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Defining Culture
A culturally diverse workforce has long been an important reliance on the tourism and hospitality industry. As
defined in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, culture pertains to the customary beliefs, social forms, and
material traits of a racial, religious, or social group. It also refers to a set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and
practices that characterizes an institution or organization.
Culture is the social glue that helps hold the organization together by providing standards for what employees
should say and do. It is a sense-making, control mechanism that guides and shapes employees’ attitudes and
behavior.
Culture is constantly created and changed as groups of people socially interact with one another, allowing
cohesion between people from distinct organizations or departments, work as a connection factor. Inter-
organizational relationships, and organizational cultures, rely on trust, commitment, communication, learning,
ways to perceive and cope with reality, and shared meanings and symbols (De Anca & Vasquez, 2007).
Organizational culture represents a perception that the organization’s members hold in common. The
dominant culture expresses the core values (the primary or dominant values accepted throughout the
organization) that gives the organization its distinct personality. For instance, Zappos’ (an online shoe and
clothing retailer based in Las Vegas, Nevada, United States) culture values customer care and dedication over
speed and efficiency, which explains Zappos executives and employees’ behaviors (Robbins & Judge, 2018).
In addition to each organization’s dominant culture, subcultures (mini cultures within an organization,
typically defined by department designations and geographical separation) tend to develop in large
organizations in response to common problems or experiences a group of members faces in the same
department or location. Most large organizations have a dominant culture and numerous subcultures. It is the
shared meaning aspect of culture that makes it a potent device for guiding and shaping organizational
behavior.
Service Culture
It is possible to differentiate between strong and weak cultures. If most employees (responding to surveys, for
instance) have the same opinions about the organization’s mission and values, the culture is strong; if opinions
vary widely, it is weak.
In a strong culture, the organization’s core values are both intensely held and widely shared. The more
members who accept the core values and the greater their commitment, the stronger the culture and the
greater its influence on member behavior. A weak culture exemplifies otherwise. The culture that should be
existing in the tourism and hospitality industry is known as service culture. This culture anticipates guests’
needs and renders services accordingly before they ask for it. Guest satisfaction must be the topmost priority
for any tourism and hospitality professional.
Functions of Culture
Culture defines the rules of the game in an organization.
 It has a boundary-defining role: it creates distinctions between organizations.
 It conveys a sense of identity for organization members.
 It facilitates commitment to something larger than self-interest.
 It enhances the stability of the social system.
A strong culture supported by formal rules and regulations ensures employees will act in a relatively uniform
and predictable way. Today’s trend towards dispersed organizations makes culture more important than ever,
and ironically more difficult at the same time. When formal authority and control systems are reduced, the
culture’s shared meaning can point everyone in the same direction.

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In virtual organizations (institutions that work remotely), the lack of frequent face-to-face contact makes
establishing a common set of norms very difficult. Strong leadership that fosters a strong culture by frequently
communicating about common goals and priorities is necessary to make organizations more adaptive and
innovative in the tourism and hospitality industry.
Organizational Climate
Organizational climate refers to the shared perceptions that organizational members have about their
organization and work environment. This aspect of culture is like team spirit at the organizational level. When
everyone has the same general feelings about what’s important or how well things are working, the effect of
these attitudes will be more than the sum of the individual parts. A positive organizational climate has been
linked to higher customer satisfaction and organizational financial performance, as well.
Dimensions of organizational climate have been studied, including innovation, creativity, communication,
warmth and support, involvement, safety, justice, diversity, and customer service. There are several findings
managers can use to improve their organizational design and team-building plans (Robbins & Judge, 2018).
For instance, a new airline or hotel employee who comes across a diverse organizational climate will feel more
comfortable collaborating with coworkers regardless of their demographic backgrounds. The organizational
climate also influences the habits people adopt. If there is a safety climate, everyone wears safety gear and
follows safety procedures even if individually, they would not normally think very often about being safe.
Studies have shown that a safety climate decreases the number of documented injuries on the job, like those
in kitchens or aircraft.
Cultural Categories and Dimensions
In a study by Fons Trompenaars (a Dutch organizational theorist, management consultant, and author in the
field of cross-cultural communication), he conceived culture as to how organizations resolved a range of
universal problems that could be divided into three (3) categories: a) those that arise from relationships with
other people, b) those that arise from the passing of time, and c) those related to the environment.
Problems Arising from Relationships with Other People
• The concept of self: individualism versus collectivism
One of the basic cultural differences in society is the extent of individualism compared to collectivism.
o In an individualistic culture, the individual puts their needs before those of the group. For an
individualistic person, the best form of guaranteeing the group’s welfare is to make its members
self-sufficient. The general values appreciated by the group are those related to self-sufficiency
and self-confidence. In general, the individuals tend to have a distant behavior at the emotional
and psychological level.
o In a collectivist culture, a person’s identity depends on the individual’s role in the group, whether
the group is represented by the family, the team, work, and the like. The success and survival of
the group guarantee the welfare of its members. The individual normally puts the group’s needs
and feelings before their own, believing this to be the best way to ensure their survival.
Interdependence and harmony among members of the group are the most appreciated values.
The group members are psychologically and emotionally close, but distant to those who do not
belong.
• The concept of obligations: universalism versus particularism
When obligations to family and friends interfere with social obligations, individuals belonging to different
cultures normally position themselves at one or the other end of the spectrum ranging from particularism
to universalism.

