b le
pro b ı th e w a y to its fin a l d e s tin a ū o n
h t ha v w ith s to o d
g o r ith m s a re o fıe n th o s e t a
n j aı e
t b l e u n de r a
e s t o f tım e a n d th a t h a v e p r o v e n s a
Q u es 5) E xpı
a in th e O p tim a lity P r in c ip le
n e ty if Ŕı e tw o r k c o n d itio n s
ld C In a d d iū o n r o u ti n g a lg o r ith m s A n s O p tim a \ity P r in c ip le

o n v e rge n c e ,
o n v e r g e n c e is
th e p r o c e s s o f O p tim a lity p ń n c ip le s la te s th a t iF r o u te r J is o n th e o t
» n le r g e r a p id ly C p m
n bv 11 r o u te rs on o i a l r o u te s W n e n a
pt m p a th fro m r o u te r 1 to r o u te r K th e n th e o p tim a p a th n
re n t ç a u e s r o u te s to e ith e r go d o w n o r to K o ls o fa ı ls a lo n g 1h e s a m e r o u te
r ib u tc
d is ı n u tin g u p d a te
r o u te r s
n rk s ti u la t T o se e M ijl ,
ll tb e p a &
ca o f th e E tl
th ą t pe a n e a t( O e trw\
re s t o f tl II
o u [e r i lte b
o p ti uı n
m it c o u ld b e c
th R (
ro 미 博天 co
opü ìa l
a d y n a m ic p r o g r a n a m ın g t i k
su g g e s ts l neq m
c e fr o m s to a ı
th e d iś ta n
o n e
ie th e m
s to f e
to d t h e s h o r te s t p a tb to m o xĮ
to S, o \s , s) U
p a th fr o
m S
T he s h o r te s t
th e s m a lle s t e d g e in c id e n
w e ig h ts a re p s itiv e ,
o
x ), d e fin es d (s , x )
to r e th e le n g th o f th e s h o r te
A n y is u s e d to s
am
l i a c h to 1 to s ta r t
S o o n a s th e
i
e a c h n o d e In it a z e e
f o m s to a n e w n o d e x , g o
p a th is e s h ıb lis h e d r
to s e e if th e r e is a b e lt
e a c h o f its in c id e n t e d g e s
fr o m s to o th e r n o d e s th r o u g h x
S te p s D ijk s tr a A lg o r ith m
kn o w n - (s j
fo r i - 1 to n ,
d is t[i] = =
fo r eac h e dge (s v ) d is [tv ] = d (s

, ,
v )
(b )
F ig u 3 2 ]a s t= s
re (a ) A S u b n et (b ) A S in k T fo r R
ree o u te r B
w h ile (la s t # t)
A S a d ir e c t c o n se s e le c t v s u c h th a t d is t(v ) = in . . K n . - D is t(i)
qu en ce o f th e op tim a lity p r in c ip le w e
m
c an s e e th a t th e s e t o f o p tim a l ro u te s fr o m a ll s o u r c e s to a fo r e ac h (v .
x ) d is tt×]
,
= m in (d is tf× ], d is ttv 】
+ w (v
g i v e n d e s tin a tio n fo r m a tr e e r o o te d t h
a t e d ç s tin a tio n la s t = v
S u c h a ir ç e is c a lle d a s in k
tr e e a n d js illu s tr a te d in fi u r e
5 1 , w h e r e th e d is ta n c e m e tr i i g kn o w n - kn o w n U {v )
c s th e n u m b e r o f h o
p S in k
tr e e is n o t n e c e s s a r il u i
y n que o th e r tr e e s w ith th e s a m e
F o r ex a m pı
e, c o n s id e r lig u re 3 3 in w h ic h
p a th le n g th s m a y e x is t T h e g o a l o f a ll r o u tin a l s o u rc e s
g g o r ith m s le ħm o s t v e r te x T he s h o r te s t
Ĵ s to d is c o v e r a n d u s e th e s in k t e
r e s fo r a ll r o u te r s
p a th e s ū m a te s a r e s h o
w jth in th e v e r tic e s a n d s h a d e d e d e s in d ic a t
, g e p r e d e c e ss
v a lu e s B la c k v e r tic e s a r e in th e
Q u es6) D is c u s s th e s h o r te s t s e í S a n d w h ite v e rti
p a th r o tin g
,
u A ı
so a l e in th e ı
n in p ń o r ity q u e u e Q = V
ex pı
a in th e D ijk s tr a ' s A ıo ith S
g r m in d e ta il
A n s S h o r te s t P a th R o u tin
g
S h o r te s t P a th R o u tin g is s u ite d fo r s ta ti
c r o u tin g A
p a th
s e le c te d c a n b e c a lle d s h o r te s t i 10
n m a n y c o n te x ts ]f o n e
s e le c ts c o s t a s e rite n a 山e n th e s h o t
r e s t p a th is th e r o u te
w h ic h is le a s t e x e n s iv e If d is ta n c e is th e c r ite r ia f 9
p o r
d e te r m in in g s h o r te s t p a th th e n m in im u m l
S 0 2 3 4
e n g th p a th is
ta k e n jn to c o n s id e r a tio n
If tim e is th e c ń te r ia th e n th e p a th w h ic h ta k e s le a s t tim e
to r e a c h th e d e s tin a tio n is lle d s h o r te s t
ca
p a th O n e c a n u s e
an yon e o f th e fo llo w in g s h o r te s t p a th r o u tin a l o r ith
g g m s
y Z
D lj N g o r illım (a )
In th is a lg o r itlım th e c ń ûer ia fo r s h o r te s t
p a th is d is ta n c e
A ll d is ta n c e s b e m g k n o w n In th is m e th d
o th e s h o r te s t
p a ¸ w ith r e s p e c t 【o d is ta n c e is lo o k e d fo r fr o m s o u 10
rc e to
d e s i ıi o n T h rs is a ls o c a Jle d m i
u m um
ı c o st o r L ea s !
ç o s t a lg o r ith m
S
3 4
r tı a m e d to a c t a s r o u te r s a n d e dges act as
ni D i tr a ' Jg o ń th r is u s ė d to fin d th e
7
U ' "rt '" e s s a n d [ in G 5
T h e p ń n c ip Je be h in d
Dikstra' s a lg o r ith m ıs ıJı
t is th e s h o rt e s t a th f
p ro m s to t th e n s
,
be th e h . .
X i
°
S le p 3 $o th e s h o r ıe s t d i " he res u t i$
ı 2) "
s【a n c e i' ' " 【
sam e a s in D ijiæ tn ı' s a l o r ith m
pac k
g e ts
c a lle d ec bo
lie s its r e c e n t k n o w le d
白白 Į m m e a a te ly p p
a
3) n c a p s u la te s
t w h ic h e
linstate p a c k e . th e p a c k e t Io
an d se n ds (b ro a d c a s ts )
s
d is c o v e r e d r o u te r
h o r te s t p a th to e v e r y o th e r ro la
C o m p u te s th e s
a n d u p d a te ś \
th a lg o r it n ı
h
th e s h o r te s t p a
r o u tin g ta b le
fre s h L in k S ta te P a c k e ts ł
5) Im m e d ia te ly fo r m s
Q u es 8) E x p la in lin k a n d e x e c u te s
lin k s ta te b r o a d c a s t T h is is s o Jh :ı
i
s ta
g o r ith m
t e r o u tin g a ı
lı d n o d d in g
c a lle d c o n r
t o e
A n s L in k S ta te R o u ti
n g A ı o r ith m
g
In th is a lg o ń [h m E x c h a tïh e D is ta n q e V e c to r RouH
n g e o f th e lin k s la te
p a c k e ts o v e r Q u es 9) D e s c r ib e
th e s u b n e t h o ld k e
y Io fa c iı ita t in g th e ro u tin g p r o c e s s In A ı
g o r ith m in d e ta il
th is a lg o r ith m n e tw o r k O r
, to p o lo g y a n d lin k c o s Ts a r e
e sı u b a te d b
y m a k in g e a c h n o d e b r o a d c a s t w h a t is re fe n e d th b le m s o cc u rr e d in d is ta n ce
D is c u s s e p ro v eo
1o as
'
lin k s ta te
p a c k e ts c a r r y in g id e n titie s of r o u tin g
諡ズ
；高二
'
an d
艾
'
.' " 。。 ' ts ・・ s o h . '" ・
A n s D is ta n c e V e c to r R o u tin g A ı g o r ith m
J . L D is ta n c e V e c to r R o u tin g (D V R ) is a ls o k n o w n
B e lım a n F o r d o r F o r d F u lk e r s o n r o u tin g a ]g o r iı
It is th e o r ig in a l d y n am ic r o u tin g a lg o ń th m u se d
W ,
9
10
D e
H " ^ e rs tw h ile A R P A N E T
6
T h is schem e m ay be ex p re s s e d a s
E D
7 1) E ac h ro u te r k n o w s /d is c o v e r s its d is ta n ce fr o m
i
ne g h b o u rs
2) E h c a lly m a in ta in s a r o u tin
lo
A ac r o u te r
g ta ble
by an fo r e v e ry o th e r r o u te r in th e s u b n
e n tr y
60 id e n tific a tio n o f a p r e fe r r e d n e i h b o u r llin k l d

