Task 4

There are three characteristic curves that are considered important for DC motor i.e., torque against
speed, speed against armature current, and torque against armature current. A DC motor can be tested
in terms of performance and output speed through speed-torque characteristics. Understanding this
relation between torque and speed helps to choose a DC motor for the desired application. DC motors
are considered as simple machines where speed is proportional to voltage supply when load is constant.
There is an inverse relationship between speed and torque. When speed increases torque decreases and
vice versa. The graph shown below demonstrates the speed-torque curve of an ideal DC motor.

Figure 1 Speed-Torque Curve for Ideal DC Motor

Above graph justifies the inverse relation between speed and torque. The curve is a descending line with
negative slope and begins when at x-axis crossing where torque is maximum, and speed is zero and ends
at y-axis where torque is zero and speed is maximum. The point at y-axis is referred as no-load speed
and point at x-axis is known as stall torque where torque is maximum when motor running at nominal
voltage. A torque produced by the motor at given speed can be determined through straight line
equation. To observe this speed-torque characteristics, a Simulink model of DC motor is modelled and
simulated using MATLAB/Simulink. Simulink model is shown below.
 Figure 2 DC Motor Simulink Model

In this model, a DC motor of 5HP 240V 1750 RPM is selected, a DC voltage source of 240 V is applied
both at armature and field supply. Constant input mechanical torque is applied to the motor. To observe
the speed, armature current and electrical torque, scopes are used to display the curves. A speed-torque
curve is drawn through MATLAB by placing torque on x-axis and speed at y-axis as presented below.

Figure 3 Speed-Torque Characteristics of DC Motor

This curve clearly shows the inverse relation between speed and torque. It can also be said that there is
a linear relation between speed and torque and the curve shown above demonstrates the linear
relation. Thus, experimental results match the theoretical results and what is expected from this
characteristic of DC motor.

Task 5

Induction motor is used in various applications of automobile industry and other industries. Induction
motor constitutes of two main parts i.e., stator and rotor. In stator, there is a winding coil wounded in
steel lamination and covered with cast iron frame. When an input power is supplied to stator it
generates an EMF which in turn rotates the rotor. No emf and current induced when rotor speed N r

becomes equal to the synchronous speed N s . The difference between rotor speed and synchronous
speed is known as slip. Induction motor is classified as single-phase induction motor and three-phase
induction motor. In single-phase induction motor, direction of rotation cannot be reversed quickly due
to inertial torque. This process can be done by first stopping the motor and reverse the input supply to
change the direction of rotation. Whereas three-phase induction motor has higher efficiency and
reliability and can be driven through three-phase power source. Three-phase induction motor provides
continuous rated operation. It is suitable for the applications where speed control is not required. The
most important characteristics that are considered for induction motor are torque against speed, torque
again slip and efficiency of the induction motor.

Synchronous speed of induction motor depends upon the power supply frequency f and number of
motor poles p and can be calculated using the following equation:

120 f
Ns=
p

Motor rotates at lower speed as compared to the synchronous speed thus, generating slip. Slip can be
calculated as

N s−N r
s=
Ns

Where N r is rotor rotating speed. When motor is operated under rated load, the slip of induction motor
is around 2 to 3%. For designing and using induction motor in applications, torque-slip curve is
considered that tells about the variation of torque with slip. When speed varies slip varies and
corresponding torque also varies. Torque-slip curve is presented below.

Figure 4 Torque-Slip Characteristic of Three-Phase Induction Motor

This characteristic curve constitutes of three regions i.e., Breaking region, motoring region, and
generating region. In motoring region, motor rotates below synchronous speed and torque varies from
zero to full load torque when slip varies. Slip varies between 0 to 1. The curve shows that torque is
directly proportional to slip. In generating mode, motor rotates above the synchronous speed and prime
mover drives it. In this case, induction motor converts into generator because both torque and slip are
negative thus giving mechanical energy to motor which in turn generates electrical energy. However, it
is not much used as generator as reactive power is required for its operation. In braking mode, polarity
of supply voltage is reversed causing motor to rotate in reverse direction and in turn motor stops. This
process is used to stop the motor within short time.

