Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.

Habana

Laser Systems Design

Lasers can be divided into groups according to different criteria:

1. The state of matter of the active medium: solid, liquid, gas, or plasma.
2. The spectral range of the laser wavelength: visible spectrum, Infra-Red (IR) spectrum,
etc.
3. The excitation (pumping) method of the active medium: Optic pumping, electric
pumping, etc.
4. The characteristics of the radiation emitted from the laser.
5. The number of energy levels which participate in the lasing process.

The active medium

The material used as the active medium determines:

1. Laser Wavelength.
2. Preferred pumping method.
3. Order of magnitude of the laser output.
4. The efficiency of the laser system.
The two basic requirements for laser action are:
1. Population Inversion between the upper and lower laser energy levels.
2. The active medium must be transparent to the output wavelength.
The active medium determines most of the laser properties, and that is why the laser
name is derived from the name of the active medium. This chapter is constructed as a
database, with information on the different laser types. Each laser is classified according to
the classification schemes described earlier.

1.1 Gas Lasers

Most elements can be made to lase when they are in the gas state. In a gas laser, the laser
active medium is a gas at a low pressure (A few milli-torr). The main reason for using low
pressure is to enable an electric discharge in a long path, while the electrodes are at both
ends of a long tube to obtain narrow spectral width not expanded by collisions between
atoms.
Excitation of a gas laser
Two main excitation techniques are used for gas lasers:

- Electrical Discharge

- Optical Pumping

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

Excitation of Gas Laser by Electrical Discharge

Applying high voltage to electrodes at both sides of the tube containing the gas causes
electrical breakdown through the gas. Electrons are ejected from the cathode, accelerated
toward the anode, and collide with the gas molecules along the way. During the collision,
the mechanical kinetic energy of the electrons is transferred to the gas molecules and excites
them. (This same method of energy transfer is used in common fluorescent lights).

Excitation of Gas Laser by Optical Pumping

Exciting a laser medium by optical pumping requires that the absorption spectrum of the
medium will be similar to the emission spectrum of the pumping source so that a big amount
of the radiation will be absorbed. Conventional light sources used for optical pumping have
a broad emission spectrum, so only a small part of the light is used in the excitation process.
Because gas atoms absorb only a small portion of the spectrum, optical pumping is not
generally an efficient method for gas lasers.

The absorption spectrum of solids are wider than the absorption spectra of gases, so the
pumping efficiency of solid-state lasers by conventional light sources are higher than that
for gas lasers. Thus gas lasers are usually excited by an electric discharge.

When we want to excite a gas laser by optical pumping; we need to find an optical source
with very narrow bandwidth, which fits the narrow absorption spectral lines of the gas. A
good source for optical pumping of a gas laser is another laser. This method is used for
pumping Far-Infra-Red (FIR) gas lasers by a CO2 laser.

Groups of Gas Lasers

Gas lasers are divided into three groups:

Atoms - The laser active medium is composed of neutral gas atoms such as Helium-Neon
and Copper Vapor.

Ions - The laser active medium is composed of ionized gas such as Argon ion gas or
Helium-Cadmium gas.

Molecules - The laser active medium is composed of gas molecules, like Carbon Dioxide
(CO2), Nitrogen (N2), Excimer laser, Chemical lasers (HF, DF), (FIR) laser.

I. Neutral Gas Lasers (Atoms)

The active medium in these lasers is a noble gas in its neutral state or a metal vapor.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

Laser Characteristics:
The active gas is used with other gases in a mixture. The extra gas help increase the
excitation efficiency. Maximum gain is achieved when the tube diameter is very small. Gas
lasers usually operate in the continuous mode.

1.1.1 Helium-Neon (He-Ne) Laser

The Helium-Neon laser was the most common laser until the spread of diode lasers in the
last few years. It was first built in 1961 by Ali Javan. The active medium is a noble gas
Neon (Ne), and it is a 4 level laser. The energy level diagram of a Helium-Neon laser is
described in figure 1.1. Two meta-stable energy levels act as upper laser levels.

The He-Ne laser has two lower laser levels, so quite a few wavelengths can come out of
the transitions between these levels. The important wavelengths are:

1=0.6328 m (632.8 nm), 2=1.152 m, 3=3.3913 m

Figure 1.1: Energy Level Diagram of He-Ne Laser

The role of the Helium gas in He-Ne laser

The role of the Helium gas in He-Ne laser is to increase the efficiency of the lasing
process. Two effects make Helium particularly valuable:
1. The direct excitation of Neon gas is inefficient, but the direct excitation of He gas atoms
is very efficient.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

2. An excited state of the He atom (labeled E5) has an energy level which is very similar to
the energy of an excited state of the Neon atom (also labeled E5). The excitation process
of the Neon atoms is a two stages process:
a. The high voltage causes electrons to accelerate from the cathode toward the anode.
These electrons collide with the He atoms and transfer kinetic energy to them.
b. The excited Helium atoms collide with the Neon atoms and transfer to them the
energy for excitation.
Thus Helium gas does not participate in the lasing process but increases the excitation
efficiency so that the lasing efficiency increases by a factor of about 200.

