MUGHAL ART AND

ARCHITECTURE
• The Mughal Empire was an Islamic and
Persianate imperial power of the
Indian subcontinent which began in 1526,
invaded and ruled most of Hindustan (
South Asia) by the late 17th and early 18th
centuries, and ended in the mid-19thcentury.
• The Mughal Emperors were descendants of
the Timurids, and at the height of their power
around 1700, they controlled most of the
Indian Subcontinent — extending from Bengal
in the east to Balochistan in the west, Kashmir
in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south.
Its population at that time has been estimated
as between 110 and 130 million, over a
territory of over 4 million km² (1.5 million
mi²).
• The "classic period" of the Empire started with
the accession of Jalaluddin Mohammad Akbar,
better known as Akbar the Great, in 1556. It
ended with the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in
1707although the Empire continued for another
150 years. During this period, the Empire was
marked by a highly centralized administration
connecting the different regions. All the
significant monuments of the Mughals, their
most visible legacy, date to this period.
• The name Mughal is derived from the original
homelands of the Timurids, the Central Asian
steppes once conquered by Genghis Khan and
hence known as Moghulistan, "Land of
Mongols". Although early Mughals spoke the
Chagatai language and maintained
Turko-Mongol practices, they were essentially
Persianized. They transferred the
Persian literature and culture to India, thus
forming the base for the Indo-Persian culture.
• The foundation for the empire was established around the
early 1500s by the Timurid prince Babur, when he took
control of the Doab and eastern regions of Khorasan, which
controlled the fertile Sindh region and the lower valley of the
Indus River. In 1526, Babur defeated the last of the
Delhi Sultans, Ibrahim Shah Lodi, at the First Battle of Panipat.
To secure his newly founded kingdom, Babur then had to face
the formidable Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga of
Chittor, at the Battle of Khanwa. Rana Sanga offered stiff
resistance but was defeated due to treachery within his own
ranks.
• Babur's son Humayun succeeded him in 1530 but suffered
major reversals at the hands of the Pashtun Sher Shah Suri
and effectively lost most of the fledgling empire before it
could grow beyond a minor regional state. From 1540
Humayun became a ruler in exile, reaching the Court of the
Safavid rule in 1554 while his force still controlled some
fortresses and small regions. But when the Pashtuns fell into
disarray with the death of Sher Shah Suri, Humayun returned
with a mixed army, raised more troops and managed to
reconquer Delhi in 1555.
• Humayun crossed the rough terrain of the Makran people
with his wife, but left behind their infant son Jalaluddin to
spare him the rigours of the journey. Akbar, as Jalaluddin
would be better known in his later years, was born in the
town of Sindh in where he was raised by his uncle Askari.
There he became an excellent outdoorsman, horseman, and
hunter, and learned the arts of war. The resurgent Humayun
then conquered the central plateau around Delhi, but months
later died in an accident, leaving the realm unsettled and in
war.
• Akbar succeeded his father on 14 February, 1556, while in the
midst of a war against Sikandar Shah Suri for the throne of
Delhi. He soon won his eighteenth victory at age 21 or 22. He
became known as Akbar, as he was a wise ruler, set fair but
steep taxes. He was a shrewder administrator than his
predecessors and saw that the proud Hindu populace of India
would not just cave in and convert to Islam which was the
main goal of Mughal rulers before him. He saw this stiff
resistance from the proud and strong Hindu heritage as the
main reason why the Mughals had not succeeded in annexing
the complete geographical extent of India.
• So to be more organic and truly royal in his approach he gave
up the main agenda of Islamic conquest of spreading religion.
He investigated the production in a certain area and taxed
inhabitants one-fifth of their agricultural produce. He also set
up an efficient bureaucracy and was tolerant of religious
differences which softened the resistance by the locals. He
made alliances with Rajputs and appointed Hindu generals
and administrators. Later in life, he also came up with his own
brand of religion based on tolerance and inspired by views
from both Hinduism and Islam. However, after his death this
religion did not catch on but is still remembered for its noble
intentions of bringing people and minds together.