Unlike three-phase induction motor, single-phase induction motor does require an external source to
start and lacks the feature of self-starting.

For design and construction of induction motor and analysing its performance, equivalent circuits are
drawn to calculate various parameters such as copper losses/ohmic losses/winding losses and iron
losses/core losses. These losses are modeled as inductor and resistor. An approximate equivalent circuit
of three-phase induction motor is shown below.
 Figure 5 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Three-Phase Induction Motor

Equivalent circuit enables the performance characteristics and data obtained through equivalent circuits
can be used to calculate efficiency, torque, losses, rotor output, etc. All these quantities can be
calculated, and induction motor can be characterized. In equivalent circuit, R1 and X 1 is known as stator
' '
winding resistance and leakage reactance and combined referred as copper losses, where R2 and X 2 is
'
known rotor winding resistance and leakage reactance. At slip equal to 1, R2 =R2. R2 and X m is known
as no-load branch resistance and reactance carrying magnetizing component and no-load current that
accounts for core losses when no-load is attached. Mainly, copper losses and core losses are calculated
from equivalent circuit. To calculate these losses, two types of tests are performed i.e., no-load test and
full-load test, also known as open-circuit test and short-circuit test. In open circuit test, no load is
attached at the secondary winding of the machine, and input voltage is varied until rated phase voltage
is achieved which is measured using voltmeter. Through this open-circuit test, branch parameters can be
calculated. When measurements for voltage, current and power is obtained through voltmeter,
ammeter, and wattmeter, first the power factor is calculated which is an important aspect of induction
motor.

POC
PF=cos θ=
V OC I OC

After calculating the power factor, current across the branch resistance and leakage reactance can be
calculated as follows.

I w =I OC cos θ
I m=I OC sin θ

Where I w is the windage current across the resistance in exciting branch and I m is the magnetizing
current across the leakage reactance in exciting branch. Now the resistance and leakage reactance
across the branch can be calculated as

V OC V OC
R 2= , X m=
Iw Im

Thus, both the branch parameters can be calculated, and core losses can be known. After that short-
circuit test is performed, where secondary winding is short-circuited and thus all the current flows
through primary winding resistance and leakage reactance. Using voltage, current and power
measurements from short-circuit test, parameters for copper losses are calculated as

P SC V SC
Req = , Z eq = , X =√ Z eq 2−Req 2
I 2
SC
I SC eq

Where Req is equivalent resistance, Z eq is equivalent impedance and X eq is equivalent leakage

reactance. By calculating all these variables for an induction motor, an approximate equivalent circuit
can be drawn, and numerical analysis can be performed. Such as efficiency, speed, torque, and slip can
be calculated. Knowing these values, a Simulink model for induction motor can be modeled and
performance of induction motor can be tested.

Task 6

A Simulink model for DC motor is developed using MATLAB/Simulink to critically evaluate the
performance of DC motor.
 Figure 6 Simulink Model of DC Motor

Now for the constant input mechanical torque of value 1, motor achieves the speed of 287.3 RPM, 2.923
A of armature current and 2.365 Nm of electrical torque. The curves for motor speed, armature current
and electrical torque is presented below.

Figure 7 Motor Speed

 Figure 8 Armature Current

Figure 9 Electrical Torque

The above graphs show that when torque is high, armature current is high and motor speed is low. But
when torque starts to decreasing, armature current also decreases and motor speed increases. And
when torque becomes minimum, armature current comes close to zero whereas motor speed is
maximum at that point. Now a varying input mechanical torque is applied to the system to observe the
performance and graphs are plotted as shown below. A ramp input is used in this case.

Figure 10 Motor Speed

Figure 11 Armature Current

 Figure 12 Electrical Torque

Now in this case input mechanical torque is not constant. It is gradually increasing with the time. The
graphs show that when input mechanical torque was low, motor speed goes to the maximum value but
then start decreasing. As motor speed decreases, output electrical torque and armature current starts
increasing. All these curves clearly demonstrate the linear relation between torque and speed. When
torque increases speed decreases and vice versa. The graphs shows the behavior of the DC motor as
different parameter and their effect on the output of DC motor. This case also shows that an input
mechanical torque does play a role in output electrical torque and motor speed.