Red Wavelength out of He-Ne Laser

Most of the applications of He-Ne Laser use the red wavelength because it is the
strongest line and it is in the visible region of the spectrum. As shown in figure 1.1, this red
light is emitted when the Neon atom goes from the energy level labeled E 5 to the energy
level labeled E2, a much bigger energy difference than for the other transitions.

A problem with creating this red light is that a Neon atom in state E5 may also emit
3.391µm radiation. This emission decreases the population of the E5 level, without
producing visible radiation. The solution to this problem is to use a special coating on the
laser mirrors which selectively reflect only the red light. This coating causes reflection back
into the optical cavity of only the desired (red) wavelength, while all other wavelengths are
transmitted out, and not forced to move back and forth through the active medium.

In a similar way, another selective reflecting coating can be used on the mirrors to select
other transitions. This procedure allows commercial production of He-Ne lasers at other
wavelengths in the visible spectrum. For example, orange, yellow and green He-Ne lasers
can be produced, but the laser efficiency is much lower than for the red.

Absorption and Amplification in He-Ne Laser

He-Ne laser is a 4 level laser, so the lifetime of the lower laser energy level needs to be
very short. In a Neon gas, which is the active lasing gas, the transition (decay) from the
lower laser level is not fast enough, but it is accelerated by collisions with the tube walls.
Because the number of collisions with the tube walls increases as the tube becomes narrow,
the laser gain is inversely proportional to the tube radius. So, the tube diameter of a He-Ne
laser must be as small as possible.
The low gain of the active medium in a He-Ne laser limits the output power to low
power. In laboratory prototypes, an output power of the order of 100 mW was achieved, but
commercial lasers are available only in the output range of 0.5-50 mW. The output coupler
of the He-Ne laser is a mirror with a coating that transmits about 1% of the radiation to the

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

output. This means that the power inside the optical cavity is 100 times more than the
emitted power.

He-Ne laser structure

Helium-Neon laser has three main Structures:

 Plasma Tube.
 Optical Cavity.
 Power Supply.

Plasma Tube of He-Ne Laser:

The thin inner tube has a diameter of about 2 mm and a length of tens of centimeters. The
inner tube is surrounded by a thick outer tube with a diameter of about 2.5 cm and is sealed
from the outside. The purposes of the outer tubes are:
a- To make a stable structure which protects the inner tube and the laser mirrors from
movements.
b- To act as a large gas reservoir which refreshes the Neon gas that has been absorbed by the
cathode.
The lasing process, which creates the electromagnetic radiation, is confined to the inside
of the inner tube which is filled with the gas mixture. The gas mixture is 85-90% Helium
gas, and 10-15% Neon gas, a ratio of 1:6 to 1:10.
Optical Cavity of He-Ne Laser:
The cavity in a common He-Ne laser uses a semi confocal optical cavity.
It is composed of one planar mirror, which reflects about 98% of the light striking it, and a
second concave mirror reflecting 100%. This concave mirror has a focal length equal to the
length of the cavity (see figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: The Cavity Structure of He-Ne Laser

This arrangement of the mirrors causes the radiation to be an almost parallel beam.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

Power Supply of He-Ne Laser:

He-Ne lasers which give up to 1 mW (The standard type used at for student laboratory
experiments), usually use a DC high voltage power supply of 2,000 Volts. The laser needs a
constant current (constant supply of electrons), so a stable current supply is used.

To initialize the lasing action, the gas in the tube needs to be ionized. This action is done
with a pulse of maximum voltage of the power supply. This voltage is called the Ignition
Voltage of the laser. At the moment of beginning breakdown, the electrical resistance of the
tube suddenly falls to a low value. This means that the voltage suddenly drops, while the
current rises. Thus, by Ohm's law, it is a negative electrical resistance (Decrease in voltage
with an increase in current).

To overcome this problem, a Ballast Resistor is connected very close to the anode, in
series with the power supply. The role of the ballast resistor is to limit the current through
the tube when the tube resistance falls. After lasing action begins, the supply voltage is
dropped to about 1,100 Volts, needed for the continuous operation of the laser. One of the
problems with lasers is the heat which is developed in the laser and in the ballast resistor.

Commercial He-Ne Lasers:

Wavelength: 632.8 [nm]

Output Power: 0.5-50 [mW]

Beam Diameter: 0.5-2.0 [mm]

Beam Divergence: 0.5-3 [mrad]

Coherence Length: 0.1-2 [m]

Power Stability: 5 [%/Hr]

Lifetime: >20,000 [Hours]

1-1-2 Metal Vapor Laser

As the name implies, the active medium in this laser is a vapor consisting of metal atoms.
There is a distinction between two types:

a. Neutral metal vapor lasers, which include:

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

1. Copper vapor laser (CVL). 2. Gold Vapor Laser (GVL).

b. Ionized metal vapor laser, which includes Helium-Cadmium (He-Cd) Laser.

All metal vapor lasers emit visible electromagnetic radiation in a form of rapid pulses
and with high efficiency. We shall concentrate on Copper Vapor Laser as an example for
neutral vapor lasers.

Copper vapor laser (CVL)

Lasing action in copper vapor was first demonstrated in 1966. The first commercial
copper vapor lasers appeared around 1980. This laser was attractive because of its relatively
high efficiency (up to 1%) for lasers in the visible spectrum range, and the high pulse power
achieved.

