cHAPTER

Matrices, Determinants,
Inverse, Rank, Hermitian
6 and Skew-Hermitian
Matrices
ofMatrices,Inverseeof Matrix by Gauss-Jordan Method, Orthogonality, Rank of a
jpe Dependence and Independence of Vectors, Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian Matrices.
Linear Matrix,

DEFINITIONS ON MATRICES:
variety of applications, for example, in the solution of linear algebraic system of simultaneous
shave
strces
4JUstons,inthe
solution of ordinary and partial differential equations, etc.
matrixisa
rectangular. arrangement of(m xn) elements real or complex in mrows and n columns. Such a
A
usually denotedby
rNAis
a13
a23 d2n

A= -[a,] where i-1,2,., m; j=1, 2, ., n.

aml am2 am3 Omn

capital letters while corresponding small
niis said to be of order m x n. Matrices are generally denoted by under which a, is an element of
suffix notation
eters with suffices represent its elements. We have a double
row and j column in matrix A.
whereas ifone or more elements of the matrix
Ifall the elements of a matrix are real it is called a real matrix,
said to be a square matrix of order n.
ze Complex,it is called a complex matrix. If m=nthe matrix is
Row and Column Matrices:
a, a, ... a] is known as row matrix or
Amatrix may also have only one row or only one column. Thus, a,

vector of order n.
OW Vector of order n. while is known as column matrix or colunmn

Dagonal Matrix:
Masquare matrix Athe elements aj 2
form theleading diagonal (or principal diagonal). The sum
$diagonal elements, that is, aji is called the trace of the square matrix A.
i=l

251
 252

I1 all the clemcnts of a matrix are zero it is called null matrix

Advanced Engine ing
(,) arc said to be coual when they are of the same order and their Two matrices
IS,
called adiagonalImatrix. In other words, if a,, 0for all i j then A cor
b,. Further, a sQuarc matrix in which all the elements except those
is a
res p
in
ondi
the n
le
g
adin g
Scalar Matrix and Unit Matrix:
di agonal mat rix
mparticular, a diagonal matrix in which all the leading diagonal elements are
1,in adiagonal matrix all the clements in the leading diagonal are 1, i.e., if equal, is
a; = 0 for i j
= 1 for i j
it is called a unit matrix or Identity matrix of order n, and is denoted by I.
caledaCAa
Triangular Matrices:
Asquare matrix is called an upper triangular matrix if all its elements belowthe
if a,, =0 for i>j. Similarly, asquare matrix is called a lower triangular matrix if.
leading diagonal are zero, i.e. if a,,=0 for i<j.
leadinalg itsdiagonal :
[1 2 S 2 elements t
For example, the matrix0 3 4| is an upper triangular and 1 0 is a
lower
MATRIX OPERATIONS:
0 0 2 -3 4 0
tiangla
1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION: Two matrices of the same order can
be added
adding (or subtracting) their corresponding elements. For example, (or
subtrac:%
1 3 -2 |5 1 11 [3 8 -1
4 0 2+3 2 -1 =7 2 1 and
0 2 3 |4 1 2 |4 3

2. MULTIPLICATION OF AMATRIX BY A
its every element gets multiplied by k. SCALAR: When a matrix is multiplied by ascalar, say t
|1 2 -1 1 6 -3 3]
Thus, 3| 4 -1 3 6=|12 -3 18
0 5 2 4 15 6 12
Further, if A, B, Care any three matrices of same order then
the following properties hold g
() A+(B +C)=(A+ B) +C
(ii) A+B=B+A (Commutativity (Associativity of addition)
of addition)
(iii) k(A+ B) =kA+ kB, k being scalar (distributivity of addition with respect tto ascalar)
3. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION: Two matrices Aand B can be multiplied: as A. Bonlywhenthen
of columns in A is equal to the conditionforthep
AB to exist. Thus, the product number of rows inA(l×
AB ofmatrices B. This is known
m) and B(p xn)as can exist only when pm.Suchm
compatibility
are also called
conformable, and the product matrix C(=AB) Would be of order I*
 aces
LDelemind

