MAtrix Unit 1

KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, DELHI NCR, GHAZIABAD
B. Tech. (I sem), 2020-21
MATHEMATICS-I (KAS-103T)
MODULE 1(MATRICES)
SYLLABUS: Types of Matrices: Symmetric, Skew-symmetric and Orthogonal Matrices;

Complex Matrices, Inverse and Rank of matrix using elementary transformations, Rank-Nullity
theorem; System of linear equations, Characteristic equation, Cayley-Hamilton Theorem and its
application, Eigen values and Eigen vectors; Diagonalisation of a Matrix.
CONTENTS
S.No MATRICES PAGE

NO.
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Types of Matrices 2
1.3 Basic Operations on Matrices 7
1.4 Transpose of a Matrix 9
1.5 Symmetric Matrix 10
1.6 Skew-Symmetric Matrix 10
1.7 Complex Matrices 11
1.8 Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian matrix 13
1.9 Unitary Matrix 13
1.10 Elementary Transformations (or Operations) 19
1.11 Inverse of a Matrix by E-Operations (Gauss-Jordan Method) 19
1.12 Rank of a Matrix 26
1.13 Nullity of a Matrix 27
1.14 Methods of Finding Rank of Matrix 28
1.15 Solution of System of Linear Equations 46
1.16 Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors 60
1.17 Eigenvalues and Eigenvector 63
1.18 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem 75
1.19 Similarity Transformation 80
1.20 Diagonalization of a matrix 80
1
MATRICES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The term ‘Matrix’ was given by J.J.Sylvester about1850, but was introduced first by Cayley in
1860. By a ‘matrix’ we mean “rectangular array” of numbers. Matrices (plural of matrix) find
applications in solution of system of linear equations, probability, mathematical economics,
quantum mechanics, electrical networks, curve fitting, transportation problems etc. Matrices are
easily agreeable for computers.
Matrix inverse can be used in Cryptography. It can provide a simple and effective procedure for
encoding and decoding messages.
Matrix
A rectangular array of m. n numbers (real or complex) arranged in m rows (horizontal lines) and
n columns (vertical lines) and enclosed in brackets [ ] is called a matrix of order m n .It is
also called m n matrix.
The numbers in the matrix are called entries or elements of the matrix.
Elements of a matrix are located by the double subscript ij where i denotes the row and j the
 a11 a12 ... a1n 

a a22 ... a2 n 
 21
column. The matrix A is written as A   ... ... ... ... 
 
am1 am 2 ... amn  mn
If all these entries are real, then the matrix A is called a real matrix.
Note: Matrix has no numerical value.
1.2 TYPES OF MATRICES

(a) Square Matrix
In a matrix, if the number of rows = number of columns = n, then it is called a square matrix of
order n.
3 4 5 
 
Example : A  5 6 7  is a square matrix since its order is 3  3.
9 3 2 
2
(b) Row Matrix
A matrix with only one row is called a row matrix.
Examples :
Let A  a11a12 a13 a14 .............a1n  . It is a row matrix with n columns. So, it is a row
matrix of type 1  n .
Also, A  4 5 6 7 . It is a row matrix with 4 columns. So, it is a row matrix of type

1 4 .
(c) Column Matrix
A matrix with only one column is called a column matrix.
Examples :
 a11 
a 
 21 
A   a31 
Let
 
 . 
 an1 
It is a column matrix with n rows. So, it is a column matrix of type n  1 .
1 
 2
 
Also, Let
A  3
 
 4
5 
It is a column matrix with 5 rows. So, it is a column matrix of type 5  1 .
(d) Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix in which all the non- diagonal elements are zero is called a diagonal matrix.
3
Example:
2 0 0 
 0  is a diagonal matrix of order 3.
Let A  0 3
0 0  4
(e) Scalar Matrix
In a diagonal matrix if all the diagonal elements are equal to a non-zero scalar  , then it is called
a scalar matrix.
Example:
 0 0
  0  is a scalar matrix of order 3.
Let A   0
 0 0  
(f) Unit Matrix or Identity matrix
In a diagonal matrix if all the diagonal elements are equal to 1, then it is called a unit matrix or
identity matrix.
1 0 0
1 0 
Examples : 1,  0
1 
, 0 1
0 0 0 1
are identity matrices of orders 1, 2, 3 respectively.They are denoted by I1, I2, I3.
In general, In is the identity matrix of order n .
(g) Zero Matrix or Null matrix
In a matrix (rectangular or square), if all the entries are equal to zero, then it is called a zero
matrix or null matrix.
4
Example:
0 0 0
0 0
A  0 0, B  
0 0
0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0
are zero matrices of type 3 3 , 2  4 .
(h) Triangular Matrix
A square matrix A= [aij] is said to be upper triangular matrix if all the entries below the main
diagonal are zero. That is aij  0 if i  j.
A square matrix A= [aij] is said to be lower triangular matrix if all the entries above the main
diagonal are zero. That is aij  0 if i  j.
Examples:
4 1 0 2 
 1 2 3 
 1 
4, 
0 2 3
The matrices A   0 1
0 0 0  2 are upper triangular matrices.
 0 0 5  
0 0 0 5 
and
1 0 0
 2 0 
The matrices A   , 2  1 0 are lower triangular matrices.
  1 0  0 2 1

(i) Singular and Non-singular Matrices
A square matrix A is said to be singular if A  0 and non-singular if A  0.
Example:
2  3 4
A  2  3 4 is a singular matrix since A  0 .
0  1 1 
5
(j) Orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix A is called an orthogonal matrix if AA  AA  I .
Note: If A and B are any two orthogonal matrices, AB will also be an orthogonal matrix.
 cos sin  
Example: A  
 sin  cos 
(k) Nilpotent matrix
A square matrix A is said to be nilpotent if A2  0.
It will be of index p if p is the least positive integer such that AP  0.

1 2 3
0 1  
Examples: A    A 1 2 3 
0 0  ,  1  2  3
(l) Idempotent matrix
A square matrix A is idempotent if A  A.

2
A square matrix A is said to be idempotent of period n if n is the least positive integer such that
An1  A.
 1 2 1 
1 0   6 6 6
Examples: A    
, A 6 6 
2 4 2
0 1   1 6
 6  2 6 1 6 
(m) Involutary matrix
A square matrix A is said to be involuntary if A  I . where I is a unit matrix.

2
 5  8 0 
Example: A   3 5 0  .

 1 2  1
(n) Elementary matrix
The matrix obtained from a unit matrix I by subjecting it to one of the E-operations is called an
elementary matrix.
6
1 0 0
Example: Let I  0 1 0
 
0 0 1
1 0 0 
Operating R23 or C23 on I, we get the elementary matrix 0 0 1  .It is denoted by E23.
 
0 1 0
1.3 Basic Operations on Matrices

(a) Addition and subtraction of Matrices
Two matrices are said to be conformable for addition and subtraction if they have the same
order.If A and B are two matrices of the same order , then their sum A+B is a matrix each
element of which is obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A and B.
Let A= [aij] and B=[bij] be two matrices of the same type m n .Then A+B=[cij] where
cij=aij+bij for all i, j and A  B is of type m n .
Similarly, if A and B are two matrices of the same order , then their difference A-B is a
matrix whose element are obtained by subtracting the elements of B from the
corresponding elements of A.
Let A= [aij] and B = [bij] be two matrices of the same type m n .Then A-B = [cij] where
cij=aij-bij for all i, j .
 1 2 3 1 2 3 
A
Example :If ,   then
 0 1 5 1 0  2
  1  1 2  2 3  3  0 4 6 
A B     1 1 3
 0  1 1  0 5  2   
We see that A and B are of type 2  3 and A  B is also of the type 2  3
 1  1 2  2 3  3   2 0 0
A B   
 0 1 1  0 5  2   1 1 7 
(b) Scalar Multiplication of Matrices
Let A= [aij] be an m n matrix and k be a scalar. Then kA=[kaij].
Example:
7
a a12 a13   ka11 ka12 ka13 

A   11 
a23  ka ka23 
If then kA .
a21 a22  21 ka22
 a  a12  a13 
 A   11
 a23 
Hence if k = -1, then .
 a21  a22
( c) Multiplication of Matrices
If A and B are two matrices such that the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows
of B, then the product AB is defined. Two such matrices are said to be conformable for
multiplication. In the product AB, A is known as pre-factor and B is known as post-factor.
Let Let A= [aij] be an m  p matrix and B= [bij] be an p  n matrix , then AB is defined and
p
AB=[cij] is an m n matrix, where cij  a
k 1
ik bkj .
That is cij is the sum of the products of the corresponding elements of the i th row of A and the
j th column of B.
Example :
1 1 2 1 2
 3 and B  3
 1
Let A  0 1
2 2 1 2 1
Since A is of type 3 3 and B is of the type 3 2 , AB is defined and AB is of type 3 2 .
1 1 2 1 2 1.1  1.3  2.2 1.2  1.1  2.1  8 5

AB  0 1 3 3 1  0.1  1.3  3.2 0.2  1.1  3.1   9 4
2 2 1 2 1 2.1  2.3  1.2 2.2  2.1  1.1 10 7
Note: If A and B are square matrices of order n, then both AB and BA are defined,but not
necessarily equal. That is , AB ≠BA, in general.So, matrix multiplication is not commutative.
8
Properties of Addition, Scalar Multiplication and Multiplication
1. If A, B, C are matrices of the same type, then
i. ) A  B  B  A
ii ) A  B  C    A  B   C
iii ) A  0  A
iv) A   A  0
v)   A  B   A  B
vi)    A  A  A
vii)  A   A for any scalars  ,  .
2. If A, B, C are conformable for multiplication, then
(i)   AB  AB  AB 
(ii) ABC    ABC
(iii)
 A  BC  AC  BC, where A and B are of type m  p and C is of the type p  n
n 1
(iv) If A is a square matrix, then A  A  A, A  A  A,.....A  A A
2 3 2 n
1.4: Transpose of a Matrix

Given a matrix A, then the matrix obtained from A by changing its rows into columns and
columns into rows is called the transpose of A and is denoted by AorA .
t
Clearly, (i) If the order of A is m n then order of A is n  m.
(ii ) i, j  element of A   j , i  element of A.

th
 th
9
1 2
0  1
1 0 2 5
 2 , then A  

7 
A
Example: If
 1 3 2 3
 
5 7
Properties of Transpose of a Matrix
If Aand B  denote the transposes of A and B respectively, then
(a)  A  A i.e., the transpose of the transpose of a matrix is the matrix itself.
(b)  A  B   A  B i.e., the transpose of the sum of two matrices is equal to the
sum of their transposes.
(c)  AB  BA i.e., the transpose of the product of two matrices is equal to the
product of their transposes taken in the reverse order.
1.5: Symmetric Matrix
 
A square matrix A  a ij is said to be symmetric if A  A i.e., if the transpose of the matrix
is equal to the matrix itself.
 
Thus, for a symmetric matrix A  a ij , aij  a ji .
  1 2 3  a h g
Example :  2 5 6,  h b f  are symmetric matrices .
  
 3 6 4  g f c 
1.6: Skew-Symmetric Matrix
 
A square matrix A  a ij is said to be symmetric if A   A i.e., if the transpose of the matrix
is equal to the negative of the matrix.
 
Thus, for a symmetric matrix A  a ij , aij   a ji .
Putting j=i, aii  aii  2aii  0 or aii  0 for all i.Thus, all diagonal elements of a skew-
symmetric matrix are zero.
0 2  3  0 h  g

Example :  2 0 1 ,  h 0 f  are skew-symmetric matrices.

 3  1 0   g f 0 
10
Theorem: Every square matrix can uniquely be expressed as the sum of a
Symmetric matrix and a Skew-symmetric matrix.
Proof : Let A be any square matrix.
Consider B 
1
 A  A and C  1  A  A .
2 2
BC 
1
 A  A  1  A  A  A
2 2
B 
1
 A  A  1  A   A   1  A  A  1  A  A  B
2 2  2 2
 B is a symmetric matrix.
C 
1
 A  A  1  A   A   1  A  A   1  A  A  C
2 2  2 2
 C is a skew - symmetric matrix.
Hence every square matrix A can be expressed as A= B+C, B 

1
 A  A is a symmetric matrix
2
and C 
1
 A  A is a skew-symmetric matrix.
2
To prove that there is only one way in which A can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric
matrix and a skew-symmetric matrix, suppose
A=P+Q ……….. (1)
is another such representation in which P is a symmetric matrix, and Q is a skew-symmetric

matrix.
i.e. P  P and Q  -Q

Then A  P  Q   P  Q  P  Q...............(2)
From (1) and (2) , A  A  2P and A  A  2Q.
⸫ P
1
 A  A  B and Q  1  A  A  C. so that P+Q =B+C
2 2
11
Hence the result.
1.7 Complex Matrices
A matrix having complex numbers as its elements is called a complex matrix.
 2i i 2
A
3
Example :
3  2i 0
Complex Conjugate of a Matrix
If A is a matrix having complex numbers as its elements, then the matrix obtained from A by
replacing each element of A by its corresponding complex conjugate is called the conjugate
matrix of A and is denoted by A .
2  3i 4  6i 3  2  3i 4  6i 3 
Thus if A   .then A   
 1  i 5  2i 5i   1  i 5  2i  5i 
Some Properties of Complex Matrices
If A and B are two complex matrices, then

(i) A   A
(ii) A  B   A  B
(iii) (iii) kA  k A where k is a complex number
(iv) (iv) AB   A B
Transposed Conjugate Matrix
The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called transpose conjugate of matrix A is

denoted by A  A .  
Clearly the transpose of the conjugate and conjugate of the transpose of matrix are equal i.e.,
A    A.
2  3i 5  6i   2  3i 4  i 
then A  A    A  

Thus if A    3 
.
 4i 3  5  6i
Some Properties of Transposed Conjugate Matrix
(i) A  
 A.
12
(ii) If A and B are two matrices conformable for product AB, then
 AB  B A .
(iii)  A  B   A  B .

(iv) kA  kA where k is a scalar quantity.