Copper Vapor Laser Structure

Copper vapor laser is a gas laser; build as a tube with windows at both ends. The tube is
filled with an inert gas and a small quantity of pure copper. In order to have copper vapor,
the metal needs to be at very high temperatures, so the tube is built from Alumina or
Zirkonia, which are high-temperature resistant materials. The tube diameter is 10-80 mm,
and it contains Neon gas at a pressure of 25-50 Torr.

Copper Vapor Laser operation

The melting temperature of Copper is 10830C. At temperatures higher than the melting
point, Copper vapors are created at high enough concentration so they can serve as an active
medium of the laser. A solid bulk of pure Copper metal is inserted in the middle of the tube
before it is filled by the neon gas.

The electric breakdown is created by a high voltage to the electrodes at the ends of the
tube. As a result, the temperature rises inside the tube cavity, until the Copper evaporates,
and the vapor pressure of the Copper is about 0.1 Torr. The measured temperature on the
outside of the tube can reach 1400-15000C.

During the laser operation, only a small fraction of the Copper atoms are ionized, and
they are moving (electrical attraction) toward the ends of the tube. There, the vapor cools
down, and transform into solid metal. As a result, the amount of Copper vapor in the tube is
reduced. After a few hundred hours of operation, new Copper must be inserted into the tube.

The high voltage pulses applied to the electrodes at the ends of the tube cause the
accelerated electrons to collide with the Copper vapor molecules, exciting them into one of
the two available high laser energy levels, as seen in figure 1.3.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

Figure 1.3: Energy Level Diagram of Copper Vapor Laser

The wavelengths emitted by Copper vapor lasers are:

= 510.6 nm (Green),
= 578.2 nm (Yellow)

Why is copper vapor laser restricted to the pulsed operation?

Unfortunately, both of these laser transitions end at lower laser energy levels which are
meta-stable (with long lifetimes of hundreds of microseconds). Since the population of these
energy levels increases rapidly, the condition of population inversion is destroyed, and laser
action stops.

After the lasing stops, the lower energy levels decay to the ground state by collisions of
the excited molecules with the tube walls. Then, another laser pulse can form. The time of
each laser pulse is less than 100 nsec (0.1 sec). The copper vapor laser is a three-level
laser.

Summary of Copper laser properties:

 Copper vapor pressure is about 1 Torr.
 Optimal operating temperatures: 16500C  500C.
 The laser is very sensitive to the purity of the active gas.
 The laser operates simultaneously on two spectral lines (Green and Yellow) with no
competition between them (separate levels).
 In practice, one mirror reflects 100% and the other about 10 %.
 The high temperature required for the lasing process is achieved by heating as a result of
the electric breakdown in the gas.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

 It is possible to achieve lasing at lower temperatures (4000C), by using Copper salts like
CuCl, but there are still problems with these lasers, and they are in experimental stages.

Applications of Copper Vapor Lasers:

1. Pump Sources for Dye lasers, for short pulses.

2. Illuminating objects in high-speed photography. The copper Vapor laser output is in a

form of visible laser radiation in very short pulses, at a very high pulse frequency. So,
this radiation can be used as an illuminating source for high-speed flash photography. An
example is photographs of rifle bullets at speeds of 300-15000 m/s.

3. In Forensics: Identifying fingerprints, and traces of special elements in the scene of a

crime. The laser radiation is used to illuminate the sample, and the fluorescence at higher
wavelengths is examined. Because of the laser high peak power, residual traces can be
identified which can not be identified using conventional narrow spectral light.
4. Photo-Dynamic-Therapy (PDT).The selective destruction of cancer cells by laser
radiation at a specific wavelength, after a special drug, is injected into the patient.
5. Enrichment of Uranium (U235). By selective photo-ionization of U235 in a steam of natural
Uranium. The amount of U235 in natural Uranium ore is very small, and it is very difficult
to isolate it. Using copper Vapor lasers, it is possible to selectively ionize the only U235,
and collect the ionized material on electrically charged plates.

Gold Vapor Lasers

The Gold Vapor laser is very similar to The Copper Vapor laser both in structure, and
principles of operation. Sometimes, the same system (laser tube and power supply) is used
for both lasers. The only change is to replace the solid Copper with a wire of pure Gold.

The wavelength of Gold lasers is Red: 628 nm. The main applications of Gold vapor laser
are in the experimental cancer treatment of Photo-Dynamic Therapy (PDT).

1.1.3 Helium-Cadmium Laser

Helium-Cadmium lasers can be categorized among either:

 Metal vapor lasers - Cadmium is a metal, the lasing action in Helium Cadmium laser
occurs between energy levels of Cadmium ions, so the lasing medium is ionized metal
vapor.
 Ion gas lasers - The properties of Helium-Cadmium laser are similar to those of Helium-
Neon laser which is a neutral atom gas laser.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

The He-Cd laser is a gas laser, and the metal Cadmium can be transformed to the gas
phase by heat. The excitation to the upper laser level of the Cadmium atoms in the gas is
similar to the excitation process of the Neon gas in a Helium-Neon laser: Helium atoms are
excited by collisions with accelerated electrons, and then they pass their energies to
Cadmium atoms by collisions.