g ea
th a t r o ı
B 1 7 ıte r ,
E 1 5 3) m e tr ic o f e s tim a tio n m a y v a ry f o r e x a m p le , it
be an y o ne o f p h y s ic a l d is ta n ce h o p s , d e la y , e tc .
,
D e s tin a tio n L in k I t hop
ex 4) P e ń o d ic ą 11y h
(r o u te r ) cost fr o u te r i
, eac ro u te r se n ds a v e c to r
cou n t n e ig h b o u ń n
A O g ro u te r s A s th is v e c to r co
A
e s th n a te d d is ta n it is
B
ces, c a lle d a d is ta n c e v e c to r
7 B
5) O n re c e ip t f H
C 15 B o su c v m to rs fr o m its ig h b o u r s
2 n e ,
e
r o u le r r e v is e s its
D ]2 j E 2
e s tim a te s an d u p d a te s its
ro u tin g ta b le
E 5 1 E
P r o b le m s in D is ta n c e V
e c to r R o u tin
T h c p r o b le m g
w h ic h a r is e s in th e D is ta n e e
A ı g o r ith m s is g iv e n b e lo w
F ig u r e 3 A S tr u c tu r e o f a Linkıate p iı k
l) C O u n t to I n fin it P
c ￠ı y ro bı em C o n s id e r a r o tıte
R o u lfn g T * b lc a n d P a c lte t B u M e
r (a t r o u ı
,
b e s t r o u te to d e s ti
er A ) n a ńo n X į s ı
a rg e If o n
e x c ha n e n e i hb
g g o u r A s u d d e n ly r e o r ts a
to X , th e ro u te r u s t p
n ı
e ba 1c '" e a in v o lv e s U re J s w itc b e s o e
co m p u ta Į io n o r th e ı o c al y r to
ta b le by A to s e n d tra ffic to
◆ ng each r o u te r on th e b a s is o f ]ts o w n X
m d th e s im ila r Jin k s ta te b ro a d c a s ts re c e iv e d
山e b rıe ı In o n e v e c tq r e x c h
u a n g e , th e
C o n id e r th fiv e
n o de I
ry h e Ę th ĺ d e l ly m e t
u E a c h r o u te i fo llo \ m l th i a ı
g o r ith m S U P O s( A
rs 【 d n e tw ( a d dr e se s
山
:lce
aı to
B C D
P r o rĤ this fig u re , it is c le tu n o
m o r e th a n o n e h ig h e r n th
n e ig h b o u r s G r a d u a lly , a ı
ıū ıe ro u te
u p to in fı n ity , b u t th e n u m b e r o f ìa ırg
d e p e n d s o n th e n u m e r ic a l v a lu e u se d ,o r
4 c x c hm th is re a s o n , it is w is e to s e t in fin ity to th e ı o n łc
(a ) ge
pı u s 1 If th e m e tr ic iś tim e đe la y th e r e ı s n c w e
,
A B C D d e fin e d ų p p e r b o u n d , s o a h ig h v a lu e is n e e d e
E
p r e v e n t a p a th w ith a lo n g d e la y fr d m b e in g tie a te d
ı 2 3 d o w n T h is p ro b le m is k n o w n a s th e c o u n t to in fin ity
4 In itia ll
3 2 y
3 p r o b le m
3 4 3 4 a fte r 2
4 5 d .
e x c ha n
ge 2 ) S p lit H o r iz o n H a c k T ]ıe s p LIt h o n z o n a lg o ń tb
'" r 3 e xcha n
6 5 ge w o r k s th e s a m e w a y a s d is ta n c e v e c to r r o u tin g E x c e p t .
7 6 7 6 A fte r 5 th a t th e d is ta n c e to X is n o t re p o r te d o n th e lin e th a t
e xchan
7 8 7 8 ge
A 【ie r 6 e x c h an
ge p a c k e ts fo r X a re s e n t o n (a c tu a lı y it is r e p o r te d a s
,
in fın ity )
(b )
F ig u re 3 S C ou n t to in fin it p T
y o b le m
In in iti̧
th e s ta te o F a b o v e ħg u r e 3 5 (b ), fo r
ex a m p le , C te lls D th e tr u th a b o u t th e d is ta n c e to A .
W hen A co m es u p th e o th e r r o u te r s learn a b
,
o u t it v ia b u t C te lls B th a t its d is ta n c e to A is in fin itę
th e h a n g e s F o r s im lic it
v e c to r e x c
p y a s s u ın e th a t th e r e S im ila r ly D te lls th e tr u th to E b u t lie s to C
1s (v e ry b ig warn ing b e ll) s o m Ħ v h e r e th
,
a t is s tr u c k
p e ń o ď c a lly to in itia te a v e c to r e x c h a n g e a t a ll ro u te rs O n th ė fu g e , B d is c o v e r s th a t th e d ir e c t 】
st e x c han ln e
s im u lta n e o u s ı
y A t th e tim e o f th e firs t e x c h a n e B is g o n e a n d C is r e p o r tin g a n in fın ite d is ta n c e to A a s
g , ,
learns th a t its le ft n e ig h b o u r h a s z e ro d e la to A B n o w w e ll S in c e n e ith e r o f its n e ig h b o u ï s c a n g e t t o A B

y .
m a k e s a n e n tr y in its ro u tin g ta b le th a t A is o n e h s e ts its d is ta n c e to in fin ity a s w e u O n th e n e x t

op
a w a y to th e le ft A U th e o th e r ro u te r s s till th in k th a t A e x c h a n g e C h e a r s th a t A is u n r e a c h a b le fr o m b o th o f
,
is d o w n A t th is p o in t th e r o u tin g ta b le e n tr ie s fo r A
,
its n e ig h b o u r s , s o it m a r k s A a s u n r e a c h a b le to o
a re a s s h o w n in th e s e c o n d r o w o f th e ū g u r e 3 5 (a )
U s in g s p lit h o r iz o n tlıe bad n ew s p r o p a g a te s o n e lıo p
O n th e n ext exc h a n g e , C learns th a t B h a s a p a th o f p e r e x c h a n g e T h is r a te is ın u c h b e tte r th a iı w ith o u t
le n g th 1 to A i u p d a te s its r o u tin g ta b le to in dic a te a

so a lth o u g h w id e ly u s e d ,
s p lit h o r iz o n T h e s p lit h o r iz o n ,
,
a lh o f le n g th 2 b u t D an d E do n o t hear e go o d n e w s s o m e tim e s fa ils fo r e x a m p le , th e fo u r

C o n s id e r ,
p ,
e r C le a r ly , th e g o o d n e w s is s p r e a d in g a t th e ra te
u n til la ı n o d e s u b n e t o f F ig u r e 3 6 In itia lly , b o th A a n đ B
o f o n e h o p p e r e x c h a n g e In a s u b n e t w h o se lo n g e s t p a ¸
h a v e a d is ta n c e 2 to D a n d C h a s a d is ta n c e 1 th e r e
.
is o f le n g th N h o p s w ith in N e x c h a n g e s e v e ry o n e w ill
,
N o w s u p p o s e th a t th e C D lin e g o e s d o w n U s in g s p lit
kn o w a b o u t n e w ly r e v iv e d lin e s a n d ro u te r s
h o ń z o n b o th A a n d B te ll C th a t th e y c a n n o t g e t to D
,
h ic h a ll T h u s C im m e d ia te ly c o n c lu d e s th a t D is u n r e a c h a b le
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a lg o ń th m In fa c Ļ it is n o th in g o th e r th a n a s in g le s e r v e r q u e u in g s y s te m w ith c o n s ta n t s e r v ic e tim e T h is m e c h a iu s m
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Ĥ o w o f p a c k e ts o n to th e n e tw o d c
h in g o u t bu r s ts a n d g r e a tly re d u c in g th e chan ce s o f c o n g e s tio n
s m ooı
k t l ith m is T h e le a k y b u c k e t c o n s is ts o f a fin ite q u e u e W n e n a p a c k e

g th e o ń g in a l le a k y b u c e a g o r
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,
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b u r s ts , o n e 4
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2) T ke n B u cke t A l t u t pattern
ce t a lg o r ith m e n fo r c e s a rig id o u p
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y pp
a
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e x ib le a l o r ith m is n e e d e d ł p re fe r a b l o n e th a t n e v e r lo s e
s d a ta
b u c k e t a lg o r itb g y l c k a t th e
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d by a c o
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F ig u re 4 5 T o ke n B u c k e t A ]g o r lt h ı (a ) B e fo r q (b ) A lle r
T ħe le a k y b u c k e t a l o r ith m d
g s to s a v e u p p e rm is s io n to s e n d la r g e b u 【s ts la te r T h e to k e
o e s n o t a llo w id le h o s ı
aı g o r ith m d o e s a llo w s a v in g u p to th e m a x im u m s iz e o f th e b u c k e t n T h is
, p r o p e m e a n s th a t b u m ts o f u p to n
c a n b e s e n t a t o n c e a llo w i
n g s o m e b u rs tin e s s in th e o u
,
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A n o th e r d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n th e t
w o a lg o r ith m s is th a t th e to k e n b u c k e t a l o ń th m th r o w s a w a y to k e n s w h e n th e
g
ills u p b u t n e v e r d is c a r d s a c k e ts In c t t h l k
p o n ra s t e e a y b u c k e t a lg o rith m d is c a rd s p a c k e ts w h e n th e b u c k e t fills u
,
p
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r iy a l "
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F ig u re 4 6 T o ken B uc ke t
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, c a p a c ity
C b y te s th e to k e n a r r iv a l r
a te p b y te s /s e c a n d
m ax im u m o u tp u t r a te M b y te s /s e c , w e s e e th a t a n o u t u t ,
p b u rs t
c o n ta in s a m a x im u
m of C + S b y te s W e a ls o k
th a t th e ıru m b e r o f b y te s in a M a x im u m s p e e d b p Fs t o f le n th S s
p
g e c o n d s in M S H e n c
e w e ha v e
C + PS - M S
W e can s o lv e th is e q u a tio n to g e t S . C /(M p) P o r o ur pa ra m e te r s o fC 250 K B M

M B /s e c , w e g e t a b u r s t tim e o f a bo u t 11 m se c
.
,
. 2 5 M B /s e c . An d p
Q u es 4 ) W n a t is d iffe r e n ce b e tw een T o ke n bu cke t a n d ı

e a k y b u c k e t a l o r ith
g m ?
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e a k y B u c k e t a ıo r ith
T h e d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n to k e n b u c k e t a d l g m
n e a k y b u c k e t a l o ith
g r m is g iv e n b e lo w
T a b le 4 l D iffer e n c e b e tw e
e n T o k e n B u c ke t a n d
L e a k y B u c k e t A l o r it
T o k e n B u c k e t A ıo r ith g hm
g m
L e a lq B u c k e t A l o r it
de p e n d e n t g hm
læ b u c k e t is fu lılo k e n
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Em
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I W to d e s tin a ti
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ie c ds
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the ı e d by
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ermine th e u y p a ra m
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te r is tic s
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ll fo u r ty p e s o f c h a r a c te ń s tic s a r e
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de g re e s ln th is c a s e te le p h o n y a u d io c o n fe r e n c in g
, ,
,
v id e o c o n fe r e n c in g a n d r e m o te lo g in n e e d m in im u m d e la yłw
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de la y in file u a ııs fe r o r e m a il is le s s im p o r ta n t
Jltte r Jitte r is th e v a r ia tio n in d e la y fo r p a c k e ts b e lo n g in to th e s a m e n o w

g For exam p le , if fo ur p a c k e ts d e p a r t a t
tim es 0 1 2
, ,
an d 3 an d a r r iv e a t 2 0 2 1 2 2 a n d 2 3 a ll h a v e th e s a m e d e la y 2 0
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m ean s ı iıe v a r ia tio n is sm a ll
fe r e n c in g n eed to s e n d io n s o f
ilı
p p tic a ū o n s n e e d d iffe r e ııt b a n d w id th s I n v id e o
m
4) B a lıd w id P D iffe re n t a co n on e
e m a il m a y n o t re a c h iu io n
a c o lo u r s c r e e n w H le th e to ta l n u m b e r o f b its in
ev en a m
bits p e r se c o n d to f
re res h an
Q o e s 6 ) W ıia t a r e tlıe d iffe r e n t Q os a ttń b u te s ?
A n s Q o s A ttr ib u te s
r ib u te s c a n b e c la s s ifie d in to t w
th e a iı o j
m a o r c a te g o r ie s a s b e lo w
d in th e th a t th e y d e fin e h o w fa s t a u se r
a l e r e la te d to th e en u se r se n se
ı) U s e r R e la te d A ttr ib u te s T h e s e a ttr ib u te s
w a n ts to s e n d/r e c e iv e ¸ ta
b th e u s e r a n d th e n e tw o r k s e r v ic e
d th e tim e o f tlıe c o n tr a c t e tw e e n
tia te d a n d d e fin e
at
Th e se a b u t e s a fe n ego
p m v id e r
T a ble 4 2 s u m m a r is e s u s e r re ta
te d a ttr ib u tę s
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e
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y l c ir c u it a t a n
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T h e r e is n o n o tio n o f a v ir tu a
p to o n e c o n n e c tio n to tra v e
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h
s a m e s e q u e n c e o f a te w a
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t a ffic a t th e m o m e n t th e p a c
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p a ra te ly fo r e a c p a c
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h th e c o n c a te n a te d v i n w e b
s e n t T h is s tr a te g y c a n u s e m u lū ı d h
p e ro u te s a n t u s a c
b İ e v e a h ig h e r b a n d w id th t a n
ū n in o r d e r , x s u m in g tb u
m o d e l O n U re o th e r h a n d th e r e ıs n o k iv e a t th e d e s tin a o
, g u a r a n te e th a t th e p a c e ts a r r
a r r iv e a t a ll
P ro bı
en ı
s in C I n te r n e tw o r k in g
o n n e c tio n le s s
i) C o n v e r s io n If e a c h n e tw o r k h a s its o w n n e tw o r k la y e r p r o to c o l, it is ııo t p o s s ib le fo r a p a c k e t fr o m o n e n e w . .
[o tr a n s it a n o th e r o n e M u ltip r o to c o l ro u te rs tr ie s to tr a n s la te fro m o n e fo r m a t to a n o th e r b u t s u c h c o n v e
,
w ilıa lw a y s b e in c o m p le te a n d o fte n m o v e to fa ilu r e u n le s s th e tw o fo r m a ts a re c lo s e re la tı v e s w ith th e .