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o Universalist cultures apply absolute concepts in certain situations independently of circumstances

or particular situations. One must always try to apply the same rules to similar circumstances, like
the concept of fairness in treating everybody the same way, without exception for families or
friends. The person has to set aside their personal feelings and analyze a situation objectively. This
is true also on occasions where families or friends become guests in the airline, hotel, or restaurant
where the tourism or hospitality professional is employed.
o Particularist cultures have no absolute concepts, and the way the individuals behave depends on
the circumstances. Each person will behave with their family and friends in the best way possible,
believing that everybody else will receive the same protection from their group members.
Problems Arising from the Passage of Time
• The concept of time: monochronic or polychronic
Time is probably one of the perceptions with the deepest cultural roots in life and work. Time is tightly
bound to the rhythm of nature. Different cultures have different concepts of time, resulting from their
environmental conditions, history, traditions, and general customs.
o Monochronic. For people with a monochronic concept of time, time is almost tangible; they talk
of it as something that you can “find,” “save,” “fritter away”, or “lose.” Monochronic people have
some of the following traits:
 Only do one thing at a time
 Concentrate on their work
 Take time commitments seriously (deadlines, appointments, and the like).
 Do not depend greatly on context and need information
 Are committed to their work
 Follow plans to the letter
 Avoid bothering others; respect rules of privacy and are considerate
 Show great respect for private property; seldom borrow or lend
 Are accustomed to short-term relationships
o Polychronic. People with a polychronic concept of time do not consider it tangible and pay more
attention to human transactions than calendars. Polychronic people have some of the following
traits:
 Do many things at the same time
 Are easily distracted and suffer from interruptions
 Consider time commitments as objectives to be achieved if possible
 Depend greatly on context and already have the information they need
 Are committed to people and human relationships
 Change plans easily and frequently
 More concerned about those who are closely related (family, friends, and colleagues) than
privacy
 Show a tendency to form lifelong relationships
In general, northern cultures such as those in the Nordic countries (Sweden, Netherlands, Finland,
etc.), the UK, and Germany are closer to monochronic systems. In contrast, southern cultures such as
Asian, Mediterranean, Arab, and Latin American countries are closer to polychronic systems.

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Control of the Environment in Cultural Diversity

