"We do our best that we know how at the

moment and if it doesn't turn out, we modify it."

…Franklin Delano Roosevelt

5
CHAPTER

Internal Combustion
Engines
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Basics of Internal Combustion Engine, Classifications of IC Engines
2. Working and Valve Timing Diagrams, Performance Parameter
3. Air Standard Cycles, Otto Cycle, Diesel Cycle, Dual Cycle, Comparison of Air Standard Cycles

Introduction
A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and
uses this energy to produce mechanical work. Heat engines are of two types.
(i) External combustion engines
(ii) Internal combustion engines
In external combustion engines the working fluid is heated by combustion outside the combustion
chamber. The second fuel which is working fluid to the cycle while in the internal combustion
engines the combustion of fuel is done outside the combustion chamber.

An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an
oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow
circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure
gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine. The force is
applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a
distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy. The first commercially
successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859.[1]and the first
modern internal combustion engine was created in 1864 by Siegfried Marcus.

The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which combustion is
intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with
variants, such as the six-stroke piston engine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of
internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket
engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously
described.[1][2] Firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine

The main advantage of I.C. engines over the E.C. engines are the greater mechanical simplicity, lower
ratio of weight and bulk to output, higher overall efficiency. The maximum temperature in I.C.
engines is for a very small time. The main advantage of external combustion engine is that the
cheaper fuel can be used. E.C. engines are not self-starting and they require high starting torque.

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 Internal Combustion Engines

Basics of I.C. Engine

Engine Components:
Cylinder Head
Suction Valve Exhaust Valve
S
S S
Intake of Suction Exhaust

Top Dead Center,

S T.D.C Clearance Volume, Vc

S S Cylinder Volume ,V
Piston
Stroke Volume, Vs
Gudgeon of Wrist Pin
S S
Bottom Dead Center, BDC S
S
Cylinder
S Connecting Rod
S
Crank Case Crank Pin
S
Crank
Crank
S Shaft S

S
Bore Where, Vs → Swept Volume
Vc → Clearance Volume

VC Clearance Volume
TDC
Vt vollume

VS Swept Volume Stroke

BDC

Engine’s Terminology
 Piston Swept Volume (Vs): The nominal volume generated by the piston when travelling from
one dead centre to the next one.
Vs = A × L
π
Where, A = D2 , D = Bore Diameter
4

 Clearance Volume (Vc): The nominal volume of the space on the combustion side of the piston
at top dead centre.

 Cylinder Volume (V): The sum of piston swept volume and clearance volume .
V = Vc + Vs

 Compression Ratio (r): It is ratio of cylinder volume to clearance volume.

V Vc + Vs Vs
r = = =1+
Vc Vc Vc

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 Internal Combustion Engines

Performance Parameter
 Indicated Thermal Efficiency (𝛈𝐢𝐭): It is a ratio of energy in the indicated horse power to the fuel
energy.
I. P
ηit =
mf × Q LHV
I. P = Indicated power
Mf = Mass of fuel
Q LHV = Lower Heat Calorific Value

 Brake Thermal Efficiency (𝛈𝐛𝐭 ): Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake
power to the fuel energy.
B. P
ηbt =
mf × Q LHV
B.P = Break power.

 Mechanical Efficiency (𝛈𝐦): It is a ratio of brake power to the indicated horse power.
B. P
ηm =
I. P
ηbt
=
ηit
ηbt = ηm × ηit
F.P = I.P – B.P
F.P = Friction power
F.P usually assumed constant. At part loads B.P is changed, thus from B.P & F.P, I.P can be
calculated.

 Volumetric Efficiency (𝛈𝐯): It is defined as the ratio of volume of air actually induced at ambient
conditions to the swept volume of engine.
V
ηv =
Vs

 Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio: It is defined as ratio of thermal efficiency of the actual
cycle to that of the ideal cycle.
Actual thermal efficiency
ηrel =
Air standard efficiency

 Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC): It is expressed in grams per horse power-hour or kg\kwh
mf
BSFC =
BP
mf
ISFC =
IP

 Fuel-Air Ratio: It is the relative proportion of the fuel and air in the engine.
F mf
=
A ma

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 Internal Combustion Engines

 Mean Piston Speed = 2LN

Where,
‘L’ = length of cylinder
‘N’ = r.p.m.
Mean efficient pressure,
I. P I. P × 60
Imep = =
volume/second Lank
N
n= for 4 stroke
2
n = N for 2 stroke
k = Number of cylinders

 Equivalent Ratio:
Actual fuel − Air ratio
ϕ=
Stochiometric fuel − Air ratio
ϕ = 1 Chemically correct
ϕ < 1 Lean mixture
ϕ > 1 Rich mixture

Air Standard Cycles

Assumptions in Ideal or Air Standard Cycle
 The working medium is a perfect gas throughout, i.e., it follows the law, pV = mRT.
 The working medium has constant specific heats.
 The working medium does not undergo any chemical change throughout the cycle.
 The kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid are neglected.
 The operation of the engine is frictionless.
 All the process are reversible.