1.8 Hermitian and Skew Hermition Matrix

A square matrix A is called Hermitian if A  A.
In a Hermitian matrix, the diagonal elements are all real, while every other element is the
conjugate complex of the element in the transposed position.
 5 2  i  3i 
   4 3  2i 
Examples: A  2  i  3 1  i , A  
  3  2i 5  are Hermitian matrix.
 3i 1  i 0 
A square matrix A is called Skew- Hermitian if A   A.
In a skew-Hermitian matrix, the diagonal elements are zero or purely imaginary numbers of
the form iβ where β is real. Every other element is the negative of the conjugate complex of the
element in the transposed position.
 3i 1 i 7 
  , A   2i 3  4i 
Examples : A   1  i    5i  are Skew-Hermitian matrix.
 0 2 i    3  4i
  7 2  i  i 
1.9 Unitary Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be unitary if AA  I  A A.
The determinant of a unitary matrix is of unit modulus. For a matrix to be unitary, it must be
non-singular.
1  1 1  i
Example : A   
3 1  i  1  is a Unitary matrix.
Question based on Hermitian, Skew Hermitian Matrix, Unitary matrix
2  i 3  1  3i 
Example1:If A    , verify that A A is a Hermitian matrix where A
  5 i 4  2i 
13
is the conjugate transpose of A.
 2i 5 
Solution: A 
 i 
 3
 1  3i 4  2i 
 2i 5 

A   A   3

 i 
 1  3i 4  2i 
 2i 5 
 2  i 3  1  3i 

A A 3  i  
  5 i 4  2i 
 1  3i 4  2i 
 30 6  8i  19  17i 

  6  8i 10  5  5i   B(say)
 19  17i  5  5i 30 
 30 6  8i  19  17i 

Now B   6  8i 10  5  5i 
 19  17i  5  5i 30 
 30 6  8i  19  17i 
 
B  B   6  8i 10  5  5i   B
 19  17i  5  5i 30 

Hence B  A A is a Hermitian matrix.
Example 2: If A and B are Hermitian, show that AB-BA is skew-Hermitian.
Solution: A and B are Hermitian  A  A and B  B

Now  AB  BA   AB   BA
  
B A  A B  BA  AB   AB  BA
 AB  BA is skew-Hermitian.
Example3: If A is a skew-Hermitian matrix, then show that iA is Hermitian.
Solution: A is a skew- Hermitian matrix  A   A

Now iA  i A   i  A  iA

14
 iA is a Hermitian matrix.
Example 4: Show that every square matrix is expressible as the sum of a Hermitian matrix and
Skew- Hermitian matrix.
Solution: A be any square matrix. Since
A  A   
 A  A  
 A  A  A  A
and A  A   
 A  A   

 A  A   A  A 
⸫ A  A is Hermitian and A  A is skew-Hermitian.
Now, A 
1
2
 
1
 
A  A  A  A  P  Q (say)
2
where P is Hermitian and Q is skew-Hermitian .Thus, every square matrix can be
expressed as the sum of a Hermitian matrix and a skew-Hermitian matrix.
 2  2i 4 5  5i 
Example 5 : Express the matrix

A   4i 3  i 4  2i  as the sum of a Hermitian
 3  3i  4 9 
matrix and Skew-Hermitian matrix.
2  2i  4i  3  3i 
Solution: A   A 
  4 3i  4 

5  5i 4  2i 9 
Now,
 4 4  4i 2  8i   2 2  2i 1  4i 
1
2
A  A   4  4i
 1
2
6  
2i   2  2i 3 i 
(1)
 2  8i  2i 18  1  4i i 9 
 4i 4  4i 8  2i   2i 2  2i 4  i 
1
2
A  A    4  4i
 1
2
2i  
8  2i    2  2i i 4  i 
(2)
  8  2i  8  2i 0    4  i  4  i 0 
Clearly
1
2
 
A  A Hermitian and
1
2
 
A  A  is skew-Hermition.
From (1) and (2), we have

1
2
 1
A  A  A  A  A
2
  
15
 2 2  2i 1  4i   2i 2  2i 4  i 

A  2  2i 3  
i    2  2i i 4  i 
1  4i i 9    4  i  4  i 0 
1  1 1  i
Example 6: Show that the matrix A    is unitary.
3 1  i  1 
1  1 1  i
Solution: Given A   
3 1  i  1 
1  1 1  i
 A   A 
 
3 1  i  1 
 1  1 1  i   1 1  i  1 3 0 1 0
Now AA      I.
3 1  i  1  1  i  1  3 0 3 0 1
Similarly A A  I .
 AA   I  A A.
Hence A is unitary.
 0 1  2i 
N  I-N I  N 1 and show that it
0 
Example 7: If is a matrix, then find
 1  2i
is a unitary matrix.
Solution: Given
 0 1  2i 
N
 1  2i 0 
Also
1 0 
I .
0 1 
 1  1  2i 
I-N  
1 
Now
1  2i
 1 1  2i 
IN 
 1  2i 1 
1  2i
IN 
1
 1  2i 1
 
 1   1  4i 2  6
 1  1  2i 
Adj I  N   
1  2i 1 
16
1 1  1  2i 
Thus I  N   AdjI  N   
1 1
1 
.
IN 6 1  2i
1 1  1  2i   1  1  2i 
Thus I - N I  N  
1

6 1  2i  
1  1  2i 1 
.
1   4  2  4i 
  P, (say)
6 2  4i  4 
To prove P is unitary, we shall show Pθ P  I.
1  4 2  4i 
We have P  P 
θ

6  2  4i  4 
1  4 2  4i    4  2  4i 
Pθ P  
36  2  4i  4  2  4i  4 
1 36 0  1 0
 Pθ P    I.
36  0 36 0 1
Hence P i.e., (I-N)(I+N)-1 is unitary.
Practice Question:
  i    i 
1) Show that the matrix   is unitary if  2   2   2   2  1.
   i   i 
2) If A is any square matrix, prove that A  A , AA , A A are all Hermitian and
A A is skew-Hermitian.
 2 7 - 4i - 2  5i 

3) Show that A  7  4i -2 3  i  is a Hermitian matrix.

- 2 - 5i 3 - i 3 
 i 3  2i - 2  i 

4) Show that A   3  2i 0 3  4i  is a skew-Hermitian matrix.

 2 - i - 3 - 4i - 2i 
 - 1 2  i 5 - 3i 

5) If A  2 - i 7 5i , Show that A is a Hermitian matrix and iA is a skew-

5  3i - 5i 2 
Hermitian matrix.
17
1  i  1  i 
6) Prove that A    is a Unitary matrix.
1  i 1  i 
i 0 0

7) Show that A  0 0 i  is skew-Hemitian matrix and also unitary.

0 i 0
1  i 1  i
8) Prove that A  
1  i 
is a Unitary matrix.
1  i
9) If A and B are two unitary matrices, show that AB is a unitary matrix.
10) If A is a unitary matrix, show that AT and A-1 is unitary.
18
1.10 Elementary Transformations (or Operations)
Any one of the following operations on a matrix is called an elementary transformation (or E-
operation).
(i) Interchange of two rows or two columns.
The interchange of ith and jth columns is denoted by Rij.
The interchange of ith and jth columns is denoted by Cij.
(ii) Multiplication of (each element of) a row or column by a non-zero number k.
The multiplication of ith row by k is denoted by Ri(k).
The multiplication of ith column by k is denoted by Ci(k).
(iii) Addition of k times the elements of a row (or column) to the corresponding
elements of another row(or column), k≠0.
The addition of k times the jth row to the ith row is denoted by Rij(k).
The addition of k times the jth column to the ith column is denoted by Cij(k).
If a matrix B is obtained from a matrix A by one or more E-operations, then B is said to

be equivalent to A. Two equivalent matrices A and B are written as A~B.
1.11 Inverse of a matrix by E-Operations (Gauss-Jordan Method)

The elementary row transformations which reduce a square matrix A to the unit matrix, when
applied to the unit matrix, gives the inverse matrix A-1.
Consider only square matrices. Inverse of a n-square matrix A is denoted by A-1 and is
defined such that
A A-1 = A-1A=I where I is n x n unit matrix.
To compute the inverse of a matrix, we use the concept of equivalent matrices.
(1) If we are to find out the inverse of a non-singular square matrix A, we first write A as
equivalent to I, a unit matrix of the same order.
A~I
(2) Then we apply elementary row operations on them. The objective is to reduce A to I. As
soon as this is achieved, the other matrix gives A-1.
I~A-1
This is an elegant way of determining the inverse or reciprocal of a matrix A.
19
Properties of Inverse of a Matrix
(1) Inverse of A exists only if A  0 i.e. A is non-singular matrix.

(2) Inverse of a matrix is unique.
(3) Inverse of a `product is the product of inverses in the reverse order
i.e., (AB)-1=B-1A-1
(4) Transposition and inverse are commutative i.e.,(A-1)T = (AT)-1, (A-1)-1=A.
Example1: Find the inverse of A by Gauss-Jordan method where
1 2 3
A  2 4 5
3 5 6
Solution : Writing A=IA i.e.,
1 2 3 1 0 0
 2 4 5   0 1 0  A
   
3 5 6 0 0 1
By R21(-2),R31(-3),we get
1 2 3   1 0 0
0 0  1   2 1 0 A
   
0  1  3   3 0 1
1 2 3   1 0 0

By R23 0  1  3    3 0 1 A
   
0 0  1  2 1 0
1 2 0    5 3 0
By R13(3) ,R23(-3) 0  1 0    3  3 1 A
   
0 0  1  2 1 0
1 2 0  5 3 0 
By R2(-1) ,R3(-1) 0 1 0   3 3  1 A
   
0 0 1  2  1 0 
20
1 0 0  1  3 2 
By R12(-2) 0 1 0   3 3  1 A
   
0 0 1  2  1 0 
 1 3 2 
Hence A   3 3  1 .
1
 2  1 0 
Example 2: Find the inverse of the following matrix by employing elementary

transformations:
 1  2 3
A   0  1 4
 2 2 1
 1  2 3 1 0 0
 0  1 4   0 1 0  A
   
 2 2 1 0 0 1
1  2 3 1 0 0
By R31(2) 0  1 4  0 1 0 A
   
0  2 7  2 0 1
1 0  5 1  2 0
By R12(-2),R32(-2) 0  1 4   0 1 0 A
   
0 0  1 2  2 1
1 0  5  1  2 0 
By R2(-1),R3(-1) 0 1  4   0  1 0  A
  
0 0 1   2 2  1
1 0 0   9 8  5
By R13(5),R23(4) 0 1 0    8  7  4 A
   
0 0 1  2 2  1
21
  9 8  5
Hence A    8  7  4.
1
 
 2 2  1

transformations:
 3  3 4
A  2  3 4
0  1 1 
3  3 4 1 0 0
 2  3 4   0 1 0  A
   
0  1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1  1 0
By R12(-1) 2  3 4  0 1 0 A
   
0  1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0  1  1 0
By R21(-2) 0  3 4   2 3 0 A
   
0  1 1  0 0 1
1 0 0  1  1 0 
By R23(-4) 0 1 0   2 3  4 A
   
0  1 1  0 0 1 
1 0 0  1  1 0 
By R32(1) 0 1 0   2 3  4 A
   
0 0 1  2 3  3
 1 1 0 
Hence A   2 3  4.
1
 
 2 3  3
22

transformations:
0 1 2 
A  1 2 3
3 1 1
Solution. Writing A=IA i.e.,
0 1 2 1 0 0
1 2 3  0 1 0 A
   
3 1 1 0 0 1
1 2 3 0 1 0
By R11 0 1 2  1 0 0 A
   
3 1 1 0 0 1
1 2 3  0 1 0 

By R31(-3) 0 1 2   1 0 0 A

0  5  8 0  3 1
1 0  1  2 1 0
By R12(-2),R32(5) 0 1 2    1 0 0 A
  
0 0 2   5  3 1
1 0  1   2 1 0 
 
By R3(1/2) 0 1 2  1  0 0  A
  
0 0 1  5 / 2  3 / 2 1 / 2
1 0 0 1 / 2  1 / 2 1 / 2 
By R13(1),R23(-2) 0 1 0    4 3  1  A
  
0 0 1 5 / 2  3 / 2  1 / 2
1 / 2  1 / 2 1 / 2 
Hence A  .  4
1
3  1 

5 / 2  3 / 2  1 / 2
23

transformations:
1 1 1 1
  2 1  1  2
A 
 4  2  3 1 
 
1 1 1 0
Solution. Writing A=IA i.e.,
1 1 1 1  1 0 0 0
  2 1  1  2  0 1 0 0
  A
  4  2  3 1  0 0 1 0
   
1 1 1 0  0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 3 1 0   2 1 0 0
By R21 (2),R31(4),R41(-1)   A
0 2 1 5 4 0 1 0
   
0 0 0  1  1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 0
0
0 1 0  5  2 1  1 0
By R23(-1)   A
0 2 1 5 4 0 1 0
   
0 0 0  1   1 0 0 1
1 0 1 6   3 1 1 0
0 1 0  5  2 1  1 0
By R12(-2),R32(-2)   A.
0 0 1 15   8  2 3 0
   
0 0 0  1   1 0 0 1
1 0 0  9   5 1  2 0
0 1 0  5  2 1  1 0
By R13(-1)   A.
0 0 1 15   8  2 3 0
   
0 0 0  1   1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0  4 1  2  9
0 
1 0 0  3  1  1  5
By R14(-9), R24(-5), R34(15)   A.
0 0 1 0   7  2 3 15 
   
0 0 0  1   1 0 0 1
24
1 0 0 0  4 1  2  9
0  
1 0 0  3 1  1  5
By R4(-1)   A.
0 0 1 0  7  2 3 15 
   
0 0 0 1  1 0 0  1
4 1  2  9
3 1  1  5
Hence A 1  .
 7  2 3 15 
 
1 0 0  1
Practice Questions:
Find the inverse of the following matrix by employing elementary

transformations:
2 2 2   5 2 0 
1. A  2 5 5  Ans : A   2 3  1.
1
-1
  6
2 5 11  0  1 1 
 3 3 4  1  7 24 
2. A  2  3 4 Ans : A   2 3  4 .
1
-1
  11
0  1 1  2 3  15
9 7 6   34 10 62 
3. A  7  1 8
1 
  Ans : A    10
-1
0  30.
50
3 4 2  31  15  58
8 4 2   56  28 0 
4. A  2 8 4
1 
  Ans : A 
-1
  12 62  28.
392
1 2 8   4  12 56 
2 4 3 2  23 29  64 / 5  18 / 5
3 6 5 2   10  12 26 / 5 7 / 5 
5. A   Ans : A -1  
2 5 2  3  1 2 6/5 2/5 
   
4 5 14 14   2 2 3/ 5 1/ 5 
25
1 2 3 1  1 2 1 0
1 3 3 2  1  2 2  3
6. A   Ans : A -1   
2 4 3 3 0 1 1 1 
   
1 1 1 1  2 3  2 3 
0 2 13  17  3 15 7 
1 1  1 2  1  5  4
1 9
7. A   Ans : A 
-1
1 2 0 1 5  10  5 10 5 
   
 1 1 2 6  1 1 0 1
2 0  1  3 1 1 
8. A  5 1 0  Ans : A -1   15 6  5
 
0 1 3   5  2 2 
2 1  1  8  1  3
9. A  0 2 1  Ans : A   5 1
-1
2 
 
5 2  3  10  1  4
1 2  2 0 3  3

10. A   1 3 0 
1
Ans : A   6  2  1
-1
 9
 0  2 1   1 1  5
1.12 Rank of a Matrix

Let A be any m n matrix. It has square sub-matrices of different orders. The determinants of
these square sub-matrices are called minors of A.
A matrix A is said to be of rank r if
(i) It has at least one non-zero minor of order r.