• Jahangir, son of Emperor Akbar, ruled the empire from 1605–1627. In
October 1627, Shah Jahan, son of Emperor Jahangir succeeded to the
throne, where he inherited a vast and rich empire. At mid-century this
was perhaps the greatest empire in the world. Shah Jahan commissioned
the famous Taj Mahal (1630–1653) in Agra which was built by the Persian
architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri as a tomb for Shah Jahan's wife
Mumtaz Mahal, who died giving birth to their 14th child. He proceeded to
apparently have the architect’s hands cut off so that he would never be
able to build a more beautiful building. By 1700 the empire reached its
peak under the leadership of Aurangzeb Alamgir with major parts of
present day India, Pakistan and most of Afghanistan under its domain.
Aurangzeb was the last of what are now referred to as the Great Mughal
kings.
• The greatest portions of Mughal expansion was accomplished
during the reign of Akbar (1556-1605). The empire was
maintained as the dominant force of the present-day
Indian subcontinent for a hundred years further by his
successors Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. The first six
emperors, who enjoyed power are usually referred to by just
one name, a title adopted upon his accession by each
Emperor.
• Akbar the Great initiated certain important policies, such as religious
liberalism (abolition of the jizya tax), inclusion of Hindus in the affairs of
the empire, and political alliance/marriage with the Hindu Rajput caste,
that were innovative for his milieu; he also adopted some policies of Sher
Shah Suri, such as the division of the empire into sarkars, in his
administration of the empire. These policies, which undoubtedly served to
maintain the power and stability of the empire, as the fiercely proud
Hindu populace had shown stiff resistance and no signs of meekly
converting to the whims of Islamic conquest in its years in the Indian
subcontinent.
• These were preserved by his two immediate successors but
were discarded by Aurangzeb, who followed a more strict
interpretation of Islam and followed a stricter policy of
intolerance to the practice of religions than his own.
Furthermore, Aurangzeb spent nearly his entire career
seeking to expand his realm into the Deccan and south India,
Assam in the east; this venture sapped the resources of the
empire while provoking strong resistance from the Marathas,
Sikhs of Punjab, Ahoms of Assam and some elements within
Hindu Rajputs. Ahoms in Assam successfully resisted the
mughal invasions, the last battle being the Battle of Saraighat.
Influence on the Indian Subcontinent of Mughals:
• The Taj Mahal in Agra, India built by the Mughal Empire
• The Red Fort in Delhi was the main palace of the empire during the reign of
Shah Jahan.
• A major Mughal contribution to the Indian Subcontinent was their unique architecture
. Many monuments were built by the Muslim emperors, especially Shahjahan, during
the Mughal era including the UNESCO World Heritage Site Taj Mahal, which is known
to be one of the finer examples of Mughal architecture. Other World Heritage Sites
includes the Humayun's Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort, Agra Fort and Lahore Fort.
• The palaces, tombs and forts built by the dynasty stands today in Delhi, Aurangabad,
Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Jaipur, Lahore, Kabul, Sheikhupura and many other cities of India,
Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. With few memories of Central Asia, Babur's
descendents absorbed traits and customs of the Indian Subcontinent[, and became
more or less naturalised. The Mughal period would be the first to witness the
blending of Indian, Iranian and Central Asian customs and traditions.
The Taj Mahal in Agra, India built by the Mughal Empire
The Red Fort
The Alamgiri Gate is the main entrance to the Lahore Fort built during the
reign of Aurangzeb.
Humayun's Tomb Lahore Fort, Lahore
Tomb of Anarkali, Pakistan Fatehpur Sikri
• All the early Mughal Rulers except Aurangzeb were great
builders. With the coming of the Mughals, Indian architecture
was greatly influenced by Persian styles. The Mughals
constructed excellent mosques, forts, gardens and cities. The
Mughal buildings show a uniform pattern both in structure
and character. The main characteristic features of Mughal
architecture are the bulbous domes, the slender minarets
with cupolas at the four corners, large halls, massive vaulted
gateways and delicate ornamentation.
• The few mosques and palaces built by Babar and Humayun are not of
much architectural significance
• Sher Shah of the Sur Dynasty who ruled over the Kingdom of the Mughals
after driving Humayun out of  the country was not only a great
administrator but a lover of art also. He built several forts, tombs and
mosques. The monuments of Sher Shah are a continuation of the Lodi
style. The mausoleums are octagonal in plan and have verandahs around
them, surmounted by huge domes. The verandahs have three smaller
domes on each side.
•  
Purana Quila (Old Fort), Delhi
• Sher Shah built the Purana Quila in Delhi. Started by
him, it was completed by Humayun. Built of red and
buff sand-stone, it is ornamented with black and
white marble and coloured tiles. A beautiful mosque
inside the Quila with ornamental arches, decorative
panels, geometrical designs and inscriptions is an
example of the development of architecture and
ornamentation during Sher Shah's reign.