The transitions in Helium-Cadmium laser are between energy levels of singly ionized
Cadmium atoms, and about twelve lines are available. These wavelengths are in the shorter
wavelength region, violet and Ultra-Violet. Thus, the main application of the He-Cd laser is
in the optics laboratory, for fabricating holographic gratings.

The practical problem in Helium-Cadmium laser is to maintain a homogeneous

distribution of the metal vapor inside the electrical discharge tube. The ions are attracted to
the cold windows at the ends of the cavity. In order to prevent coating of the windows with
Cadmium, cold traps are put before the laser windows.

Lasing action in a Helium-Cadmium Laser:

The Cadmium metal is heated to a temperature of 2500C, to create the appropriate vapor
pressure. The Cadmium vapor pressure of a few millitorrs is added to Helium gas at a
pressure of 3-7 millitorr. Since Helium is a noble gas, its excitation energy is very high
(24.46 eV)compared to the Cadmium which is a metal with low excitation energy (8.96 eV).

Thus in He-Cd laser the Helium remains electrically neutral, and fills the cavity of the
tube, while the positive Cadmium atoms are moving toward the negative cathode. In the
design of the tube of Helium-Cadmium laser, most of the effort is to reduce to a minimum
the number of Cadmium ions on the cathode.

The best He-Cd lasers loose about 1 gm Cadmium metal for 1000 hours of operation of
the laser. For comparison, the gain and power output of the main two lines of He-Cd laser is
higher than for the He-Ne laser but less than for the Ar+ laser.

Characteristics of He-Cd lasers:

 Output wavelengths: Blue light 0.4416 m and Ultra-Violet (UV) light 0.3250 m.

II. Ionized Gas Laser

The most common ionized gas lasers are from the noble gases Argon (Ar +) and Krypton
(Kr+). We shall concentrate on the Argon Ion laser since it is more common.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

1.1.4 Argon Ion (Ar+) Gas Laser

The Argon laser was invented in 1964 by William Bridges at Hughes. Argon ion laser
contains a tube filled with Argon gas which transforms into plasma in an excited state.
(Plasma is a state of matter in which the electrons are separated from the atoms and
molecules, which means that it contains free electrons and ions).A schematic diagram of the
energy levels of the Argon laser is shown in figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Energy Level Diagram of Ion Argon Laser.

The two main laser transitions are at visible wavelengths:

a. Blue 488 nm b. Green 514.5 nm,
But the Argon ion laser emits also in the UV spectrum:
351.1 nm.
363.8 nm.
Argon (Ar+) laser efficiency
We see from the diagram in figure 1.4 that the lasing energy levels belong to the Argon
ion, so the atoms of the gas inside the tube need to be ionized first. As seen in the diagram,
the ground state of the laser is at about 16 eV above the ground state of the neutral Argon
atom. This is a large amount of energy that must be supplied to the laser but is not used for
creating laser radiation. This "wasted" energy is one of the reasons for the very low
efficiency of the Argon laser (0.1%).

Output Power from Argon Laser

The gain of the active medium in Argon ion lasers is very high, so high power can be
achieved from Argon ion lasers (tens of Watts), although as we saw, with low efficiency.
The output power increases as a nonlinear function of the current density in the tube. Thus it

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

is common to use narrow tubes (small cross section) and very high currents (100-500
A/cm2). Argon Ion lasers require a separate three-phase electrical power line.
The ignition of the Argon Ion laser is done by a pulse of high voltage (about 10 Kilovolts
DC) ionizes the argon gas. After ionization, a few hundreds of volts DC are maintained
across the laser tube.
A high DC current (more than 50 Ampers) maintains lasing. Such high current densities
create large amounts of heat which must be taken away from the laser. Argon Ion lasers
require water cooling.
In order to withstand the high temperatures, the laser tube is made from special high
melting materials such as Beryllium Oxide. This material has very high thermal conductivity
and is not destroyed by the electrical discharge.
The radiation of the Argon Ion laser is hazardous to view (class 3b and higher), and
working with it requires special protecting goggles for everyone in the room.

The Argon Ion laser applications:

1. A source for optical pumping of Dye laser.

2. Entertainment - in laser light shows, discotheques, and laser displays.

3.General Surgery-for applications that use absorption at specific wavelengths.

4. Ophthalmic welding of a detached retina.

5. Forensic Medicine - for fluorescence measurements.

6. Holography - Because of its high power in the visible spectrum

1.1.5 Krypton Laser

The Krypton laser is very similar to the Argon laser, but its efficiency is lower. This laser
has many lines in the visible spectrum, especially in the yellow to the red part of the
spectrum. The maximum output power in each line is about 100 mW. The main applications
of this laser are in the art and entertainment business, to create fantastic visual effects.

III. Molecular Gas Lasers

All the lasers described so far are based on electronic transitions between different main
energy levels. In a molecule, the main energy levels are subdivided into vibrational energy
levels. Each vibrational energy level can be subdivided into rotational energy levels:

1. Vibrational energy levels - energy levels associated with the oscillation of the atoms in
the molecule.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

2. Rotational energy levels - energy levels associated with the rotation of the molecule.

Since these energy levels are subdivisions of the main energy levels, the difference
between the two vibrational energy levels in which lasing occurs is much smaller than the
difference between the main electronic energy levels.
Thus, the wavelengths associated with the energy transitions among these levels is longer
and is usually in the Infra-Red (IR) spectrum. Among the molecular lasers, the most
common laser is the Carbon-Dioxide (CO2) laser.