(ii) All the minors of order (r+1) or higher than r are zero.
Symbolically, rank of A= r is written as   A  r.
Note: (1) If A is a null matrix, then rank of A= 0.
(2)If A is not a null matrix, then rank of A  1 .
(3)If A is a non-singular n  n matrix , then rank of A  n.
26
(4) Let A be any matrix (square or rectangular).From this matrix A, delete all columns
and rows leaving a certain p columns and p rows. Now if p > 1, then the elements which
have been left, constitute a square matrix of order p. The determinant of this square matrix
is called a minor of A of order p.
1.13 Nullity of a matrix

Let A be a square matrix of order n and if the rank of A is r, then n-r is called the nullity of the
matrix A and is usually denoted by N (A).
Thus, Nullity of A i.e. N(A) = Number of column – Rank of A = n- r
Example 1: Find the rank and nullity of the following matrices:
1 2 0 
A  2 4 7
3 3 0
Solution:
1 2 0 
A  2 4 7
3 3 0
1 2 0 
 A  2 4 7  -7  0
3 3 0
Rank of A = 3 and Nullity N(A) = 3-3 = 0.
1 2 3
A  1 3 5
2 5 8
1 2 3
 
Solution: A  1 3 5
2 5 8
27
1 2 3 1 2 3
 A  1 3 5  1 3 5  0.applying R 3  R 3 - R 1  R2  
2 5 8 0 0 0
1 2
But    3 2 1 0
1 3
Since minor of order 2 is not zero, hence rank of A=2.
Nullity N(A) = 3 – 2 =1.
1 2 3 
A  2 4 6 
4 8 12
1 2 3 
 
Solution: A  2 4 6 
4 8 12
1 2 3  1 2 3
 A  2 4 6   0 0 0  0.applying R 3  R 3 - 2R 2 & R 2  R 2 - 2R 1 
4 8 12 0 0 0
So, the rank of A is less than 3.
Clearly, all the nine minors of order 2 vanish. Therefore, rank of A is less than 2.But
matrix A is non-zero and rank of A is less than 2.
Hence , rank of A=1.
& Nullity N(A) =3-1=2.
1.14 Methods of finding Rank of Matrix

(a) Echelon Form Method (Row Reduced Echelon form)
 Apply only elementary row operations on A. Then the number of non-zero rows is the
rank of A.
 A matrix is reduced in echelon form as
 The first non-zero element in a row should be unity (if possible).
 All the non-zero rows, if any, precede the zero rows.
28
 The rank of the matrix is equal to the number of non-zero diagonal elements when it has
been reduced to echelon form.ie number of non-zero rows is equal to the rank of the
matrix.
(b) Normal Form Method (Canonical form)
 If A is an m n matrix and by a series of elementary (row or column or both)

operations, it can be put into one of the following forms (called normal or canonical
I r 0  I r 
0 , I r 0, I r , where I r is the unit matrix of order r.
0  0 
,

forms).
 Since the rank of a matrix is not changed as a result of elementary transformations, it

follows that rank of ( A) = r.
 Interchange rows (or columns) to obtain a non-zero element in I row and I column of
given matrix.
 Make this non-zero element as 1.
 Obtain zeros in the remainder of I row and I column.
 Repeat the above three steps starting with element in II row and II column.
 Continue the process down the main diagonal either until the end of diagonal is reached
or all the remaining elements of matrix are zero.
( c) For an m n matrix A,to find square matrices P and Q of orders m and n

respectively, such that PAQ is in the normal form
 Write A=I A I.
 Reduce the matrix on L.H.S.to normal form by affecting elementary row and/or column
transformations.
 Every elementary row transformations on A must be accompanied by the same
transformation on the pre-factor on R.H.S.
 Every elementary column transformations on A must be accompanied by the same
transformation on the post-factor on R.H.S.
29
Determine the rank of the following matrices by reducing to Echelon form:
Example 1 : Determine the rank of the following matrices by reducing to Echelon form:
4 2 3 
A   8 4 6 
 2  1  1.5
Solution: Apply elementary row operations on A
 4 2 3
By R21(-2), R31(1/2) ~ 0 0 0
 
0 0 0
The number of non-zero row is one. So the rank of A is one.
1 5 4  1 1 1 
Example 2: A  0 3 2 , B   2 2 2
   
2 13 10 3 3 3
Find rank of A, rank of B, rank of A+B, rank of AB and rank of BA.
1 5 4 
Solution: A  0 3 2 
2 13 10
1 5 4 
By R31(-2) ~ 0 3 2
 
0 3 2
1 5 4 
By R32(-1) ~ 0 3 2
 
0 0 0
Rank of A is 2 since the number of non-zero rows is 2.
30
1 1 1 
B  2 2 2
3 3 3
1 1 1 
By R21(-1), R31(-3), ~ 0 0 0
 
0 0 0
Rank of B is 1 since the number of non-zero rows is 1.
2 6 5 
A  B  2 5 4 
5 16 13
2 6 5 
By R21(-2), R31(-5/2), ~ 0  7  6 

 
0  1 1 / 2
Rank of A+B is 3 since the number of non-zero rows is 3.
23 23 23
AB  12 12 12 
58 58 58
1 1 1
By R1(1/23), R21(-12), R31(-58), ~ 0 0 0,
 
0 0 0
Rank of AB is 1 since the number of non-zero rows is 1.
3 21 16 
BA  6 42 32
9 63 48
1 1 1
By R21(-2), R31(-3), ~ 0 0 0,
 
0 0 0
Rank of BA is 1 since the number of non-zero rows is 1.
31
Example 3: Determine the rank of the following matrices by reducing to Echelon form:
1 2 2 3 
2 5  4 6 
A 
  1  3 2  2
 
2 4 1 6 
1 2 2 3 
2 5  4 6 
Solution: A  
  1  3 2  2
 
2 4 1 6 
1 2  2 3
0 1 0 0
By R21(-2), R31(1), R41(-2), ~ 
0  1 0 1
 
0 0 3 0
1 2  2 3
0 1 0 0
By R31(1), R34,R3(1/3), ~ 
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
Rank of A is 4 since the number of non-zero rows is 4.
Example 4: Determine the values of b such that the rank of A is 3.
1 1  1 0
4 4  3 1
A
b 2 2 2
 
9 9 b 3
32
1 1  1 0
4 4  3 1
Solution: A  
b 2 2 2
 
9 9 b 3
 1 1 1 0
 0 0 1 1
By R21(-4), R31(-2), R41(-9), ~ 
b  2 0 4 2
 
 0 0 b  9 3
 1 1 10
 0 0 1 1 
By R32 (-4), R42(-3) ~ 
b  2 0 0  2
 
 0 0 b6 0 
 1 1 10
 0 0 1 1 
By R43 ~ 
 0 0 b6 0 
 
b  2 0 0  2
Cases: (i) If b=2,determinant of A= 0 ,rank of A=3.
(ii)If b = -6, number of non-zero rows is 3,rank of A=3.
Example 5: Reduce A to Echelon form and find rank of A.
1 3  1 2 
0 11  5 3
A 
2  5 3 1 
 
4 1 1 5
Solution: Applying elementary row operations on A
1 3 1 2 
0 11  5 3 
R31  2, R 41  4 ~  
0  11 5  3
 
0  11 5  3
33
1 3  1 2
0 11  5 3
R32 1, R 42 1 ~  
0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 
1 3 1 2 
 5 3 
 1  0 1
R2   ~ 11 11
 11  0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 
 4 13 
1 0
11 11 
 5 3 
R12  3 ~ 0 1 
 11 11 
0 0 0 0
0 0 
 0 0
This is the Echelon form. Rank of A is 2 since there are two non-zero rows.
Determine the rank of the following matrices by reducing to Normal form:
Example 1: Reduce the matrix A to normal form and hence find the rank
1 2 3 4 
A  2 4 4 3 
3 0 5  10
1 2 3 4 
Solution: A  2 4 4 3 

3 0 5  10
1 2 3 4 
R21  2, R31  3 ~ 0 0 - 2 - 5 

0  6  4  22
1 0 0 0 
C21  2, C31  3, C41  4 ~ 0 0 2 5 
0 6 4 22
34
1 0 0 0 
1 
C2   ~ 0 0 2 5 
6
0 1 4 22
1 0 0 0
C32  4, C42  22 ~ 0 0 2 5
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1
C3  , C43  5 ~ 0 0 1 0
2
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
R23 ~ 0 1 0 0  I 3 0
0 0 1 0
Hence, Rank of A =3
Example 2: Reduce the matrix A to normal form and hence find the rank:
2 1 4
3
0 3 4 1
A
2 3 7 5
 
2 5 11 6
2 1 4
3
0 3 4 1
Solution: A  
2 3 7 5
 
2 5 11 6
2 1 3 4
0 3 4 1
R31  1, R41  1 ~ 
0 2 4 1
 
0 4 8 2
2 1 3 4
0 3 4 1
R43  2 ~ 
0 2 4 1
 
0 0 0 0
35
2 1 3 4
0 1 0 0
R23  1 ~ 
0 2 4 1
 
0 0 0 0
2 0 3 4
0 1 0 0
R32  2, R12  1 ~ 
0 0 4 1
 
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1
C1  , C31  3, C41  4 ~ 
2 0 0 4 1
 
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 I 3 0
1
C3  , C43  1, ~   , rank of A  3.
4 0 0 1 0  0 0
 
0 0 0 0
0 1 2 - 2
A  4 0 2 6 
2 1 3 1 
0 1 2 - 2
Solution: A  4 0 2 6 
 
2 1 3 1 
0 1 2 - 2
R23  2 ~ 0 - 2 - 4 4 
2 1 3 1 
0 1 0 0
C32  2, C42 2 ~ 0 - 2 0 0
2 1 1 3
36
 1 0 0 0
C12 ~ - 2 0 0 0
 1 2 1 3
1 0 0 0
R21 2, R31  1 ~ 0 0 0 0
0 2 1 3
1 0 0 0
C 23  2, C 43  3 ~ 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
I 0
R23 , C23 ~ 0 1 0 0   2 , rank of A  2
0
0 0 0 0 
0
2 3  1  1 
1  1  2  4 
A 
3 1 3  2
 
6 3 0  7
Solution:
2 3  1  1 
1  1  2  4 
A 
3 1 3  2
 
6 3 0  7
1  1  2  4 
2 3  1  1 
R12 ~  
3 1 3  2
 
6 3 0  7
37
1 0 0
0
2 5 3 7 
C21 1, C31 2, C 41 4 ~ 
3 4 9 10
 
6 9 12 17
1 0 0 0
0 5 3 7 
R21  2, R31  3, R41  6 ~ 
0 4 9 10
 
0 9 12 17 
1 0 0
0
0 1  6  3
R23  1, R43  2 ~ 
0 4 9 10 
 
0 1  6  3
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 
C32 6, C 42 3 ~ 
0 4 33 22
 
0 1 0 0
1 0 00
0 1 0 0 
R32  4, R42  1 ~ 
0 0 33 22
 
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
 1 0 0 
 1 0
C3   ~ 
 33  0 0 1 22
 
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 I 0
C43  22  ~   3 , rank of A  3.
0 0 1 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0
38
 2 1 - 3 - 6
A  3 - 3 1 2 
1 1 1 2 
 2 1 - 3 - 6
Solution: A  3 - 3 1 2 

1 1 1 2 
1 1 1 2 

R21  3, R31  2 ~ 0 - 6 - 2 - 4 
0  1  5  10
1 0 0 0 

C21  1, C31  1, C41  2 ~ 0 - 6 - 2 - 4 
0  1  5  10
1 0 0 0 
R2  1, R3  1 ~ 0 6 2 4 
0 1 5 10
1 0 0 0 
R23 ~ 0 1 5 10
0 6 2 4 
1 0 0 0 
R32  6 ~ 0 1 5 10 
0 0  28  56
1 0 0 0 

C32  5, C42  10  ~ 0 1 0 0 
0 0  28  56
1 0 0 0
 1  
R3    ~ 0 1 0 0
 28 
0 0 1 2
39
1 0 0 0
C43  2 ~ 0 1 0 0  I 3 0, rank of A  3.
0 0 1 0
For an m n matrix A, to find square matrices P and Q of orders m and n

respectively, such that PAQ is in the normal form
Example 1: Find the non-singular matrices P and Q such that the normal form of A is PAQ
1 3 6 - 1
where A  1 4 5 1 
 