Sher Shah's tomb, Sasaram
• Sher Shah's tomb at Sasaram in Bihar built in 1549 is
in the centre of a large square tank and rises 46
metres high. It is a two storey construction on a
terraced platform. The upper terrace has pillared
domes and the two storeys above have a pillared
kiosk at the four corners. The base of the large
central dome has thirty two sides. The tomb is
decorated with coloured tiles, very few of which
remain now. Entrance to the tomb is through a
domed structure.
• Mughal architecture begins with Akbar who showed his
passion for building by planning and constructing splendid
edifices. During his reign Mughal architecture took on new
forms. Akbar made free use of both Hindu and Persian styles.
The use of red sandstone inlaid with white marble and
painted designs on walls and ceiling are the salient ­features of
Akbar's buildings.
• Akbar constructed numerous forts, towers, palaces, mosques,
mausoleums and gateways. A structure of note built during
his reign is Humayun's Tomb in Delhi.
Humayun's Tomb
• Humayun’s tomb was built by his widow Haji Begum in 1565 A.D. in Delhi in
1569A.D., fourteen years after his death.  The mausoleum stands in the
centre of a square enclosed garden.  The garden is divided and sub-divided
into squares, typical of Mughal gardens.  The lofty double storeyed structure
is built on a huge high platform terrace which has a row of calls with arched
openings.  The central chamber is octagonal in shape and contains the tomb. 
Each side of the mausoleum has a large arched alcove in the centre with
smaller ones on either side. It has a high marble double dome in the centre
and pillared kiosks with cupolas surrounding it.  Built of red sandstone with
an inlay of black, white and yellow marble it presents an imposing picture. 
Planned by a Persian architect and constructed by Indian workers, it is a
combination of both Persian and Indian styles of architecture.  Entrance to
the mausoleum is through two double storeyed gateways.
•  
AGRA FORT
• A greater part of the fort at Agra was constructed by Akbar starting in 1565
AD and completed it in 1574 A.D. Situated on the bank of the river Jamuna, it
is a massive and grand structure.  The special feature of this fort is the 2.5
kms. long and 21 metres  high circuitous wall of solid red sand stone. The
stones are linked with iron rings so close that not even a hair can pass
through.  The entrance to the fort is through two gateways.  The main
entrance known as Delhi Gate was the ceremonial entrance to the fort.  The
other smaller gateway is called the Hathi Pol or Elephant Gate because of the
two huge elephants on either side of the gate and was meant for private use.
• The Delhi Gate entrance archway is flanked by two double storeyed
octagonal bastions crowned by octagonal domed kiosks.  A balcony separates
the two storeys.  The structure above the balcony has arched recesses.  The
gateway is decorated with beautiful panels of coloured tiles and marble inlay
work.
• The fort is surrounded by a deep moat.  The fort formerly contained
numerous buildings of red sand stone but these were later demolished in
the reign of Shah Jehan who constructed marble pavilions instead.  Some
of the important buildings inside the fort are the Jahangiri Mahal built for
Jahangir and his family, the Moti Masjid, and Mena Bazaars. The Jehangiri
Mahal is an impressive structure and has a courtyard surrounded by
double-storeyed halls and rooms. The corbel brackets, doorways and the
chajja above them are profusely carved.
• The elaborate architecture of the brackets seems to be an imitation of
wood work.  The planning and construction of the fort show that Rajput
architectural styles were freely adopted.
 
Jami Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri
• Akbar’s greatest architectural achievement was the
construction of Fatehpur Sikri, his Capital City near Agra.  The
construction pf the walled city was started in 1569 A.D. and
completed in 1574 A.D.  contained some of the most beautiful
buildings – both religious and secular which testify to the
Emperor’s aim of achieving social, political and religious
integration.  The religious edifices worth mentioning are the
Jami Masjid and Salim Chisti’s Tomb.  The tomb built in 1571
A.D. in the corner of the mosque compound is a square
marble chamber with a verandah. The cenotaph has an
exquisitely designed lattice screen around it.
•  
Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chisti, Fatehpur
Sikri
• The secular ones include Jodh Bai’s palace, the
Panch Mahal, the Diwan-i-khas and the Buland
Darwaza. Jodha Bai's palace is a large building
consisting of rooms on all four sides of a courtyard.
