Introduction

In Statistics, the Sampling Method or Sampling Technique is the process of studying

the population by gathering information and analyzing that data to make statistical inferences.
From the sample, the characteristics of the whole population can be estimated. Essentially,
sampling consists of obtaining information from only a part of a large group or population to
infer about the whole population. The object of sampling is thus to secure a sample which will
represent the population and reproduce the important characteristics of the population under
study as closely as possible. It is the basis of the data where the sample space is enormous. For
sampling, the methodology used from an extensive population depends on the type of study
being conducted; but may involve simple random sampling or systematic sampling. Different
sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need to
research the entire population to collect actionable insights. It is also a time-convenient and a
cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any research design. Sampling techniques can
be used in a research survey software for optimum derivation.

In Statistics, there are different sampling techniques available to get relevant results from
the population. The two different types of sampling methods are:

 Probability Sampling
 Non-probability Sampling

Probability Sampling – According to BJYU’s, it utilizes some form of random selection. In this
method, all the eligible individuals have a chance of selecting the sample from the whole sample
space. This method is more time consuming and expensive than the non-probability sampling
method. The benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees the sample that should be
the representative of the population.
Uses of Probability Sampling:

 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample
derived from a population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample
mainly depicts the understanding and the inference of the researcher. Probability
sampling leads to higher quality data collection as the sample appropriately represents the
population.
 Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have
adequate representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic. For
example, if Square would like to understand the people that could make their point-of-
sale devices, a survey conducted from a sample of people across the US from different
industries and socio-economic backgrounds helps.
 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create
an accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.

There are several types of probability sampling. Below are the explanations of advantage
and dis-advantages of each type.

 Simple Random Sampling – it is considered the easiest method of probability

sampling. A sampling procedure such that each possible combination of sampling units
out of the population has the same chance of being selected is referred to as simple
random sampling. From theoretical considerations, simple random sampling is the
simplest form of sampling and is the basis for many other sampling methods. Simple
random sampling is most applicable for the initial survey in an investigation and for
studies which involve sampling from a small area where the sample size is relatively
small. To perform simple random sampling, all a researcher must do is ensure that all
members of the population are included in a master list, and that subjects are then
selected randomly from this master list.

While simple random sampling creates samples that are highly representative of the
population, it can be time consuming and tedious when creating large samples. In practice,
a random sample is selected unit by unit. Below are the two methods of random selection for
Simple Random Sampling:

 Lottery Method - Using the lottery method is one of the oldest ways and is a
mechanical example of random sampling. In this method, the researcher gives
each member of the population a number. Researchers draw numbers from
the box randomly to choose samples.
 Selection based on random number tables - The use of random numbers is an
alternative method that also involves numbering the population. The use of a
number table like the one below can help with this sampling technique

Simple Random Sampling Methods that researchers follow:

1. They prepare a list of all the population members initially, and then each member is
marked with a specific number (for example, there are nth members, then they will
be numbered from 1 to N).
2. From this population, researchers choose random samples using two ways: random
number tables and random number generator software. Researchers prefer a random
number generator software, as no human interference is necessary to generate
samples.

Example of Simple Random Sampling:

Follow these steps to extract a simple random sample of 100 employees out of 500.

1. Make a list of all the employees working in the organization. (as mentioned above
there are 500 employees in the organization, the record must contain 500 names).
2. Assign a sequential number to each employee (1,2,3…n). This is your sampling
frame (the list from which you draw your simple random sample).
3. Figure out what your sample size is going to be. (In this case, the sample size is
100).
4. Use a random number generator to select the sample, using your sampling frame
(population size) from Step 2 and your sample size from Step 3. For example, if your
sample size is 100 and your population is 500, generate 100 random numbers
between 1 and 500.

Advantages of Simple Random Sampling:

1. It is a fair method of sampling, and if applied appropriately, it helps to reduce any

bias involved compared to any other sampling method involved.
2. Since it involves a large sample frame, it is usually easy to pick a smaller sample size
from the existing larger population.
3. The person conducting the research doesn’t need to have prior knowledge of the data
he/ she is collecting. One can ask a question to gather the researcher need not be a
subject expert.
4. This sampling method is a fundamental method of collecting the data. You don’t
need any technical knowledge. You only require essential listening and recording
skills.
 5. Since the population size is vast in this type of sampling method, there is no
restriction on the sample size that the researcher needs to create. From a larger
population, you can get a small sample quite quickly.
6. The data collected through this sampling method is well informed; more the samples
better is the quality of the data.