Otto Cycle

P 3
T
3
Q̇in
Q̇ in
2

4 4
2
Q̇out

1 Q̇out
1
V S

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 Internal Combustion Engines

Process Remark
1−2 Adiabatic and reversible compression (isentropic compression)
2−3 Combustion (constant volume heat addition)
3−4 Adiabatic and reversible expansion (isentropic expansion)
4−1 Exhaust stroke (constant volume heat rejection)
Work done
Thermal efficiency, η =
Heat supplied
Work done = Heat added – Heat rejected = Cv (T3 − T2 ) − Cv (T4 − T1 )
(T4 − T1 )
η = 1−
(T3 − T2 )
For the reversible adiabatic process 3 − 4 and 1 − 2 we can write
T4 V3 γ−1 T1 V2 γ−1
=( ) and =( )
T3 V4 T2 V1
V2 = V3 and V4 = V1
T4 T1 T4 − T1 V2 γ−1
= = =( )
T3 T2 T3 − T2 V1
T1 V2 γ−1
ηth = 1 − = 1 − ( )
T2 V1
V1
The ratio is called as compression ratio denoted by r.
V2
1 γ−1
ηth = 1 − ( )
r
Thus the efficiency of Otto cycle depends only on compression ratio (r) and the efficiency increases
with increasing compression ratio and γ. The efficiency at compression ratio 5 is 47.5% and at
compression ratio 10 is 60.2%
Monoatamic gas
γ = 1.67
Air
γ = 1.4

γ = 1.30
η Exchaust gas

r
As shown in above fig. beyond certain values of compression ratios, the increase in thermal
efficiency is very small, because the curve tends to be asymptotic. However, practically the
compression ratio of petrol engines is restricted to maximum of 9 or 10 due to the phenomenon of
knocking at high compression ratios.
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)
Area of indicator diagram
MEP =
Length of the indicator diagram
Generally it is defined as the ratio of net work done to the displacement volume of the piston.
Let us consider m kg of working substance

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 Internal Combustion Engines

Net work done = mCV {(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 )}

Displacement volume = (V1 − V2 )
1
= V1 (1 − )
r
mRT1 r − 1
= ( )
P1 r
mCv (γ − 1)T1 r − 1
= ( )
P1 r
Since R = Cv (γ − 1)
mCv [(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 )]
mep =
mCv (γ − 1)T1 r − 1
P1 {( r )}
1 P1 r
=( )( )( ) {(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 )}
γ − 1 T1 r − 1
Now T2 = T1 (r)γ−1
P3 T3
Let rp = = = Pressure ratio
P2 T2
P3
T3 = T2 = rp T2 = rp r γ−1 T1 (for v = c)
P2
1 γ−1 1 γ−1
So, T4 = T3 ( ) = rp r γ−1 T1 ( ) = rp T1
r r
P1 r
mep = {(rp r γ−1 − r γ−1 ) − (rp − 1)}
(r − 1)(γ − 1)
(rγ−1 (rp −1)−(rp −1)
= P1 r { (γ−1)(r−1)
}
(r γ−1
− 1)(rp − 1)
mep = P1 r { }
(r − 1)(γ − 1)

Diesel cycle
Isothermal Process
P Q̇ in 3
2 T
3

Constant
Reversible
Pressure
adiabatic
pv γ = C Q̇ in

2
4

4
Q̇ out
1 Q̇ out
0 1 Constant
2′ 5 6 V volume
P
r
5 6 S

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 Internal Combustion Engines

Heat added − Heat rejected

η =
Heat added
Cp (T3 − T2 ) − Cv (T4 − T1 )
η =
Cp (T3 − T2 )
1 Pγ − 1
η = 1 − γ−1 [ ]
r γ(P − 1)
P = Cut off ratio
V3 V1
P = ,r =
V2 V2
V3 V3 V2 P
= , =
V4 V2 V4 r
The efficiency of the diesel cycle different from that of the Otto cycle only by the bracketed term,
which is always greater that unity.
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)
Area of indicator diagram
MEP =
Length of the indicator diagram
P1 r γ [γ(P − 1) − r1−γ (Pγ − 1)]
=
(γ − 1)(r − 1)
The efficiency decreases as cut off increases. If cut off ratio is greater than 10% of stroke, smoking
occur in an actual engine because there is no sufficient time for the combustion process to be
completed before the exhaust valve opens.