in fo r m a tio n fie ld s P o r th is r e a s o n c o n v e rs io n is r a re ly a tte m p te d
. ,
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y g to s e n d a n IP p a c k e t to a h o s t o n a n a d jo
O S I n e tw o r k T h e O S I d a a g ra m p ro to c o l P r o b ı
t e m is th a t IP p a c k e ts a ll c a r r
y th e 3 2 b it Internet a d d r e s s o f
d e s tin a tio n h o s t in a h e a d e r fie ld O S I h o s ts d o n o t h a v e 3 2 b it Internet a d h e s s e s T h e
y u s e d e c im a l a d d r es
s im ila r ro te le p h o n e n u m b e rs
Q 9 ) W h a t is tu u ıe lin g ? W h a t is th e d fN eed o fT u n n e lin

u es ı n ee o
g?
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T li i a w a y in w h ic h d a ta is tr a n s fe n e d b e tw e e n tw o n e tw o r k s s e c u r e l
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fr a g m e n te d in o s m a lle r p a c k e ts o r fra m e s a n d th e n p a s s e d th ro u g h th e tu n n e l T h is
t
p r o c e s s īs d iffe r e n t fr o m a ııo rm a ıd a
tr a n s fe r b e tw e e n n o d e s
E v e ry fr a m e p a s s in g th ro u g h th e tu n n e l w ill b e e n c ry p te d w ith a n a d d itio n a l l

a y e r o f tu n n e ı
in g e n c ry p ū o n a
e n c a p s u la tio n w h ic h is a ls o u s e d fo r r o u tin g th e p a c k e ts to th e ń h t d ir e c tio
g n T h is e n c a s u la tio ı
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n n e an d th e d e s tin a tio n e n d p o in ß b e tw e e n t
w o ııe t w o r k s E v e ry p a c
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tu n n e l is p e rs is te n t b e tw e e n th e tw o e n d p o in ts
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c o m m o n s \ c ia l c a s e th a t is m a n a e a b le T h is
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n e tw o rk b u t th e re is a d iffe r e n t n e tw o r k in betwen
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】
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u ltip r o to c o ï r o u te rs T h is g iv e s a tw o le v e l r o u go
y p r o to c o ıis u s e d b u t b e t q e e n t o n e tw o «
T w o le v e ır o u tin g a ı o r ith m in l h
g m ea n s w ith in e a c h n e tw o r k a n te n o r g a te w a ,
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ı d o f n Į l t h e o th t is Q l
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r e fe r r e d to a s a n A u to n o m o u
s S s te m y (A S )
A ty p ic a l internet p a c k e t s la r ıs o u t o n its L A N a d d r e s s e d to th c ı o c a l m u ltip r o to c o l ro u te r (in th c M A C ln y e r h e zı d c ŕ) A
it g e ts th e r e th e n e tw o r k ı
, a y e r c o d e d e c id e s w h ic h m u ı tip r o to c o ım u te r to fo n v a rd th e p i\c k e t to u s in g its o w n lų .
ta b le s If th a i ro u le r c a n b e r e a c h e d
u s in g th e p a c k e t s n a tiv e n e tw o r k p r o to c o l it is f w w a n ı e đth e r e t lir e c tly Q th e r w
is tu n n e le d th e r e e n c a s u la te d jn th c ro to c o l r e u ire d b th e in tc r v e ru n g n e tw o r k T h is p r o c e s s is r o p e iıte d u n tu
, p p q y
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n e tw o r k a s in g le c h a r in ie s H o w e v e r d iffe m n t n e tw o r k s m a y b e u n d e r d İ fEe re n t m a n a g ￠=oB
g g a lg o r ith m n o rm a lı y app ı
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p
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Q u es 1 2 ) W h a t is fr a g n ıe n ta tio n ?
O r
W ıa t a r e th e d iH e r e n t fh r m e n ta tio n
g s t r a te g ie s ?
A n s F r a g m e n ta tio n
F ī a g m e n ra tio n lite r a lly m e a n s th e b r e ıï k in g f d a ta in to lle r p a c k e ts T h e m a x im u m
u p o sm a
p a c k e t s iz e i& d e p e iıd e n t
v a r io u s fa c to r s lik e
1) W id th o f T D M s lo t
2 ) P ro to c o ls u s e d
3) T y p e s o f o p e r a tin g s y s te m
4) International s ta n d a rd s
5) E ffo r ts to r e d u c e r e tr a n s m is s io n
6) D e s ir e 【o a v o id [h e s a m e p a c k e 【o c c u py th e h a n n e l fo r to o lo n g
W hen a la r g e p a c k e t w
a n ts to ır a v e l in th e n e tw o r k fo r lo n
g b u t its m a x im u m p a c k e t s iz e is to o s m a ll th e n th e r e is a Ęp h
The s o lu tio n to th is p
p r o b le m is fr a g m e n ta tio n In S techque g a te w a y s b r e a k p a c ke ts u p in to fr a g m c B ts , a n d s e n d in ł
fra g m e n t a s a s e p a ra te internet a c k e t H o w e v e r c o n v e M
p n g a la r g e o b je c t in to s m a ll fia m e n ts is c o n s id
,
g e ia b ı
e i e r ha
o tb e r w a y R o u n d P a c k e t s w itc lıin g n e tw o r k s a ls o fa c e tr o u b le in u ttin th e fr a m e n ts b a c k
p g g to g e th e r a g a i
n
S tr a te g ie s o f F r a g m e n ta tio n
T h e re a r e s tr a te g ie s th a t t e e o m b in e th f
e r a g m e n ts b a c k in to [h e o r i in n 】 a c k e t
g p
1) ı aiı sparent F r a g m e n ta tio n s tr a te g y is [o m a k e fta g in e n th tio n c a u s e d b a s a ll a k
y p c e t n e tw o rk u u n s p iu e n
"
m
s u b s e q u e n t n e tw o r k s ı
h r o u g h w hic h th e a c k e t a s s e s o n its w a
p p y ţ o e fin a l d e s tin a tio n 1 ħis is s h o w 1ıin F iE t】
W n e n a n o v e r s iz e d a c k e t
p c o m e s a t a g a te w a
y , th e g a te w a y b re a k s it u p in to fr a g m e n ts E a c h fr a g m dn t ıs a «
tile s a m e e x it a te w a
g y, w h e r e th e p ie c e s a re r e a s s e m b le d In th is
w a y p a s s a g e th r o u h th e s « ı
m ade g a ll p ￠«
s p e n e S u b s e q u e n t n e tw o r k s a r e m ) t e v e n a w a r e o f fm m e n ta u o n
g
亡当趟鞴動崮
G
鑿
,
鋤鲻 ıg m e n a lm g e G
亡コー
z re a sse m b le s th e
P a ck e t G J fra g m e m s a g a in o4ūśsembles
【
ra g m e n ïs a g a in
F ie u re 4 14 T ra n su a ren tF ra em e n ta tio n
N on T ra n spa r en t agmentation s tr a ł
e g y is O ń in a t
t A ll fr a g m e n ts a r e th e n p a s s e d th r o
n ce a
p a c k e t h a s b e e n fr a g m e ńte d to t【e a t e a c h fr a g m e n t a n o g
pa c k e u g h th e e x it g a te w a y , a s s h o w n in F ig u r e 4 1 5 R e a s s e m b ly ta k e s p la c e o n ly
ti a tio n h o s t
a t th e d e s n
C5 m B
? ,
N E T W O R K LA Y E R ıN ıN T E R N E T
tr o d
o n e s 13 ) G iv e th e in u c tio n o f T C P H P p r o to co l?
A n s T C P /ı P P r o to c o l S u ite
r a n s m is s io n C o n tr o l P r o to c o l/Internet p r o to ç o ı(T C p /Ip ) w a s o r ig in a lly d e v e lo p e d b y th e D e p a r
m ıe n t o f D e fe n s e
T he ı
h fa c to s t a n d a r d fo r
(D o D ) fo r c o m m u n ic a tio n s b e tw e e n c o m p u te r s It is b u ilt in to th e U M x s y s te m a n d h a s b e c o m e e
t ¸
i ll d i d f r a la r g e n e t w o r k
¸ ta tr a n s m i s s io n o v e r n e t w o r k s in c lu d in g th e 】 n te m e t T h e T C p /Ip p r o to c o ls w e r e o ń g n a y es g n e o
i i d ń ū e p e ń o d s T h is
th a t s e r v e d a s a c la s s ifie d D o p p r o je c t d e s ig n e
d to m a in ta in o p e n c o n u n u n c a o s t n e v e n u n g w a r m
b y a b r a n c h o f th e D D k A d d R h P j t A c y (A R P A ) T h is
c la s s ilie d p ro je c t w a s u n d e r ta e n
k o n ow n as v a n c e e s e a r c r o e c s g e n
i h h d f U i d t h d f li t/ s v e r n e tw o r k in g
as A R P A N et W t e a v a n c e m e n t o c e n e r
】 t t e a v en o n x a n
p ro je c t b e c a m e c o o w n P h l d s th e lnternet
8 0 d i i k h Internet T h T C P U o
a rc h ite c tu r e A R p A N e t w a s d e c la s s ifıe d n t e
i h s a n t s n o w n o w n a s t e e
s is a s u l te o f
.
l T h T C P /1P tó c ] s u ite a l s o k n o w u a s th e internet P r o to c o l