 Systematic Random Sampling – This type of sampling method has a predefined range,
and hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming. It is often compared to an
arithmetic progression in which the difference between any two consecutive numbers is
of the same value. It employs a simple rule of selecting every kth unit starting with a
number chosen at random from 1 to k as the random start. A common sampling unit in
forest surveys is a narrow strip at right angles to a base line and running completely
across the forest. If the sampling units are strips, then the scheme is known as systematic
sampling by strips. Another possibility is known as systematic line plot sampling where
plots of a fixed size and shape are taken at equal intervals along equally spaced parallel
lines. In the latter case, the sample could as well be systematic in two directions.

What are the steps to form a sample using the systematic sampling technique?

Here are the steps to form a systematic sample:

Step one: Develop a defined structural audience to start working on the sampling aspect.

Step two: As a researcher, figure out the ideal size of the sample, i.e., how many people
from the entire population to choose to be a part of the sample.

Step three: Once you decide the sample size, assign a number to every member of the
sample.

Step four: Define the interval of this sample. This will be the standard distance between
the elements.

Step five: Select the members who fit the criteria which in this case will be 1 in 10
individuals.
Step six: Randomly choose the starting member (r) of the sample and add the interval to
the random number to keep adding members in the sample. r, r+i, r+2i, etc. will
be the elements of the sample.

How Systematic Sampling Works

When you are sampling, ensure you represent the population fairly. Systematic
sampling is a symmetrical process where the researcher chooses the samples after a
specifically defined interval. Sampling like this leaves the researcher no room for bias
regarding choosing the sample. To understand how systematic sampling exactly works,
take the example of the gym class where the instructor asks the students to line up and
asks every third person to step out of the line. Here, the instructor has no influence over
choosing the samples and can accurately represent the class.

What are the Types of Systematic Sampling?

1. Systematic Random Sampling - a method to select samples at a particular preset

interval. As a researcher, select a random starting point between 1 and the sampling
interval. Below are the example steps to set up a systematic random sample:
(a) First, calculate and fix the sampling interval. (The number of elements in the
population divided by the number of elements needed for the sample.)
(b) Choose a random starting point between 1 and the sampling interval.
(c) Lastly, repeat the sampling interval to choose subsequent elements.

2. Linear Systematic Sampling - a systematic sampling method where samples aren’t

repeated at the end and ‘n’ units are selected to be a part of a sample having ‘N’
population units. Rather than selecting these ‘n’ units of a sample randomly, a
researcher can apply a skip logic to select these. It follows a linear path and then stops
at the end of a particular population.

How is a Linear systematic sample selected?

  Arrange the entire population in a classified sequence.
 Select the sample size (n)
 Calculate sampling interval (k) = N/n
 Select a random number between 1 to k (including k)
 Add the sampling interval (k) to the chosen random number to add the next
member to a sample and repeat this procedure to add remaining members of
the sample.
 In case k isn’t an integer, you can select the closest integer to N/n.

3. Circular Systematic Sampling - In circular systematic sampling, a sample starts

again from the same point once again after ending; thus, the name. 

How is a circular systematic sample selected?

(a) Calculate sampling interval (k) = N/n. (If N = 11 and n = 2, then k is taken as
5 and not 6)
(b) Start randomly between 1 to N
(c) Create samples by skipping through k units every time until you select
members of the entire population.
(d) In the case of this method, there will be N number of samples, unlike k
samples in the linear systematic sampling method.

Advantages of Systematic Sampling:

 It’s extremely simple and convenient for the researchers to create, conduct, analyze
samples.
 As there’s no need to number each member of a sample, it is better for representing
a population in a faster and simpler manner.
 The samples created are based on precision in member selection and free from
favoritism.
 In the other methods of probability sampling methods such as cluster
sampling and stratified sampling or non-probability methods such as convenience
 sampling, there are chances of the clusters created to be highly biased which is
avoided in systematic sampling as the members are at a fixed distance from one
another.
 The factor of risk involved in this sampling method is extremely minimal.
 In case there are diverse members of a population, this sampling technique can be
beneficial because of the even distribution of members to form a sample.