Wewrite C=(G) where c; =4,, bt a b,t.. t a,m

kl

P2
b C
91 92
For
example,
b
CA
|a4
productAB, the matrix A issaid to be post- multipliedbythematrix B and the matrix B is said
Inthe by A. In general, AB# BA; in other words, the matrices AB and BA are not necessarily
ifthey are conformable.
thennit does notimply that either A=0 or B=0.
IfAB=0
0| and B = 0 0] 0 0
and BA=
0
#AB.
A then AB=
example,let 0 a b ax +by 0
For
matriX multiplicationis nott necessarily
commutative.
Thus, apply here.
fAB=AC, it does not alwaysimply that B=C, that is, cancellation law does not
Furtherif
said
DefineeA=AxA
x,. xA (ktimes). Then, a matrix A, suchthat A=0 for some positive integer k, is
value of kfor which A=0, is called the index of nilpotency ofthe matrix A.
nilpotent.The,smallest
phe
then Ais called an IDEMPOTENTMATRIX.
Also,ifA=A,
Somemore Properties on Matrix Multiplication
matrices of orders m Xn, n XP,p Xqrespectively, then (AB)C=A(BC) isa matrix of order
1IÍA. B,
C are
mXq(associative property)
a matrix of order n xp, then
2 If Ais a matrix oforder m Xn and B is
a(AB) =A(aB) = (aA) B for any scalar oa.
order n xp, then
Care matrices of
3. If A is a matrix of order m Xn and B,
A(B +C)=AB +AC(distributive property).
MATRIX: A matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of a matrix A
4,TRANSPOSE OF A
is denoted by by A' or byA'. Thus, if A is of order m xn, its transpose
sdefined as the transpose of A and
A'will be oforder n x m.
Some properties on transpose of matrices: matrix is a row matrix.
The transpose ofa row matrix is column matrix and the transpose ofa column
a
I.
2. (A')'=A or we could write (AY =A.
for addition.
3. (A+B)'=A'+B provided A and B are compatible
4 (AB)' -B'A if A and B are compatible for multiplication.
SYMMETRICAND SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRICES:
A).
Areal matriX A=(a,) is said to be SYMMETRICif a, =a, for all iand j, that is, if A=A'(or
And Ais said to be SKEW-SYMMETRIC if all i,i, that is, ifA =-A' and a.,= 0.
for
0 2 -3|
[a
h
For matrix-2 0 -5 is skew-symmetric.
the matrixh b f is symmetric while the
example, 3 5 0
lg c
An i
TnatriixmporA-A"
tant is
deduction: For any real matrix A, the matrix A+A' is always symmetric whereas the
skew-symmetric.
254

Therefore, a real matrix Acan be

written as thc sum of asymmetric
Advanc
matrix and
ed Engine ing k

EXAMPLE 6.1. (a) For anytwosquare matrices Aand Bconformable for

askew-ym e
() (A+ B)'=A'+2 AB
them.
assertions true ? If not, correct
+B²
example that the matrix AB
(b) Show by means of an where 0 stands for the
multiplicnotation, are
(ii) (A+B)(A-B) =A'-R2
=0 does
he
either A=0 or B=0 null matrix.
SOLUTION: (a) () Not true, because BA#AB, in
The correct form is (A+ B)²=(A+ B) (A+ B)
=A+ AB+ BA + B²
general.
nec sS arly
should be
(7) Not true, because BAAB. The form
(A+B)(A-B) = A(A-B) + B(A-B) = A-AB + BA-B2

(b) Let
then AB= but A#0 and
B+0.
1 -2|
Any.
3
ExAMPLE 6.2. Express the matrix 2 1 7 as the sum of two
matrices, one
-4 5 3
symmetr
the other skew-symmetric.
3 1 -2 |3 2 -4
SoLUTION: Let A= 2 1 7 then A'= 1 1 5
-4 5 3 -2 7 3

Clearly A-4+4)+4-4) = =C+D

|3 3/2 -3 0 -1/2 1]
where C-(A
2 +A')=|3/2 1 6
and D-(A- A) =|1/2 1
-3 6 3 |-1 -1 0
Thus A =C+D where C is symmetric and D is skew-symmetric. Ans.