1 5 4 3 
Hence find the rank
Solution: Consider A3X4 = I 3X3 A 3X4 I4X4
1 3 6 - 1 1 0 0
1 4 5 1   0 1 0 AI
    4
1 5 4 3  0 0 1
1 3 6 - 1  1 0 0
R21  1, R31 (1), pre0 1 - 1 2   - 1 1 0 AI 4
0 2  2 4  - 1 0 1
1 3 6 - 1  1 0 0
R32  2, pre0 1 - 1 2   - 1 1 0 AI 4
0 0 0 0   1  2 1
1  3  6 1
1 0 0 0  1 0 0 
0
C21  3, C31  6, C41 1post 0 1 - 1 2  - 1 1 0 A 
0 1 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0  1  2 1  
0 0 0 1
40
1  3  9 7 
1 0 0 0  1 0 0 
1  2
C32 1, C42  2post 0 1 0 0  - 1 1 0 A 
0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0  1  2 1  
0 0 0 1
Thus I2=PAQ where
1  3  9 7 
 1 0 0 0 1 1  2
P  - 1 1 0 , Q   , Rank of A  2.
0 0 1 0
 1  2 1  
0 0 0 1
Example 2: Find the non-singular matrices P and Q such that the normal form of A is PAQ where
1  1  1
A  1 1 1  .Hence find the rank
3 1 1 
1  1  1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1   0 1 0 A 0 1 0
     
3 1 1  0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
C21 1, C31 (1), post 1 2 2  0 1 0 A 0 1 0
3 4 4 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0  1 0 0 1 1 1
R21  1, R31 (3), pre0 2 2   - 1 1 0 A 0 1 0
0 4 4 - 3 0 1 0 0 1
 
1 0 0 1 0 0  1 1 1
1  1 
R2  , R3 ( ), pre0 1 1 0  A 0 1 0
1 1
 -
2 4  2 2 
0 1 1 1  0 0 1
-3 0
 4 4 
41
 
1 0 0 1 0 0  1 1 1
 1 
R32  1, pre0 1 1 0  A 0 1 0
1
 -
0 0 0  2 2 
 -1 1 1  0 0 1
-
 4 2 4 
 
 1 0 0  1 0 0  1 1 0 
 1 

C32  1, post 0 1 0  - 0  A 0 1 - 1
1
0 0 0  - 1 
2 2
 1 1  0 0 1 
-
 4 2 4 
I 2 0 
Thus the L.H.S is in the normal form  .Hence Rank of A  2
0 0 
Thus I2=PAQ where
 
1 0 0 1 1 0 
 1 
0  , Q  0 1 - 1 , Rank of A  2.
1
P  -
 2 2  0 0 1 
 -1 -
1 1
 4 2 4 
1 1 2 
A  1 2 3  .Hence find the rank.
0  1  1
1 1 2  1 0 0 1 0 0
1 2 3   0 1 0 A 0 1 0
     
0  1  1 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0  1 0 0 1 - 1 - 2
C21  1, C31 (2), post 1 1 1   0 1 0 A 0 1 0 
0  1  1 0 0 1 0 0 1 
42
1 0 0   1 0 0 1 - 1 - 2
R21  1, pre0 1 1   - 1 1 0 A 0 1 0 
0  1  1  0 0 1 0 0 1 
1 0 0  1 0 0 1 - 1 - 1
C32  1, post 0 1 0  - 1 1 0 A 0 1 - 1
0  1 0  0 0 1 0 0 1 
1 0 0  1 0 0 1 - 1 - 1
R32 1, pre0 1 0  - 1 1 0 A 0 1 - 1
0 0 0 - 1 1 0 0 0 1 
I 2 0 
Thus the L.H.S is in the normal form  .Hence Rank of A  2
0 0 
Thus I2=PAQ where
 1 0 0 1 - 1 - 1
 
P  - 1 1 0 , Q  0 1 - 1 , Rank of A  2.
- 1 1 0 0 0 1 
 3  3 4
A  2  3 4 .Hence find the rank .Also find A-1.
0  1 1
 3  3 4 1 0 0 1 0 0
 2  3 4  0 1 0 A 0 1 0
 
0  1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 - 1 0 1 0 0
R12  1, pre2  3 4  0 1 0 A 0 1 0
0  1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0  1 - 1 0 1 0 0
R21  2, pre0  3 4  - 2 3 0 A 0 1 0
0  1 1  0 0 1 0 0 1
43
1 0 0  1 - 1 0  1 0 0
R23  4, pre0 1 0  - 2 3 - 4 A 0 1 0
0  1 1  0 0 1  0 0 1
1 0 0  1 - 1 0  1 0 0
C23 1, post 0 1 0  - 2 3 - 4 A 0 1 0
0 0 1  0 0 1  0 1 1
Thus the L.H.S is in the normal form I 3  .Hence Rank of A  3.
Thus I3=PAQ where
 1 -1 0  1 0 0
 
P  - 2 3 - 4 , Q  0 1 0 , Rank of A  3.
 0 0 1  0 1 1
Now, PAQ=I
Pre-multiplying by P-1,
P-1PAQ= P-1
AQ= P-1
Post-multiplying by P, Since P-1P= I
AQP = I
Pre-multiplying by A-1
QP = A-1
1 0 0  1 - 1 0   1 - 1 0 
⸫ A   0 1 0   - 2 3 - 4   - 2 3 - 4  .
1
     
0 1 1  0 0 1  - 2 3  3
Practice Questions:
(1)Find the rank of the following matrices by reducing it to Echelon form:
1  3 1 2 
(i) A  0 1 2 3  Ans : 3
3 4 1  2
44
1 2 3 4 5 
(ii) A  2 3 4 5 1 Ans : 2
5 8 11 14 7
3 4 1 1
2 4 3 6 
(iii) A Ans : 4
 1  2 6 4 
 
 1  1 2  3
1 2 3 1 
(iv) A  2 4 6 2 Ans : 2
1 2 3 2
(2) Find the rank of the following matrices by reducing it to normal
form(or canonical form) :
1 2  1 3
4 1 2 1
(i) A   Ans : 3
3  1 1 2
 
1 2 0 1
1 2 3 2 
(ii) A  2 3 5 1  Ans : 2
 
1 3 4 5
2 1 3

(iii) A  4 7 13  Ans : 2
 
4  3  1
0 1 2  2
(iv) A  4 0 2 6  Ans : 2
 
2 1 3 1 
(3)Determine the non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ is in the normal
form for A. Hence find the rank of A.
1 1 2   1 0 0 1  1  1
A  1 2 3  Ans : P   1 1 0Q  0 1  1 ; rankA  2
 
1
0  1  1  1 1 1 0 0 1 
45
    1
 1 0 1 1 0
2
1  1  1 2  0 
2  2  1 3
A  4 2 2  1
1
Ans : P    Q  0 1 1  ; rankA  3
 3 6 2  2
2 2 0  2
 1 1  1 0 0 0 1
 3 2  0 0 
3  0 1
1 4 9 9 
3 2  1 5  0 0 1   7 119 217 
  0 1 7  1 7  1 7 
A  5 1 4  2 
3 
Ans : P   0 1 5 Q    ; rankA  2
1  4 11  19  1  13 1 3  0 0  117 0 
 2 3 6   1 
0 0 0
31 
4
 1 1 1 
0 
1 0
1  1 2  1 
0
  2
 1  Q  0 1 1
A  4 2  1 2  2  ; rankA  3
3
Ans : P   2 1

2 2  2 0   1 3 6 2
1  1  0 0 0 1 
 3 2 0
3 0 1 0 
 0 1  1 4 0
 2 1  3  6 1   0 1  5 0 
0
 
A  3  3 1 2  Ans : P    1 0 2 Q   ; rankA  3
 3  0 0 1  2 
5 1 1 1 2  1 9  
 14 28 28 0 0 0 1 
1.15 Solution of System of Linear Equations

Consider the system of linear equations in three unknown
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1 

a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d 2 3 equations in 3 unknowns
a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  d3 
In matrix notation, these equations can be written as
 a1 x  b1 y  c1 z1   d1 
a x  b y  c z   d 
 2 2 2   2
 a3 x  b3 y  c3 z   d 3 
46
 a1 b1 c1   x   d1 
or a2 b2 c2   y   d 2 
 a3 b3 c3   z   d3 
or AX  B
 a1 b1 c1   x
 
c2  is called the co-efficient matrix, X   y  is the column matrix of
where A  a2 b2

 a3 b3 c3   z 
 d1 
 
unknowns, B  d 2 is the column matrix of constants.
 
 d 3 
HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
If all constants d1  d 2  d3  0 ,then B  0 and the matrix equation AX  B reduces to

AX  0 .
Such a system of equations is called a system of homogeneous linear equations.
NON-HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
If at least one of constants d1 , d 2 , d 3 is non-zero, then B  0. Such a system of equations is

called a system of non-homogeneous linear equations.
Augmented matrix
The matrix A : B  in which the elements of A (coefficient matrix) and B (Column matrix of
constant) are written side by side is called the augmented matrix.
Example: Consider the system of linear equation
a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1 

a2 x  b2 y  c2 z  d 2 3 equations in 3 unknowns
a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  d3 
 a1 b1 c1 : d1 
 : d 2 
Augmented matrix A : B   a2 b2 c2
 a3 b3 c3 : d3 
FOR A SYSTEM OF NON-HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR EQUATION AX  B
47
(1) Solving the matrix equation AX  B means finding X , i.e., finding a column matrix
   x   
     
  such that X   y      . Then x   , y   , z   .
    z    
(2)The matrix equation AX  B need not always have a solution .It may have no solution or a
unique solution or an infinite number of solutions.
(3) A system of equations having no solution is called an inconsistent system of equations.
(4) A system of equations having one or more solution is called a consistent system of
equations.
FOR A SYSTEM OF HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR EQUATION AX  0.
(1) X= 0 is always a solution .This solution in which each unknown has the value zero is
called the Null Solution or the Trivial Solution. Thus a homogeneous system is
always consistent. A system of homogeneous linear equation has either the trivial
solution or an infinite number of solutions.
(2) If rank (A) = number of unknowns,the system has only the trivial solution.
(3) If rank(A) < number of unknowns,the system has an infinite number of non-trivial
solutions.
Example1: Examine the following equations for consistency and if consistent, find the complete
Solution.
x  y  z  3  0,3x  y  2z  2  0,2 x  4 y  7 z  7  0.
Solution: Here
x  y  z  3
3x  y  2 z  2
48
2 x  4 y  7 z  7.
The matrix equation AX=B is given by

1 1 1   x    3
3 1  2  y    2

2 4 7   z   7 
1 1 1 : 3
A : B  3 1  2 : 2
2 4 7 : 7 
1 1 1 : 3
R21  3, R31  2 ~ 0 2  5 : 7 
0 2 5 : 13 
1 1 1 : 3
R32 1 ~ 0 2  5 : 7 
0 0 0 : 20
1 1 1 : 3 
 1  1   5 :7 
R2   , R3  ~ 0 1
 2   20   2 2
0 0 0 : 1 
Which is in Echelon form.⸫ Rank of [A:B] =3.
Now deleting the last column from the Echelon form of [A:B],we have
1 1 1 
 5 
Echelon form of A= 0 1
2
0 0 0 
Rank of A= 2= Number of non zero rows
⸫ Rank of [A:B] =3≠ Rank of A=2.
Hence the given systems are inconsistent.
Example2: Test the consistency and hence solve the following system of equations:
x  2 y  z  2,3x  y  2 z  1,4 x  3 y  z  3,2 x  4 y  2 z  4.
49
Solution: The matrix equation AX=B is given by
 1 3 2 
A   3 3  1
1
 2  1 0  (1)
1 2 1 : 2
3 1  2 : 1
A : B  
4  3  1 : 3
 
2 4 2 : 4
1 2 1 2
:
0  5  5 :  5
R21  3, R31  4, R41  2 ~ 
0  11  5 :  5
 
0 0 0 : 0
1 2 2 1 :
0  5  5 :  5
R32  1 ~ 
0 6 0 : 0 
 
0 0 0 : 0
1 2 1 : 2
 
  1    1  0 1 1 : 1 
R2  , R3  ~
 5   6  0 1 0 : 0 
 
0 0 0 : 0 
Which is in Echelon form.
⸫ Rank of [A:B] =3=Rank of A=Number of unknowns.
The given systems of equations are consistent and have a unique solution. Hence equation (1) can
be written as
1 2 1  2
0  
1   1
x
 1
y 
0 1 0   0 
  z   
0 0 0   0 
 x  2 y  z  2, y  z  1, y  0.
Solving x  1, y  0, z  1.
50
Example 3: Examine the following equations for consistency and if consistent, find the complete
Solution.
x  2 y  z  3,3x  y  2 z  1,2 x  2 y  3z  2.
Solution : The matrix equation AX=B is given by
1 2  1  x  3
3 1 2   y   1
 (1)
2 2 3   z  2
1 2  1: 3
 A : B  3 1 2 : 1
2 2 3 : 2
1 2 1 : 3 
R21  3, R31  2 ~ 0 7 5 : 8
0 6 5 : 4
1 2 1 : 3 
R23  1 ~ 0 1 0 : 4
0 6 5 : 4
1 2 1 : 3 
R32  6  ~ 0  1 0 : 4
0 0 5 : 20 
1 2  1: 3
1 
R2  1, R3   ~ 0 1 0 : 4 Which is in Echelon form.
5
0 0 1 : 4
⸫ Rank of [A:B] =3=Rank of A=Number of unknowns.
The given systems of equations are consistent and have a unique solution. Hence equation (1) can
be written as
1 2  1  x  3
0 1 0   y   4

0 0 1   z  4
 x  2 y  z  3, y  4, z  4.
Solving x  1, y  4, z  4.
51
Example 4: Prove that the following equations are consistent and solve
2x  4 y  z  9,3x  y  5z  5,8x  2 y  9z  19.
2 4  1  x   9 
3  1 5   y    5 
(1)