When to use Systematic Sampling:

 Budget restrictions: In comparison to other sampling methods like simple random

sampling, this sampling technique is more suitable for conditions where there are
budget restrictions and also the extremely uncomplicated accomplishment of the
study.
 Uncomplicated implementation: As systematic sampling depends on the defined
sampling intervals to decide the sample, it becomes simple for the researchers and
statisticians to manage samples with more respondents. This is because the time
invested in creating samples is minimal, and the cost spent is also restricted due to
the periodic nature of systematic sampling.
 Absence of data pattern: There are specific data that don’t have an arrangement in
place. This data can be analyzed in an unbiased manner, using systematic sampling.
 Low risk of data manipulation in research: It is highly productive while
researching a broad subject, especially when there’s a negligible risk of data
manipulation.

 Stratified Random Sampling – it is also referred to as proportional random

sampling. The basic idea in stratified random sampling is to divide a heterogeneous
population into sub-populations, usually known as strata, each of which is internally
homogeneous in which case a precise estimate of any stratum mean can be obtained
based on a small sample from that stratum and by combining such estimates, a precise
estimate for the whole population can be obtained. Stratified sampling provides a better
cross section of the population than the procedure of simple random sampling.
 In stratified sampling, the variance of the estimator consists of only the ‘within
strata’ variation. Thus, the larger the number of strata into which a population is divided,
the higher, in general, the precision, since it is likely that, in this case, the units within a
stratum will be more homogeneous. For estimating the variance within the strata, there
should be a minimum of 2 units in each stratum. The larger the number of strata the
higher will, in general, be the cost of enumeration. So, depending on administrative
convenience, cost of the survey and variability of the characteristic under study in the
area, a decision on the number of strata will have to be arrived at.

In stratified random sampling, the subjects are initially grouped into different
classifications such as gender, level of education, or socioeconomic status. It’s important
to note that these classifications should not have any overlapping subjects. From here,
researchers randomly select the final list of subjects from the different defined categories
to ensure a well-rounded sample. This method of probability sampling is best used when
the goal of the research is to study a particular subgroup within a greater population. It
also results in more precise statistical outcomes than simple random sampling.

Stratified random sampling creates layers within a sample that are extremely
accurate when it comes to representing the layers with the population, but it too can be
time consuming and tedious while creating larger samples.

8 Steps to select a Stratified Random Sample:

 Define the target audience.

 Recognize the stratification variable or variables and figure out the number of strata
to be used. These stratification variables should be in line with the objective of
the research. Every additional information decides the stratification variables. For
instance, if the objective of research to understand all the subgroups, the variables
will be related to the subgroups and all the information regarding these subgroups
will impact the variables. Ideally, no more than 4-6 stratification variables and no
more than 6 strata should be used in a sample because an increase in stratification
 variables will increase the chances of some variables canceling out the impact of
other variables.
 Use an already existent sampling frame or create a frame that’s inclusive of all the
information of the stratification variable for all the elements in the target audience.
 Make changes after evaluating the sampling frame based on lack of coverage, over-
coverage, or grouping.
 Considering the entire population, each stratum should be unique and should cover
each member of the population. Within the stratum, the differences should be
minimum whereas each stratum should be extremely different from one another.
Each element of the population should belong to just one stratum.
 Assign a random, unique number to each element.
 Figure out the size of each stratum according to your requirement. The numerical
distribution amongst all the elements in all the strata will determine the type of
sampling to be implemented. It can either be proportional or disproportional stratified
sampling.
 The researcher can then select random elements from each stratum to form the
sample. Minimum one element must be chosen from each stratum so that there’s
representation from every stratum but if two elements from each stratum are selected,
to easily calculate the error margins of the calculation of collected data.

Types of Stratified Random Sampling:

o Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling - In this approach, each

stratum sample size is directly proportional to the population size of the entire
population of strata. That means each stratum sample has the same sampling fraction.
o Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling - In disproportionate sampling,
each stratum will have a different sampling fraction.