For any of the applications where constant low-speed or variable speed-torque is required, dc motors
are used. DC motors are easier to control as they have high starting torque as compared to it’s AC
counterparts. And as compared to induction motor, motor speed control is easier in dc motor. It’s motor
speed can be easily controlled by varying supply voltage, flux or current through the field winding. DC
motors are powered by direct current and thus easier to adjust. As compared to induction motor, DC
motor is easier to install and required less maintenance. For most of the industrial applications, DC
motors are used where superior speed control is required or high starting torque is required. DC motors
are generally used in fabrication and production units, warehouse sorting equipments and any
application that demands constant speed.

Task 10
A converter must be efficient with excellent performance. It is generally comprises of capacitors,
inductors, diodes, and power semiconductors that are used as switches. MATLAB/Simulink contains
“SimPowerSystems” toolbox allowing fast and accurate simulation of converters. To model and simulate
an AC to DC converter, first go to Simulink Library Browser.

Figure 13 Step 1 to Model AC to DC Converter

In the next step, go to “Simscape” as shown below.

Figure 14 Second Step

Now here all the components are available in this toolbox that are required to design an AC to DC
converter. AC power supply, thyristors, pulse generator, load resistance, current and voltage
measurement block are the components that are used to model the AC to DC converter. This toolbox
also contains the rectifier that can be directly used to generate DC output. The Simulink environment
has a very wide range of electric components. Almost every electrical circuit can be modelled using
Simulink library. The simscape section contains all the components related to power systems. Draw all
these components from library as shown below.
 Figure 15 Components of AC to DC Converter

All these components can also be obtained using the search option in library browser. Now the next part
is to connect all these component to model an AC to DC converter as shown below.

Figure 16 AC to DC Converter
Now this model for AC to DC converter can be simulated and output of the system can be observed. But
before that input values are required to be adjusted and set according to the requirement.

Task 12

DC to DC converter is used to convert the one DC voltage to another. As different applications operate at
different voltage levels, such specific voltage can be achieved through DC to DC converter. One simple
and straightforward example is mobile phone charger. It contains a DC to DC converter circuit which
lower down the 120 V or 220 V whatever is the input voltage to an output voltage of 5 – 6 V as per
requirement. There are different types of DC to DC converter topologies exists but most commonly
known DC to DC converters are buck converter and boost converter. Buck converter gives lower voltage
at output as compared to input voltage whereas boost converter boosts the input voltage and gives a
high voltage at output. Basically, buck converter acts just like step-down transformer. It is used to lower
the voltage level in DC systems. The most common applications of DC-DC converters are power system,
energy system and DC micro grids. The buck converter is specifically used for battery charging and in low
voltage applications. To evaluate the performance of DC to DC converter, a buck converter is modeled
and simulated through MATLAB/Simulink.

Figure 17 Simulink Model of Buck Converter

This model contains MOSFET and diode as switches, input voltage supply, RL branch, load resistance,
capacitance, duty cycle in the form of step input, PWM generator, voltage measurement and scope.
Duty cycle is set to the initial value of 0.5 and its final value is 0.75. The above Simulink model shows
that when an input voltage of 200 V is applied, it gives an output voltage of 150 V that depends upon the
duty cycle. Thus, duty cycle plays an important role in switching which in turn controls the output
voltage. For the duty cycle of 0.75, it gives an output voltage of 150 V as shown in the graph below.

Figure 18 Output Voltage of Buck Converter for 0.75 Duty Cycle

Now if the input voltage or duty cycle is varied, the output voltage will change as shown in the graph
below.
 Figure 19 Output Voltage for Duty Cycle of 0.55

This shows that for buck converter input voltage and output voltage relation can be given by

V out
D=
V¿

If duty cycle D or input voltage V ¿ varies, output voltage V out changes. But that’s not suitable for the
applications. As applications require a constant voltage to operate efficiently. However, it is hard to
maintain or control the input voltage at specific level, but duty cycle can be adjusted and controlled
using a controller. By applying a controller, it will adjust the duty cycle automatically and converter will
give a constant output voltage.