The Dual Combustion Or Mixed or Limited Pressure Cycle

 The name dual combustion is derived from the fact that it incorporates the features of both Otto
and diesel cycles.
 High speed diesel engine is based on this.
P 4′
T
4

3 4 3 V = Constant
2
2 P = Constant
5
(Diesel)
5
1
1

S
V f g
Heat supplied − Heat rejected
η =
Heat supplied
Cv (T3 − T2 ) + Cp (T4 − T3 ) − Cv (T5 − T1 )
=
Cv (T3 − T2 ) + Cp (T4 − T3 )
1 αPγ − 1
η = 1 − (γ−1) [ ]
r (α − 1) + αγ(P − 1)
P3 V4
α = ,P =
P2 V3
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 Internal Combustion Engines

 If P = 1 in above equation it becomes Otto cycle and when α = 1, it becomes diesel cycle.
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)
Area of indicator diagram
mep =
Length of the indicator diagram
P1 r γ [αγ(P − 1) + (α − 1) − r1−γ (αPγ − 1)]
=
(γ − 1)(r − 1)

Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Combustion (Limited - Pressure) Cycles

 For Same Compression Ratio and Same Heat Input, the heat rejected in the Otto cycle is less than
the diesel cycle and dual combustion cycle thus the efficiency of the Otto cycle is more than the
diesel and the dual combustion cycle for same compression ratio and same heat input.
ηOtto > ηDual > ηDiesel
3
T
3′′

2′′ 3′

2 4′
4′′
4
1

5 6 6′′ 6′ S

 For Constant Maximum Pressure and Same Heat Input:

T 3
3′
Constant
Pressure

Constant
2′ 4
Volume
2 4′
Constant
1
Volume

5 6′ 6 S

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 Internal Combustion Engines

 For Same Maximum Pressure and Temperature:

ηDiesel > ηDual > ηOtto
T 3
Constant
Pressure

Constant
Volume
2′ 4
2
Constant
1 Volume

6 S
5
Notes:
1. C.I. engines operate at compression ratios which one considerably higher than those used by SI
engines.
2. Two stroke engine have less weight flywheel as compared to four stroke engine. Engine speed
lower, higher weight flywheel is used (for same power produced)
3. Cold starting – Higher air fuel ratio
Ideal condition - Air supply is restricted by nearly closed throttle and suction pressure is low
(rich mixture)
4. Instruments:
Engine speed - Tachometer
Brake Power - Bomb calorimeter
Exhaust Emission - Flame ionization director
5. Supercharging increases the knocking tendency as temperature of charge increased around self
ignition temperature.
Increase in engine speed increases flame travel so knocking reduces and retarding of spark also
reduces knocking.
6. Specific output of C.I. engine will be more due to less weight
7. For same compression ratio and heat rejection: ηOtto > ηDual> ηDiesel

Solved Examples
Example 1
A 4-cylinder, four-stroke petrol engine develops 14.7 kW at 1000 rpm. The mean effective
pressure is 5.5 bar. Calculate the bore and stroke of the engine, if the length of stroke is
1.5 times the bore.
Solution:
Number of cylinder, n = 4
Power developed, P = 14.7 kW
Engine speed, N = 1000 rpm
Indicated mean effective pressure, Pmi = 5.5 bar

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 Internal Combustion Engines

Length of stroke L = 1.5 D

1
For four stroke-cycle, k = 2
L = ?, D = ?
nPmi LANk × 10
Indicated power developed, I. P. = kW
6
1
4 × 5.5 × 1.5D × (π⁄4)D2 × 1000 × 2 × 10
14.7 =
6
3
14.7 × 6 × 4 × 2
∴D = = 0.0006806
4 × 5.5 × 1.5 × π × 1000 × 10
∴ D = 0.0879 or 87.9 mm and L = 1.5 × 87.9 = 131.8 mm

Example 2
The following data refers to an oil engine working on Otto four stroke cycle:
Brake power = 14.7 kW
Suction pressure = 0.9 bar
Mechanical efficiency = 80%
Ratio of compression = 5
Index of compression curve = 1.35
Index of expansion curve = 1.3
Maximum explosion pressure = 24 bar
Engine speed = 1000 rpm
Ratio of stroke: bore = 1.5
Find the diameter and stroke of the piston.
Solution:
Refer Fig. below
B.P. = 14.7 kW, p1 = 0.9 bar, ηmech., = 80% r = 5, p3 = 24 bar
L
N = 1000 r.p.m., D = 1.5
D = ?, L = ?
V1 V4
Compression ratio, r = =
V2 V3