DETERMINANTS
With every square matrix of order n, we associate a determinant of order n, denoted by dat
an

det (A) = |A|=

a21 dgn

ann
Determinants should not be confused with square matrices because a matrix is simply an a
numbers while the determinate has numerical value. rowsa0U
of order 2 hasitwo
Now let us find ways to find the value of the determinant. Adeterminantt
a1 12
columns. Its value is given by |A|=
 255
Deeterminants,Inverse Renk, Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian Matrices
Matntes
MINORSA
AND COFACTORS;
suppress the th row and h column from
generallelement of a determinant |A| oforder n. Ifwe
a,, denoted by M, and the
bethe
deierminant, we get.a determinant of order (n- 1), called minor ofthe element
the oftheelement a, denoted by A is given by A,()"M determinant and
cofactor
expanda, determinant of order n through
the elements of any row or column of the
row (or h column) and their corresponding cofactors.
Wecan products of the elements of the
sum the
of
A/ by the elements of the " row, we have
the expand
is whenwe
Thus,

j=l j=l

expand det (A) through the elements of ; column, we get

if
And, we
n

i=l i=1

known as Laplace expansion of the determinant.

Thisis
PROPERTIESOFDETERMINANTS
remains
columns are interchanged the value of the determinant
the corresponding
rows and
If
1. |A/=|A.
unchanged,thatis interchanged, the value of the determinant is multiplied by (-).
(or columns) are
Ifanytworows elements oftworows (or columns)
corresponding
we can say that if the
Acaconsequence of this property
determinant is zero.
the value ofthe
are same,
column) are zero, then the value of thedeterminants is zero.
.1allthe elements of any row (or scalar a then the value of thedeterminant
becomes
column) is multiplied by a element of
lfeach element of anyrow (or here that when amatrix is multiplied by a scalar a thenevery
times its previous value. Note A|= a"A where A is a matrix of order n.
a. Heence row
the matrix gets multiplied by is added to the corresponding elements of someother
somerow (or column)
4 Ifa times the elements of thedeterminant remains unchanged.
(or column) then the value of triangular matrix is
matrix,or a lower triangular matrix or an upper
ofa diagonal
6 The value ofadeterminant elements.
times
the product ofits diagonal " row as R, and column as C. Atso, wher a
denote called
Further, it is standard practice to elements of row, it is denoted by R, ’ R,+ aR, This is
elements of row are added to the column operation.
operation C’C,+ aC, is called elementary
elementary rowoperation.Similarly, thecolumn) with their corresponding cofactors gives the value of the
correspond
row (or
1. The sum ofthe products ofany of theproducts of theelements of any row (or column) with the
determinant, whereas, the sum
column) is zero.
ing cofactors of anyother row (or
||A when i=j
Thus, a,j A, ta An t.. t ai,Ajn when i #j
|AB|=|A| B|.
matrices of thesame order then
OIIA and B are two square

EXAMPLE 6.3. Find the value of the determinant

-6 3
operations
12 -5 -9 using row operations or using column
2 4 -6
256 Advanced Engine ring tMalth
SoLUTION: Expanding |A| by column I,we get
-5 3

i=l
17 -5 -9
=-6(30+ 36)- 12(-18-28) +2(-27+ 35) =
CNpanding |A| by column 2, we get
3 |12 -9 -6 -6
4
i=1
12
=-3(-72+18) +5(36 14)4 (54-84) =172. Ans.
1 1 1
ExAMPLE 6.4 (a) Show that |A| = a cl =(a-b) (b-c) (c-a).
a?
[1 2 31 3 1
(b) Given the matrices A= 4 5 6 and B=|| -5 2| find
|7 -8 9| 7 1| the valu
JAB| and verify that |AB|=|A| |B|.

SoLUTION: (a) Applying the operations C,’C,-Cj and C;’C3-C on A|, we get
1 0 1
JA|= a b-a C-a -(b-a) (c-a) a 1 1
a b+a cta
1 1
=(b-a) (c- a) |b+a c+a
- (a-b) (b-c) (c- a). Ans.