to g e th e r is th e n e tw o r k la y e r p r o to c o
e p r o o
b ta s k fo r th e u s e r
in d u s u y s ta n d a r d p r o to c o ls a n d c a n h a n d le ju s t a o u a y
t n
o rk
F ie u r e 4 ı(i T C P /W N e tw
i o t p ro p r ie ta r y to a n y p a n y , it is s u ita b le w ith an y n e tw o r k
th e fa c t th a t it s n
co m
n a te s fr o m
T he p o p u ı a rity o f T C p I1p e m a i t a la rg e Internet w o rk
u ltip le L A N s n o
co n n ect m
s o ftw a r e o r e u i m e n t, a n d o n e c a n
q p
iv e th e fr a m e fo r m a t o f IP ?
r o to c o l (Ip )? A ls o g
Q u es 14 ) w n a t is in te r n et p
l ı d
r e a tin g e a c h pa çt in d e p e n e n t y
l A ls o ln te m e t p r o to c o ın
Jn o ń e n
te d p r o to c o ,
ı e t p r o to c o l ( )
a ce m Ip I ¸ t a g ra i i if th y d o n o t Internet p ro to c o l
d s tin a tio n o r to ta k e c o r r
s a e ct v e a c t o n e
k t a c h th e ir ç
ą m p t to d e te rm in e f p
tıe i a c e s r e
th e
ł
lowing fu n c tio n s
Į ) A g d r e s s in g
m r e ss ĉ is s Ï
1 12 6 ł 0
]2 8 ]9 1 l 10
19 2 223 1 t 10
it b e lo n g s to c la ss B
F o r ex aın p le , c o n s id e r a n 1p a d d re s s 17 2 3 1 1 2 Its fir s t o c te t is 1 7 2 , so ,
b le m s w ith c la s s fu l a d d r e s s in g s u c h a s a
2) C la s s le s s A d d r e s s in d d r e s s d e p le tio
g T h e r e w e r e c e r ta in p r o
n
o r g a n is a tio n a c c e s s to Internet T o o v e r c o m e th e s e p r o b le m s , c la s s fu l a d r e s s n g
d i is r e p la c e d w ith c ı ą s s le s s a d d
ı
A s th e n a m e o f th e a d d re s s in s c h e m e ĵ m p lie s , th e a d d r e s s e s a r e n o t d iv id e d in to c la s s e s ; h o w e v e r , th e y d
g
in to b lo c k s a n d th e s iz e o f b lo c k s v a r ie s a c c o r d in g to th e s iz e o f e n tiw to w h ic h th e a d ¸ e s s e s a r e to b e a llo c a t
e x a m p le , o n l a fe w a d d r e s e s m a ll a n is a tio n w h ile a la r g e r o r g a n is a tio n
y s y b e a llo c a te d to a v e r y s m a o rg rmy
th o u s a n d s o f a d ¸ e s s e s Ip v 6 a d d r e s s in i
g ĵ s a c la s s le s s a d ¸ e s s n g
T h e Internet a u th o ń tie s h a v e e n fo r c e d c e r ta in lim ita tjo n s o n c la s s le s s a d d r e s s b lo c k s to m a k e th e h a n d h n g

e a s ie r T h e s e lin ıita tio n s a r e a s fo llo w s
İ) T h e a d d r e s s e s o f a b lo c k m u s t b e c o n ti u o u s
g
ii) E a c h b lo c k m u s t h a v e a o w e r o f 2 th a t is 1 2 4 8 )n u m b e r o f a d dre s se s
p ( , , ,
iü ) T ħe fir s t a d d r e s s in a b lo c k m u s t b e e v e n l d iv is ib le b th e to ta l n u m b e r o f a d d r e s s e s in th a t b lo c k
y y
Q u es 16) W n a t is S u bn e t tin g ?
O r
W n a t is s u b n e t m a sk ?
A n s S u b n e ttin g
S u b n e ttin g is a u n iq u e a n d o w e r fu l fe a tu r e th a t is e x c lu s iv e to th e T C P /Ľ ?
p p r o to c o l a n d is o n e o f th e r e a s o n s T C p I
g r e a t s c a la b ility S u b n e ttin g a llo w s n e tw o r k a d d r e s s to b e fu r th e r d iv id e d a a r t flo m th e a h e a d
, p y e s ta b lis h e d
b o u n d a r ie s in to s m a lle r m o r e m a n a e a b Į e n e t w o r k s T h is d iv is i
g o n p r o v id e s fo r u n p a r a lle le d s c a la b ili
,
w a ııd M e r a r c
g iv e s a n e tw o r k a d m in is tr a to r b e n e fits s u c h a s r e d u c e d n e tw o r k tr a ffic le s s s u s c e tib ilit to b r o a d c
, p y a s t tr a ffic
o p tim is a tio n a n d g r e a te r e a s e o f m a n a g e m e n t F o r e x a m p le , if y o u w e r e to b o rr o w o n e b it f o m h
t e ho st po
C la s s B ı 1e tw o r k Y o u r s u b n e t m a s k w o u ld b e 2 5 5 2 5 5 1 2 8 0
R em em b e r y o u b o r r o w b its fr o m le ft to l i h t b u t th o s e b it o s itio
,
g p n s s tilıh o ld th e ir o r i in a l v a lu
,
g e s s o th e ū g h m
w o u ld b e v a lu e d a t 12 8 If y o u w a n te d to c r e a te fo u r s u b n e ts s u b n e t m a s k w o u ld r e a d 2 5 5 2 5 5 1 2
, y
o u r
9 be c a u se y
n o w b o n o w e d tw o b its o n e v a lu e d a t 1 2 8 a n d a n o th e r v a lu e d t 6 4
, a S o 12 8 + 6 4 - 1 9 2 ,
S u b n e t M a sk
T ħe r e a r e [w o p a r ts 【o th e IP a d d r e s s th e n e tw o r k o r tio n a n d th h
p , e o s t p o r tio n N o d ë a s s ig n e d th a t Ip a d ıir e
o th e r n o d e s th a t m u s t c o m m u n ic a te w ith it h a v e n ss as w e
o id e a o f th e 1ó c a tio n o f th e li
n e b e tw e e n h o s t a n d n t
t e a d ¸ e s s T h e s u bn e t m a s k
h e w o r k p o r tio
p r o v id e s th e a n s w e r to th is d ile m m a T h e s u b n e t m a s k fo ll
o w s th e Ip a d ¸ e s s d de t
lin e in d ic a tin g w h e r e th e n e tw o r k o r ū o n o f th e a d d r e a n
p s s e n d s a n d th e h o s t o r tio n b
e g in L ik e th e Ip a d d ie s s th e
p
m a s k is in a 4 o c te t 32 b y te fo rm a t ,
,
A n p le
ex a n ı o b n e t m a s k js 2 5 5 0 0 0
f a su a v a lu e f 2 55
o m e a n s m a tc h au E ach o f th e th r e e
c la s s e s has a d e fa u lt
s u bn e t m a s k
co n fig u ra b le
1) C la s s A 2 55 0 0 0
2) C la s s B 2 55 255 0 0
3) C la s s C 2 5 5 2 55 2 5 5 0
A T h e Jir s t b y te d e fm
n s
th e
es c la s s
1) C la s s A
2 ) C la s s D
tw o r k in g (M d u le 4 )
0 "
H In te rn e o
v
ī8) iP a d¸ e ss 17 2 3 ı 1 92
s ı6 6 a n d su b n e t ın
Q« a sk 2ss 255 2SS 248
,
w ıs u b n e l d o e s
h ic ı
d is 2 4 8
Ho st i 5 b it
u se s
Ł» it 5
2 . 32
ho s t =
s u b n e t n e tw o r k a d d r e s s 1 7 2 3 1 19 2
0
s u b n e t n e tw o r k a d d re s s 17 2 3 1 1 9 2
« 32
s u b n e t n e tw o r k a d d r e s s
md 17 2 3 1 ]9 2 6
4
Ū s u b n e t n e tw o r k a d d r e s s 17 2 3 1 1 9 2 %
IV
a su b n e t n e tw o rk a d dre s s ı7 2 3 1 19 2 2
v 1 8
b n e t n e tw o rk a d d re s s
vp su 1 7 2 3 1 19 2 16
0
v 1p su b n e t n e tw o rk a d dr e s s 17 2 3 1 19 2 19 2
su b n e t n e tw o rk a d¸ e ss 17 2 3 1 19 2 2 2 4
So th e IP a 山Jr e s s 7 2 3 1 1 9 2 1 6 6 lie s in th e V i'h

ı
su b n e t n e tw o r k th e n th e s u b n e t n e tw o rk is 17 2 3 1 1 9 2 16 0
Q u e s 19) E x p la in ıp v 4 w ith its d a ta g r a m fo r m a t?
A n s IP v 4 (in te m e t P r o to c o l V e r s io n 4 )
1e 】 n te m e t ĺ T o to c o l v e r s io n 4 (4 ) is th e d e liv e ry m e c h a n is m u se d b y th e T C p /Ip p ro to c o ls F ig u re 4 19 sho w s th e
po s iū o n o f IP v 4 in th e s u i te
4 is an u m e lia b le an d c o n n e c tio n le s s d a ta g r a m p r o to c o l a b e s t e fFo r t d e liv e ry s e r v ic e T h e te rm b e s t e ffo r t m e a n s a t

4 p ro v id e s n ö e r ro r c o n tr o lo rflo w c o n tro l (e x c e p t fo r e r r o r d e te c tio n o n th e h e a d e r ) IP v 4 a s s u m e s th e u n re lia b ility o f
e u n d e r ly in g la y e r s an d do es its b e s t to g e t a tr a n s Ħis s io n th r o u g h to its d e s tin a tio n b u t w ith n o g u a ra n te e s ,
。
環 °。
回国回国國・・・
國
D aı
a ï in k
L a ye r
P h y s ic a l
U n d e r ly in g L A N o r W A N T ec hn
J j
L a ye r fw n T c p /Ip r T
4 ı o to c o ıS u ite
F ig u re 4 19 p o s itio n o v
F ig u re 4 20 sho w s th e IP v 4 d a ta g r a m fo r m at
Packe in th e Ip v 4 la y e r a r e c a lle d d a ta g r a m s
2 0 6 5 5 3 6 b y te s
L
2 0 6 0 b y te s
H e a de r L D m a
T o ta ıL e ￠ih IG B ıb
V ER H LEN 4
B its l:ı n a
4 B i[s
l T " gs ・
i B is H e a de r c h e c k s u m l6 B iı
s
. ' ' " i. .