The centre part and four corners of the building
are doubled storeyed. A small chapel attached has
niches in the wakks for idols. The panch Mahal is a
five stored structure, each storey smaller in size as
they go up, the last one being only a kiosk.
Panch Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri
• The Diwani Khas, an outstanding structure was meant for the
Emperor to sit in audience with his ministers and listen to
disputes and discussions.  A novel structure, it is a large hall with
a giant monolithic pillars in the centre with a circular railed
platform on top like a cup which is supported by a circular array
of beautifully carved brackets.  From the  Central platform branch
out four diagonal railed galleries symbolizing Akbar’s supremacy
over his dominions.  The gallery is continued on all four sides of
the hall.  The audience  sat in the galleries and in the hall below
giving it the effect of a two-storey building.  Sitting in the centre,
Akbar heard discourses and discussions on religions.
•  
Diwani Khas
• A magnificent gateway was added later in 1571-72 to
commemorate his conquest of Gujarat.  Built of red sand
stone and marble it is said to be the “most perfect
architectural achievement in the whole of India".  A flight of
steps lead to the gateway which is about 53 metres in height
and 39 metres in width.  Entrance is through a huge arched
domed recess.  A broad rectangular strip bordering the
archway has calligraphic inscriptions on it.  At the corners are
slender turrets.  The beautiful perforated parapet and the
row of kiosks with cupolas add to the dignity of the
monument.  An inscription on the gateway testifies to Akbar’s
religious toleration.
Buland Darwaza, Fatehour Sikri, Agra
• Jehangir though a lover of art was fond of
natural beauty  and so devoted his time to the
laying of beautiful gardens such as the
Shalimar and Nishat Bagh in Srinagar, Kashmir
and to miniature paintings. Out of the few of
his constructions of note are Akbar's tomb at
Sikandra and the tomb of his father-in-law
Itmad-ud-Daula both near Agra
Akbar's Tomb, Sikandra
• The Mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandra near Agra was started
by Akbar and completed by his son Jahangir in 1612 A.D. who
changed the original design of his father. Designed on the
model of  a Buddhist Vihara, it is set in the centre of a square
garden.  The enclosure wall on each side has a gateway.  The
main gateway has four white marble minarets in the four
corners.  The Mausoleum has five terraces, rising from the
basement, one above the other, diminishing in size as they
ascend.  The red sand-stone entrance gateway is the largest
and is richly decorated with inlaid coloured stone work.  With
its charming proportions, it is by itself a work of art.
• The Mausoleum of Itmad-ud-Daula, the revenue minister of Jahangir and
Nur Jehan’s father was built in Agra on the banks of the Jumuna. Started
by Jahangir it was completed by Nur Jehan in 1628 A.D.  A small
rectangular structure in white marble, inlaid with semi-precious stones
and coloured glass, it is a delicate and beautiful piece of architecture.  It is
the first pure marble monument and differs from the typical massive, red
sand-stone structures of earlier Mughals.  Situated in a garden amidst
fountains, it has a square lower storey with four minarets in the four
corners.  A traceried pavilion forms the second storey.  A central chamber
inside contains the tombs and is surrounded by an enclosed verandah.  A
jewel in marble-“there is no other building like it in the entire range of
Mughal Architecture”.
•  
Itmad-Ud-Daula’s Tomb, Agra
• Shah Jahan, the most famous of the Mughal builders had a passion for
building. His reign marks the construction of numerous palaces, forts,
mosques and gardens. His buildings are marked by the quality feminity,
grace and elegance. They do not show the masculinity of Akbar's solid red
sand-stone constructions. Mughal architecture reached the peaks of
excellence during this reign. The main characteristics of his buildings are -
the use of  delicately carved white marble richly decorated with pietra
dura or inlay of coloured stones and calligraphy in black marble. Some of
his outstanding works are the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque in Agra Fort
and the Taj Mahal, the Red fort in Delhi with the Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-
Khas, the Jami Masjid in Delhi and the mausoleum of Jehangir in
Shahdara, Lahore (in Pakistan).
• The Jama Masjid in Delhi is the largest mosque in India and
was built between 1650-1656A.D. It is constructed on a high
platform and approached by a flight of steps on three sides.
The main entrance is a double storeyed gateway and leads to
a vast square courtyard which is enclosed by pillared
corridors. The prayer hall, rectangular in plan has a facade of
eleven arches. The high central arch is flanked by tall slender
minarets with cupolas. White marble panels with inscriptions
frame the arches. Three domes with alternate black and
white marble stripes surmount the prayer hall. On the eastern
corners, stand two tapering four storeyed minarets.