2 3||3 2 11 8 13 87
(6) Here, AB= 4 6 1 -5 2=23 25 20
5
7 -8 9|| 1 7 1 |22 117 0
Expanding |AB| by R, we get |AB|=22(260-200) + 117 (184 160) =4128. Ans.
1 2 3

Next, |A| =4 S 6=1(45 +48)+ 2(4236) +3(-32-35)=-96

7 -8 9|
3 2 1|
and |B = -5 2 -3(-19)+2(1) +1(12) =-43
7 1 Henceverifiel
|A||B| =-96)(43) =4128
EXAMPLE 6.5. Without evaluating the determinant, show that
cos (x-a) cos (x-B) cos (x-Y)
D=cos (y-a) cos (y -B) cos (y - ) =0
cos (z -a) cos (z-B) cos (z -Y)|
 Inverse, Renk. Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian Matricos 257

all theterms,
wTOVandine we get
Sin r sin (Y cOs XCOs B + si x sin ß cos x c0s y +sinX sin ?
lcosxcOS a +
COS P COS a-+sin y sin x cOs y cOs B+ sin ysin ß cos y cos y +sin ysin 7
Sin z sin ¡ cOS Z COS B+ sin z sin B cos z coS y +sin z Sin 7
cos : cOS a +
Sinr 0 cOS a cos B cos y
lcos .
Sin 0xsin a sin B sin y =0x 0=0. Hence Proved.
=JcOS
SIN z 0 0 0

MATRIX: Let A be a square matrix of order n, then A0s called a singular matrix
,GlLAR,
non-singularif JA # 0.
and
AND
INVERSE OF ASQUARE MATRIX
NONT
be a square matrix of order n Xn, and the corresponding determinant be |A|.

a1 12

4/= ..

ann
lanl n2
in |A, then the adjoint of A, denoted by adj (A)
LeaAp.A3 . betheeco-factors ofis aj a12, 13
given by
cofactor matrix and
eoofthe
Tanspose
Aj| A12 An Aj1 A1 Anl
A21 A2 Agn =
Aj2 Ag2 An2
adj(A)=

Ani An2 Ann. Ajn A2n Ann.

[2 5 3
frexample, if A=|3 1 2
|1 2 1
3 2 3 1
A2
Ais =5,
2
hen
A =|2
l2 3 |2 5
5 3 A; =
2
Ag2
5 3 2 3
=5, A=
A= Ayg
|-3 -1 5 -3 1 7

adi (A) = 1 -1 1 -1 -1 5

5 -13| 1 -13
la Abe a n xn and B be another matrix of the same order
of order
non-singular matrix
is said to be INVERSE OF Aand is
denoted
BA=1=AB
Such th¡t AA-! = whereeI is the unit matrix of order n, then B

|=A-'A.
258
Advanced Enginesing
adj(A) whlchis unlque.
Therefore

Let us establish it. A1 Ani

: A A2

A. adj (A)=
annAn Azy Ann
0 0
IA 0 0 0 1 0
0 |A| 0
...

=|A|

0 |A| 0 0 0
0
by |A, we get
Since |A|0, dividing both sides A'-a(A)
adi(A) =|
A |A|
JA|
important result: (AB)= B'A which can be shown to be true as folloe.
An (BB-)A-=AIA-=AA=I
(AB)(B'A) = A IB=B'B=|
Similarty (B'A-)(AB) = (B(A'A)B =B-1
(ABC)-=C-B'A-1
Therefore, we have (AB = B'A and
In general (A,A, .A=A; ...AA
Orthogonal Matrix: An orthogonal matrix is one whose transpose 1S 1ts inverse. Thus, asquare m
is called orthogonal if AA-=|=A'A.
-2/3 1/3 2/3] -2/3 2/3 1/31
213 1/3 then A'= 1/3 2/3 -2/3| and AA'-I
For example,let A= 2/3
1/3 -2/3 2/3 |2/3 1/3 2/3|
hence A is orthogonal.
cos sin
Also, can be easily verified to be an orthogonal matrix.
-sin 0 cos
Some More Properties:
() (A')=(A)' We know that (AA)=1. Taking transpose on both sides, we ger
(AAly=l'=I (A'}A'=1. Hence, (A''=(A). |AA-|=|A|Aa
(i) The determinant of an othogonal matrix is 1, since 1=||| =
that is, |A |=+1.
(üi) If D= diag (d zg , d), d, 0, then D'- diag (ll4,, Vdzg , dm
(iv) If Ais amatrix oforder nxn then ladj(A) | =|A|. Let us establish it.
 Inverse, Renk. Hermitian and Skew-Henitan Matricos 259

[|A| 0 0
0 |A| 0 )

(A)=JA/|=
Sinco
Aadi :