• The concept of control: activism compared to fatalism
Cultures differ in their perception of the relationship of the individual to the world around them. They differ
in their perception of the influence that a person can have on the exterior world and whether the can
manipulate external forces and their destiny. The two (2) extremes of this dimension are represented by
fatalist and activities attitudes.
o In an activist culture, control is in the hands of individuals. There are very few givens in life, and
most of them can be manipulated and therefore modified. There are no limitations to what a
person can achieve if they really commit themselves and make the necessary effort. Life is what
each person makes it.
o In a fatalist culture, control is not in the hands of the individual. Some aspects of life are
predetermined and inherent things. There are definite limits beyond which nobody can go and
circumstances that cannot be changed and should, therefore, be accepted.
Cultural dimensions influence our perception of time and space, and our way of relating to others. This, in
turn, affects our way of exercising authority and working in groups and other fundamental aspects of an
organization.
Five Dimensions of Culture
According to Geert Hofstede, a well-known Dutch social psychologist on his research about cross-cultural
groups and organizations, these five (5) cultural dimensions learn within the family or at school are inherent
in the perception of the human adult and determine behavior in the workplace (Braedel-Kühner, C. & Müller,
A.P., 2016).
• Power distance. This dimension refers to the degree that the members with the least power in the
organization accept and expect an unequal distribution of power. It suggests that the inequality that
exists in a society is accepted both by its leaders and members.
• Individualism versus collectivism. At the extreme of individualism, we find organizations where the
bonds between people are loose. In these societies, all individuals are expected to look after
themselves and their immediate family only. At the extreme of collectivism, we find societies where
their members form strong, cohesive groups from the moment they are born; these are often
extended families, including aunts and uncles and grandparents, which continue protecting each other
in exchange for unconditional loyalty.
• Masculinity versus femininity. Studies show that some cultures are dominated by masculine values,
such as domination and control. On the other hand, other cultures can be identified as feminine,
where typical feminine values such as sensitivity and concern for others are predominant.
• Uncertainty avoidance. Uncertainty avoidance refers to the tolerance that society shows to
uncertainty and ambiguity and, therefore searching for the truth about humanity. It indicates the
degree to which a culture programs its members to feel comfortable or not in situations that are not
highly structured. These unstructured situations are new, unknown, surprising, and different from
what normally happens. Cultures that are averse to uncertainty try to reduce to the minimum the
possibility that these types of situations will arise by applying laws and strict rules and adopting
precautions and safety measures.
On the other hand, some cultures have no aversion uncertainty, and they are more tolerant of
differences of opinion. Hence, they try to reduce rules and regulations to the minimum. People who
belong to these cultures have an environment that does not expect them to express emotions.
• Short-term orientation versus long-term orientation. The fifth dimension was identified in a later
study based on a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars, in which 23 countries took part.

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According to this dimension, the values associated with a long-term orientation are saving and
perseverance. In contrast, the values associated with short-term orientation are respect for tradition,
meeting social obligations, and the protection of personal “image.”
The power distance and aversion to uncertainty dimensions are undoubtedly the two (2) that have the most
influence over organizations’ management styles. Both help to answer two (2) fundamental questions:
 Who should have the power to decide?
 What rules and procedures should be followed to reach the desired outcome?
The cultural dimensions identified by Hofstede served as a foundation for the development of numerous
studies in different areas of management (motivation, leadership, relationships between superiors and
subordinates, the sources of an existing power in an organization), and the structure and the culture of the
organization.
The categories and dimensions discussed are not rigid and change according to the circumstances and internal
and external pressures. As a result, in the same country or even in the same organization, different
characteristics may be present simultaneously due to the diversity of elements that coexist in our companies
today.
The perspective of cultural complexity suggests organizations’ culture is more complex, diverse, and
intrinsically contradictory. It is now highly unusual for all the members of an organization to belong to the
same culture, or subculture, as a person can identify themselves by gender, ethnic origin, their role as a parent
or spouse, their sports club, their profession, department or division, their trade union, their geographic
region, their industrial sector, and their country or region. All these possible cultural identities can
simultaneously influence the cultural context of an organization.
Diversity is the vehicle through which nature adapts, competes, and evolves. The existence of diverse elements
in a group, particularly in the tourism and hospitality industry, can be its salvation when environmental
conditions change. Traditional ways of seeing things no longer guarantee survival.
Being a woman does not automatically mean that someone is sensitive, in the same way that being Italian
does not necessarily mean that someone is polychronic. However, the characteristics of sensitivity and being
polychronic are real, and tourism and hospitality managers must know the advantages and disadvantages of
an employee who is sensitive or polychronic, and knows how to utilize them to the benefit of the organization,
independently of the label we put on these feminine or cultural traits.
In a labor market context, differences in gender, culture, and personality are even more marked. In a changing
economic environment, it is not easy to decide which style of behavior is the most appropriate for the
company: a multifaceted person capable of generating work rapidly in many directions, or a monochronic
planner focused on details and capable of producing rigorous work.
Ideally, each person should be capable of both approaches, and training helps each acquire the other’s skills.
Nevertheless, while people are being trained to be more complete beings, they must learn to respect and
complement differences.

References:
Braedel-Kühner, C. & Müller, A.P. (2016). Re-thinking diversity: Multiple approaches in theory, media, communities, and managerial
practice. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden.
De Anca, C. & Vasquez, A. (2007). Managing diversity in the global organization: Creating new business values. Palgrave Macmillan.
Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2020). Culture. Retrieved 05 May 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture.
Robbins, S.P., & Judge, T.A. (2018). Essentials of organizational behavior (14th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.

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