RED FORT
• Soon after laying the foundation or his new Capital city of Shahjehanabad
Shah Jahan started construction of the red sandstone Red Fort or Lal Quila
in 1638 A.D. on the banks of the river Jumuna. The fort took nearly nine
years to complete. Within the walled city, the fortress is in the shape of a
rectangle 900 metres by 550 metres.  The rampart walls are about 34
metres high. A moat surrounds the rampart. Two of the five gateways of
the fort are three ­storeyed structures flanked by octagonal towers. These
are the Lahori Gate and the Delhi Gate. Figures of two huge elephants
flank the Delhi Gate. The main entrance to the fort is through the Lahori
Gate. A covered passage with shops on either side leads to the palaces
inside the fort. Barracks for soldiers, audience halls, horse and elephant
stables, and ornamental gardens are other features of the fort.
• Some of the beautiful buildings are the Diwan­-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti
Mahal, Hira Mahal and Rang Mahal, the latter three, all halls decorated with
pietro dura and patterns in gold and colour and floors paved with marble
slabs. The Moti Masjid was added later in 1654 A.D. and is an excellent
specimen of the balance and rhythm maintained in Mughal constructions.
•  The Diwan-i-Am (Hall of Public Audience) is an arched pillared durbar hall. A
white marble throne, embellished with coloured inlay work stands under a
marble canopy. Below the throne is a marble dais inlaid with semi-precious
stones. Behind the throne, the wall has beautiful panels of flowers and birds
in coloured inlay work.
• The Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience) is a rectangular central hall with
aisles of arches and painted pillars. The four corners of the roof have pillars
with chhatris on them. The walls have the famous verses of Amir Khusro
which says that “If there is paradise on earth it is here”
• The crowning jewel of Indo-Islamic architecture, the Taj Mahal is one of the
world’s most beautiful and beloved structures. The monument was built in
Agra, India, for Mumtaz Mahal, the favorite wife of Mughal emperor Shah
Jahan. Construction of the tomb began in 1632 and employed more than
20,000 laborers for 20 years. During the reign of Shah Jahan, the structure
was known simply as the rauza, the tomb. Later, the mausoleum would be
called the Taj Mahal, a derivative of the name Mumtaz Mahal.
• According to the French jeweler Tavernier, who claimed to had seen the
construction of the Taj Mahal from beginning to end, the white marble
monument was erected at a time when the resources of the Mughal Empire
were such that only the finest materials were utilized for the structure and
its embellishment and when the quality of the craftsmanship available in
northern India was probably superior to that of any previous period.
• Known for its symmetry, the Taj Mahal sits on a raised platform
surrounded by four minarets. Inside are delicate mosaic works and marble
walls adorned with intricate patterns of inlaid precious stones. The
emperor Shah Jahan is said to have celebrated the anniversary of his
wife's death in the mausoleum, kneeling before the cenotaph of white
marble studded with gems and semiprecious stones, as prayers were
offered up for the peace and repose of the empress’ soul.
• Mumtaz Mahal, whose name means Chosen One of the Palace, had been
more than the emperor’s wife. Indeed, Shah Jahan had a number of
wives. But Mumtaz Mahal was the love of his life. She was his best friend
and his most trusted political adviser. Mumtaz Mahal bore 14 children;
seven of them survived. She died in 1631 after giving birth to a healthy
baby girl.
• After his wife’s death, Shah Jahan reportedly locked himself in his rooms
and refused food for eight days. According to legend, when the emperor
emerged from his seclusion, his black beard - visible in many Mughal
miniature paintings - had turned completely white.
• For the monument to his wife, Shah Jahan chose a site occupied by
sprawling gardens on a bend in the left bank of the Yamuna River. Author
Christine Moorcroft writes in The Taj Mahal (1998) that Shah Jahan may
have chosen this specific site because of its beauty and because there was
a clear view of the site from the imperial palace at the Red Fort. Poet
Rabindranath Tagore describes the monument as rising above the banks
of the river “like a solitary tear suspended on the cheek of time.”