0 0

property JAB|=|A||B| here, we get

I'singthe ||A| 0 0 :
0 A| 0 0

|A|ladj(A) = = |A|"
IA. ad (A)| =
0 0 0 |A||
|A/-!
jadf(A)|=
[2 4
i Findthe adjoint and the inverse of the matrix A=0 1 1

2 2 -1
cos0 0 sin

(6) Show that the

matrix 1 is orthogonal.
sin0 0 cos
L(TION:(a) Theco-factors of the
elements of A(=a) are

0 1|
A2 -2, Ajg= |2
Aji2 -1 2 -1
2 3
J4 3 =-8,
=10, Ag3
Ay2 2 -1
4 3 |2 3
Ag2 o -2 Ag3

-3 2 -27" [-3 10 1

=| 2 -8 -2.
adj A=|10 -8 4

1 -2 2 -2 4 2
+3(-2) =-4
Also A|=a,, A taz Aj t ajg Aj3 -2(-3)+4(2)
[-3 10 1

adj A= -- 2 -8 -2 Ans.
4 -2 4 2
0 sin0
cos0 0 -sin0
cos
() Let A= 0 1 0 then A=A'= 0 1
sin 0 cos
-sin0 0 cos
cos 0+ sin?0 0 |1 0 0
Now AAT = 1 0 lo 1 0 =I. Hence A is orthogonal.
0 sin 0+ cos 0 0 0 1
260

n-SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS (n
Advanced Engietn
SYSTEM OF
Consider the tollowing systemof n cquations with n unknowns UNKNOWNS)

p
cquations in matrix equation form as AX
We can write the above
b

X= B=
where A
=

matrix, B column vector of constants and

Here A is called the coefficient Xthe solui,
called non-homogeneous and if B=0
If B 0, then the system of equations is
equations is called consistent if it has the
is called homogeneous. The system of
inconsistent if it has no solution. atleastsystem oie
EQUATIONS:
SOLVINGHOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM OF
=0 then X=0 is:
Consider the homogeneous system ofequations AX always solution
a
possibilities.
solution. Let us take up the following two
) IfAis non-singular, i.e., |A|=0then X=A'0=0 the trivial solution exists.
a: known
non-trivial solution exists and thhe
(u) If Ais singular, i.e., JA| =0 then
of solutions. system
has infinite :
Meaning thereby that a homogeneous system of equations is always consistent
SOLVING NON-HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS:
I. BY CRAMER'S RULE OF DETERINANTS:
Let A be a non-singular matrix, then by Cramer's rule the solution of AX = B, is given k.
i=1, 2, ..., n.
|A|
where |A is the determinant of the matrix A, which is obtained by replacing the h column fu
the right hand side column vector B.
Following cases arise here:
Case I. When |A 0 the system of equations is consistent and the solution obtained is uni
Case II. When |A| =0 and one or more of |A, i = 1, 2, .., n are not zero, then the system of equi
has no solution and the system is inconsistent.
Case III. When |A| =0 and all |A| = 0, i= 1,2, .., n, then the system of equationsis consistet
has infinite number of solutions (or many solutions).
 eminanIS,Inverse Rank, Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian Matricos 261

AATRIXNERSION METHOD:
AX=B by A, we get A'(AX) - A'B 0 XA 'B.
A Anl
b
A
An A2n
the
vauesof N.y to the coresponding elementsin the product on the righthand side of
iusling
guation. we getthe desired solution.

Solve the following system of cquations

x+2y+3z =0 (b) 4x +9y+ 3z =6
(a)
2r+ 3y-2z =0 2x+3y+z =2
41+7y+ 4z =0. 2x+6y +2z =7
|1 2 3 x

fequations can be written as AX =0 where

oft A=|2 3 -2 and X= y|
( ) Thesystem
TION:
N 4 7 4

14)-2(8R+8) +3(14-12) =0 hence Ais asingular matrix.