8 2 9   z  19
2 4  1 : 9 
 A : B  3  1 5 : 5 
8 2 9 : 19
2 4 1 : 9 

R21  1, R31  4 ~ 1  5 6 : 4 
0  14 13 : 17 
1  5 6 : 4 

R12 ~ 2 0  1 : 9 
0  14 13 : 17 
1 5 6 : 4 
R21  2 ~ 0 14  13 : 17 
0  14 13 : 17 
1 5 6 : 4
R32 1 ~ 0 14  13 : 17 
0 0 0 : 0 
1 5 6 : 4 
R2 1  
~ 0
14 
1  13 : 17 
14 14
0 0 0 : 0 
which is in Echelon form.⸫ Rank of [A:B] =2=Rank of A < Number of unknowns.
⸫ The given equations are consistent and have infinite many solutions. The equations (1)
becomes
1 5 6  x   4 
0 1  13   y   17 
 14    14
0 0 0   z   0 
52

 x  5 y  6 z  4, y  13 z  17 .
14 14

Taking z  k (arbitrary value) x   19k  29  / 14, y  13k  17  / 14, z  k .
Example 5:
Prove that what values of ,  the equations
x  y  z  6, x  2 y  3z  10, x  2 y  z  
Have (i) no solution (ii) a unique solution (iii) infinite many solutions.
1 1 1 x  6 
1 2 3   y   10
 (1)
1 2    z    
1 1 1 :6 
 A : B  1 2 3 : 10
1 2  :  
1 1 1 :6 
R 21  1, R32  1 ~ 0 1 2 : 4 
0 0   3:   10
Now consider the following cases:
Case I. If   3 ,then Rank of A = Rank of [A:B]=3=Number of unknowns.
Hence in this case the equations are consistent and will have a unique solution.
Case II. If   3,   10 ,then Rank of A = Rank of [A:B]= 2 < 3 (Number of unknowns).
Hence in this case the equations are consistent and will have infinite many solutions.
Case III. If   3,   10 ,then Rank of A = 2,Rank of [A:B]= 3. Therefore ,Rank of A≠ Rank

of [A:B].
Hence in this case the equations are inconsistent and have no solution.
Example 6:
Prove that what values of ,  the equations
x  y  z  1, x  2 y  4 z   , x  4 y  10 z  2
53
Have a solution and solve completely in each case.
1 1 1   x   1 
1 2 4   y     
     (1)
1 4 10  z  2 
1 1 1 : 1 
 A : B  1 2 4 :  
1 4 10 : 2 
1 1 1 : 1 
R21  1, R31  1 ~ 0 1 3 :   1 
0 3 9 : 2  1
1 1 1 :1 
R32  3 ~ 0 1 3 :   1 
0 0 0 : 2  3  2
Deleting the last column of matrix [A: B] clearly rank of A=2,Therefore the equations are
consistent if the rank of the augmented matrix [A:B] is also 2.
 2  3  2  0    1,2
Thus the equations have infinite many solutions when   1 or   2 .
Case I. When   1 , then equation (1) is given by
1 1 1  x  1
0 1 3  y   0

0 0 0  z  0
 x  y  z  1, y  3z  0
 If z  k , then x  2k  1, y  3k.
Case II. When   2 , then equation (1) is given by
1 1 1  x  1
0 1 3  y   1

0 0 0  z  0
 x  y  z  1, y  3z  1
54
 If z  k , then x  2k , y  3k  1.
Example 7: Solve the following system of equations :

3x  y  z  0,15x  6 y  5z  0,5x  2 y  2 z  0.
Solution: The given system of equations is homogeneous and hence it is consistent.
 3 1 1   x 

AX   15 6  5  y   0.
 5  2 2   z 
 3 1 1 

A   15 6  5
 5  2 2 
 3  1 1
R21 5, R31  2 ~  0 1 0
 1 0 0
3  1 1 
R3  1 ~ 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
R13 ~ 0 1 0
3  1 1
1 0 0
R31  3 ~ 0 1 0
0  1 1
1 0 0 
R32 1 ~ 0 1 0
0 0 1
Hence Rank of A=3=Number of unknowns.
Hence the system of equations have Trivial solutions which is x  y  z  0.
Example 8: Solve the following system of equations :

2w  3x  y  z  0,4w  6 x  2 y  2 z  0,6w  12 x  3 y  4 z  0.
55
Solution: The given system of equations is homogeneous and hence it is consistent.
 w
 2 3 1  1  
 2     0.
x
Here AX   4 6 2
 y (1)
 6 12 3  4  
z
 2 3 1  1
A   4 6 2 2 
 6 12 3  4
2 3  1  1
R21  2, R31 3 ~ 0  12 0 4 
0 21 0  7
2 3  1  1
 1 1 
R2   , R3   ~ 0 3 0  1
 4 7
0 3 0  1
⸫ Rank of A=2 < Number of unknowns,(n=4).
The system of equations is consistent and have infinite many solutions.
Here n-rank of A = 4-2=2.
Hence arbitrary values will be given to two unknowns.
 w
2 3  1  1  
 0  1    0.
x
Now equation (1) becomes AX  0 3
 y
0 0 0 0   
z
 2w  3x  y  z  0,3x  z  0
1 1
 If y  k1 , z  k 2 , then x  k 2 , w  k1 .
3 2
Example 9: Show that the equations :
 2 x  y  z  a, x  2 y  z  b, x  y  2 z  c.
56
Have no solution unless a  b  c  0 in which case they have infinitely many solutions. Find
the solutions when a  1, b  1, c  2.
 2 1 1   x  a 
1 2 1   y   b 
 (1)
 1 1  2  z   c 
 2 1 1 : a

 A : B   1  2 1 : b 
 1 1  2 : c 
 1  1 2 : a  b 
R12 1, R13 ~  1  2 1 : b 
 1 1  2 : c 
0 0 0 : a  b  c
R13 1, R23  1 ~ 0  3 3 : b  c 
1 1  2 :c 
1 1 2 :c
 1  
R13 , R2  1
c  b 

 ~ 0 1 : 
 3   3
0 0 0 : a  b  c 
Deleting the last column of augmented matrix [A:B],clearly the rank of A=2.Therefore ,if the
given, system of equations have a solution then the rank of the augmented matrix must also be
2,which is possible only if a+b+c=0.
Hence the equations have no solution unless a+b+c=0.
When a+b+c=0, the matrix equation (1) reduces to
1 1  2  x   c 
0 1   
 1  y    c  b  
 3
0 0 0   z   0 
 x  y  2 z  c, y  z  c  b
3
 when a  1, b  1, c  2, we have x  y  2z  2 and y  z  1
 Taking z  k, we have y  k -1, x  -2 - k  1  2k i.e. x  k -1, y  k -1, z  k.
Since k is arbitrary, therefore, the given equations have infinite many solutions.
57
Example 10: Solve
x  2 y  3z  14,3x  y  2z  11,2x  3 y  z  11
Solution:
The matrix equation AX=B is given by

1 2 3  x  14
3 1 2  y   11
 (1)
2 3 1  z  11
1 3 : 14
2
A : B  3 2 : 11
1
2 1 : 11
3
1 2 3 : 14 
R21  3, R31  2 ~ 0  5  7 :  31
0  1  5 :  17 
1 2 3 : 14
R2  1, R3  1 ~ 0 5 7 : 31
0 1 5 : 17 
1 3 : 14
2
R23 ~ 0 5 : 17 
1
0 7 : 31
5
1 2 3 : 14 

R32  5 ~ 0 1 5 : 17 
0 0  18 :  54
1 2 3 : 14
R3  118 

~ 0 1 5 : 17  which is in Echelon form.
0 0 1 : 3 
Hence Rank of [A:B]=3=Rank of A =Number of unknowns.

The give equations are consistent and have a unique solution. Hence equation (1) can be
written as follows:
58
1 2 3  x  14
0 1 5  y   17 

0 0 1  z   3 
 x  2y  3z  14
y  5z  17
z3
Solving we get, x=1, y=2, z=3.
Practice Questions:
1 What will be the value of  . so that
 1x  3  1y  2z  0
 1x  4  2y    3z  0
2 x  3  1y  3  1z  0.
are consistent. For those value of  . find the values of x,y,z.
Ans:   0 , x  y  z  k ;   3, y  k1 , z  k 2 then x  -5k1  3k2 
2 Examine the following equations for consistency and if consistent, find the complete
solution:
5x  3 y  14 z  4; y  2z  1 : x  y  2z  0,2x  y  6z  2,
Ans: Inconsistent
3 Determine the values of a and b for which the system:

x  y  z  3, x  2 y  2z  6, x  ay  3z  b
Have (i) no solution (ii) a unique solution (iii) infinite number of solutions.
Ans (i) a=3,b≠9(ii) a≠3, b any value (iii) a=3,b=9.
4 Determine whether the following equations will have non- trivial solutions, if so solve them;
4x  2 y  z  3w  0;6x  3 y  4z  7w  0 : 2x  y  w  0.
Ans:x=(k1+k2)/2, y =k2,z=-k1,w=k1,where k1 and k2 are two are arbitrary constants.
5 Solve the system of equations

x  3 y  2z  0;2x  y  4z  0 : x 11y  14 z  0.
Ans: x=-10/7k, y=8/7k, z=k, where k is arbitrary.
6 Find the value of  . for which the equations

11-λ  x-4 y-7 z  0
7 x- λ  2  y-5 z  0
10 x- 4 y-6  λ z  0
possess a non-trivial solution., For these values of  . ,find the solution also.
59
Ans :   0,1,2
when   0, solution is k, k, k 
when   1, solution is k,-k,2k
when   2, solution is 2k, k,2k 
7 Investigate the values of  and  ,so that the equations

2x  3 y  5z  9,7 x  3 y  2z  8,2x  3 y  z  
have (a) no solution, (b) a unique solution and (c) an infinite number of solutions.
Ans : a   5 ,   9 (b)  5 ,  arbitrary (c)  5 ,   9
8 Verify that the following set of equations have a non-trivial solution:

x  3 y  2z  0,2x  y  4z  0, x 11y  14 z  0
9 Verify that the following system of equations has always a solution:
4x  3 y  z  0,3x  4 y  z  0, x  y  2z  0,5x  y  4z  0.
10 Solve the following system of equations:

x1  x2  2 x3  x4  5,2 x1  3x2  x3  2 x4  2,4 x1  5 x2  3x3  7.
Ans: No solution, system inconsistent
1.16 Linear Dependence and Independence of vectors

Let S = {X1, X2 ….Xn } be a set of vectors (row matrices or column matrices).
(A) X1,X2,……..Xn are said to be linearly dependent (L.D.) if

(i) X1,X2,……..Xn all are of the same order,
(ii) There exist n-scalars (or numbers) a1,a2,………,an not all of them zero (some of them
may be zero), such that
a1 X1+ a2X2+……+ an Xn= 0. …………………….(1)
If a1≠ 0, then transposing a1X1 to the other side and dividing by (-a1), the relation (1)may
be written as
X = b2X2+ b3X3+…….+ bnXn. …………………………………..(2)
The relation (2) shows that the vector X1 is a linear combination of the vectors X2,X3,….Xn .
(B) The vectors X1,X2,…………..Xn are said to be linearly independent (L.I) if every relation of
the form
a1 X1+ a2X2+……+ an Xn= 0.

a1=0,a2=0, ………..an=0 i.e., all the n scalars a1, a2……………an vanish.
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Example 1: Prove that the four vectors X 1  1,2,3, X 2  (1,0,0), X 3  (0,1,0), X 4  (0,0,1) are
linearly dependent. Find the relation between them.
Solution: Consider the vector (or matrix equation)
a1 X 1  a2 X 2  a3 X 3  a4 X 4  0
 a1 1,2,3  a2 1,0,0  a3 0,1,0  a4 0,0,1  0,0,0 (1)
a1  a2  0,2a1  a3  0,3a1  a4  0 (2)
Taking a1    0, we obtain from equations(2),
 a2   , a3  2 , a4  3
Hence the given vectors are linearly dependent. Putting the values of a1 , a 2 , a3 , a 4 in (1), we get
X 1  X 2  2X 3  3X 4  0
X 1  X 2  2 X 3  3 X 4  0 which is the required solution.
Example 2: Examine for linear dependence

X 1  2,1,3,0, X 2  (1,2,1,5), X 3  (1,3,2,7).
Solution: Consider the vector equation
a1 X 1  a2 X 2  a3 X 3  0
 a1 2,1,3,0  a2 1,2,1,5  a3 1,3,2,7   0,0,0,0 (1)
 2a1  a2  a3  0,-a1  2a2  3a3  0,3a1  a2  2a3  0,0a1  5a2  7a3  0 (2)
The system (2) of equations is homogeneous and so it is consistent. We have
2 1 3 0 
- 1 2   a1   
 3    0 
a2 
 3 -1 - 2    0 
   a3   
0 -5 - 7    0 
2 1 3
- 1 2 3 
Coefficient matrix A  
3 -1 - 2
 
0 -5 - 7
61
- 1 2 3
2 1 3 
R 12 ~ 
 3 - 1 - 2
 
 0 - 5 - 7
- 1 2 3
0 5 9 
R 21 2, R31 3 ~ 
0 5 7
 
0 -5 - 7
- 1 2 3
0 5 9 
R 43 1, R32  1 ~  . Rank of A  3  number of unknowns.
0 0 - 2
 
0 0 0
Hence the system (2) of equations has only trivial solution i.e. a1  0, a2  0, a3  0.
Hence the given vectors are linearly independent.
Example3: Find the value of  for which the vectors 1,2,  , 2,1,5 and 3,5,7  are
linearly dependent.
Solution: The given vectors will be linearly dependent if one vector can be expressed as a linear
combination of the remaining vectors. Let
1,2,    a1 2,1,5  a2 3,5,7  (1)

 1  2a1  3a2 (2)
 2  a1  5a2 (3)
   5a1  7a2 (4)
1 3
Solving (2) and (3); a1   , a 2  .
7 7
Putting for a1 and a2 in (4), we get

5 5
    3    .
7 14
Example 4: Test the following vectors (1,2,3),(3,-2,1),(1,-6,-5) for linear dependence:
Solution:
62
1 3 1 
Coefficient matrix, A  2  2  6