1.1.6 Nitrogen Laser

The Nitrogen laser was first developed in 1963 and has been sold as a commercial
product since 1972.

Laser Action:
The active medium in Nitrogen lasers is Nitrogen gas at pressures of 20 Torrs up to 1
atm. In some Nitrogen lasers, the gas flows in the tube, while others have a sealed tube. Like
most gas lasers, the Nitrogen laser is based on transitions between vibration energy levels
and is electrically excited. The energy level diagram of the Nitrogen laser is shown in figure
1.5.

Figure 1.5: Energy level diagram of Nitrogen laser.

Pulsed Operation of Nitrogen Laser

Nitrogen gas excitation is performed by a short pulse (about 10 nsec) of high voltage
(20-40 KV). This high voltage pulse creates an electric discharge in the gas, which causes
momentary population inversion. A short (nsec) laser pulse is emitted, and the gas returns to
the ground state. Nitrogen laser is a pulsed laser. It is impossible to operate a Nitrogen laser
such that it emits radiation continuously.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

Properties of Nitrogen laser:

 Nitrogen lasers emit radiation in the Ultra-Violet (UV) region of the electromagnetic
spectrum, at a wavelength of 337.1 nm.
 Very simple and cheap laser.
 Pulse with very high peak power - up to few Mega-Watts.
 Pulse frequency - up to 1,000 Hz - limited by heating effects.
 Pulse length is of the order of 10 nsec.
 Total efficiency - about 0.1 %.

1.1.7 Carbon-Dioxide (CO2) Laser

Lasing action in a CO2 molecule was first demonstrated by C. Patel in 1964. He
transmitted an electric discharge pulse through the pure CO2 gas in a laser tube and got a
small laser output. CO2 is the gas in which the lasing process occurs, but other gas additives
to the laser tube improve the total efficiency of the laser. The standard CO2 laser includes in
the active medium a mixture of CO2 with N2 and He. The optimal proportion of these 3
gases in the mixture depends on the laser system and the excitation mechanism. In general,
for a continuous wave laser, the proportions are: CO2:N2: He - 1:1:8

CO2 is a linear molecule, and the three atoms are situated on a straight line with the
Carbon atom in the middle. In figure 1.6 the three vibrational modes of a CO2 molecule are
illustrated:

1. Symmetric stretch mode (1). 2. Bending mode (2). 3. Asymmetric stretch mode (3).

Figure 1.6: Oscillation Modes of CO2 Molecule

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

Lasing transitions in CO2 laser

Lasing transitions in CO2 laser occur when the molecule is going from the higher energy
level of the asymmetric mode into one of the other two, as can be seen in figure 1.7.
1. The transition to the symmetric stretching mode corresponds to the wavelength 10.6 m.
2. The transition to the bending mode corresponds to the wavelength 9.6 m.

Figure 1.7: Energy Level Diagram of CO2 Laser

Each of the vibrational energy levels is subdivided into many rotational levels.
Transitions can occur between vibrational energy levels with different rotational levels, so
there are many lasing lines around the main vibrational transitions.

CO2 laser operation

The electrical discharge is created in the laser tube. The energy of the accelerated
electrons is transferred by collisions to the Nitrogen molecules and to the CO2 molecules.
Nitrogen molecules help in the process of the excitation of the CO2 molecules.
The first vibrational energy level of the Nitrogen molecule is very similar to the
asymmetric stretching mode of the CO2 molecule, so energy can be easily transferred from
the excited Nitrogen molecules to the CO2 molecules. Helium molecules are added to the
gas mixture in order to:

1. Empty the lower laser energy level so that population inversion is maintained.
2. Stabilize the electrical discharge by taking heat away from the lasing area.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

Types of CO2 Lasers:

There are many types of CO2 lasers, all based on the same physical principles. The
differences between them are in their structure, excitation mechanism, and the output
radiation. A few CO2 lasers are described below.

a. Flowing CO2 gas lasers

In these lasers, a fresh gas mixture is flowing continuously through the laser tube while
lasing lasts. Flowing gas is used when the maximum power is needed out of the CO 2 laser.
The gas flows along the tube and is released out into the atmosphere (since it is
nonpoisonous). These lasers are very simple, and the requirements of the gas purity are
small. Hundreds of Watts can be achieved at the output of these lasers.

b.Sealed off CO2 laser

The gas laser is filled with the appropriate mixture of gasses and sealed (as we saw in
He-Ne laser). High electric voltage is applied to electrodes at both ends of the gas tube. The
accelerated electrons excite the gas molecules.

The problem with sealed off lasers is the dissociation of the CO2 molecules into CO and
Oxygen with time. To reduce this effect, a catalyzing agent is added to the gas mixture. This
catalyzing agent reverses the dissociation reaction and restores the CO 2 molecule which is
required for lasing. Sealed off CO2 lasers are usually limited to the output power of fewer
than 200 watts. For higher output power it is necessary to take away the heat generated
inside the laser, and a flowing gas is needed.