ı °' ' "
1P A d d re s s
So u « e
D e s tin a ttp n W A d d æ ss
o p tio n
B P U IJ C o m pu u r N e tw m k ı (T P S a
A X ta g r a m is a V i a b ıe l
e n g th p a c k e t c o n s is tin g o f tw o p a r ts h e n ￠】e r a n d d lın T h e h e a d e r is 2 0 ı
ı o 6 0 b y te łin k
tra in s
co ı in fo n n a tio n e s s e n đ l iiv e ty [t is c u s to m a ıy Jn T C p FTP to s h o w th e h e a d e r in 4 b te
a to to u tin g a n d
b rie f d e s c rip tio n o f e iıc h y _
field is in o r d e c
I ) V e r s ĺ o n (V E R
) T h is b i t fie ld d e tin e s [h e v e r s io n o f th e Ip v 4 p ro to c o ıc u r r e n tly th e v e r s io n is 4 H o w e v ı
6 (o r lp n g ) m a to ta ll *
y y rep ı a c e v e rs io n 4 in tb e fu tıtr e
2 ) R e a d e r L e n th I TL
g ( E N ) m is 4 b it fie ld d e fın e s lh e to ta l le n g th o f th e d a ta ra m h e a
g r in 4 b Ħe w o td s 1 ħi
n e e d e d be c a u s e e ı
lc n g ıh o f th e h e a d e r is v a r ia b le (b e tw e e n 2 0 iın d 6 0 b te s
y i
3 ) S e r v ic e s m h a s c h a n g e d th e iııte r p r e ta ū o n a n d n a m e o f th is 8 b it fie ld T h i f ld
s ie r v io u s ly c a lle d s e r Ýı
, p e oe
n o w c a lı e d d iffe r e n tia te d s e r v ic
es
4) T o ta l n g t h T h is is a 16 b i f
t ıe ıd th a t d e fin e s lh e to ta 】le n g tJ] (h e a d e r lu s d a u ı) o F lh e 4 d a ta g ra m
h e a d e r le n g th c a n b e fo u n d b p in b y ıe
y m u ltip ly in g th e v a lu e in th e H L E N fie ld b y 4
L e n g th o f D a u - T o ta l [ H e a d e r h n g th
n n g th
5) ld e n tilīc a d o n T his ï ie ı
d is u sed in fr a g m e n M tio n
6) n a gs T h is fie]d S d in fr a g m
u se e n ta tio n
7) agınentation o n i e t T h is fıe ı
d is u se d in fr a g m e n ta tio n
8) T im e to L iv e TM fie ld
s w a s o rig in a u y d e s ig n e d to h o ld a tim e s ta m
p w M c h w a s d e c te m e n te d b y e a c h v is ite d ro
,
u le r
9) P ro to c o l T i s 8 b it fie ld d e fin e s th c h i h e p ı
g e v e l p r o to c o ıth a t u s e s th
e s e r v ic e s o f th e īp v 4 la
e r A n Ip v 4 d a ta
can
g e r le v e ıprotocolsuch a s T C P U D p IC ħap a n d IG M p y
e n c a p s u ]a te d a ta n o m s e v e r a l h i h g r* m
T h is fie ld s p e c ifie s ı
,
ho
10 ) C h e c k s u m Th e c h e c k s u m jn th e IP v 4 p a c k e t c o
v e rs o n ıy to h e a d e r ım d n o t d a tu
ı] ) S o u rce A d d r e s s T h is 3 2 b it lie ld d e fin e s th e IP 4
v a d d re s s o f th e s o u r c e
th e tim e
T h is fie ld m u s t re m a in
th e 1P v 4 d a ta g ru n u a v e ls fr o m th e s u u n ch an g e d dı
o r c e h o s t to th e d e s tin a i Ęi
t o n ho s t
12 ) D e s tin a tio n A d d r e s s T h is 3 2 bil fie ld d e fin es th e IP v 4 a d d re s s o f th e d e s tin a tio n T h i fi
s e ld m u s t r e m a in u n c h a n ged
Q u es 20)W n a t a re th e Jim ita ı

io n s o f ïp v 4?
A s
ı】 L im ita tio n s o f Ip v 4
I) T h e IP a d¸ e s s r e lie s o n n e tw o r k la y e r a d d re s s e s 1o id e n tify en d p o in ts o n n e tw o r k s d
, a n e a c h n e tw o r k e d d e v ic e h a s ł
2) U se s a 3 2 b it a d d re s s in g sc he m e h ic h g iv e s it 4 b iı
,
w lio n p o s s ib le a d d r
e sses
3 ) 1f a n e tw o r k has s lig h tly m o re n u m b e r o f h o s ts th a n a
p a r tic u la r c la s s th e n iĮ n e e d s e ith e r tw
c la s s o r th e n e x t c la s s o f IP a d d re s s
,
Ip d d r e sse s
o a o f
4 Id e n tifie d lim itą lio n s o f lh e Ip v 4 ro to c o l a re C
p o m pıe x h o s t a n d ro t
d iffic u lty in r e n u m b e r in u er c o n fi u r a tio
g a d d re s s e s , la rg e ro u tin g ta b le s N o n t g n , n o n h ie r a r c hi l
c a a d d re ss iū
r iv ia ı im p le m e n ta tio n
s in
p ro v iııg s e c u ń ty , Q o s
īo o v erco m e th e s e p r o b le m s th e in te r n e t p r o to c o l v e r s io 6 (I p v 6 )
n w hic h is a ls o kn o w n as internet p ro to c o L "
I n te rn e t
E R N E T C O
N T RO L F ig u r e S 2 s h o w s th e fo r m a t o f ln : Cħ
P R O T O C O firs t 4 b y te s h a v e th e s a m e fo rm a t fo r a ll m
LS si
r e m a in d e r d iffe r s fko m o n e m e s s a g e to e n ex t
)yh a t a r e th e in te r n e t co n tr o l 0 7 8 15 16 3ı
p r o to c o ı
s ? L is t
8 B it T y p e 8 B it C o d e 16 B it C h e c k s u m
le r n e t C o n tr o l P r o to c o ls
th e n e tw o r k la y e r (o r
, m o re a c c u ra te l
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to fu r th e r s p e c ify th e co n d itio n
A n s h te m e t C o n tr o l M e s s a g e P r o to c o l (IC M p )
th e m 【e m e t c o n tro l m e s s a g e p r o to c o l (IC M P ) is a
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th e s a m e in te r fa c e o n w h ic h ù ıe p r o c e s s jo in e d d ıe
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s IP v 4 as th e se c o n d v e rs io n o f th e Internet p r o to c l
Uo w o to b e fo rm a lly a d o p te d fo r g e n e r a l u s e
f IP v 6
S» o c m r e o
S ı1 ) h a s th e fo u o w in
An Jpv 6 p a k e t ( g
c fi u re
g g e n e ra l fo r m
4 0 ew
oc ı
Ou r m " "
in 6 h c a d c r E x te n s io n h en d e r
\l = tc n s io n hea de r T ra n s p o tt lc v e l p D u
Fı
gu re 5 I ı IP v 6 S tr u c tu re
e n g th o f 4 0 o c te ts ,
M e ly h e a d e r th a t is r e q u ir e d is r e fe rr e d to s im p ly a s th e v ó h e a d e r T h is is o f fix e d s iz e w ith a ı
m
i h d e rs h a v e b e e n d e fin e d
to 2 0 o c te ts fo r th e m a n d a to r y p o r tio n o f th e 1p v 4 h e a d e r T h e fo llo w in g e x te n s o n e a
i
H o v b y H o p O p tio ııs H e a d e r D e fin e s s p e c ia l o p ū o n s 【h a t r e q u ire h o p b y h o p p r o c e s s n g
d e r P ro v id e s ded ro u tin s im iİ a r IP v 4 s o u r c e r o u tin g
D R o u tin g H ea e x te n g ,
to
1 F r a g n ıe n t H ea de r C o n ta in s fr a g m en ta tio n a n d r e a s s e m b ly in fo rm a tio n
id e s p a c k e t in te g r ity an d au th e n tjc a tio n

A u th e n tic a tio ıı H ea der ĺ T ov
d e r P r o v id e s p riv a c y
9 E n c a p m la tilıg S e c u ń ty P a y lo a d H ea
be in e d b y th e d e s ū n a tio n n o de
r m a tio n to
p tio n a l in fo
e x am
◆ D e s tiııa tio n O p tio )ıs H ea der C o n ta in s o
t is s u e s r e la te d to IP v 6?
Q u e s 16 ) W h a t a r e ıe d iffe
tı ren
m e s R e la te d to IP v 6
i th e ı a c k o f IP v 6 s e c u ń ty lm o w le d g e
d t i T h e b ig g e s t ń s k to d a y s
p v 6 S e c u ń ty T r a in \ i u c a on
k s e c u ń ty is m o r e
i in u fro n t b e ĺ b r e d e p lo y in g N e tw o r
l) ıa c k o f ı n
in I p v 6 s e c u ń ty tr a n g p ,
E ııte rp ń s e s m u s t in v e s t tim e a n d m o o e y
M a n a fte r d e p lo y m e n
t
s ta g e r a th e r
e Ħe c tiv e a s p a r t o f th e p la n n in g
a c k o f k n o w le d g e is c o n s iđe re
ı d a
eııe d T r a fĺ ic O n ly a
f il d Ip v6 a n d T u n n
2) S e « ır it D e v ic e B y p a s s v ia U n te r e
y
in p r a c tic e th is is h a r d ı e in
y p o s s ib ı
l c o n tro ls w
h e n th e y d o H o w e v e r
d a pp y
e c o g n iz e s u s p ic io u s Ip v 6 p a c k
e ts a n
ı
o r u n kn o w n
tu n n e l č a ffic
h a v e ro g u e
]P v 4 le t a lo n e a ııe n v iro n m e n t 山 a t m a y 6 s e c u r ity fu n c tio n a ħty a n d
c r itic a l u n til IP v
u h te s tin g is
d v n d o r s T h o ro g lv e d m u s t b e d e v is e d to tę s t
e to c o ls ni
Ła ￡k o f Ip v 6 s u p p o r t a t Is p s a n t s t p la n fo a ll p ro
v o
t o rk a n d a e
Ip v 4 A te s t ıı e w
n e tw o r k is u n q
i u e a n d r q u ir e s a u n iq u e te s t p la n
e
sıa bility a re o n p a r w ith th a t o f v e n d o rs E v e ry
i te c h f ro m
s e c u r ty
ılle q u i m e ı e s p e c ia lly n e
w
p ıt_ te r fa c e
n n e l c o n n e c te d to iï ı
1P v 6 c o n n e c tio n
ū o m p r o v iđe r A tı
ı
b a v in g a n a tiv e
i s u e is not
th e f c o m p lic a tin g th e s
:
uł
d ir e c 【r e s u lt o f tb e c u rr e n t d
eak Įp v 6 s e c u n ty p o lic ie s ar e a
Ip v 6 W
ln Ip v 4 &
nı
lg r u e n c e o f s e c u rfiy p o lic le s đid n ' t n e e d to be
itie
n e r a biı
s th a t co
n ew vuı
ıc o m
to e ı p as s
t b e w ıd e r
īp a r ts b u t d ıe ir b r e a d 山 n ıu s
ı
om o geıı e o u s e n v iro ıın ie n t
Q ıe s
ı 17)W ha t a
r e th e a dva n ta ges o f Ip v ó over U ı
v4 ?
A n s A dva n ta g e o f Ip
v6 o ver 4
/ a r g e r A d d ress S a c
p e A d Đ e s s file d in Ip v 6 is 12 8 b its lo n g w h ile tb e a d d re ś s flled o
f IP v 4 is o n ty 3 Z b
IP v 6 o ffe r ş v e
ry ı a r g e , i e 2 9 6 a d d rE s s s a c e a s c o m
p p a r e d to Ip v 4
2) B e tte r H e a d e
r F o rm a t T h
e h e a d e r o f rp v 6 h a s b e e n d e s ig n e d in a w a y to s p e e
d u p th e r o u tin g p r o c e s s
IP v 6 o p tio n s
a r e s e a ra te d f
p ro m th e b a s e h e a d e r o p tio n s a r e in s e rte d in to b a s e h e a d e r o n w h e n re q
u p p e » la e r d
y a ta
3) P t o v is io n fo E
r x te n s io n Ip v 6 h B s b e e n d e s ig n e d in a
4) R e s o u r c e ıu lo c a ti
on s u p p o r t in 6 1p v 6 p r o v id e s h a n is m c a lle d F lo w L a b e l fo r r e s o u r c e a llo c a tio
a m ec
la b e l e n a b le s s o u r c e to s e n
m e c h a n is m is lly h e lp fu l in
p a c k e t T h is
d re q u e s t fo r th e s p e c ia l h a n d lin g o f a
re a r e al
au d io an d v id e o tr a n s m is s io n
5) S e c u r ity F e a tu res To e n s u r e c o n İ id e n [ia lit a n d a u th e n tic a d o n o p tio n s a r e lı
in IP v 6 y d p a c ke t s in te g r ity e n c ry p tio n an ıđ
Q u es 1 8 ) W h a t is d iÆe r e
n b e tw Ip v 6
ce een a n d Ip v 4 ?
A n s D in e r e n c e b e t
w een 6 & n ?v 4
T a b le b e ı
o w s h o w s th e d iff
e re n c e b e tw ee n Ip v 6 an d Jp v 4
T a b le 5 1 C om p a r is o n b e tw een IP v 6 an d IP v 4
D e s c r i tio n
E Įp v￠ ı
p v6
-IÏSÏ '"'"XXX:XXXXXXXX:
Ŝ
A d d r e s s L ife tim e G e n e ra lly , t a n a p p lic a b le c o n c e p t
n o IP v 6 a d ¸ e sse s h a v e tw o life tim e s p r e
an d v a lid , w ith th e p re fe n e d life tim e
< - v a lid
A d d ress M ask U se d 【
o d e s ig n a te n e tw o r k fr o m h o s t p o rtio n N o t u se d
U n ic a s t, m u ltic a s t d
D o m a in N s y s te m
an an yc a s t
am e A p p lic a tio n s a cc ept ho st d th e n S am
n am es an u se e fo r IP v 6
(D N S ) D N s to g e t a n n ? a d d re s s u s in g s o c k e t A p I
- ' ' " ' ' " l R ' " ' "
r e c e iv e file s
' " " Ml'" "
a c ro s s n e tw o r k s
【
' ' " M lS o m
su
e
p p o r t Ip v 6
im p lė m e n ta tio n s . " . . .. .
F r a gm en ts W n e n a p a c k e t is to o b i fo r th e n e x t lin k
g o v e r F o r IP v 6 fr a m e t
n a tio n c a n o n l o c c u r a t M e
g y ,
w h ic h it is to tr a v e l, it c a n b e fra m e n te d b th e
g y s o u rc e n o ¸ a n d re a s s e m b l is o n ly d o n e a ı
s e n d e r (h o s t o r ro u te r ) y ,
th e d e s tin a tio n n o de t h e fra g m e n ta tio n