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 Internal Combustion Engines

P
3

PV1.3 = Constant
2
Expansion

Compression 4

PV1.35 = Constant
1

To find P2 , Considering compression process 1-2, we have

P1 V11.35 = P2 V21.35
P2 V1 1.35
Or =( ) = (5)1.35 = 8.78
P1 V2
∴ P2 = P1 × 8.78 = 0.9 × 8.78 = 7.9 bar
To find P4 , considering expansion process 3-4, we have
P3 V31.3 = P4 V41.3
P3 V4 1.3
Or = ( ) = (5)1.3 = 8.1
P4 V3
P3 24
∴ P4 = = = 2.96 bar
8.1 8.1
Work done/cycle = area 1-2-3-4
= (Area under the curve 3-4) – (Area under the curve 1-2)
P3 V3 − P4 V4 P2 V2 − P1 V1
= −
1.3 − 1 1.35 − 1
P3 V3 − P4 V4 P2 V3 − P1 V4
= − [∵ V1 = V4 and V2 = V3 ]
0.35 0.35
105 (24V3 − 2.9 V4 ) 105 (7.9V3 − 0.9 V4 )
=[ ]−[ ]
0.3 0.35
= 105 [(80V3 − 9.86 V4 ) − (22.57V3 − 2.57V4 )]
= 105 (80V3 − 9.86V4 − 22.57V3 + 2.57V4 )
= 105 (57.43V3 − 7.29V4 )
V4
= 105 (57.43V3 − 7.29 × 5V3 ) [∵ = 5]
V3
= 105 × 20.98 V3 Nm
Mean effective pressure (theoretical),
Work done/Cycle
∴ pm =
Stroke Volume (Vs )

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 Internal Combustion Engines

105 × 20.98V3 105 × 20.98 V3

= = = 105 × 5.245 N⁄m2 or 5.245 bar
(V4 − V3 ) 5V3 − V3
BP
Now, ηmech. =
IP
BP 14.7
∴ I. P. = = = 18.37 kW
ηmech. 0.8
To find D and L:
Pmi LANk × 10
I. P. = kW
6
1
5.245 × 1.5D × (π⁄4)D2 × 1000 × 2 × 10
14.7 =
6
14.7 × 6 × 4 × 2
∴ D3 = = 0.002855
5.245 × 1.5 × π × 1000 × 10
or D = 0.1418 ≃ 0.142 m or 142 mm
And L = 1.5D = 1.5 × 142 = 213 mm

Example 3
A 4-cylinder two stroke cycle petrol engine develops 30 kW at 2500 rpm. The mean
effective pressure on each piston is 8 bar and mechanical efficiency is 80%. Calculate the
diameter and stroke of each cylinder of stroke to bore ratio 1.5. Also calculate the fuel
consumption of the engine, if brake thermal efficiency is 28%. The calorific value of the
fuel is 43900 kJ/kg.
Solution:
Number of cylinder, n = 4
Brake power, BP = 30 kW
Engine speed, N = 2500 rpm
Mean effective pressure, Pmi = 8 bar
Mechanical efficiency, ηmech. = 80%
Length of stroke, L = 1.5 D
Brake thermal efficiency, ηth,B = 28%
Calorific value of the fuel, C = 43900 kJ/kg
k = 1 …… for 2-stroke cycle engine
(i) L = ?, D = ?
BP
ηmech. =
IP
30
0.8 =
I. P.
30
∴ I. P. = = 37.5 kW
0.8
nPmi (LANk) × 10
Also, I. P. =
6
4 × 8 × 1.5D × (π⁄4)D2 × 2500 × 1 × 10
37.5 =
6
37.5 × 6 × 4
∴ D3 = = 0.0002387
4 × 8 × 1.5 × π × 2500 × 10

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 Internal Combustion Engines

Or, D = 0.062m or 62 mm
And L = 62 × 1.5 = 93mm
(ii) Fuel Consumption
BP
Brake thermal efficiency, ηth,B = (ṁf = Fuel used in kg/s)
ṁf × C
30
0.28 =
ṁf × 43900
30
∴ ṁf = = 0.00244 kg⁄s or 8.78 kg⁄h
0.28 × 43900

Example 4
Following data relates to 4-cylinder, four stroke petrol engine.
Air-fuel ratio by weight = 16 : 1, Calorific value of the fuel = 45200 kJ/kg, Mechanical
efficiency = 82%, Air-standard efficiency = 52%, Relative efficiency = 70%, Volumetric
efficiency = 78%, Stroke/bore ratio = 1.25, Suction conditions = 1 bar 25℃,
Speed = 2400 rpm, Power at brakes = 72kW.