 
3 1  5
1 3 1

R21  2, R31  30  8  8
0  8  8
1 3 1

R32  1, 0  8  8  Rank of A  2( 3, number of vectors)
0 0 0 
Hence the given vectors are linearly dependent.
Practice Question
Test the following system of vectors for linear dependence. If dependent, establish the
relation between then:
1) X 1  1,1,1, X 2  (2,3,5), X 3  (2,1,4).
Ans: Linearly independent.
2) X 1  1,1,0,0, X 2  (0,1,1,0), X 3  (0,0,0,3).
Ans: Linearly independent.
3) X 1  1,0,2,1, X 2  (3,1,2,1), X 3  (4,6,2,4), X 4  (6,0,3,4).
Ans: Dependent, 2X1-6X2+X3-2X4=0.
4) X 1  1,1,1,1, X 2  (1,1,2,1), X 3  (3,1,0,1).
Ans: Dependent, 2X1+X2-X3=0
5) X 1  1,3,2, X 2  (1,7  8), X 3  (2,1,1).
Ans: Dependent,3X1+X2-2X3=0.
1.17 EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN VECTORS

Suppose A is 2  2 matrix and X is a non-zero vector such that AX is a scalar multiple of X say
AX=  X.
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Then geometrically each vector on the line through the origin determined by X gets mapped back
onto the same line under multiplication by A. The algebraic eigen value problem consists of
determination of such vectors X, known as eigen vectors, such scalars  , known as eigen values.
Thus the finding of non-zero vectors that get mapped into scalar multiples of themselves under a
linear operator are most important in the study of vibrations of beams, probability (Markov
process), Economics (Leontief model),genetics, quantum mechanics, population dynamics and
geometry. For example in a mechanical system, they represent the normal modes of vibration.
Eigen values
If A is a square matrix of order n, we can form the matrix A - I. where 
is a scalar and I is the unit matrix of order n.The determinant of this matrix equated to zero,i.e.,
a11   a12 ... a1n

a 21 a 22   ... a 2n
A - I  0 is called the characteristic equation of A.
... ... ... ...
a n1 a n2 ... a nn  
On expanding the determinant, the characteristic equation can be written as a polynomial
equation of degree n in
 of the form -1n n  k1n1  k2n2  ......... kn  0.
The roots of this equation are called characteristic roots or latent roots or eigenvalues of A.
Eigen vectors
Consider the linear transformation Y= AX (1)
that transforms the column vector X into the column vector Y. In practice, we are often required
to find those vectors X which transform into scalar multiples of themselves.
Let X be such a vector which transforms into X ( being a non - zero scalar)
According to the transformation (1).
Then Y  X (2)
From (1) and (2), AX  X  AX  IX  0   A  I X  0 (3)

This matrix equation gives n homogeneous linear equations
a11   x1  a12 x2  ..... a1n xn  0 
a21 x1  a22   x2  ...... a2 n xn  0 
 (4)

........................................................... 
an1 x1  an 2 x2  .............. ann   xn  0 
These equations will have a non-trivial solution only if the co-efficient matrix (5)
64
A  I  0
This equation is called Characteristic equation of the matrix A and has n roots
which are the Eigen values of A. Corresponding to each root of (5), the homogeneous
system (3) has a non-zero solution
 x1 
x 
X   2  which is called an Eigen vector or Latent vector.
 .. 
 
 xn 
Working Rule to obtain Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
(1)Firstly, solve the characteristic equation for Eigen values. If A is of nth order, the
number of Eigen values arte n or less than n(with repeated real roots or complex
conjugate pairs.
(2)For a specific Eigen value, solve the homogeneous system of equations.
(3)If all the n Eigen values of A are distinct, then there corresponds n distinct linearly
independent Eigenvectors.
(4)If Eigen value of A is repeated (twice or more), they may correspond one or more
several linearly independent vectors.
Properties of Eigen values and Eigen Vectors
1. There exists one and only one characteristic root corresponding to a characteristic
vector X of a square Matrix A.
2.  is a characteristic root of a square matrix A, if and only if there exists a

non-zero vector X such that AX  X .
3.  is a characteristic root of a square matrix A, then there exists more than one
characteristic vector corresponding to  .
4. The characteristic roots of a diagonal matrix are given by its diagonal elements.
5. The product of eigen values of a square matrix A of order n is equal to the

determinant of the matrix.
6. The matrices A and P-1AP both have the same characteristic roots where P is an
invertible matrix of the same order.
7. The characteristic roots of an idempotent matrix are either zero or unity.
65
8. A square matrix A and its transpose matrix AT have the same characteristic roots.
9. The characteristic roots of Hermitian matrix are real.

10. The characteristic roots of a real symmetric matrix are all real.
11. The characteristic roots of a skew Hermitian matrix are either purely imaginary or
zero.
12. The characteristic roots of a unitary matrix and orthogonal matrix are of unit
modulus.
Example 1:Calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvector for the matrix

5 4 
A .
1 2
Solution: Characteristic equation is given by A  I  0
5 4
 0  5   2     4  2  7  6  0
1 2
  1  6  0    1,6.
⸫ Eigen values of A are 1,6.
The eigen vector corresponding to eigen value   1 is given by
 A  I X 1  0   A  1I X 1  0
5   4   x1 
 0
 1 2     x2 
5  1 4   x1 
 0
 1 2  1  x2 
4 4  x1 
    0
1 1   x 2 
 1  1 1  x1 
R1   ~     0
 4  1 1  x2 
1 1  x1 
R21  1 ~     0
0 0  x2 
66
x1 x2
 x1  x2  0 or 
1 1
1
 X 1    is the eigenvecto r of A for the eigen valu e   1.
 1
 A  I X 2  0   A  6I X 2  0
5  6 4   x1   1 4   x1 
 1    0    0
 2  6  x2   1  4  x2 
 1 4  x1 
R21 1 ~     0
 0 0  x2 
x1 x2
This gives equation  x1  4 x2  0 or 4  1
 4
 X 2    is the eigen vector of A for the eigenvalue   6.
1 
Example 2: Calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvector for the matrix
 8 6 2 
A   6 7  4
 2  4 3 
8 6 2
 6 7    4  0  3  182  45  0     3  15  0    0,3,15
2  4 3
 A  I X 1  0   A  0I X 1  0
8  0  6 2   x1 

   6 7  0  4   x2   0
 2  4 3  0  x3 
0 10  10  x1 
 R13  4, R23 3 ~ 0  5 5   x2   0
2  4 3   x3 
2  4 3   x1 
 1  
 R13 , R2   ~ 0 1  1   x2   0
 5 
0 10  10  x3 
67
2  4 3   x1 
 R32  10 ~ 0 1  1  x2   0
0 0 0   x3 
 2 x1 - 4x 2  3x3  0, x2  x3  0
 x2  x3  k say 
 2 x1  4 x2  3x3  4k  3k  k
 1  1 
 2
Hence X1   1   2, is the eigen vector for   0.
 1   2
   

 A  I X 2  0   A  3I X 2  0
8  3  6 2   x1   5  6 2   x1 
   
   6 7  3  4   x2   0 or  6 4  4  x2   0
 2  4 3  3  x3   2  4 0   x3 
1 2 2   x1 

R13  2, R23 3 ~ 0  8  4  x2   0
2  4 0   x3 
1 2 2   x1 

R31  2 ~ 0  8  4  x2   0
0  8  4  x3 
1 2 2   x1 

R32  1 ~ 0  8  4  x2   0
0 0 0   x3 
x1  2 x2  2 x3  0,8 x2  4 x3  0
x2 x3
Hence  2 x  x    k say  x2  k , x3  2k.
1 2
2 3
 x1  2 x2  2 x3  2k  4k  2k
x1 x2 x
   3
2 1 2
2
 
Hence X 2   1 is the eigen vector of A for the eigenvalue   3.
 2
68
 A  I X 3  0   A  15I X 3  0
8  15  6 2   x1 

   6 7  15  4   x2   0
 2  4 3  15  x3 
 7  6 2   x1 
  6  8  4   x2   0
 2  4  12  x3 
1  22  46  x1 
R13 4, R23 30  20  40  x2   0
2  4  12   x3 
1  22  46  x1 
R31`  2 ~ 0  20  40  x2   0
0  40 80   x3 
1  22  46  x1 
R32` 2 ~ 0  20  40  x2   0
0 0 0   x3 
x1  22 x2  46 x3  0,20 x2  40 x3  0.
x2 x3
x2  2 x3    k  x2  2k , x3  k.
2 1
 x1  44k  46k  0  x1  2k.
x1 x2 x3
  
2 2 1
2
 X 3   2, is the eigen vector for   15.
 1 

3 1 4
A  0 2 6.
0 0 5
69
3 1 4
0 2 6  0  3   2   5     0    2,3,5
0 0 5
 A  I X 1  0   A  2I X 1  0
3  2 1 4   x1  1 1 4  x1 
 0 22   
6   x2   0 or 0 0 6  x2   0
 0 0 5  2  x3  0 0 3  x3 
1 1 4  x1 
R23  2 ~ 0 0 0  x2   0
0 0 3  x3 
1 1 4  x1 
R23 ~ 0 0 3  x2   0
0 0 0  x3 
 x1  x2  4 x3  0,3x3  0 or x3  0. x2   x1
1
 X 1   1, is the eigen vector for   2.
 0 
 A  I X 2  0   A  3I X 2  0
3  3 1 4   x1  0 1 4  x1 
 0 23   
6   x2   0 or 0  1 6  x2   0
 0 0 5  3  x3  0 0 2  x3 
 x2  4 x3  0, x2  6 x3  0 , 2x 3  0.
Solving these equations, we have
x3  0, x2  0, x1  1say
1
 X 2  0, is the eigen vector for   3.
0
 A  I  X 3  0   A  5 I  X 3  0
3  5 1 4   x1   2 1 4  x1 

 0 25 6   x2   0 or  0  3 6  x2   0
  
 0 0 5  5  x3   0 0 0  x3 
70
 2 x1  x2  4 x3  0,3x2  6 x3  0
Solving these equations, we have
x
x2  2 x3i.e., 2  3  k say
x
2 1
x2  2k , x3  k and 2x1  x2  4 x3  2k  4k  6k i.e.x1  3k
 3
 X 3  2, is the eigen vector for   5.
1

 1 2 2
A   0 2 1
 1 2 2
1  2 2
2 1  0  1     2  0    1,2,2
2
0
1 2 2
 A  I X 1  0   A 1I X 1  0
1  1 2 2   x1   0 2 2  x1 
   
  0 2  1 1   x2   0   0 1 1  x2   0
  1 2 2  1  x3   1 2 1  x3 
 0 0 0  x1 
 R12  2, R32  1 ~  0 1 1  x2   0
 1 1 0  x3 
 x2  x3  0 and  x1  x2  0
x1 x2 x3
  
1 1 1
1
Hence X1   1 , is the eigen vector for   1.
 1
71

 A  I X 2  0   A  2I X 2  0
1  2 2 2   x1   1 2 2  x1 

 0 22   
1   x2   0   0 0 1  x2   0
  1 2 2  2  x3   1 2 0  x3 
 0 0 0  x1 
 R13  1, R12  2 ~  0 0 1  x2   0
 1 2 0  x3 
The rank of coefficient matrix in above equation is 2. Hence arbitrary values will be
given to one variable i.e., equation has only one linearly independent solution.
Now above equation
 x3  0 and  x1  2 x2  0 (1)
If x 2  1, then (1) gives x1  2, x3  0.
 2
The the only eigen vector for   2 is X 2  1.
0
  2 2  3
A   2 1  6
  1  2 0 
2 2 3
2 1    6  0  3  2  21  45  0    3,3,5
1 2 
The eigen vector corresponding to eigen value   3 is given by
 A  I X 1  0   A  3I X 1  0
72
 1 2  3  x1 
  2 4  6  x2   0
 1  2 3   x3 
On solving, we get only one independent solution

 x1  2 x2  3x3  0
Let us suppose
x3  k1 , x2  k 2 then x1  3k1  2k 2
3k1  2k 2   3   2
   
Hence X1   k 2   k1 0  k 2  1 , are the eigen vector for   -3.
 k1  1  0 

 A  I X  0   A  5I X  0
 7 2  3  x1 
  2  4  6  x2   0
  1  2  5  x3 
On solving, we get
 x1  k , x2  2k , x 3  k3
1
Hence , eigen vector for   5 is X 2   2 .
 1
Practice Question:
1.Find the eigen values and eigenvector of the matrix Ans:4,6,
8  4  1 1 
2 2  1 ,  2
    
2.Find the eigen values and eigenvector of the matrix Ans:1,2,3
1 0  1
1 2 1  1  2   1 
   1,   1,  1 
2 2 3     
 0   2  2
73

2 1 1
1 2 1 1  1   1 
  1,  0 ,  1
0 0 1      
0  1  0 
 5  2 0
  2 6 2  2  2   1
   2,  1,  2 
 0 2 7      
 1   2   2 
1 2  3 Ans:4,110,10
5.For the matrix A= 0 3 2  ,find the eigenvalues of
0 0  2
3A3+5A2-6A+2I.
6.Find the eigen values and eigenvector of the matrix Ans:-2,3.6

1 1 3
1 5 1  1  1  1
   0 ,  1, 2
3 1 1      
 1   1  1
 3  7  5
2 4 3   3
 1
 1 2 2   
 1 
 3 10 5 
  2  3  4 5 1
   2 ,  1 
 3 5 7     
 3  2
9.Find the eigen values and eigenvector of the matrix Ans:-2,2,8
 6 2 2 
 2 3  1  1 1  2 
   0 , 2,  1
 2  1 3      
 2  0  1 
10. Find the eigen values and eigenvector of the matrix Ans:2,2,2
74
2 1 0 1 
0 2 1  0 
   
0 0 2 0 
1.18 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
Statement: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.