e x te n s io n h e a d e r is u e d
s
In te r fa ce T h e c o n c e p tu a l o r lo ic a l e n tit
g y u s e d b y S a m e c o n c e p t a s 1p v 4
T C P /IP to s e n d a n d r ë c e iv e a c k e ts a n d a l
p w ays
c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith a n IP v 4 a d
d re s s if n o t ,
n am ed w ith an IP v 4 a d d re s s S o m e tim e s
r e fe r r e d to a s a Į o g ic a ï in te r fa c e
IP H ea der V a ria b le le n g th o f 2 0 60 b te s d e e n di
y p n g o n F ix e d le n th o f 4
,
g 0 b y te s T h e re a te n o
IP o p tio n s p r e s e n t
h e a d e r o p tıo n s G e n e r ı
a 1y , th e Ip v 6 h e a đeï
s im p le r a n th e Ip v 4 h
IP H e
ea d e r O p tio n s V a r io u s o p tio n s th a t m i h t a c c o m
g p a n y a n Į P T h e Ip v 6 h e a d e r h ą s n o [
h e a d e r (b e fo r e a q y tr a n s o r t h e a d e r )
p a d d s a d d itio n a l o ti
( p o naı ) he
t h e e x te n s io n h e a d e d
rs a r￠ A H ım
(\ lc ha ir o an IP y 4 ) ħo b b Q
p y p
,
o n tttıl
P r o la c o ķ (M o d u le S)
C
W « nt r
r in g a n d Ethernet S o m e h m e s re fe rr e d 1o a s th e
,
p h y s ic a l in te rfa c e , lin k , o r lin e ĺ th rp v 6