Calculate: (i) Compression ratio

(ii) Indicated thermal efficiency
(iii) Brake specific fuel consumption
(iv) Bore and stroke
Solution:
Air fuel ratio by weight = 16 : 1
Number of cylinders, n = 4
Calorific value of fuel, C = 45200 kJ/kg
Mechanical efficiency, ηmech. = 82%
Air-standard efficiency, ηair−standard = 52%
Relative efficiency, ηrelative = 70%
Volumetric efficiency, ηvol = 78%
Stroke/bore ratio = 1.25
Engine speed, N = 2400 rpm
Suction conditions, P = 1 bar, T = 25 + 273 = 298 K
Stroke/bore ratio = 1.25
Brake power, BP = 72 kW
(i) Compression Ratio, r
For petrol engine, air standard efficiency is given by:
1
ηAir−Standard = 1 − γ−1
(r)
1 1
0.52 = 1 − 1.4−1 or 1.4−1 = 0.48
(r) (r)
1
or (r)0.4 = = 2.08 or r = (2.08)1⁄0.4 = (2.08)2.5 = 6.2
0.48
i.e., Compression ratio = 6.2
(ii) Indicated Thermal Efficiency, 𝛈𝐭𝐡,𝐈
ηThermal ηThermal
ηRelative = or 0.7 =
ηAir−Standard 0.52

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 Internal Combustion Engines

∴ ηth,I = 0.7 × 0.52 = 0.364 or 36.4%

i.e., Indicated thermal efficiency = 36.4%
(iii) Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)
BP 72
Indicated power, IP = = = 87.8 kW
ηmech. 0.82
IP
Also, ηth,I =
ṁf × C
87.8
0.364 =
ṁf × 45200
Where ṁf = Fuel used in kg/s
87.8
∴ ṁf = = 0.00533 kg/s
0.364 × 45200
Brake specific fuel consumption,
Fuel used/sec. 0.00533
BSFC = = kg⁄k Ws
BP 72
0.00533
⇒ × 3600 = 0.2665 kg⁄k Wh
72
(iv) Bore and Stroke
Mass of air-fuel mixture = 1 + 16 = 17 kg/kg of fuel
∴ For 0.00533 kg/s of fuel supplied to engine the mass of air-fuel mixture
⇒ 17 × 0.00533 = 0.0906 kg/s
∴ Volume of air fuel mixture supplied to the engine per second
mRT 0.0906 × 287 × (25 + 273)
∴ = = 0.07748 m3 ⁄s
P 1 × 105
Mass of mixture supplied/sec.
ηvol. =
Swept volume
0.07748
0.78 =
Swept volume
0.07748
∴ Swept volume = = 0.0993 m3 ⁄s
0.78
π speed
But swept volume/sec. = ( D2 × L) × No. of cylinders ×
4 2 × 60
π 2400
= × D2 × 1.25D × 4 × = 0.0993
4 2 × 60
0.0993 × 4 × 2 × 60
∴ D3 = = 0.001264
π × 1.25 × 4 × 2400
∴ D = 0.108m or 108 mm.
and L = 108 × 1.25 = 135 mm

Example 5
Someone has suggested that the air-standard Otto cycle is more accurate if the two
isentropic processes are replaced with polytropic processes with a polytropic exponent
n =1.3. Consider such a cycle when the compression ratio is 8, P1 = 95 kPa. T1 = 15°C,
and the maximum cycle temperature is 1200°C. Determine the heat transferred to and
rejected from this cycle, as well as the cycle's thermal efficiency. Use constant specific
heats at room temperature,

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 Internal Combustion Engines

The properties of air at room temperature are

R = 0.287 kJ/kg K, Cp = 1.005 kJ⁄kg . K, Cv = 0.718 kJ⁄kg . K and γ = 1.4
Solution:
The two isentropic process in an Otto cycle are replaced with polytropic process. The
heat added to and rejected from this cycle, and the cycle’s thermal efficiency are to be
determined.
The temperature at the end of the compression is
P 3