• Refuting the romanticism of the aforementioned, many contemporary
historians contend that the Taj Mahal is a mausoleum far too imposing to
commemorate the memory of one woman, even the favorite wife of an
emperor, write Amina Okada and M.C. Joshi in Taj Mahal (1993). Some
historians believe, continue Okada and Joshi, that behind the monument’s
beauty and majesty of form, behind the purity of its line, and behind the sober
refinement of its decoration is an autocratic ruler vaunting his grandeur and
munificence to the world. While the monument is clearly funereal, these
historians also perceive a symbolic and allegorical significance for the
mausoleum - a significance equally accounted for by the omnipotence of a
sovereign infatuated with his own grandeur.
• Even if the Taj Mahal represents just one more jewel in the imperial crown of
Shah Jahan, note Okada and Joshi, the emperor still must be credited with
having made of the death of a spouse a symbol of lasting beauty. He
bequeathed to India and the world its most beautiful mausoleum.
• Following the standard Mughal architectural arrangement, write Sheila S.
Blair and Jonathan M. Bloom in The Art and Architecture of Islam (1994),
the tomb is set in a large quadripartite chahar bagh garden that measures
about 1,900 feet by 1,000 feet. The tomb stands at the north end of the
garden along the riverbank balanced by a large gateway on the south. In
plan and massing, note Blair and Bloom, the mausoleum refines the model
provided by Humayun's tomb at Delhi. However, the great bulbous tomb
of the Taj Mahal is set on a higher drum; its octagonal rooms in the corners
are more logically connected; and the tomb is framed by four tall minarets.
• The carefully balanced image, reflected in the water channel dividing the
garden, is enhanced by the superb polish and detailed carving of the
marbles, write Blair and Bloom. Built in red sandstone on the sides of the
platform and enshrining the mausoleum are two structures: a mosque
(masjid) to the west and a guest house (mihman khana) to the east.
• The Taj Mahal has restrained pietra dura decoration that forms vining
floral designs. Above these beautiful floral patterns are extensive
calligraphic inscriptions in black lettering. Most of the text is short verses
from the Qur'an emphasizing eschatological themes, particularly the Day
of Judgment. It has been suggested, write Blair and Bloom, that the
epigraphic program designed by calligrapher Amanat Khan was meant to
drive home the message implicit in the building's form and location - that
the tomb was an allegorical representation of the Throne of Allah above
the Garden of Paradise on the Day of Judgment.
• The beauty of the pietra dura of the Taj Mahal and of the forts at Agra
and Delhi still inspire numerous artists from all over the world. Moreover,
write Okada and Joshi, the four canals clearly symbolize the four rivers of
Paradise mentioned in the Holy Qur'an and seen by the Prophet
Muhammed during his miraculous ascent to Paradise (al-Mi'raj). The
symbolic and allegorical nature of the garden and the canals at Taj Mahal
is not surprising considering the funereal nature of the monument it
enshrines. The Qur'anic inscription on the southern facade of the Main
Gate gives unequivocal credence to the comparison of the Taj Mahal with
the Garden of Paradise, where the appeased souls of the dead find their
ultimate refuge.
• This inscription says:
• (It will be said to the pious): O (you) the one in
(complete) rest and satisfaction!
Come back to your Lord, -- well-pleased
(yourself)
and well-pleasing unto him!
Enter you, then, among My honored slaves,
And enter you My Paradise
• The Taj Mahal contains 16 chambers, eight each on two
levels, that surround the octagonal funerary chamber
surmounted by a surbased inner dome. In the funerary
chamber are found the cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah
Jahan, enclosed in a baluster of delicately perforated marble
and studded with semiprecious stones. As dictated by Islamic
tradition, write Okada and Joshi, the bodies of the emperor
and his spouse are buried with their faces toward Mekka (the
Holy Muslim city in the Arabian Peninsula) with the husband
on his wife's right side.
• The Taj Mahal - in its perfection of space and
proportion, in the classical perfection of its
shape, in its combination of monumentality
and delicacy, and in the quality of its
decoration - represents the culmination on
Indian soil of the Persian genius at work.
• The sinuous and austere letters in black marble inscribed with
heraldic precision on the walls of the mausoleum heighten
the whiteness of the marble and undeniably contribute to the
ornamental richness and beauty of the edifice. There are 22
different Qur'anic Surahs or verses inscribed on the tomb,
more than on any other monuments built during the reign of
Shah Jahan. This makes the Taj Mahal an extremely
exceptional funeral monument. Moreover, the locations of
the calligraphic inscriptions correspond to a precise
iconographic plan.