Advantages of Stratified Random Sampling:

 Better accuracy in results in comparison to other probability sampling methods such
as cluster sampling, simple random sampling, and systematic sampling or non-
probability methods such as convenience sampling. This accuracy will be dependent
on the distinction of various strata, i.e., results will be highly accurate if all the strata
are extremely different.
 Convenient to train a team to stratify a sample due to the exactness of the nature of
this sampling technique.
 Due to statistical accuracy of this method, smaller sample sizes can also retrieve
highly useful results for a researcher.
 This sampling technique covers maximum population as the researchers have
complete charge over the strata division.

When to use Stratified Random Sampling:

 Stratified random sampling is an extremely productive method of sampling in

situations where the researcher intends to focus only on specific strata from the
available population data. This way, the desired characteristics of the strata can be
found in the survey sample.
 Researchers rely on this sampling method in cases where they intend to establish a
relationship between two or more different strata. If this comparison is conducted
using simple random sampling, there is a higher likelihood of the target groups being
not equally represented.
 Samples with a population which are difficult to access or contact, can easily be
involved in the research process using the stratified random sampling technique.
 The accuracy of statistical results is higher than simple random sampling since the
elements of the sample and chosen from relevant strata. The diversification within
the strata will be much lesser than the diversification which exists in the target
population. Due to the accuracy involved, it is highly probable that the
 required sample size will be much lesser and that will help researchers in saving time
and efforts.

 Cluster (Area) Random Sampling – it is conducted when the size of a population is too
large to perform simple random sampling. Cluster sampling is a probability sampling
technique where researchers divide the population into multiple groups (clusters) for
research. Researchers then select random groups with a simple random or systematic
random sampling technique for data collection and data analysis. In this sampling
technique, researchers analyze a sample that consists of multiple sample parameters such
as demographics, habits, background – or any other population attribute, which may be
the focus of conducted research. This method is usually conducted when groups that are
similar yet internally diverse form a statistical population. Instead of selecting the entire
population, cluster sampling allows the researchers to collect data by bifurcating the data
into small, more productive groups. One of the primary applications of cluster sampling
is called area sampling, where the clusters are counties, townships, city blocks, or other
well-defined geographic sections of the population. Below are the several types of
Cluster Sampling:
 Single-Stage Cluster Sampling – It is when the sampling is done just
once. In single-stage cluster sampling, a simple random sample of clusters is
selected, and data are collected from every unit in the sampled clusters. 
 Two-Stage Cluster Sampling – instead of selecting all the elements of a
cluster, only a handful of members are chosen from each group by implementing
systematic or simple random sampling. In two-stage cluster sampling, a simple
random sample of clusters is selected and then a simple random sample is
selected from the units in each sampled cluster. 
 Multiple-Stage Cluster Sampling – Multiple-stage cluster sampling
takes a step or a few steps further than two-stage sampling. In multistage
cluster sampling, rather than collect data from every single unit in the selected
clusters, you randomly select individual units from within the cluster to use as
your sample. You can then collect data from each of these individual units – this
 is known as double-stage sampling. You can also continue this procedure,
taking progressively smaller and smaller random samples, which is usually
called multistage sampling. You should use this method when it is infeasible or
too expensive to test the entire cluster.

Steps to conduct Cluster Sampling:

1. Sample: Decide the target audience and also the sample size.

2. Create and evaluate sampling frames: Create a sampling frame by using either an
existing framework or creating a new one for the target audience. Evaluate
frameworks based on coverage and clustering and adjust accordingly. These groups
will be varied, considering the population, which can be exclusive and comprehensive.
Members of a sample are selected individually.
3. Determine groups: Determine the number of groups by including the same average
members in each group. Make sure each of these groups are distinct from one another.
4. Select clusters: Choose clusters by applying a random selection.
5. Create sub-types: It is bifurcated into two-stage and multi-stage subtypes based on
the number of steps followed by researchers to form clusters.

Applications of Cluster Sampling

This sampling technique is used in an area or geographical cluster sampling for

market research. A broad geographic area can be expensive to survey in comparison to
surveys that are sent to clusters that are divided based on region. The sample numbers
must be increased to achieve accurate results, but the cost savings involved make this
process of rising clusters attainable.

Cluster Sampling in Statistics

The technique is widely used in statistics where the researcher can’t collect data
from the entire population. It is the most economical and practical solution for
statisticians doing research. Take the example of a researcher who is looking to
 understand the smartphone usage in Germany. In this case, the cities of Germany will
form clusters. This sampling method is also used in situations like wars and natural
calamities to draw inferences of a population, where collecting data from every individual
residing in the population is impossible.