2
1
V
v1 n−1
T2 = T1 ( ) = T1 r n−1 = (288)(8)1.3−1 = 537.4 K
v2
And the temperature at the end of the expansion is
v3 n−1 1 n−1 1 1.3−1
T4 = T3 ( ) = T3 ( ) = (1473) ( ) = 789.4 K
v4 r 8
The integral of the work expression for the polytropic compression gives
RT1 v1 n−1 (0.287)(288 ) 1.3−1
ẇ1−2 = [( ) − 1] = (8 − 1) = 238.6 kJ⁄kg
n − 1 v2 1.3 − 1
Similarly , the work produced during for the expansion is
RT3 v3 n−1 (0.287)(1473 ) 1 1.3−1
ẇ3−4 = − [( ) − 1] = [( ) − 1] = 654.0 kJ⁄kg
n − 1 v4 1.3 − 1 8
Application of the first law to each of the four processes gives
q̇ 1−2 = w1−2 − Cv (T2 − T1 ) = 238.6 − (0.718)(537.4 − 288)
q̇ 1−2 = 59.53 kJ/kg
q̇ 2−3 = Cc (T3 − T2 = (0.718)(1473 − 537.4)= 671.8kJ/kg
q̇ 3−4 = w3−4 − Cv (T3 −T4 ) = 654.0 − (0.718)(1473 − 789.4)
q̇ 3−4 = 163.2kJ⁄kg
q̇ 4−1 = cv (T4 − T1 ) = (0.718)(789.4 − 288)K = 360.0 kJ
The head added and rejected from the cycle are
q̇ in = q̇ 2−3 + q̇ 3−4 = 671.8 + 163.2 = 835.0 kJ⁄kg
q̇ out = q̇ 1−2 + q̇ 4−1 = 59.53 + 360.0 = 419.5 kJ⁄kg
The thermal efficiency of this cycle is then
q̇ out 419.5
ηth = 1 − =1− = 0.4918
q̇ in 853.0

Example 6
The compression ratio of an air-standard Otto cycle is 9.5. Prior to the isentropic
compression process, the air is at 100 kPa, 35°C. and 600 cm3. The temperature at the end
of the isentropic expansion process is 800K. Using specific heat values at room
temperature, determine (a) The highest temperature and pressure in the cycle (b) The

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 Internal Combustion Engines

amount of heat transferred in kJ (c) The thermal efficiency (d) The mean effective
pressure.
The properties of air at room temperature are
Cp = 1.005 kJ⁄kg . K, Cv = 0.718 kJ⁄kg . K, R = 0.287kJ⁄kg . K and γ = 1.4
Solution:
An ideal Otto cycle with air as the working fluid has a compression ratio of 9.5. the
highest pressure and temperature in the cycle, the amount of the heat transferred, the
thermal efficiency and the mean effective pressure are to be determined.
P

Q̇ in
4
Q̇ out
2
1

V
(a) Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression.
v1 γ−1
T2 = T1 ( ) = (308 K)(9.5)0.4 = 757.9 K
v2
P2 V2 P1 V1 V1 T2 757.9
= → P2 = P1 = (9.5) ( ) (100) = 2338 kPa
T2 T1 V2 T1 308
Process 3-4 : Isentropic expansion.
V3 γ−1
T3 = T4 ( ) = (800)(9.5 )0.4 = 1969 K
V4
Process 2-3: V = Constant heat addition.
P3 V3 P2 V2 T3 1969
= → P3 = P2 = ( ) (2338) = 6074 kPa
T3 T2 T2 757.9
P1 V1 (100)(0.006)
(b) m = = = 6.788 × 10−4 kg
RT1 (0.287)(308)
Q̇ in = m(u1 − u2 ) = mCv (T3 − T2 )
= (6.788 × 10−4 )(0.718)(1969 − 757.9) = 0.590 kJ
(c) Process 4-1: V = Constant heat rejection.
Q̇ out = m(u4 − u1 ) = mCv (T4 − T1 ) = −(6.788 × 10−4 )(0.718)(800 − 308) = 0.240 kJ
Ẇnet = Q̇ in − Q̇ out = 0.590 − 0.240 = 0.350 kJ
Ẇnet,out 0.350
ηth = = = 59.32 %
Q̇ in 0.590
Vmax
(d) Vmin = V2 =
r
Wnet,out Wnet,out 0.350
MEP = = = = 652 kPa
V1 − V2 V1 (1 − 1/r) (0.0006 )(1 − 1⁄9.5)

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 Internal Combustion Engines