p a c æ tM m g w
o u c an n o
t u se
et ilteriı
ıg p, Y
B a s ic ßr e w u ll fu n c ū o n s in te g ra te d in to T c p /ı
co ı d ig u r e d u s in g is e rie s N a v jg a to r
conccptuaņıtitow
R o u te d iffe re n c e : İ imteg q a w w
(m ig ln co nm in o n ly o n e ) to ap h y s ic a l in te r fa c e in te r fa c e ra th e r 由a n
a n
to a p yh s ic a l
ia te d w ith a
o n th a t a r o
t
u e is a s s o c
H X ì X # %
w h o s e d e s tin a ū o n a d d re s s is d e fin e d a s p a r t o f o n e r e a s
in e
ı Ip v 4 ro u 【e s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith an [p v 4
in te r fa c e , h e n c e A n Ip v 4 a d d re s s IP v 4
r ite s h o r t n o te o n IC M P v 6
Q u e s 19 ) W
O r
th e n i a in fu n c tio n s o f IC M p v 6 ?
What a re
e n ge r
h a c ts a s a c o m m u n ic a tio n m e s s
P r o to l (b o th IC M p v 4 d IC M p v 6 ) is a p r o to c o l w h ic an d
Internet ontrol M e s sa ge co an ti
v id e fe e d b a c k e rro r r pe o r n g
[p n e tw o r k 1c M p m e s s a g e s p r o
,
ıb e tw e e n th e c o ıTın ıu n ic a tin g d e v ic e s in
p n )lo c o tio n o f 1P v 6
tic fu n c tio n s in U ? n e tw o r k s w hic h a r e n e c e s s a ry fo r th e s m o o th o p e r a
】
ıe two r k d ia g n o s
a r t o f th e
h Ic M p th a t fo r m s a n in te g r a ıp
p ıv e r s io n 6 (Ic M p v 6 ) is a n e w v e rs io n o f t e
T h e Internet onıroıM e s s a g e ro to c o t d w ith in a n Ip v 6 p a c k e t t
h a t m a y in c lu d e
p v 6 ) a rc h ite c tu re 1c M p v 6 m e s s a g e s a re tra n s p o r e
Internet p īo to c o l v e rs io n 6 (ı
Ip v 6 e x te n s ıo n h e a d e rs
iın p o r ta n c e an d fu n c tio n s th a n
Ip v 6 d has m uc h m o re
f 1p v 6 d Ic M p v 6 p ro to c o l m an
Ic M p v 6 is a n in te g ra l p a r t o an
IC M P v 4 p r o to c o l in IP v 4
F u n c tio n s o f tC M P v 6
M a in fu n c ı io n s o f IC M P v 6 a re a s fo llo w s
I) E rm r e p o r tin g
R
2 ) N e tw o rk D ia g n o s ū c s
3) N e ig hb o r D is c o v e ry
4 ) M u ltic a s t Mebeiship R e p o r tin g
d is e m e n ts
5 ) R o u te r S o lic ita ū o n a n d R o u te r A v e r t
h f c tio n s f [w o m j
a or IP v 4 p ro to c o ls IG M P
th a t a re o b s o le te a n d to o k o v e r t e u n
o
IC M Ħp6 r e m o v e l l 出 e IC M P v 4 fu n c tio n s an d A R P n o m o r e w ith IP v 6
lu t o n ro c o l) IG M P
i P a le
h ip P r o to c o l) a n d A R P (A d d r e s s R e s o
to
(】n te m e t G r o u p M e m b e r s
s o d is c u s s th e m
c M P v 6? A ı e ssa g e ty p e s o f IC M P v 6
h a t is th e p a c k e t fo to fı
Q u es 2 0 )W rm a
A n s P a c k e ts F o r m a t
in th e fıg u re beı
ow
IC M p v 6 p a c k e ts h a v e th e fo rm a t s h o w n
'
Ic M p v 6 T y p e Ï = - ・ 6
8
F Ig u re 5 12 IC M P v 6 P a c k e t
v l
T h e i t T )e lie ld iıtd ic a ıe s th e ty p e o f th e m e s s a g e If th e h ig h o rd e r b it h a s v a u e z e ro ( a u e s
l
H i h f ı 12 8
b
12 7 ) It in d ıc a le s a n e r ro r m e s s ııg e if th e h ig h o rd e r t a sİ h v a ı
ue 1 ( a
v ıu e s n l e r n n g e r o n
JU o rm a tio n m e s s a e T b e 8 bit C o d e ı İ e ld c o n te n t d e p e n d s o n th e m e ó s a g e ty p e
g
C ı
IC M P v 6M e ss a g e T yp es
IC M P v 6 is a m u lti u r e d fo r a p le th o r a o f a c tiv ıtie s
s u " r °
p r o to c o l a s it is u s
"
p p o se
h ip s , p e r fo rm in g N e ig h b o r D is c o v e r y a n d p e r fo r m in g d
P to e e s s in g d a h ı a c k e ts
p R e p o r tin g m u \tic o s t m e m b e r s
,
h e a d e r o r o f t h e p re c e d in g
A n IC M P m e s s a g e is ih n tiñ d b i th e N e x t H e a d e r fie ld o f th e JP v 6
e y a v a lu e o f 5 8 n
lis t o f c u m n tly d e fin e d
m e s s a g e ty p e s is s llo w n in th e ta b le b e lo w
T a e 5 2
bı IC M P v 6 M e s sa g e T y p es
T ype M ea n in g
D es tin a tio n U n re a c h a b le
2 P a c ke t T oo B ig
3 T im e E x cee ded
L? P a ra m e te r P ro b le m
12 8 E c ho R e qu est
12 9 E c h o R e p ly
13 0 G ro u p M em b e r s h ip Q u e ry
ı3 1 G ro u p M em be r s h ip R e p o rt
13 2 G ro u p M em b e r s h ip R e d u c tio n
R o u te r S o lic ita tio n
13
13 5 N e ig h b o r S o lic ita tio n
13 6 N e ig h b o r A d v e r tis e m en t
13 7 R e d ir e c t
13 8 R o u te r R en u m b e r in g
Q u es 2 1 )D e s c r ib e th e IC M P v 6 m e ss a ge
O r
E x p la in tlıe erro r a n d l ııf o r m a tio n m essa ge o f IC M P v 6
A n s IC M P v 6 M e s s a g e s
IC M P v 6 is a m u ltip u rp o s e p r o to c o l a n d is u s e d r a v a rie ty o f a c tiv itie s in c lu d in
g e rr o r r e p o r tin g in p a c k e t p ro c e s s i
d ia g n o s ū c a c tiv iū e s N e ig h b o r D is c o v e ry p ro c e s s a n d 0 ?v 6 m u ]tic a s t m e m b e r s h ip r e o r tin
, p g T o p e r fo r m th e s e a c ū v tie s ,
IC M P v 6 m e s s a g e s a r e s u b d iv id e d in to ıw o c la s s e s
1) E r r o r M e s s a g e s IC M P v 6 e r r o r m e s s a g e s a r e u s e d to r e p o r t e rr o rs in th e fo r w a r d in o r d e liv e
g ry o f 6 p a c k e ts
IC M P v 6 T y p e fıe ld ' " l u e s fo r th Ģ e r r o r m e s s a g e a r e b e tw e e n O a n d 12 7
'
T h e Internet o n t r o ] M e s s a g e P r o to c o l V e r s io n 6 (IC M P v 6 ) e r r o r m g e s b e lo
e ssa n g to fo u r d iffe r e n t c a te o ń e s
g
i) D e s tin a tio n U n r e a c ıla b le D e s tin a tio n U n r e a ċ h a b le IC M P v 6 e rr o r m e s s a g e is g e n e r a te d b y th e s o u r c e h o s t o r a
r o u te r w hen an IP v 6 d a ta g r a m p a c k e t c a n n o t b e d e liv e r e d fo r an y re a s o n o th e r th a n c o n e s ū o n
g
ii) P a c k e t T o o B ig P a c k e t T o o B ig IC M P v 6 e r r o r m e s s a g e s a r e g e n e r a te d b ı
y h e r o u te r w h e n a p a c k e t c a n n o t b e
fo r w a r d e d to th e n e x t h o p ı in k b e c a u s e th e s iz e o f th e IP v 6 d a ta r m is l
g ą a r g e r th a n th e M T U
T r a n s m is s io n U n it) o f th e Į in k P a c k e t T o o B ig IC M P v 6 e a o r m e s s a e in c l d
(M a x im u m
g u e s tı ıe M T U o f th e n e x t lin k a ls o
M T U is th e s iz e o f th e la r g e s t p r o to c o l d a ta u ıiit th a t is s u p p o r te d o v e r th e lin k
iii) T im e E x ceed ed S im ila r to [h e T im e to L iv e fie ld v a lu e in ı p v 4 d a ta g r a m h e a d e r Ip v 6 h e d
, a e r in c lu d e s a H o ]
L im it fie ld T h e H o p L im it fie ld v a ı u e in IP v 6 h e a d e r js u s e d [o
p r e v e n t r o u tin g lo o p s H o p L im it Iie ld u ı m
( ta g r a m h e a d e r is d e c r e m e n te d b y e a c h ro u te r th a t fo r w a r d s th e a k
p c e t W n e n th e R o p L im it field v a lu e
h e a ( r re a c h e s z e ro , th e r o u te r d is c a r d s th e IP v 6 d a ta ra m
g p a c k e t a n d re t u r n s a ' T im e E x c e e d e ď ' IC M p v 6 e
m e s s a g e to th e s o u tc e h o s t
iv ) P a r a m e te r P r o b le m
s P a r a m e te r P r o b ı
em IC M P v 6 e r r o r m e s s a g e is t ic a ll
is ta k e s
yp y r e la te d w ith th e p ro b t
m a te d w
re ı ith IP v 6 h e a u e r its e lf W h e n a ro b le m o r m is t k
p a e w ith a n Ip v 6 h e d
a e r m a k e a r o u te
p r o c e s s th e p a c k e t, th e ro u te r s to p s p ro c e s s iııg th e IP v 6 d a ta ta m
g p a c k e t, d is c a r d s th e p a c k e
'
T a r a m e te r P ro b le m "
IC M P v 6 e rr o r m e s s a g e to th e s o u r c e h o s t
2) m n 】 ıa tio n M e s s a e s IC M P v 6 in fo r m a u o n a Į m e s s a g e s i( e u s e d fo r l twy
g lc of r k d ia g n o s đc fu n ti
cń ū c a l n e tw q r k fb n c tio n s lik Ģ o n s a n d a d d iū c
e N e ig h b o r D is c o v e ry R o u te r S o ılu t￠ltı
, o n & R o u te r A d v e r tis e o ie n ts M u ] 1
M e m b e rs hip s E c h o R e L e s t a n d E c h R
e p ly m e a ls o IC M p v 6 ı f .
q o
n o rm a tłioï n a l m e s s a e s IC M P v 6 m f
m e s g es v e w u e s fo r th e g o m !
) p e lie ld 8 b il b in a r y n u m b e r ) b e tw e e n 2 8 a n lgç 2 5 5
c o ls (M
c o w iım m o d u le s )
e ssa ge P r o to c o ıV e r s io n 6 (IC M p v 6
) inrmaūon m e s s a g e s iļ r e s u b d iv id e d in to th r e e g ro u p s
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ll th e o th e r c o m p u te r s
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s u o w n tlı e ,
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d ir e c tio n H o w e v e r, jt is p o s s ib le fo r th e firs t A C K a n d th e s e c o n d f«N to b e c o n ta in e d in th e s a m e s e m e n t r e d u c in th e
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cı b o u t th e T C P tr a n sm is s io n p o lic y
A n s T C P T r a n s m is s io n P o lic y
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s u p p o s e th e r e c e iv e r h a s a 4 0 9 6 b y te b u ffe r , a s s h o w n in fıg u r e 6 3 If th e s e n d e r tra n s m its a 2 0 4 8 b y te s
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d a ta b a s e c o n ta in in g r e s o u rc e r e c o r d s (R R s ) th a t in c lu d e th e n a m e , IP a d d r e s s , a n d o th e r in fo r m a ti
on a
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p e c o rd s a n ,
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g P rio r ity , d o m a in w illin g to a c c q t e m a iı
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Canoni n a ,n e D
P TR o m a in n a m e
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Hm o
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p on c pu an d o s in A s c LI
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e fie ld s fo r e a c h o f
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p yp g
Q u es 16) W n a t a r e th e d o ın a in n a n ı
e se r v e r s?
An s: D o m a in N am e S e r v e rs
】
n ı h e o ry at le a s t a s in g le n a ın
e s e r v e r c o u ld c o n t i
a n th e e n tir e D N s d a ta b a s e a n d re s o n d to a ll
h is s e r v e r w o u ld b e s o o v e r lo d d p q u e r ie s a b o u t it In
pra c tic e ı a e a s to b e u s e le s s F u r th e r m o re if it e v e r w e n t d o w n th e e n tite Internet w o u ld
be c ń p p ı e d T o a v o id th e
p ro bı e m s a s s o c ia te d w ith h a v i
n g o n ly a s in g le s o u r c e o f in fo m ıa tio n th e D N S n a m e s p a c e is
div id e d u p in to n o n o v e r ı a p p in g z o n e s E a c h z
o n e c o n ta in s s o m e
,
p a r t o f th e tr e e a n d a ls o c o n ta in s n a m e s e r v e r s h o ld in g
the a u ı h o ń ta tiv e in fo r m a t io n a b o u t th a t z o n e
N o rm a lly a zo n e w ill h a v e one p r im a r y n a m e s e r v e r w h ic h g e ts its in fo rm

,
aū o n fr o m a file on its d is k , an d o n e o r r a o re
se c o n d a ry n a m e s e rv e r s w h ic h g e t th e ir in fo r m a tio n fro m th e r im a r n a m e
,
p y s e rv e r
T o im p ro v e r e lia b iı
ity , s o m e fo r b e lo c a te d o u ts id e th e z o n e Fo
s e r v e rs a z o n e c an r exa m p le , in fıg u r e S 2 p a r t o f th e
D N S n am e sp a c e sho w in g th e d iv is io n in to z o n e s , Y a le h a s a s e rv e r fo r y a le Edu th a t h a n d le s e n g Y a le E d u b u t n o t
cs ya le E d u , w h ic h is a s e p a ra te z o n e w ith its o w n n a lu e s e r v e m
Su c h a d e c is io n m ig h t b e m ade w he n a d e p a r tm en t su ch a s E n g lis h d o e s n o t w is h to ru n its o w n n a m e s e r v e r, bu t a

de par tm e n t s u c h s c ie n do es C o n s e q u e n tly , c s Y a le E d u is a s e p a r a te z o n e b u t e n g Y a le E d u is
as co m p u te r ce no t
W nu th e bo is to th a t z o n e s a d m
'
in is tr a to r T h is d e c is io n is
e zon e un d a r ie s a re p la c e d w ith in a zo n e u p m a de in ı
a rge p a rt
base d o n h o w m an s e r v e rs a r e d e s ire d , and w h e re
y n am e
Q u es 17 )W n a t is D N S R verT
eso ı s o d is c u
Aı ss a b o u t th e r e c u r s iv e a n d ite r a tiv e q u e ry
O r
E « p la in b o u t th e tio n e c h a n is m
a a d¸ e s s r e s o lu m
A ı】s D N s R e s o l v e
T he c lie n t id re s o lv e r It is r e s p o n s ib le fo r in itia tin g a n d s e q u e n c in g e
s e o f th e D N s is c a lle d a D N s q u e d e s th a t
◆臼tn a te l l d a tio ) of th e g h t, g , tr a n s ı
a ū o n o f a do m a ĺn n am in to a n Ip
y e a to a fu ll re s o lu tio n (tra n s ı n re s o u rc e so u e e
ądd Ŋe s s
DN S cı ie n ts a r e c o n fi u re d w ith th e a d ¸ e s s e s o f D N S s e rv e r s U s u a lly , th e s e a re s e rv e Į s w h ic h a r e a u th o ń ta tiv e r th e

