An introduction to sampling methods

Published on September 19, 2019 by Shona McCombes. Revised on April 23, 2021.

https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/sampling-methods/

When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to collect data from
every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample is the group of
individuals who will actually participate in the research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how you will select
a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. There are two types of sampling
methods:

 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong

statistical inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or
other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in the methodology section of your
paper or thesis.

Table of contents

1. Population vs sample
2. Probability sampling methods
3. Non-probability sampling methods
4. Frequently asked questions about sampling

Population vs sample
First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a sample,
and identify the target population of your research.

 The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
 The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.

The population can be defined in terms of

geographical location, age, income, and many
other characteristics.

It can be very broad or quite narrow: maybe

you want to make inferences about the whole
adult population of your country; maybe your
research focuses on customers of a certain
company, patients with a specific health
condition, or students in a single school.
It is important to carefully define your target population according to the purpose and
practicalities of your project.

If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically dispersed,

it might be difficult to gain access to a representative sample.

Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn
from. Ideally, it should include the entire target population (and nobody who is not
part of that population).

Example
You are doing research on working conditions at Company X. Your population is all
1000 employees of the company. Your sampling frame is the company’s HR
database which lists the names and contact details of every employee.

Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various
factors, including the size and variability of the population and your research design.
There are different sample size calculators and formulas depending on what you
want to achieve with statistical analysis.

Probability sampling methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of
being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce
results that are representative of the whole population, probability sampling
techniques are the most valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators
or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example
You want to select a simple random sample of 100 employees of Company X. You
assign a number to every employee in the company database from 1 to 1000, and
use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.

2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly
easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but
instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example
All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10
numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards,
every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up
with a sample of 100 people.
If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern
in the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups
employees by team, and team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk
that your interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is
skewed towards senior employees.
3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may
differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring
that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata)
based on the relevant characteristic (e.g. gender, age range, income bracket, job
role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people
should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic
sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.

Example
The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to
ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the
population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each
group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of
100 people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of
sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled
cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from
within each cluster using one of the techniques above.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is
more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between
clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative
of the whole population.

Example
The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same
number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every
office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these
are your clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria,
and not every individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk
of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population are
weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If
you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of
the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative

research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a
broad population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-
researched population.

1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell
if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable
results.

Example
You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so
after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the
topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students
taking the same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of
all the students at your university.
2. Voluntary response sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on
ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly
contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online
survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people
will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others.

Example
You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot of students decide
to complete it. This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people
who responded are more likely to be those who have strong opinions about the
student support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative
of all students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher
using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the
research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or
where the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must
have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion.

Example
You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled students at
your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different
support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with
student services.

4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants. The number of people you have access to
“snowballs” as you get in contact with more people.

Example
You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no list
of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one
person who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with
other homeless people that she knows in the area.

Frequently asked questions about sampling

What is sampling?
 A sample is a subset of individuals from a
larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually
collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the
opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100
students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics

of a population.

Why are samples used in research?

Samples are used to make inferences about populations. Samples are

easier to collect data from because they are practical, cost-effective,
convenient and manageable.

What is probability sampling?

Probability sampling means that every member of the target population has a

known chance of being included in the sample.

Probability sampling methods include simple random sampling, systematic

sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling.

What is non-probability sampling?

In non-probability sampling, the sample is selected based on non-random

criteria, and not every member of the population has a chance of being
included.

Common non-probability sampling methods include convenience sampling,

voluntary response sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling, and
quota sampling.

What is sampling bias?

Sampling bias occurs when some members of a population are systematically

more likely to be selected in a sample than others.