Sometimes a gas reservoir is added to the sealed off tube to allow some refreshment of
the lasing gasses from the reservoir to the tube. The new class of sealed CO2 lasers is made
from metal with no glass tube.

c.CO2 Laser inside a waveguide

When the laser tube diameter is reduced to a size of about 1 millimeter, a waveguide is
made. The radiation inside the small diameter tube is confined to move along the tube, with
low loss. Using ceramic tubes, very small CO2 lasers can be made. These small CO2 lasers
can produce up to 50 Watts of continuous wave radiation.

Transverse Flow CO2 gas lasers

When the gas flow inside the laser is perpendicular to the laser axis, it is possible to have
a much larger flow since the distance is very short. Since cooling by gas flow is very
efficient, it is possible to get very high power output out of these lasers.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

Both the gas flow and the electric discharge in these lasers are along the width of the
laser. Thus, the distance between the electrodes is short, so electric discharge can be
achieved even for gas at very high pressure (up to a few atmospheres). Transverse flow is
used for very high power CO2 lasers.

Properties of CO2 Laser

 High output power. Commercial CO2 Lasers produce more than 10000 Watts
continuously.
 The output spectrum is in the Infra-Red (IR) spectrum: 9.6 m, 10.6m
 Very high efficiency (up to 35%).
 Can operate both continuously or pulsed.
 Average output power is 75 W/m for the slow flow of gas, and up to few hundreds W/m
for fast gas flow.
 Very simple to operate, and the gasses are non-toxic.

CO Laser
This laser is very similar to the CO2 laser, except for the active gas - CO. The spectrum
output of these lasers is 5-6 m. One of the problems with this laser is the gas CO which is
poisonous.

1.1.7 Excimer Laser

There are lasers in which the required conditions for lasing are achieved in exotic ways.
As an example, we shall examine a family of lasers in which the radiation is emitted from a
molecule which only exists for a very short time. This molecule is composed of an atom of
noble gas: Argon, Krypton or Xenon, and an atom of halogen: Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine
or Iodine.
An Excimer is a molecule which has a bound state (existence) only in an excited state. In
the ground state, this molecule does not exist, and the atoms are separated. The excited state
exists for a very short time, less than 10 nanoseconds.
The name Excimer comes from the combination of the two words: exited dimer, which
means that the molecule is composed of two atoms, and exists only in an excited state.
(Some scientists consider this molecule to be a complex, and they call the laser "Exciplex").

Historical Development of Excimer Lasers

The first laser action in a noble gas with halogen (XeBr) was reported in 1975 by Searl
and Hart. The common Excimer lasers are listed in the table, each with its characteristic
wavelengths:

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

Excimer Laser Wavelengths [nm]

ArCl 175

ArF 193

KrF 248, (275)

Xef 351, 353, (460)

KrCl 222, (240)

XeCl 308, 351

XeBr 282, (300)

Energy Levels of Excimer Laser

A compound of a noble gas is a contradiction since noble gases are inert (as their
name implies). The atoms create a bound state only after a high energy input raises them to
an ionized excited state. This bound state is the high laser level, from it, the molecule returns
to the unexcited ground state.
The condition of population inversion is achieved at the moment that there is an excited
state since the population of the lower laser level is always zero. Figure 1.8 shows a diagram
of the energy levels of the Excimer laser, as a function of the distance between the atoms in
the molecule. R represents the noble gas atom and H represents the halogen.

Figure 1.8: Energy levels in the Excimer Laser.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

Operation of the Excimer Laser

The composition of the gas mixture inside the tube of the Excimer laser is:

 Very little halogen (0.1-0.2%).

 Little noble gas (Argon, Krypton or Xenon).
 About 90% Neon or Helium.

The halogen atoms can come from halogen molecules such as F2, Cl2, Br2, or from other
molecules which contain halogens such as HCl, NF3. The advantage of using a compound
and not a pure halogen is the strong chemical activity of the halogen molecule (especially
Fluorine).

Excitation of the Excimer laser

Excitation of the Excimer laser is done by passing strong electric pulses through the gas
mixture. The excitation must be for a very short time and with a very high power. The
electrons in the gas are accelerated as a result of the high voltage and transfer their kinetic
energy to the gas molecules by collision. The halogen and noble gas molecules are broken
and form the excited bound complex. It is possible to improve the efficiency of pumping by
ionizing the gas mixture using x-ray radiation.
Because of the requirement for fast and strong pumping, it is common to use transverse
discharge. In transverse discharge, the distance between the electrodes is short, and there is a
lot of space for the electrodes (along with the laser axis). Care must be taken to choose the
right materials inside the cavity, because of the high reactivity of the gases.
Since the gases inside the Excimer laser are very toxic, the laser must be sealed off after
gas refill. The laser is used for a few million pulses, and then a gas refill is necessary.

Properties of Excimer Lasers:

 Excimer lasers emit in the Ultra-Violet (UV) spectrum.
 The radiation is emitted only in short pulses.
 The length of each pulse is between (10-12-10-6 sec).
 The gas pressure inside the laser tube is high: 1-5 Atm.
 The efficiency of commercial Excimer lasers is up to a few percents.