g
do n la in o f u e s ts fo r n a m e r e s p lu tio n s ta r t w ith a Jce q u e s t to o n e o f th e s e lo c a l s e r v e rs
w h ic h th e
y a re a m e m b e r A u r e q
DN S
qu e ń e s b e o f tw o fo rm s
c an
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a r ly k n o w
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h e r s th r o u g h Internet
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is a m a c hin e re a d a b le
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a ıe cdn ceÞt o f th e re c e ip t u s e rs c en e a \ soclassify a n d fo r w a r t e m e s s a g e
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f th e fir s t s e rv ic e s to b e u s e d b y th e A
T b e concept p
f e m a iıĵ s n q t n e w Il w a s o n e ņ
p
S i P r v id e rs (JS P s ) p ro v id t e n
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l r T o ¸ y , a ll Internet r rv
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囂
F ig u re 6 13 E M il in th e Internet
a u s in g M a ll S e r v e m
E M a iıP ıo to c o l
s
T ħe re a r e tw o m a i
n p r o to c o ls u
s e d in E M a ils
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ra n s fe r P ro to c
o l (S M T p )
2 ) M u ltip u ï o s e
p Internet M a il E x te n s io n 】
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n
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ec ū" ' m a il :' '" 【. ' '" a. ' ' " m . '" ' " d ' ' " ' ' " sŔ ' " f o r m a t i o n lik e fa x ..
2) H ig h S p e e d T h e
s p e e d o f tr a n s m itti
n g m e s s a g e s v ia e m a ils i
s v e l y fm so ith in
m e s s a g e s [o a n
y w h e r e in th e w o r ld Ft c a n a ls o b e , w se c o n ds o n e c an se n d t
r e c e iv e d in s ta n tl
y
3) T in ıe S a v in g ft ta k e l
s e s s tim e a s c o
m p Ŕ e d to w r itin
g o n p a p e rs E v e n o n e can m ake
5) R e du c es W a s ta f P a p e rs E
ge o m a il do es n o t re q u ir e an y p ap e r w o rk be c a u se m e ssa ge s a re
w w t e n in ft
so co p ie s
6) M g e S to
e ssa ra ge F a c ility M e s s a g e s to r in
g fa c ility is a ls o p ro v id e d b y e m a iıfo r fu tu r e re fe r e n c e
D is a d v a n ta g e s o f E M a il
I) H a r d w a r e R e u ir e m
q en t S e n d in g m e ssa ge s v ia e m a ils re q u ir e so m e h ard w a te lik e co m d
p u te r an m o dem fo r
2) L ac k o fE x pre ss io n M
s a tte r ty e
p d o ver com
p u te r can n o tex
p r e s s fe e lin g s s o e m a il d o e s n t d e liv e r
'
,
se n d e r ' s fe e lin g
3) V ir u s So m e tim e s e m a ils m a y bń n g v ir u s w ith th e m th a t c a n h
a r m y o lJ r co m p u te r s y s te m V ir u s is a s m a ll p ro g ra m
4) SP a m Sp a m s a re th e u n w a n te d o r u
s e le s s e m a iı
s It is v e r
y d iffic u lt ta s k to s e a r a te h
p t e u n w a n te d
e m a ils fr o Ŕe
m
Q u es 1 9 ) W D a t is S M T P ? A ı
so ex p la in th e w o r k in g o fSM T p
S in ıp le M a il T r a n s fe r P
r o to c o l (S M T p )
It is a se t o f c o m m u n ic a tio n
gu id e lin e s th a t a llo
w s o ftw a r e to tra n s m it e m a il o v e r th e
m te m et M o st (
P e o p le se t u p th e ir e m a il ro
p g ī a Jn s , th e y w ill t ic a ll
yp y h a v e to g iv e th e a d Ŕ e ss o f th e ir Internet
s e r v ic e ,
re m o te m a c h in e
an d fb ım s a TC P c o n n e c tio n o v e r
w h jc h th e m a il is tr a n s f
e rr e d O n c e th e c 4
m ◆1 m e s sa ge
M e oM er p u tp o se o f SM 【
T P is to
se t u
p com m uni
caūo
n ru ı
es b e tw
ban dle m o rs , in c ı
u d in een s e rv e rs F or ex am pı
q ha v e
g co m m
o n th in g s lik e
s e rv e r s a w a y o f
in c o rıe
ctem a il a d d r e
s se s In a ty p ic a l s M T p tr a n s a c tio n
,
a se rv e r w in id e n ū fy
71 e o e r s e tv e r w ill a u th o r is e th
e o p e r a tio n , an đ th e m e ssa e
g w ill b e se n t If th e re c ip ie n t a d d re s s is w ro n g, o r if th e r e ı
s
W o F k in g o f S M T P
i) C o m p o s itio n o f M a iı A u se r se n d in g an e m a il
s ta r ts b y ço m p o s in g e le c tr o n ic
an m a il m e s s a s in
m a ın p a rt o f e m e ssa e w
g h ile th e h e d
ge 1】 g an
a er c o n ta in s c
o n tt o l in fo rm a tio n ik e th e
ı se n der an d re c ip ie n t e m a il ad ¸ e s se s
T h is is a n a lo go u s to r e a l m a il
w h e r e th e m e s s tig e b o d y is ı
ik e le tte r
a an d th e h e a d e r is lik e th e e n v e lo pe c o n ta in in g
ii) S u b m is s io n o fM a iı T h e m a il c lie n t th e n su b m its th e co m pı
e te d » m a il to th e c o n fig u r e d s M T p s e rv e r o r m a il s e r v e r
s im iı
a r to h o w le tte r s g e ts ¸ o pped o ff a t th e
po st o ffic e fo r s o r tin g an d d e liv e ry
üi) D e liv e r y o f M a il E m a il a d d r e s s e s lik e
johnemail com are s o r te d iń s im ila r
a w ay The jo h n "
p o r tio n in he
ı
ia m e o
ı f th e r ec ip ie n ť m a il a
s e d d re ss is d iffe r e n t f o m th e s e n d e r M sA ill h a n d th e
w m a il o v e r to th e M a il T ra n s fe r
T he ro le o fM T A is to reı
ay e m a ils c o n ta in in r e c ip ie n t e
g m a il a d d re s s e s w ith d iffe r e n t d o m a in n an ie s s im il¸ to
fro ņ ıo th e r M T A s
To r e la y th e e m tı
ie M T A
fir s t lo c a te th e ta ţ g e t d o m a in It d
m u st
o e s th is b
re c o r d (M X re c o rd
y r e q u e s tin g fo r th e M a il E x c h a n e
) fr o m
i th e D
o m a n N a m e S y s te m (D N S ) T h e 1W ( r e c o t d c o n ta m s th e n a e g r
O P ) a d d r e s s o f th e r e c ip ie n ť s d o m a in IP a d ¸ e s s e s a e i i m a n d Internet E T o to c ı
o
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r
p o s ta l c o ¸ s o n c e th e r e c o rd is lb c
c o n n e c ts to th e e x h
c a n g e s e r v e r to r e la y th e m e s s a g e a te d M T A
iv ) R e c e i t a ıd P r o c e s s in g o f M a il O n c e th e in c o m in
p ı
g m e s s a g e is a c c e p te d , th e e x c h a n e s e v e
in c o m in g m a il s e r v e r M a iıD e liv e r A e t M D A g r r d e liv e r s it t o th
( y g n ) w h ic h s to r e s th e e m a il w h e re it w a its fo r th e
T M s is e u iv a le n t to th e r e a l w o r ld e x a m le w h e re th e r i e u s e r to r e tr ie v e ıt
q p e c p ie n t s lo c a ı o s t
p o ffic e d e liv e rs e
'
in d iv id u a l s o s t f fi b
' M a il in to a n
p o ce ox es
r ) A c c ess a n d R e t r ie v a l o f M a iı T h e s to r e d e m a il c a n b e r e tr ie v e d b
y a u th e n tic a te d m M łc lie n ts (M U A s ) B y u s in
lo g in a n d a s s w o r d to a c c e s s th e m u a m d a e n s u re s in d iv id u a l u s e rs g a
p o n ly h a v e th e r i h t to
,
g acc ess th e ir o w n e m a il
In s te a d o f S M W il li t ith e r Internet M e s s a g e Ą c c e s s P r o to c o l (M A P o s
, e m a c e n s u s e e
) r p o s t o ffic e p ro to c o ı(p O p ) to
s p O p is u s e d fo r r e tr ie v in g u m a ils w h ile IM A P m a n a g e s a n d fa c ilita te a c c e s
æ tt ie v e e m a il
s to m aiı U n lik e S N Y p
P O P a n d IM A P a le s e c ific a ll d e s i n e d to re tr ie v e m e s s a g e s
p y g ,
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ltip u r p ı]s e Internet M a il E x te M iı ı (M N M E )
u oı
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m e s s a g e h e a d e r lie ıd s a r e ¸ fin e d T h e s e fie ld s p ro v id e iırfo rm a tio n a b o u t th e b o d y o f d ıe m e s s a
2) A d th u s s ta n d a r d is in g r e p r e s e n ta tio n s M a t S u p p o r t m u ı
ge
n u m be r o f c o n
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3) n
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p r e s e n t th e d o c u m e n ts o n th e internet T h e s e d o c u m e n ts s to r e d o n th e s e r v e r I n o 山 e r w o r d s . w e b is a c o lle c ū o n o f
in te r lin k e d h y p e r te x t d o c u m e n ts w h ic h a r e a c c e s s e d th r o u g h in te r n e t H y p e r te x t d o c u m e n ts a l e a ls o k n o w tı a s W e b
P ages in a s e t o f w e b p a g e s (w e b s ite s ) th e fir s t o n e is c a lle d h o m e p a g e t h e in fo m o a t io n is a v a ila b le o n w w w v n
im p (H y p e r te x t T r a n s fe r P r o to c o l)
A s y s te m o w h ic h c a n b e a c c e s s e d v ia th e internet is r e fe n e d to a s th e
f in te r lin k e d h y p e r te x t d o c u m e n ts
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w e b T C PNP
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c o lle c tio n o f w e b p a g e s T h e s e p a g e s a r e d ig ita lly s to r e d o n th e W e b s e r v e r T h e w e b is th u s a c o lle c tio n o f p a g e s v M c
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W e b u ses br o w se rs ik e Internet E
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n a v ig a t io n o n th e w e b (internet)
O n th e r e qu es t o f a c lie n t a w e b p a g e (s to r e d o n th e đs k o f a w e b s e r v e r ) is s e n t to th e c ļ ie n t W e b
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g a n d a ttr ib u te s w h ic h d e fin e th e i
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p a g e T h is is e n te r e d i t
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d e c id e s h o w a m e g
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c o m na a n d
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a p p lic a tio n n
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w e
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r W e b p a e s a r e w r itte n i
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ı an d
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y ,
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R E to
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th is in fo rm a tio n b y lo g g in g in to o ffic e a n y tim e fr o m a n y p la c e o f th e w o r ld b y p a y in g a s m

' '
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D is a d v a n ta g e s o f w w w
C e r m in d is a d v a n ta g e s o f w e b a r e a s fo llo w s
ı) T im e C o ı】s u m in g It is tim e c o n s u m in g ,
as a p e rs o n m a y sp e n d a ll M s /h e r ū m e o n th e internet in s te a d o f in te ra c tin g
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ı rm a tio n s h a r in g
3 ) S e c u ń ty P t o b le m It m ig h t b e a th r e a t to n a tio n a l s e c u ń ty M a x im u m s e c u r ity p r o b le m o c c u r o 9 th e internet b e c a u se
o f th e h u m a n m is ta k e s
4) F ra d I t g iv e s ń s e to th e fr a u d u le n t a c tiv itie s a ș th e w e b p r o v id e s an o n y m jty an d e a se o f p ro m o ūo n w ith o u t b o r d e r s

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(C S 3 0 6 )

v I T r a n sp o r t y e r T c p & u D p A p p lic a tio n la y e r F T p D N s E ı

com p u te r an d che aper in th e co st

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2 ) D a ta e S c u r i ty If p r o p e r p r e c a u t io n s a n d s e c u ń t iii) In t e r a c tiv e E te r ta in m e n t O n e o f th e m a iıı

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d e s tin a tio n d so u rc e a d d r e s s fields

ii) ACCesçontrol B y te It c o n m in s 【h e P r io r it fıe ld (th e m o s t s i n ific a

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