Cluster Sampling Advantages

There are multiple advantages to using cluster sampling. Here they are:

1. Consumes less time and cost: Sampling of geographically divided groups requires

less work, time, and cost. It’s a highly economical method to observe clusters instead
of randomly doing it throughout a particular region by allocating a limited number of
resources to those selected clusters.
2. Convenient access: Researchers can choose large samples with this sampling
technique, and that’ll increase accessibility to various clusters.
3. Data accuracy: Since there can be large samples in each cluster, loss of accuracy in
information per individual can be compensated.
4. Ease of implementation: Cluster sampling facilitates information from various areas
and groups. Researchers can quickly implement it in practical situations compared to
other probability sampling methods.

 Multistage Sampling – is often considered an extended version of cluster sampling. In

multistage sampling, you divide the population into clusters and select some clusters at
the first stage. At each subsequent stage, you further divide up those selected clusters into
smaller clusters and repeat the process until you get to the last step. At the last step, you
only select some members of each cluster for your sample. Like in single-stage sampling,
you start by defining your target population. But in multistage sampling, you don’t need a
sampling frame that lists every member of the population. That’s why this method is
useful for collecting data from large, dispersed populations. The multistage sampling
scheme has the advantage of concentrating the sample around several ‘sample points’
rather than spreading it over the entire area to be surveyed. This reduces considerably the
cost of operations of the survey and helps to reduce the non-sampling errors by efficient
supervision.

In multistage sampling, you always go from higher-level to lower-level clusters at each

stage. The clusters are often referred to as sampling units.

- At the first stage, you divide up the population into clusters and select some of them:
these are your primary sampling units (PSUs).
- At the second stage, you divide up your PSUs into further clusters, and select some
of them as your secondary sampling units (SSUs).

You can end at the second stage or continue this process with as many stages as you need.
In the last stage, you’ll get to your final sample of ultimate sampling units (USUs).

Advantages of using Multistage Sampling:

o You don’t need to start with a sampling frame of your target population.
o Compared to a simple random sample, it’s relatively inexpensive and effective when
you have a large or geographically dispersed population.
o It’s flexible—you can vary sampling methods between stages based on what’s
appropriate or feasible.

Disadvantages of using Multistage Sampling:

o Compared to simple random samples, you’ll need a larger sample size for a
multistage sample to achieve the same statistical inference properties.
o The best choice of sampling method at each stage is very subjective, so you’ll need
clear reasoning for your decision.
 o It can lead to unrepresentative samples because large sections of populations may not
be selected for sampling.

 Multistage Sampling – is a type of sampling design in which required information is

collected from a large sample of units, and additional information is collected from the
sub-samples of the whole sample either at the same time or a later stage. With only one
sub-sample, the design is called two-phase or double sampling. Double sampling is used
in some situations where making use of an auxiliary variable is desirable. Still, the
necessary information for stratification or the application of ratio or regression estimator
is not available.

In multi-stage sampling, different types of sampling units are sampled at different

stages, while in multiphase sampling, we are concerned with the similar type of sampling
units, at each phase. Still, some smaller numbers of units are asked for more information
than others.

The usual pattern for multi-phase sample surveys is to survey in the first phase:

 Simple characteristics that can conveniently be studied on a large-scale,

 Infrequent characteristics which call for large samples or
 Summary characteristics for a preliminary study to be followed by more intensive
studies on a smaller scale.

In the second phase, a sub-sample of the first phase sample is usually surveyed for a
study of:

 More complex characteristics related to those surveyed in the first phase,

 Details of the infrequent characteristics identified in the first phase, or
 Details of the summary characteristics studied in the first phase.
Non-Probability Sampling – a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback based on
a researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. In
most situations, the output of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed
results, which may not represent the desired target population. But there are situations such as
the preliminary stages of research or cost constraints for conducting research, where non-
probability sampling will be much more useful than the other type.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling
bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with
probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability
sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of the population as possible. Non-
probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research. In these
types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an
initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.

Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a better
manner:

 Convenience Sampling - simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible
to the researcher. Convenience sampling is defined as a method adopted by researchers
where they collect market research data from a conveniently available pool of respondents.
It is the most used sampling technique as it’s incredibly prompt, uncomplicated, and
economical. In many cases, members are readily approachable to be a part of the sample.
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the
sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.
Applications of Convenience Sampling:

Convenience sampling is applied by brands and organizations to measure their perception

of their image in the market. Data is collected from potential customers to understand specific
issues or manage opinions of a newly launched product. In some cases, it is the only available
option. For example, a university student working on a project and wants to understand the
average consumption of soda on campus on a Friday night will most possibly call his/her
classmates and friends and ask how many cans of soda they consume. Or may go to a party
nearby and conduct an easy survey. There is always a chance that the randomly selected
population may not accurately represent the population of interest, thus increasing the chances of
bias.

Top six advantages of using Convenience Sampling:

1. Collect data quickly: In situations where time is a constraint, many researchers choose
this method for quick data collection. The rules to gather elements for the sample are
least complicated in comparison to techniques such as simple random sampling, stratified
sampling, and systematic sampling. Due to this simplicity, data collection takes minimal
time.
2. Inexpensive to create samples: The money and time invested in other probability
sampling methods are quite large compared to convenience sampling. It allows
researchers to generate more samples with less or no investment and in a brief period.
3. Easy to do research: The name of this surveying technique clarifies how samples are
formed. Elements are easily accessible by the researchers and so, collecting members for
the sample becomes easy.
4. Low cost: Low cost is one of the main reasons why researchers adopt this technique.
When on a small budget, researchers – especially students, can use the budget in other
areas of the project.
5. Readily available sample: Data collection is easy and accessible. Most convenience
sampling considers the population at hand. Samples are readily available to the
 researcher. They do not have to move around too much for data collection. Quotas are
met quickly, and the data collection can commence even within a few hours.
6. Fewer rules to follow: It doesn’t require going through a checklist to filter members of
an audience. Here, gathering critical information and data becomes uncomplicated. For
instance, if an NGO wants to survey women’s empowerment, they can go to schools,
colleges, offices, etc. in their proximity and gather quick responses.

How to reduce bias in Convenience Sampling:

The best way of reducing bias in convenience sampling is to use it along with probability
sampling. Since it is usually biased, probability sampling gets the measurement parameter with it
to keep this bias under check.

After receiving a fair idea about this bias using probability sampling, the researcher can
use both convenience sampling and probability sampling techniques to draw a more accurate
estimation. The probability aspect used, along with convenience sampling, will have to be
powerful enough to overcome it. Bias can make the entire sample futile, and that’s the last thing
that a researcher needs. This bias can be reduced or eliminated by including probability
sampling.

How to efficiently analyze Convenience Sampling Data:

 Take multiple samples. It helps you in producing reliable results.

 Repeat the survey to understand whether your results truly represent the population.
 For a big sample size, try cross-validation for half the data. Then compare the findings
with the other half of the data.

 Judgmental or Purposive Sampling - a non-probability sampling technique in which the

sample members are chosen only based on the researcher’s knowledge and judgment. As the
researcher’s knowledge is instrumental in creating a sample in this sampling technique, there
are chances that the results obtained will be highly accurate with a minimum margin of
error. This type of sampling involves the researcher using their expertise to select a sample
 that is most useful to the purposes of the research. It is often used in qualitative research,
where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather
than make statistical inferences, or where the population is very small and specific. An
effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion.

Judgmental Sampling Advantages:

 Consumes minimum time for execution: In this sampling approach, researcher

expertise is important and there are no other barriers involved due to which selecting a
sample becomes extremely convenient.
 Allows researchers to approach their target market directly: There are no criteria
involved in selecting a sample except for the researcher’s preferences. Due to this, he/she
can communicate directly with the target audience of their choice and produce desired
results.
 Almost real-time results: A quick poll or survey can be conducted with the sample
using judgmental sampling since the members of the sample will possess appropriate
knowledge and understanding of the subject.
 Snowball Sampling - also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this method,
the samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each identified member of a
population is asked to find the other sampling units . Those sampling units also belong to
the same targeted population. It can be used to recruit participants via other participants if
the population is hard to access.