Applications of the Excimer Laser:

Commercial Excimer lasers can emit Ultra-Violet (UV) radiation up to an average power
of 100 Watts. Since the emitted wavelengths are very short, each individual photon carries a
large amount of energy, which is enough to break the bond between molecules in the
material that absorbed the radiation. Every pulse of Excimer laser radiation contains a large

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

number of photons since it has a very high peak power. Thus, the Excimer laser is the
perfect cutting tool for almost every material.

Special Applications:

 Photolithography - Material processing at a very high degree of accuracy (up to parts of

microns).
 Cutting biological tissue without affecting the surrounding.
 Correcting vision disorders - Cutting very delicate layers from the outer surface of the
cornea, thus reshaping it, to avoid the necessity for glasses.
 Marking on products - Since the short wavelength radiation from the Excimer laser is
absorbed by every material, it is possible with a single laser to mark on all kinds of
materials, such as plastics, glass, metal, etc.

The price of an Excimer laser is relatively high (tens of thousands of dollars), but it is used a
lot because of its unique properties.

1.1.8 Chemical Laser

The chemical laser is an example of a laser where the pump energy comes from a
chemical reaction between two atoms. The chemical laser is a member of the family of Gas
Dynamic Lasers. Gas dynamic lasers are based on rapid expansion of hot, high-pressure gas,
through nozzles into a near vacuum.
Since the transfer of the molecules to the ground state takes more than the time of rapid
expansion, we get at low-temperature many molecules at excited levels. Thus, "population
inversion". The gas usually flows through the nozzles in a transverse flow (perpendicular to
the optical axis of the laser), so many nozzles can operate at the same time, yielding high
power from the laser. The lasing action of the chemical laser is usually based on vibrational
transitions of a diatomic molecule.

The Material in a Chemical Laser

Most chemical lasers are based on Hydrogen Halides.

HF
The most well-known member of this family is Hydrogen Fluoride (HF).
The emitted radiation is in the Infra-Red (IR), in the spectrum range: 2.6 - 3.0 m.

DF
When Hydrogen is replaced by its heavier isotope - Deuterium, another member of the
family: Deuterium Fluoride (DF) is created and emits in the spectrum range: 3.5 - 4.2 m.
Other halides such as Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) and Hydrogen Bromide (HBr) have
demonstrated lasing in the lab, but are not common. Because Fluorine and Hydrogen are

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

very reactive gasses, Hydrocarbons are used as a Hydrogen source, and Fluorine compounds
such as SF6 or NF3 are used as a source of Fluorine.

Fluorine extraction is done by an electrical discharge which separates the SF6 molecule
into Fluorine and Sulfur. In commercial chemical lasers, Oxygen is added to the reaction
chamber, to react with the Sulfur to create SO2 molecules. Helium gas is added as a dilution
gas and sometimes other gasses as well.

The Chemical Reaction

The reaction between Hydrogen and Fluorine can be ignited by an electric spark or by
chemical means. In the reaction between Hydrogen molecules and Fluorine atoms, the
highly active Fluorine reacts with the Hydrogen molecule (H2) to create free Hydrogen plus
a molecule of HF*. Then the free Hydrogen reacts with the Fluorine molecule:

H2 + F  HF* + H H + F2  HF* + F

These reactions will continue as long as there are molecules of Fluorine and Hydrogen.
Thus, gas flow into the laser cavity creates continuous laser emission. HF and DF
molecules have a series of vibrational energy levels.

The energy difference between successive energy levels decreases at higher levels. This
means that when the transition is between two high energy levels (such as E 7-E6), the
emitted photon will have lower energy than the photon emitted from the transition between
lower energy levels (E2-E1). Since every vibrational level has a few rotational sub-levels, we
have the explanation for the range of wavelengths emitted by these chemical lasers.

Chemical Laser Structure

The structure of a chemical laser is shown in figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9: The Basic Structure of the Chemical Laser

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

The gasses are injected into the laser through pipes with pinholes at their ends. The
design of the pinholes is critical to avoid thermodynamic equilibrium of the gas. The gas
flows rapidly out of the pinholes and creates a turbulent flow. This results in the excited
Hydrogen-halide molecule. The excited gas enters the laser optical cavity at a right angle to
the laser optical axis.
Advantages of Chemical Lasers:
The source of energy is conveniently stored.
Very high output power.
The atmosphere is more transparent to the emitted spectrum out of DF lasers than for HF
lasers, so the DF laser is more developed, although its efficiency is lower, and the price of
the Deuterium isotope is higher.

Disadvantages of Chemical Lasers:

 Fluorine is a very reactive gas.
 Hydrogen gas can explode easily.

Chemical Laser operation

In a commercial chemical laser, a high voltage of about 8,000 Volts is applied to the
electrodes of the laser tube. Some lasers use Ultra-Violet (UV) radiation before the electric
discharge to pre-ionize the gas and increase the efficiency of the chemical reaction. The
chemical reaction between free Fluorine and Hydrogen releases a large amount of heat while
creating the molecule HF* which is in an excited state.
Chemical Laser Applications:
Most of the applications of the chemical laser are military applications. It is designed to
destroy enemy missiles in the air.
1.1.9 Far Infra-Red (FIR) Lasers
Far Infra-Red (FIR) lasers emit radiation in the Far-Infra-Red spectrum (wavelength
range 12-1000 m. The wavelength range greater than 100 m is sometimes called a sub-
millimeter wave.