• Also adding to the beauty of the Taj Mahal is the extraordinary delicacy of
the floral motifs that embellish the marble surface. These floral motifs are
sculpted in marble in sober relief (munabbat kari) or inlaid with
semiprecious stones (parchin kari) that produce incandescent reflections.
Other diverse kinds of flowers open in graceful arabesques and cover in
profusion the imperial cenotaphs and their enclosures showing the
dazzling virtuosity of the Mughal lapidaries.
• The stone flowers of the Taj Mahal, depicted with a stamp of realism and
with a soft lyricism, captivate the visitor with their grace and colorful
freshness In Islamic culture, flowers and roses are often seen as symbols
of the Kingdom of Allah. Thus, the Taj Mahal’s allusion to Paradise can be
seen in the motif of flowers carved on the funerary chambers of the
mausoleum. Accompanied by fruit or bunches of grapes, the vases of
flowers express the abundance that awaits the faithful in Paradise.
a 17th century Mughal painting
• Mughal painting is a particular style of South
Asian painting, generally confined to
miniatures either as book illustrations or as
single works to be kept in albums, which
emerged from Persian miniature painting,
with Indian Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist
influences, and developed during the period
of the Mughal Empire (16th -19th centuries).
  
An image of Rhino hunt from Baburnama, first biography of
Islamic literature
Shahjahan on globe, mid 17th
century
Painting by Ustad Mansur (died after 1621)
  
A durbar scene with the newly crowned Emperor Aurangzeb in his golden throne.
Though he did not encourage Mughal painting, some of the best work was done in his
reign, and for him.
• Mughal painting reflects an exclusive combination of Indian,
Persian and Islamic styles. As the name suggests, these
paintings evolved as well as developed during the rule of
Mughal Emperors in India, between 16th to 19th century. The
Mughal paintings of India revolved around themes, like
battles, court scenes, receptions, legendary stories, hunting
scenes, wildlife, portraits, etc. The Victoria and Albert
Museums of London house a large and impressive collection
of Mughal paintings.
• History of Mughal Painting
Indian Mughal paintings originated during the rule of Mughal Emperor,
Humayun (1530-1540). When he came back to India from the exile, he
also brought along two excellent Persian artists, Mir-Sayyid Ali and Abd-
us-samad. With time, their art got influenced by the local styles and
gradually; it gave rise to the Mughal painting of India. The earliest
example of the Mughal style is the Tutinama ('Tales of a Parrot') Painting,
now in the Cleveland Museum of Art. Then, there is the 'Princess of the
House of Timur', a painting redone numerous times.
Growth of Mughal Painting
Mughal paintings of India developed as well as prospered under
the rule of Mughal Emperors, Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
Under Akbar
Mughal painting experienced large-scale growth under the reign
of Emperor Akbar. During that time, hundreds of artists used to
paint under the direction of the two Persian artists. Since the
Emperor was fond of tales, one can see the paintings mainly
being based on the Mahabharata, Ramayana and Persian epics.
Mughal paintings also started illustrating an enhanced
naturalism, with animal tales, landscape, portraits, etc.
• Under Jahangir
Emperor Jahangir reigned from 1605 to 1627 and extended great support to
various art forms, especially paintings. This period saw more and more
refinement in brushwork, along with the use of much lighter and subdued colors.
The main themes of the Mughal paintings revolved around the events from
Jahangir's own life, along with portraits, birds, flowers, animals, etc. One of the
most popular examples of Mughal paintings of this time include the pictorial
illustrations of the Jehangir-nama, the biography of Emperor Jahangir.

Under Shah Jahan

The grace and refinement of the Jahangir period was seen at the time of Emperor
Shah Jahan (1628-1658). However, the sensitivity of the paintings was replaced by
coldness and rigidity. The themes of that time revolved around musical parties,
lovers on terraces and gardens, ascetics gathered around a fire, etc.
• Decline of Mughal Painting
The trend that was seen during the time of Shah Jahan was also found
under the rule of Aurangzeb (1658-1707). However, the emperor did not
pay too much attention on the growth of the Mughal paintings. Still, the
art form continued to survive with the support received from its other
patrons. However, gradually, because of diminishing support, a declining
trend set in. The time of Muhammad Shah, (1719-1748), did experience a
brief revival of the Mughal paintings. Nonetheless, with the arrival of Shah
Alam II (1759-1806), the art almost became extinct and another school of
painting, known as Rajput paintings, started evolving.