This sampling method involves a primary data source nominating other potential

data sources that will be able to participate in the research studies. Snowball sampling
method is purely based on referrals and that is how a researcher can generate a sample.
Therefore, this method is also called the chain-referral sampling method.

Snowball sampling is a popular business study method. The snowball sampling

method is extensively used where a population is unknown and rare, and it is tough to
choose subjects to assemble them as samples for research. This sampling technique can
go on and on, just like a snowball increasing in size (in this case the sample size) till the
 time a researcher has enough data to analyze, to draw conclusive results that can help an
organization make informed decisions.

Types of Snowball Sampling:

o Linear Snowball Sampling: The formation of a sample group starts with one individual

subject providing information about just one other subject and then the chain continues
with only one referral from one subject. This pattern is continued until enough number of
subjects are available for the sample.
o Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling: In this type, the first subject is
recruited and then he/she provides multiple referrals. Each new referral then provides
with more data for referral and so on, until there is enough number of subjects for the
sample.
o Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling: In this technique, each subject gives
multiple referrals, however, only one subject is recruited from each referral. The choice
of a new subject depends on the nature of the research study.

Snowball Sampling Applications

 Medical Practices: There are many less-researched diseases. There may be a restricted

number of individuals suffering from diseases such as progeria, porphyria, Alice in
Wonderland syndrome etc. Using snowball sampling, researchers can get in touch with
these hard to contact sufferers and convince them to participate in the survey research.
 Social research: Social research is a field which requires as many participants as
possible as it is a process where scientists learn about their target sample. When social
research is to be conducted in domains where participants might not necessarily willing
to contribute such as homeless or the less-fortunate people.
 Cases of discord: In case of disputes such as an act of terrorism, violation of civil rights
and other similar situations, the individuals involved may oppose giving their statements
for evidential purposes. The researchers or management can use snowball sampling, to
 filter out those people from a population who are most likely to have caused the situation
or are witness to the event to gather proof around the event.

Snowball Sampling Examples:

1. No official list of names of the members: This sampling technique can be used for a
population, where there is no easily available data like their demographic information.
For example, homeless or list of members of an elite club, whose personal details cannot
be obtained easily.
2. Difficulty to locate people: People with rare diseases are quite difficult to locate.
However, if a researcher is carrying out a research study similar in nature, finding the
primary data source can be a challenge. Once he/she is identified, they usually have
information about more such similar individuals.
3. People who are not willing to be identified: If a researcher is carrying out a study
which involves collecting information/data from sex workers or victims of sexual assault
or individuals who don’t want to disclose their sexual orientations, these individuals will
fall under this category.
4. Secretiveness about their identity: People who belong to a cult or are religious
extremists or hackers usually fall under this category. A researcher will have to use
snowball sampling to identify these individuals and extract information from them.

Advantages of Snowball Sampling:

1. It’s quicker to find samples: Referrals make it easy and quick to find subjects as they
come from reliable sources. An additional task is saved for a researcher, this time can be
used in conducting the study.
2. Cost effective: This method is cost effective as the referrals are obtained from a primary
data source. It’s convenient and not so expensive as compared to other methods.
3. Sample hesitant subjects: Some people do not want to come forward and participate in
research studies, because they don’t want their identity to be exposed. Snowball sampling
helps for this situation as they ask for a reference from people known to each other. There
 are some sections of the target population which are hard to contact. For example, if a
researcher intends to understand the difficulties faced by HIV patients, other sampling
methods will not be able to provide these sensitive samples. In snowball sampling,
researchers can closely examine and filter members of a population infected by HIV and
conduct a research by talking to them, making them understand the objective
of research and eventually, analyzing the received feedback.

Disadvantages of Snowball Sampling:

1. Sampling bias and margin of error: Since people refer those whom they know and
have similar traits this sampling method can have a potential sampling bias and margin of
error. This means a researcher might only be able to reach out to a small group of people
and may not be able to complete the study with conclusive results.
2. Lack of cooperation: There are fair chances even after referrals, people might not be
cooperative and refuse to participate in the research studies.

 Quota Sampling - an important sampling method which involves a non-probability

sampling technique in which sampling is not based upon the probability of appearance. In
such a process, the researcher decides the selection of sampling based on some quota. In
quota sampling, the researcher makes sure that the final sample must meet his quota
criteria.