Far Infra-Red (FIR) lasers are gas lasers, and their lasing action occurs between
rotational levels of the gas molecules of the active medium. Usually, these transitions are
within the same vibrational level. The active medium in FIR lasers is usually a gas of simple
organic molecule such as C2H4, CF4, NH3,etc..

Because of the very narrow width of each energy level of these materials, it is inefficient
to optically pump them with ordinary light sources. The best way to achieve population

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

inversion in these lasers is to pump them with another laser at a shorter wavelength. Usually,
the CO2 laser is used for pumping.

Properties of FIR Lasers

A schematic drawing of the FIR laser is shown in figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10: schematic drawing of FIR laser

The main research use of FIR lasers is for spectroscopic measurements. It is possible to
use the same FIR laser system for different laser gasses, and each gas has usually some
lasing lines.

Structure of Far Infra-Red (FIR) lasers

The lasing gas is confined within a tube (similar to CO 2 or He-Ne lasers). The gas can
either flow through the tube, or the tube can be sealed off. The gas pressure within the tube
is 30-300 Torr.

Optical pumping is usually done along the optical axis of the laser. The mirror through
which the pumping is done is coated so that the pumping wavelength passes through, and
the laser wavelength is blocked. Thus the laser radiation is trapped inside the tube, passing
many times through the active medium, and being amplified.

Since the optical pumping is done by a laser, the pumping wavelength is determined
precisely, so specific energy levels can be excited. The main problem in using FIR lasers is
to find optical components which are transparent at these long wavelengths since most
optical materials are not transparent at a wavelength more than 40 m.

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

1.2 Solid State Lasers

The atoms in a solid are close to each other, and the interaction between neighbors is
strong. Thus, the absorption and emission spectrum ranges in solids are much wider than
those of gasses. Wide absorption spectrum allows pumping of the active medium with a
"conventional" light source, which has a wide emission spectrum.

In Optical Pumping the active medium is excited by illuminating it with the external
electromagnetic source. The photons from the external source are absorbed by the material
of the active medium, thus transferring energy to its molecules. Two types of
electromagnetic sources are used in optical pumping:

●Source of the wideband electromagnetic spectrum- such as Flash lamps, incandescent

lamps, arc lamps, etc.
●Source of narrow band electromagnetic spectrum - another laser.

Structure of the active medium in Solid State Laser

The active medium in solid-state lasers is a medium of one solid material, in which
impurity ions of another material are embedded. These impurity ions are replacing atoms of
the solid background, and the energy levels which participate in the lasing process are those
of the ions of impurity. The solid background influence on the energy level structure is
minor. Thus, the same impurity ion embedded in different host material will emit at very
close wavelengths. The optical properties of the laser are dictated mostly by the impurity
ion. On the other end, the physical properties of the active medium such as thermal
conductivity, thermal expansion, are determined by the solid host. Thus, the solid host
determines the maximum power levels which can be emitted from the laser.
Optically Pumped Solid State Lasers
The active medium in these lasers is a crystal or a glass. The shape of the active medium
is usually a rod with a circular or square cross-section. The pumping beam usually enters the
active medium via its surface area along the rod, while the laser radiation is emitted through
the ends of the rod. The ends of the rod are usually at right angles to the rod axis and are
optically polished.
Solid state lasers emit radiation in either pulsed mode or in continuous mode. The pump
lamps for pulsed lasers are usually Xenon (or Krypton) flash lamps, in which a low-pressure
gas is contained within a quartz tube. The pump lamps for continuous lasers are usually
Halogen lamps or high-pressure mercury discharge lamps.

The arrangement of Pump and Laser Rod

There are many ways to transfer as much pump light as possible from the lamp to the
active medium. The most common method is to use an elliptic optical cavity (A cavity

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Laser Systems Design, 4th Class , Laser physics dept. , 2012-2011 , Dr. Sami A.Habana

created by an ellipsoid of revolution). The lamp is at one focus of the ellipsoid, and the rod
of the active medium at another, as described in Figure 1.11.

Figure 1.11: Methods of Optical Pumping of Solid State Lasers.

The inner surface of the cavity is coated with a reflective coating (usually Gold), such
that all the radiation emitted from the lamps ended at the active medium.

Diode Pumped Solid State Lasers (DPSSL).

During the last few years, with the new developments of diode lasers at high powers, a
new pumping method is being developed for solid state lasers. Instead of broad-spectrum
pumping source, Diode Lasers are used as pump sources.
The wavelength of these diode lasers can be adjusted to fit the absorption spectrum of
the active medium. These diode lasers are very efficient sources, and almost all their light is
absorbed by the active medium.
Thus, very little energy is lost (converted into unwanted heat). These solid state lasers
which are pumped by diode lasers are called: Diode Pumped Solid State Lasers (DPSSL).

1.2.1 Ruby Laser

Ruby laser was the first man-made a laser, which was built by Theodore Maiman in
1960. Ruby is a synthetic crystal of Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) and is more familiar with
daily life as a precious stone for the jewel. The chemical structure of Ruby is of Al2O3

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