Note: 1) Cayley-Hamilton theorem gives another method for computing the inverse of a
square matrix. This method of finding inverse of a matrix A is most suitable for large
order matrix.
2)By using the Cayley- Hamilton theorem we can find 𝐴−2 provided 𝐴−1 is
known and hence 𝐴−3 ,𝐴−4 ,………………..etc.
Examples based on Cayley-Hamilton theorem:
Example-1:Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix [1 2

].
2 −1
Solution: The characteristic matrix of A is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0.
1−𝜆 2
| |=0
2 −1 − 𝜆
On simplification, (1 − 𝜆)(−1 − 𝜆) − 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆2 + 5 = 0
Now, To verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem we have to show that 𝐴2 + 5𝐼 = 𝑂 (1)
1 2 1 2 5 0
Now 𝐴2 = 𝐴. 𝐴 = [ ][ ]= [ ]
2 −1 2 −1 0 5
5 0 1 0 0 0
From equation (1), 𝐴2 − 5𝐼 = [ ] − 5[ ]=[ ]=𝑂
0 5 0 1 0 0
Hence, Cayley- Hamilton theorem is verified.
75
2 −1 1
Example-2:Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix 𝐴 = [−1 2 −1]. Hence
1 −1 2
compute 𝐴−1 .
2−𝜆 −1 1
i.e, | −1 2−𝜆 −1 | = 0
1 −1 2−𝜆
on simplification, 𝜆3 − 6𝜆2 + 9𝜆 − 4 = 0
To verify Cayley-Hamilton Theorem, We have to show that
𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 9𝐴 − 4𝐼 = 𝑂 (1)
2 −1 1 2 −1 1 6 −5 5
Now, 𝐴2 = 𝐴. 𝐴 = [−1 2 −1] [−1 2 −1] = [−5 6 −5]
1 −1 2 1 −1 2 5 −6 6
6 −5 5 2 −1 1 22 −22 −21
𝐴3 = 𝐴2 . 𝐴 = [−5 6 −5] [−1 2 −1] = [−21 22 −21]
5 −6 6 1 −1 2 21 −21 22
∴ 𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 9𝐴 − 4 𝐼
22 −22 −21 6 −5 5 2 −1 1
= [−21 22 −21] − 6 [−5 6 −5] + 9 [−1 2 −1]
21 −21 22 5 −6 6 1 −1 2
1 0 0
− 4 [ 0 1 0]
0 0 1
0 0 0
3 2
⇒ 𝐴 − 6𝐴 + 9𝐴 − 4𝐼 = [0 0 0] = 𝑂, Hence Cayley-Hamilton Theorem is verified.
0 0 0
Now for 𝐴−1 , Pre multiplying equation (1) by 𝐴−1 ,
We have,𝐴−1 (𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 9𝐴 − 4𝐼) = 𝐴−1 𝑂 = 𝑂
(𝐴2 − 6𝐴 + 9𝐼 − 4𝐼𝐴−1 ) = 𝑂
𝐴2 − 6𝐴 + 9𝐼 = 4𝐴−1
6 −5 5 2 −1 1 1 0 0 3 1 −1
⇒ 4𝐴−1 = [−5 6 −5] − 6 [−1 2 −1] + 9 [0 1 0 ] = [ 1 3 1]
5 −5 6 1 −1 2 0 0 1 −1 1 3
1 3 1 −1
𝐴−1 = [ 1 3 1]
4
−1 1 3
76
3 0 1
Example-3:Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix 𝐴 = [0 2 0].
0 0 1
3−𝜆 0 1
i.e, | 0 2−𝜆 0 |=0
0 0 1−𝜆
on simplification, 𝜆3 − 6𝜆2 + 11𝜆 − 6 = 0
verify Cayley-Hamilton Theorem, We have to show that 𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 11𝐴 − 6𝐼 =

𝑂 (1)
3 0 1 3 0 1 9 0 4
Now, 𝐴2 = 𝐴. 𝐴 = [0 2 0] [ 0 2 0] = [ 0 4 0]
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
9 0 4 3 0 1 27 0 13
and𝐴3 = 𝐴2 . 𝐴 = [0 4 0] [ 0 2 0] = [ 0 8 0]
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
27 0 13 9 0 4 3 0 1 1 0 0
3 2
∴ 𝐴 − 6𝐴 + 11𝐴 − 6𝐼 = [ 0 8 0 ] − 6 [0 4 0] + 11 [0 2 0] − 6 [0 1 0]
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0
⇒ 𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 11𝐴 − 6𝐼 = [0 0 0] = 𝑂, Hence Cayley-Hamilton Theorem is verified.
0 0 0
1 2 0
Example-4:Show that the matrix 𝐴 = [2 −1 0 ] satisfies its own characteristic equation
0 0 −1
and hence
or otherwise obtain 𝐴−2 .
Solution:The characteristic equation of the matrix A is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0.
1−𝜆 2 0
⇒| 2 −1 − 𝜆 0 |=0
0 0 −1 − 𝜆
On simplification, 𝜆3 + 𝜆2 − 5𝜆 − 5 = 0
According to Cayley- Hamilton theorem we have, 𝐴3 + 𝐴2 − 5𝐴 − 5𝐼 = 𝑂 (1)
1 2 0 1 2 0 5 0 0
Now, 𝐴2 = 𝐴. 𝐴=[2 −1 0 ] [2 −1 0 ] = [0 5 0]
0 0 −1 0 0 −1 0 0 1
77
5 0 0 1 2 0 5 10 0
𝐴3 = 𝐴2 . 𝐴=[0 5 ] [
0 2 −1 0 ] = [ 10 −5 0]
0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 −1
From equation (1),
5 10 0 5 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0
𝐴3 + 𝐴2 − 5𝐴 − 5𝐼 = [10 −5 0] + [0 5 0] − 5 [2 −1 0 ] − 5 [ 0 0 0]
0 0 −1 0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 1
0 0 0
= [0 0 0] = 𝑂
0 0 0
For 𝐴−2 ,now pre multiplying equation (1) by 𝐴−1
𝐴−1 (𝐴3 + 𝐴2 − 5𝐴 − 5𝐼) = 𝐴−1 𝑂 = 𝑂
⇒ 𝐴2 + 𝐴 − 5𝐼 − 5𝐴−1 = 𝑂 (2)
Again pre multiplying equation (2) by 𝐴−1 ,𝐴−1 (𝐴2 + 𝐴 − 5𝐼 − 5𝐴−1 ) = 𝐴−1 𝑂 = 𝑂
⇒ 5𝐴−2 = 𝐴 − 5𝐴−1 + 𝐼
⇒ 5𝐴−2 = 𝐴 − (𝐴2 + 𝐴 − 5𝐼) + 𝐼 = -𝐴2 + 6𝐼
5 0 0 1 0 0
⇒ 5𝐴−2 = − [0 5 0] + 6 [0 1 0]
0 0 1 0 0 1
−5 0 0 6 0 0 1 0 0
⇒ 5𝐴−2 = [ 0 −5 0 ] + [0 6 0] = [0 1 0]
0 0 −1 0 0 6 0 0 5
−2
1 1 0 0
⇒𝐴 = [0 1 0]
5
0 0 5
2 1 1
Example-5:Find the characteristic equation of the matrix 𝐴 = [0 1 0] and hence compute
1 1 2
𝐴 . Also find the matrix represented by 𝐴 − 5𝐴 + 7𝐴 − 3𝐴 + 𝐴4 − 5𝐴3 + 8𝐴2 − 2𝐴+I .
−1 8 7 6 5
2 1 1
Solution:Given matrix is 𝐴 = [0 1 0]
1 1 2
The Characteristic equation of A is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
78
2−𝜆 1 1
⇒| 0 1−𝜆 0 |=0
1 1 2−𝜆
On simplification,𝜆3 − 5𝜆2 + 7𝜆 − 3 = 0
Now, to verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem we have to show that
𝐴3 − 5𝐴2 + 7𝐴 − 3𝐼 = 𝑂 (1)
For 𝐴−1 , Pre multiplying equation 1) by 𝐴−1
𝐴−1 (𝐴3 − 5𝐴2 + 7𝐴 − 3𝐼) = 𝐴−1 𝑂
⇒ 𝐴2 − 5𝐴 + 7𝐼 − 3𝐴−1 = 𝑂
⇒ 3𝐴−1 = 𝐴2 − 5𝐴 + 7𝐼 (2)
2 1 1 2 1 1 5 4 4
Now, 𝐴2 = 𝐴. 𝐴 = [0 1 0] [ 0 1 0 ] = [ 0 1 0]
1 1 2 1 1 2 4 4 5
5 4 4 2 1 1 1 0 0
From equation (2), 3𝐴−1 = [0 1 0] − 5 [0 1 0] + 7 [0 1 0]
4 4 5 1 1 2 0 0 1
5 4 4 10 5 5 7 0 0 2 −1 −1
⇒ 3𝐴−1 = [0 1 0] − [ 0 5 0 ] + [ 0 7 0] = [ 0 3 0]
4 4 5 5 5 10 0 0 7 −1 −1 2
1 2 −1 −1
⇒ 𝐴−1 = [ 0 3 0]
3
−1 −1 2
Now, 𝐴8 − 5𝐴7 + 7𝐴6 − 3𝐴5 + 𝐴4 − 5𝐴3 + 8𝐴2 − 2𝐴+I
= 𝐴5 (𝐴3 − 5𝐴2 + 7𝐴 − 3𝐼) + 𝐴4 − 5𝐴3 + 8𝐴2 − 2𝐴+I
= 𝐴5 (𝑂) + 𝐴4 − 5𝐴3 + 8𝐴2 − 2𝐴+I .using equation (1)
= 𝐴4 − 5𝐴3 + 8𝐴2 − 2𝐴+I
= 𝐴4 − 5𝐴3 + 7𝐴2 − 3𝐴 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴+I
= 𝐴(𝐴3 − 5𝐴2 + 7𝐴 − 3𝐼)+𝐴2 + 𝐴+I
= 𝐴(𝑂)+𝐴2 + 𝐴+I , using equation (*1)
=𝐴2 + 𝐴+I
79
5 4 4 2 1 1 1 0 0
= [0 1 0]+[0 1 0] + [ 0 1 0]
4 4 5 1 1 2 0 0 0
8 5 5
= [0 3 0]
5 5 8
Practice Questions:
1. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix
2 2 1 1 0 −1
(i) 𝐴 = [0 1 −1 ] (𝑖𝑖)𝐴 = [ 0 5 4 ]
3 −1 1 −4 4 3
7 −1 3
2. Using Cayley- Hamilton theorem, find the inverse of 𝐴 = [6 1 4 ]
2 4 8
4 20 9
1
Ans:𝐴−1 = 130 [−42 50 −3 ]
20 −30 20
4 3 1
3. Using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem, find the inverse of 𝐴 = [2 1 −2]
1 2 1
5 −1 −7
1
Ans:𝐴−1 = 11 [−4 3 10 ]
3 −5 −2
4. If𝐴 = [ 1 2
], Use Cayley-Hamilton theorem to express 𝐴6 − 4𝐴5 + 8𝐴4 − 12𝐴3 + 14𝐴2 as
−1 3
a linear polynomial in A.
Ans:−4𝐴 + 5𝐼
1 2 −1
5. Given 𝐴 = [0 1 −1 ], find 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴, by using Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
3 −1 1
0 −1 −1
Ans:𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴 = [−3 4 1 ]
−3 7 1
1.19 Similarity Transformation:
80
Let A and B be any two square matrices of order ‘ n ‘.The matrix A is said to be similar to matrix
B if ∃a non- singular matrix M such that 𝐴 = 𝑀 −1 𝐵𝑀 (1)
Equation (1) is called a similarity transformation.
Note: Similar matrices have the same set of Eigen values. Thus both the matrices A and B have
the same value of the determinant.
1.20 Diagonalization of a matrix:

Let A be any square matrix of order ‘n’. The process of reduction of matrix A to a diagonal form
D is known as Diagonalization of matrix A.
If a matrix A is related to D such that𝐷 = 𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀(Similarity Transformation), then Matrix A

is reduced to the diagonal matrix D through the modal matrix M or (P). where D is known as the
spectral matrix of A.
To diagonalize the matrix A it is mandatory that matrix A must have n-linearly independent
vectors, and if it is so then a matrix M can be found such that 𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀 is a diagonal matrix D.
Note: The matrix B which diagonalizes A is called the modal matrix of A and which can be
obtained by grouping the Eigen vectors (suitably by choosing arbitrary constants as 1) of A into a
square matrix.
Examples based on Diagonalization of a matrix:

4 1
Example-1:Find a matrix M which diagonalizes the matrix𝐴 = [ ], verify 𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐷
2 3
where D is the diagonal matrix.
Solution: Given matrix is 𝐴 = [4 1]