Example 7
An air-standard dual cycle has a compression ratio of 14 and a cutoff ratio of 1.2. The
pressure ratio during the constant-volume heal addition process is 1.5. Determine the
thermal efficiency, amount of heat added, the maximum gas pressure and temperature
when this cycle is operated at 80 kPa and 20 o C at the beginning of the compression. Use
constant specific heats at room temperature.
The properties of air at room temperature are Cp = 1.005 kJ⁄kg . K, R = 0.287kJ⁄kg . K.
γ = 1.4 and Cv = 0.718 kJ⁄kg . K
Solution:
P
x 3
Q̇ in
2 4
Q̇ out
1
V
An ideal dual cycle has a compression ratio of 14 and cut off ratio of 1.2. The thermal
efficiency, amount of heat added, and the maximum gas pressure and temperature are to
be determined
The specific volume of the air the start of the compression is
RT1 (0.287)(293)
V1 = = = 1.051 m3 ⁄kg
P1 80
And pressure at the end of the end of the compression is
V1 1.051
V2 = = = 0.07505m3 /kg
r 14
The pressure at the end of the compression is
V1 γ
P2 = P1 ( ) = P1 r γ = (80)(14)1.4 = 3219 kPa
V2
And the maximum pressure is
Px = P3 = rp P2 = (1.5)(3219) = 4829 kPa
The temperature at the end of the compression is
v1 γ−1
T2 = T1 ( ) = T1 r γ−1 = (293)(14)1.4−1 = 842.0K
v1
P3 4829
and Tx = T2 ( ) = (842.0 ) ( ) = 1263 K
P2 3219
Form the definition of cut off ratio
V3 = rc Vx = rc V2 = (1.2)(0.07508) = 0.09010 m3 ⁄kg
The remaining temperatures are then
v3 0.09010
T3 = Tx ( ) = (1263 ) ( ) = 1516 K
vx 0.07508
v3 γ−1 0.09010 1.4−1
T4 = T3 ( ) = (1516) ( ) = 567.5 K
v4 1.051
Applying the first law and work expression to the heat addition processes gives
q̇ in = Cv (Tx − T2 ) + Cp (T3 − Tx )

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 Internal Combustion Engines

= (0.718)(1263 − 842.0)K + (1.005)(1516 − 1263)

q̇ in = 556.5 kJ⁄kg
The heat rejected is
q̇ out = Cv (T4 − T1 ) = (0.718)(567.5 − 293) = 197.1 kJ⁄kg
q̇ out 197.1
Then, ηth = 1 − =1− = 0.646
q̇ in 556.5

Example 8
An air-standard dual cycle has a compression ratio of 18 and a cutoff ratio of 1.1. The
pressure ratio during constant-volume heat addition process is 1.1. At the beginning of
the compression, P1 = 90 kPa, T1 = 18°C, and V1 = 0.003 m3 How much power will this
cycle produce when it is executed 4000 times per minute? Use constant specific heats at
room temperature.
The properties of air at room temperature are
Cp = 1.005 kJ⁄kg . K, Cv = 0.718 kJ⁄kg . K,
R = 0.278 kJ⁄kg . K and γ = 1.4
Solution:
An ideal dual cycle has a compression ratio of 18 and cut off ratio of 1.1. the power
produce by the cycle is to be determined.
P
x 3
Q̇ in
2 4
Q̇ out
1
V
We begin by fixing the temperature at all states.
v1 γ−1
T2 = T1 ( ) = T1 r γ−1 = (291)(18)1.4−1 = 924.7 K
v2
v1 γ
P2 = P1 ( ) = P1 r γ−1 = (90)(18)1.4 = 5148 kPa
V2
Px = P3 = rp P2 = (1.1)(5148) = 5663 kPa
Px 5663
Tx = T2 ( ) = (924.7) ( ) = 1017 K
P2 5148
T3 = rc Tx = (1.1)(1017) = 1119 K
v3 γ−1 rc γ−1 1.1 1.4−1
T4 = T3 ( ) = T3 ( ) = (1119) ( ) = 365.8 K
v4 r 18
Applying the first law to each of the processes gives
w1−3 = Cv (T2 − T1 ) = (0.718)(924.7 − 291) = 455.0 kJ⁄kg
Q̇ x−3 = Cp (T3 − Tx ) = (1.005 )(1119 − 1017) = 102.5 kJ/kg
ẇx−3 = qx−3 – Cv (T3 − Tx ) = 102.5 − (0.718)(1119 − 1017) = 29.26 kJ⁄kg
ẇ3−4 = Cv (T3 − T4 ) = (0.718)(1119 − 365.8) = 540.8 kJ⁄kg
The net work of the cycle is
ẇnet = ẇ3−4 + ẇx−3 − ẇ1−2 = 540.8 + 29.26 − 455.0 = 115.1kJ⁄kg
The mass in the device is given by