Types of Quota Sampling:

 Controlled quota sampling - Controlled quota sampling imposes restrictions on the

researcher’s choice of samples. Here, the researcher is limited to the selection of samples.
 Uncontrolled quota sampling - Uncontrolled quota sampling does not impose any
restrictions on the researcher’s choice of samples. Here, the researcher chooses sample
members at will.

How to perform Quota Sampling:

 1. Divide the sample population into subgroups: With stratified sampling, the researcher
bifurcates the entire population into mutually exhaustive subgroups, i.e., the elements of
each of the subgroups becomes a part of only one of those subgroups. Here, the
researcher applies random selection.
2. Figure out the weightage of subgroups: The researcher evaluates the proportion in
which the subgroups exist in the population. He/she maintains this proportion in the
sample selected using this type of sampling method.
3. For example, if 58% of the people who are interested in purchasing your Bluetooth
headphones are between the age group of 25-35 years, your subgroups also should have
the same percentages of people belonging to the respective age group.
4. Select an appropriate sample size: In the third step, the researcher should select the
sample size while maintaining the proportion evaluated in the previous step. If the
population size is 500, the researcher can pick a sample of 50 elements.
The sample chosen after following the first three steps should represent the target
population.
5. Conduct surveys according to the quotas defined: Make sure to stick to the predefined
quotas to achieve actual actionable results. Don’t survey quotas that are full and focus on
completing surveys for each quota.

Characteristics of Quota Sampling:

1. Aims to get the best representation of respondents in the final sample.

2. Quotas replicate the population of interest in a real sense.
3. The estimates produced are more representative.
4. The quality of quota samples varies.
5. Saves research data collection time as the sample represents the population.
6. Saves research costs if the quotas accurately represent the population.
7. It monitors the number of types of individuals who take the survey.
8. The researcher always divides the population into subgroups.
 9. The sample represents the entire population.
10. Researchers use the sampling method to identify the traits of a specific group of people.

Advantages of Quota Sampling:

1. Saves time: Because of the involvement of a quota for sample creation, this sampling
process is quick and straightforward.
2. Research convenience: By using quota sampling and appropriate research questions,
interpreting information and responses to the survey is a much convenient process for a
researcher.
3. Accurate representation of the population of interest: Researchers effectively
represent a population using this sampling technique. There is no room for over-
representation as this sampling technique helps researchers to study the population using
specific quotas.
4. Saves money: The budget required for executing this sampling method is minimalistic.

Applications of Quota Sampling

 In situations where researchers have specific criteria for conducting research, it allows
the selection of subgroups, due to which it becomes extremely convenient for researchers
to obtain desired results. A trait or characteristic can be the filter for subgroup formation.
 The researcher uses this method when he/she has time constraints. Applying quotas gives
the researcher an idea of the whole population of interest in very little time.
 Quotas are applied when the researcher is on a tight budget. Instead of researching a large
population, the researcher saves money by using a few quotas to get the whole picture of
the population.
 Some research studies do not require pinpoint accuracy due to the nature of the research
project. It is ideal for applying to quota sampling for these studies.
Quota Sampling Process:

Step 1: Firstly, the population should be divided into mutually exclusive subgroups

Step 2: Next is to determine the proportions of the subgroups made in the previous step, since
the same proportion would be used during the sampling process

Step 3: Now, the researcher must choose individual observations or items from the subgroups.
Also, the proportions found previously are to be taken into consideration

Step 4: The last and final step is to ensure that the obtained sample should be a representative of
the whole population and allows the researcher to study characteristics and traits

Uses of Quota Sampling:

 In quota sampling, the judgment of sampling is done based on convenience or a fixed

quota. It is used when the decision of the researcher is final for choosing the samples
 The quota sampling is used because it allows the researchers to select subgroup as a
sample which is of great interest to study
 This method is used when the researcher wants to determine the relationship between the
subgroups
 The quota sampling method should be selected when there is a limited time

Uses of Non-Probability Sampling:

 Create a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-probability sampling method to create an

assumption when limited to no prior information is available. This method helps with the
immediate return of data and builds a base for further research.
 Exploratory research: Researchers use this sampling technique widely when conducting
qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.
 Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and
time constraints, and some preliminary data must be collected. Since the survey design is
 not rigid, it is easier to pick respondents at random and have them take the survey
or questionnaire.

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