2 3
The characteristic equation of A is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
4−𝜆 1
| |=0
2 3
On expanding the determinant,(4 − 𝜆)(3 − 𝜆) − 2=0
⇒ 𝜆2 − 7𝜆+10= 0 ⇒ 𝜆 = 2, 5
Now, we have to find the eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen values 𝜆1 = 2, 𝜆2 = 5
For 𝜆1 = 2 eigen vector 𝑋1 is given by 𝐴𝑋1 = 𝜆1 𝑋1 ⇒ (𝐴 − 𝜆1 𝐼)𝑋1 = 𝑂
81
4−2 1 𝑥1 0
[ ] [𝑥 ] = [ ]
2 3−2 2 0
2 1 𝑥1 0
⟹[ ] [𝑥 ] = [ ] ⟹ 𝐵𝑋1 = 𝑂
2 1 2 0
2 1 𝑅1
Where, 𝐵=[ ] , 𝑅1 →
2 1 2
1
∼ [1 2] , 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1
2 1
1
∼ [1 2] ∼ 𝐵
′
0 0
The equivalent system of equations is 𝐵′ 𝑋1 = 𝑂
1 1/2 𝑥1 0
[ ][ ] = [ ]
0 0 𝑥2 0
𝑥2
⟹ 𝑥1 + =0 (1)
2
Let 𝑥2 = 𝑘1 , from equation (1) we have 𝑥2 = −𝑘1 /2
𝑥1 −𝑘 /2 −𝑘1 1 1
∴ 𝑋1 = [𝑥 ] = [ 1 ] = [ ] = 𝑘′ [ ]
2 𝑘1 2 −2 −2
For 𝜆2 = 5 eigen vector 𝑋2 is given by 𝐴𝑋2 = 𝜆2 𝑋2 ⇒ (𝐴 − 𝜆2 𝐼)𝑋2 = 𝑂
4−5 1 𝑥1 0
[ ] [𝑥 ] = [ ]
2 3−5 2 0
−1 1 𝑥1 0
⟹[ ] [𝑥 ] = [ ] ⟹ 𝐶𝑋2 = 𝑂
2 −2 2 0
−1 1
Where, 𝐶=[ ] , 𝑅1 → −𝑅1
2 −2
1 −1
∼[ ] , 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1
2 −2
1 −1
∼[ ] ∼ 𝐶′
0 0
The equivalent system of equations is 𝐶 ′ 𝑋2 = 𝑂
1 −1 𝑥1 0
[ ][ ] = [ ]
0 0 𝑥2 0
⟹ 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 0 (2)
82
Let 𝑥2 = 𝑘2 , from equation (1) we have 𝑥1 = 𝑘2
𝑥1 𝑘 1
∴ 𝑋2 = [𝑥 ] = [ 2 ] = 𝑘2 [ ]
2 𝑘 2 1
On choosing 𝑘′ = 𝑘2 = 1
1 1
𝑋1 = [ ] , 𝑋2 = [ ]
−2 1
Now the Modal matrix of A is
1 1
𝑀= [ ]
−2 1
1 1 −1
And𝑀−1 = [ ]
3 2 1
1 1 −1 4 1 1 1 1 1 −1 2 5 2 0
𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀 = [ ][ ][ ] = 3[ ][ ]= [ ]=𝐷 Ans.
3 2 1 2 3 −2 1 2 1 −4 5 0 5
Example-2:Diagonalize the following matrix and obtain the modal matrix and 𝐴2
−1 1 2
Where 𝐴 = [ 0 −2 1 ]
0 0 −3
−1 1 2
Solution:Given matrix is 𝐴 = [ 0 −2 1 ]
0 0 −3
The characteristic equation of A is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼|=0
−1 − 𝜆 1 2
| 0 −2 − 𝜆 1 |=0
0 0 −3 − 𝜆
On expanding, (1 + 𝜆)(2 + 𝜆)(3 + 𝜆) = 0
⇒ 𝜆 = −1, −2, −3
Now,We have to find the eigen vectors of A corresponding to the eigen values
𝜆1 = −1, 𝜆2 = −2, 𝜆3 = −3
For 𝜆1 = −1, eigen vector 𝑋1 is given by 𝐴𝑋1 = 𝜆1 𝑋1 ⇒ (𝐴 − 𝜆1 𝐼)𝑋1 = 𝑂
−1 + 1 1 2 𝑥1 0
⇒[ 0 −2 + 1 𝑥
1 ] [ 2 ] = [0]
0 0 −3 + 1 𝑥3 0
83
0 1 2 𝑥1 0
⇒ [0 −1 1 ] [𝑥2 ] = [0]
0 0 −2 𝑥3 0
𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 0 (𝑖)
−𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0 (𝑖𝑖)
2𝑥3 = 0 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
⇒ 𝑥3 = 0
Put 𝑥3 = 0in equation (ii), we get 𝑥2 = 0
Let 𝑥1 = 𝑘1 ≠ 0
𝑥1 𝑘1 1
𝑥
Therefore,eigen vector 𝑋1 corresponding the eigen value 𝜆1 is 𝑋1 = [ 2 ] = [ 0 ] = 𝑘1 [0]
𝑥3 0 0
−1 + 2 1 2 𝑥1 0
⇒[ 0 −2 + 2 𝑥
1 ] [ 2 ] = [0]
0 0 −3 + 2 𝑥3 0
1 1 2 𝑥1 0
⇒ [0 0 1 ] [𝑥2 ] = [0] ⇒ 𝐵𝑋 = 𝑂
0 0 −1 𝑥3 0
1 1 2
Where ,𝐵 = [0 0 1 ], 𝑅3 = 𝑅3 + 𝑅2
0 0 −1
1 1 2
∽ [0 0 1](by reducing B in Echelon form)
0 0 0
Now, the equivalent system of equations is
1 1 2 𝑥1 0
[0 0 1] [𝑥2 ] = [0]
0 0 0 𝑥3 0
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 0 (𝑖)
𝑥3 = 0 (𝑖𝑖)
Put 𝑥3 = 0 in equation (i), we get𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 0
Let 𝑥2 = 𝑘2 , from𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 0
𝑥1 = −𝑘2
84
𝑥1 −𝑘2 −1
Therefore, eigen vector 𝑋2 corresponding the eigen value 𝜆2 is 𝑋2 = [𝑥2 ] = [ 𝑘2 ] = 𝑘2 [ 1 ]
𝑥3 0 0
−1 + 3 1 2 𝑥1 0
⇒[ 0 −2 + 3 1 ] [𝑥2 ] = [0]
0 0 −3 + 3 𝑥3 0
2 1 2 𝑥1 0
⇒ [0 1 1] [𝑥2 ] = [0]
0 0 0 𝑥3 0
2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 0 (𝑖)
𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0 (𝑖𝑖)
Let 𝑥3 = 𝑘3 , from equation (ii)
𝑥2 = −𝑘3
𝑘3
Put 𝑥3 = 𝑘3 , 𝑥2 = −𝑘3 in equation (i) we get 𝑥1 = − 2
Therefore, eigen vector 𝑋2 corresponding the eigen value 𝜆3 is

−𝑘3
𝑥1 −1 −1
2 𝑘
𝑋3 = [𝑥2 ] = [−𝑘3 ] = 23 [−2] = 𝑘 ′ [−2]
𝑥3 𝑘3 2 2
When 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = 𝑘 ′ = 1,
−1 −1 −1
𝑋1 = [ 0 ] , 𝑋1 = [ 1 ] , 𝑋1 = [−2]
0 0 2
Now Modal matrix of A is
1 −1 −1
𝑀 = [0 1 −2]
0 0 2
Now we have to find inverse of M
𝑀∼𝐼
1 −1 −1 1 0 0
⇒ [0 𝟏 −2] ∼ [0 1 0] ; 𝑅1 ⟶ 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
0 0 2 0 0 1
85
1 0 −3 1 1 0 𝑅3
⇒ [0 1 −2] ∼ [0 1 0] ; 𝑅3 ⟶
2
0 0 2 0 0 1
1 0 −3 1 1 0
⇒ [0 1 −2] ∼ [0 1 0 ] ; 𝑅1 ⟶ 𝑅1 + 3𝑅3 , 𝑅2 ⟶ 𝑅2 + 2𝑅3
0 0 𝟏 0 0 1/2
1 0 0 1 1 3/2
⇒ [0 1 0] ∼ [0 1 1 ]
0 0 1 0 0 1/2
1 1 3/2
−1
Therefore, 𝑀 = [0 1 1 ]
0 0 1/2
1 1 3/2 −1 1 2 1 −1 −1
Now, 𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀 = [0 1 1 ] [ 0 −2 1 ] [0 1 −2]
0 0 1/2 0 0 −3 0 0 2
−1 2 3 −1 0 0
= [ 0 −2 6 ] = [ 0 −2 0 ] = 𝐷 Ans.
0 0 −6 0 0 −3
Now,
𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐷
Pre multiplying equation (α)by𝑀 and post multiplying by 𝑀−1
𝑀(𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀)𝑀−1 = 𝑀𝐷𝑀−1
⇒ (𝑀𝑀−1 )𝐴(𝑀𝑀−1 ) = 𝑀𝐷𝑀−1
⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑀𝐷𝑀−1
Now,𝐴2 = 𝐴. 𝐴 = (𝑀𝐷𝑀−1 )(𝑀𝐷𝑀−1 ) = 𝑀𝐷(𝑀−1 𝑀)𝐷𝑀−1 = 𝑀𝐷(𝐼)𝐷𝑀−1 = 𝑀𝐷 2 𝑀−1
1 −1 −1 1 0 0 1 1 3/2 1 −1 −1 1 1 3/2
2
𝐴 = [0 1 −2] [0 4 0] [ 0 1 1 ] = [0 1 −2] [0 4 4 ]
0 0 2 0 0 9 0 0 1/2 0 0 2 0 0 9/2
1 −4 −7
𝐴2 = [0 4 −5] Ans.
0 0 9
Example-3:The eigen vectors of a 3 × 3 matrix a corresponding to the eigen values 1,1,3 are
[1,0. −1]′ , [0, 1. −1]′ and[1,1. 0]′ respectively. Find the matrix A.
Solution: Given eigen vectors of a 3 × 3 matrix are[1,0. −1]′, [0, 1. −1]′ and[1,1. 0]′
86
1 0 1
The modal matrix of A is 𝑀 = [ 0 1 1]
−1 −1 0
1 0 0
And 𝐷 = [0 1 0]
0 0 3
Now we have to find 𝑀−1 :
𝑀~𝐼
𝟏 0 1 1 0 0
[0 1 1 ] ~ [0 1 0] , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅1
−1 −1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 0
⇒ [0 𝟏 1] ~ [0 1 0] , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅2
0 −1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 𝑅3
⇒ [0 1 1] ~ [0 1 0] , 𝑅3 →
2
0 0 2 1 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 0
⇒ [0 1 1] ~ [1 1 1] , 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 𝑅3 , 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅3
0 0 𝟏
2 2 2
1 −1 −1
2 2 2
1 0 0 −1 1 −1
⇒ [0 1 0] ~
0 0 𝟏 2 2 2
1 1 1
[2 2 2]
1 −1 −1
2 2 2
−1 1 −1 1 1 −1 −1
⇒ 𝑀−1 = = [−1 1 −1]
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
1 1 1
[2 2 2]
We know that, 𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐷
Pre multiplying equation (α) by 𝑀 and post multiplying by 𝑀−1
𝑀(𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀)𝑀−1 = 𝑀𝐷𝑀−1
87
⇒ (𝑀𝑀−1 )𝐴(𝑀𝑀−1 ) = 𝑀𝐷𝑀−1
⇒ 𝐴 = 𝑀𝐷𝑀−1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 −1 −1
𝐴=[0 1 1] [ 0 1 0] [−1 1 −1]
2
−1 −1 0 0 0 3 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 −1 −1 2 1 1
1
⇒ 𝐴 = 2[ 0 1 1] [−1 1 −1] = [1 2 1] Ans,
−1 −1 0 3 3 3 0 0 1
Practice Questions:
9 −1 −9
1. Diagonalize the matrix 𝐴 = [ 3 −1 3 ] by, means of similarity transformation.
−7 1 −7
1 −6 −4
2. Diagonalize the matrix 𝐴 = [0 4 2 ]by ,means of similarity transformation.
0 −6 −3
3 1 −1
3. Show that the matrix 𝐴 = [−2 1 2 ]is diagonalizable. Hence, find P such that 𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃 is a
0 1 2
diagonal matrix.
3 5
4. Diagonalize the matrix𝐴 = [ ]
7 31
1 2 −2
5. If 𝐴 = [ 1 2 1 ], find the modal matrix P and resulting diagonal matrix D of A.
−1 −1 0
2 2 −2 2 0 0
Ans.𝑃 = [ 1 −1 1 ] , 𝐷 = [0 −1 0]
−1 1 1 0 0 1
88

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KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, DELHI NCR, GHAZIABAD

B. Tech. (I sem), 2020-21

SYLLABUS: Types of Matrices: Symmetric, Skew-symmetric and Orthogonal Matrices;

S.No MATRICES PAGE

 a11 a12 ... a1n 

Note: Matrix has no numerical value.

1.2 TYPES OF MATRICES

(b) Row Matrix

A matrix with only one row is called a row matrix.

Also, A  4 5 6 7 . It is a row matrix with 4 columns. So, it is a row matrix of type

(c) Column Matrix

A matrix with only one column is called a column matrix.

It is a column matrix with n rows. So, it is a column matrix of type n  1 .

It is a column matrix with 5 rows. So, it is a column matrix of type 5  1 .

(d) Diagonal Matrix

(e) Scalar Matrix

(f) Unit Matrix or Identity matrix

In general, In is the identity matrix of order n .

(g) Zero Matrix or Null matrix

are zero matrices of type 3 3 , 2  4 .

(h) Triangular Matrix

(i) Singular and Non-singular Matrices

A square matrix A is said to be singular if A  0 and non-singular if A  0.

(j) Orthogonal Matrix

A square matrix A is called an orthogonal matrix if AA  AA  I .

(k) Nilpotent matrix

A square matrix A is said to be nilpotent if A2  0.

It will be of index p if p is the least positive integer such that AP  0.

(l) Idempotent matrix

A square matrix A is idempotent if A  A.

(m) Involutary matrix

A square matrix A is said to be involuntary if A  I . where I is a unit matrix.

1.3 Basic Operations on Matrices

cij=aij-bij for all i, j .

We see that A and B are of type 2  3 and A  B is also of the type 2  3

(b) Scalar Multiplication of Matrices

Let A= [aij] be an m n matrix and k be a scalar. Then kA=[kaij].

a a12 a13   ka11 ka12 ka13 

Since A is of type 3 3 and B is of the type 3 2 , AB is defined and AB is of type 3 2 .

1 1 2 1 2 1.1  1.3  2.2 1.2  1.1  2.1  8 5

necessarily equal. That is , AB ≠BA, in general.So, matrix multiplication is not commutative.

Properties of Addition, Scalar Multiplication and Multiplication

1. If A, B, C are matrices of the same type, then

vii)  A   A for any scalars  ,  .

2. If A, B, C are conformable for multiplication, then

(i)   AB  AB  AB 

(ii) ABC    ABC

1.4: Transpose of a Matrix

Clearly, (i) If the order of A is m n then order of A is n  m.

(ii ) i, j  element of A   j , i  element of A.

Properties of Transpose of a Matrix

If Aand B  denote the transposes of A and B respectively, then

1.5: Symmetric Matrix

Theorem: Every square matrix can uniquely be expressed as the sum of a

Symmetric matrix and a Skew-symmetric matrix.

Proof : Let A be any square matrix.

 C is a skew - symmetric matrix.

Hence every square matrix A can be expressed as A= B+C, B 

A=P+Q ……….. (1)

is another such representation in which P is a symmetric matrix, and Q is a skew-symmetric