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 Internal Combustion Engines

P1 V1 (90)(0.003 )
m= = = 0.003233 kg
RT1 (0.287 )(291 )
The net power produced by this engine is then
Ẇnet = mẇnet n = (0.003233)(115.1)(4000/60) = 24.8 kW

Example 9
A six-cylinder, four-stroke, 3.2-L compression-ignition engine operates on the ideal diesel
cycle with a compression ratio of 19. The air is at 95 kPa and 67°C at the beginning of the
compression process and the engine speed is 1750 rpm, The engine uses light diesel fuel
with a heating value of 42,500 kJ/kg, an air-fuel ratio of 28 and a combustion efficiency of
98% percent. Using constant specific heats at 850 K, determine (a) The maximum
temperature in the cycle and the cutoff ratio (b) The net work output per cycle and the
thermal efficiency, (c) The mean effective pressure, (d) The net power output, and
(e) The specific fuel consumption, in g/kWh, defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel
consumed to the network produced.
The properties of air at 850 K are Cp = 1.110 kJ⁄kg . K, Cv = 0.823 kJ⁄kg . K,
R = 0.287 kJ⁄kg . K and γ = 1.349

Solution:
A six cylinder compression ignition engine operates on the ideal diesel cycle. The
maximum temperature in the cycle, the cutoff ratio, the network output per cycle, the
thermal efficiency, the mean effective pressure, the net power output, and the specific
fuel consumption are to determined
P Q̇ in
2 3

4
Q̇ out
1
V
(a) Process 1-2: Isentropic compression
v1 γ−1
T2 = T1 ( ) = (340)(19)1.349−1 = 950.1 K
v2
v1 γ
P2 = P1 ( ) = (95)(19)1.349 = 5044 kPa
v2
The clearance volume and the total volume of the engine at the beginning of
compression process (state 1) are
Vc + Vd Vc + 0.0045
r= → 19 =
Vc Vc
3
Vc = 0.0001778m
V1 = Vc + Vd = 0.0001778 + 0.0032 = 0.003378m3
The total mass contained in the cylinder is

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 Internal Combustion Engines

P1 V1 (95)(0.003378)
m= = = 0.003288 kg
RT1 (0.287)(340)
The mass of fuel burned during one cycle is
ṁa ṁ − ṁf (0.003288) − ṁf
AF = = → 28 = → ṁf = 0.0001134 kg
ṁf ṁf ṁf
Process 2-3: constant pressure heat addition
Q̇ in = mf (qh )(ηc ) = (0.0001134 )(42,500)(0.98) = 4.723 K
Q̇ in = mCv (T3 − T2 ) → 4.723 = (0.003288 )(0.823)(T3 − 950.1)
∴ T3 = 2244 K
The cut off ratio is
T3 2244
β= = = 2.362
T2 950.1
V1 0.003378
(b) V2 = r
= 19
= 0.0001778 m3
V3 = βV2 = (2.362)(0.0001778) = 0.0004199 m3
∴ V4 = V1
∴ P3 = P2
Process 3 - 4: Isentropic expansion
V3 γ−1 0.0004199 1.349−1
T4 = T3 ( ) = (2244 ) ( ) = 1084 K
V4 0.003378
V3 γ 0.0004199 1.349
P4 = P3 ( ) = (5044 ) ( ) = 302.9 kPa
V4 0.003378
Process 4 -1: constant volume heat rejection.
Q̇ out = mCv (T4 − T1 ) = (0.003288 )(0.823)(1084 − 340)= 2.013 kJ
The network output and the thermal efficiency are
Ẇnet,out = Q̇ in − Q̇ out = 4.723 − 2.013 = 2.710 kJ
Ẇnet,out 2.710
ηth = = = 0.5737 = 57.4%
Q̇ in 4.723
(c) The mean effective pressure is determine to be
Ẇnet,out 2.710
MEP = = = 847 kPa
V1 − V2 (0.003378 − 0.0001778)
(d) The power for engine speed of 1750 rpm is
ṅ 1750 1
Ẇnet = Ẇnet = (2.710) ( ) = 39.5 kW
2 2 60
Note that there are two revolutions in one cycle in four-stroke engines.
(e) Finally , the specific fuel consumption is
ṁf 0.0001134
SFC = = (1000)(3600) = 151 g⁄kWh
̇
Wnet,out 2.710

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