Task 17

DC motor is known as the common actuator in control systems and directly provides rotary motion and
coupled with wheels or drums to provide translational motion. Free-body diagram of rotor and electric
circuit of armature is presented below.
 Figure 20 DC Motor

Consider that input is voltage source and output is rotational speed of shaft. Following equations can be
obtained from the above figure using Newton’s law along with Kirchhoff’s law:

d2 θ dθ
J 2
+b =K∗i
dt dt

di dθ
L + R∗i=V −K
dt dt

Where K s constant factor, i is armature current and K∗i is equal to motor torque. V is voltage, R is
resistance, L is inductance, b is moment of inertia of rotor and J is motor viscous friction constant.
Using Laplace transform these equations become,

J s 2 θ ( s ) +bsθ ( s )=K∗I ( s)

LsI ( s )+ R∗I ( s )=V ( s )−Ksθ ( s )

Extracting I (s ) from second equation and inserting into first gives,

K∗V ( s )−Ksθ ( s )
J s 2 θ ( s ) +bsθ ( s )=
Ls + R

Thus, the relation between angular position and voltage can be given as

θ (s ) K
=
V (s ) [ s ( R+ Ls ) ( Js +b )+ K 2 ]

And relation between angular velocity and voltage can be given as

ω( s) K
=
V (s ) [ ( R+ Ls )( Js+b ) + K 2 ]

Using the above relation, the block diagram for open-loop DC motor is developed as shown below.

Figure 21 Block Diagram of Open-Loop DC Motor

Open-loop control concept was introduced for the motor speed control of DC motor. In open-loop
control, a controller is developed that maintains the DC motor speed at desired level. Open-loop control
is mostly used due to flexibility and easier to adjust the controller gain and compensate for motor
parameter variations. This technique is used due to its simplicity and does not require any feedback
from motor. This is a cost-effective solution to control motor speed.

Task 23

Open-loop control is most widely used technique to control motor speed of induction motors. These
motors are most popular in industrial applications. Voltage/frequency control is natural for adjustable
motor speed. Open-loop block diagram of single-phase induction motor is presented below.
 Figure 22 Open-Loop Block Diagram of Induction Motor

This contains three-phase AC supply, diode rectifier, and VFI (Variable Frequency Inverter). Through
open-loop control speed cannot be managed precisely as rotor speed is slight less than synchronous
speed. Voltage must be proportional to frequency to get the constant stator flux. No feedback signals
are required for open-loop control of induction motor. A constant voltage is added to avoid blockset and
rotor speed is integrated to get the phasor position of rotor. Three-phase voltages are generated in
three forms as shown in block diagram by combining voltage and angle. These reference voltages are
fed into VFI and generates actual three-phase voltages and fed into induction motor. A capacitor filter is
also attached to filter out the voltage and current ripples. With the help of input voltage, a controlled
output voltage is generated which is then control the motor speed. Input-output relationship can be
understood from the following equations:

d φs
V s =i s R s +
dt

φ s=|φs|e jρms

Neglecting stator resistance,

d
V s= |φ |e jρms )
dt ( s

V s = j ωms φ s

This equation represents the relation between voltage and frequency.

V2
Starting Torque ∝
f3
 2
V
Maximum Torque ∝ ( )
f

Hence, maximum torque remains constant through this open-loop control technique. The open-loop
control method is simple as compare to other methods. In closed loop system, the output single must be
measured because the control system depends on output feed-back. The output signal is measured
through sensor. In open-loop control the control action will be applied to the system regard less of the
output. It has the advantage of simplicity and easy implementation but has less efficiency. However,
there are various other suitable systems are available for the control of induction motors that can
provide better results as compared to open-loop control of induction motor. Control methods that can
be used are varying the applied voltage, changing applied frequency, constant V/F control, and change
number of stator poles. All these techniques are used depending upon the type of application where
induction motor is used.