1(12+ bears infinite member of solutions.
Therefore.thesystem
z=,thefirsttwo
equations give x+ 2y +3t=0 and 2x +3y - 2t=0
Taking x=13t and y=-8t where t is arbitrary.
satisfies the third equation as well. Ans.
this.solution
Also,
AX=B where
(b)Thee
system of equations is
4 9 37 6
A =|2 3 1|, B=2 and X|y
|2 6 2

Here JA=4(6-6)-9(4--2) +3(12--6) =0

4 6 |4 9 6|
3
|6 9 3
3 2 =-18.
JA, =2 3 1 =0, |A,|=|2 2 1| =6 and |A,|= 2
and
7 6 2 2 7 2| 2 6 7|
equations is inconsistent. Ans.
Since JA|=0 and A, 0the system of
equations, for solution
BXAMPLE 6.8. Investigate the following system of x-y+ 3z=3
X-y+z=4 (b)
(a)
2x+3y +z =2
2x +y- 3z =0
3x+2y +4z -5
xtytz =2
using (i) matrix method (i) Cramer's rule.
ULUTION: (a) The given system of equations is AX = B where
|1 -1 1| 4

A=|2 1 -3, B=0 and X= y

1 1 1 2
262
Advanced Engieng
Here
|A | -3a1(| +3)+

non-singular and the system of.

1(2+3)+1(2-1)=10
cquations has a
Hence the matrix Ais
()Solution by matrix
method.
4 2 21 unique solution
adj(A) -5 0 5
|A| 10
1 -2 3
4 2 2 4|

X =A- B= -5 0 5
10
1 -2 3|| 2
Thus x=2, y=-1, z=1 is the required solution.
(i) Solution by Cramer's rule.
4 -1 1 |1 4 1

|A, =0 1 -3=20, JA,=|2 0 -3| =-10 and A,|=

Here
|2 1 1 |1 2
|A| As_ 10 =1.,
A_ 20
|A| 10
=2, y= |A|
-10=-1,
10
z=

|A 10 Ans.
(b) The system of equations is AX = B where
[1 -1 31
A =|2 3 1, X=|y and B=|2
|3 2 4
Here A| =1(12-2)+ 1(8-3) +3(4-9) =10+ 515=0.
|3 -1 3 1 3 3
-1 3|
A, =|2 3 1 =0, |A,)=|2 2 1| =0 and
|A,=2 3 2\ =0
5 2 4 35 4 3 2 5
This means that the system of equations has infinite number of solutions. From the first
taking z =t, we have x-y=3-3t and 2r+3y=2-t two equz
(11-101)
These, on solving for x and y, give x= and = (5t 4) .z=t where t is arbit
Taking various values of t we can have various values of x and y. Ans.

ELEMENTARY ROW AND COLUMN OPERATIONS

Following three operations on a matrix are called row and column operations:
) Interchange of any two rows (or columns). Ifwe interchanging row and ,h row,itisdeg:
R, ’R or by R Similarly, interchanging column and h column is denoted by C+
or by C;
(ü) Multiplication of anyrow bya scalar. If we multiply h row by ascalar a itis denoledy
R,’ aR, Similarly, for column C;’ aC,
(1) Adding a scalar multiple of any row toanother row. If we add a times jh row to o
denoted by R’R+aR, Similarly, for columns.
 Inverse, Rank Hermitien and Skew-Hermitian Matricos 263

Watrices
clementaryransformation
tra
instance,consider
(or operation) is applicd to aunit matrix the resulting matrix is called
For,
matrnx. 0 07
0 Applying the operation R, > R, on it, we get
0 0
0
1 which is an elementry matrix.
, -0
0
ing R
ppb
’R,+kR, on I, we get
Smlarl, 0
which is also an elementary matrix.
0 0 1
called ROW EQUIVALENT if one can be obtained from the other by a sequence
matricesare
Tuo operations. These follow the following properties:
row
pkmentary
equivalenttooitself (reflexive property)
cisrow
matrix
Every
rowequivalent
to BBthen Bis row equivalent to A(symmetric property)
IfAis
and Bis rowequivalentto Cthen Ais row equivalent to C(Transitivity).
: to B
TOwequivalent
:fAiS
equivalence.
column
cimlarly,for
matrices are interesting because each elementary
row operation on a matrix A can
elementary let A be a mxn matrix and
The pre-multiplying A by an elementary matrix. Thus,
xperformedby
formed by applying an elementary row operation on A. Similarly each elementary
another
matrix
by a post-multiply A by an elementary
matrix, let
: ke
operation On a matrix A can be performed Then B = EA.
ama, matrix formed by applying this elementary row operation on
elementary
ethe
1 -5| row,
= 9 4 Suppose, we form B from A by interchanging second and third
Forerample,let A
-3 2
operation on I, to form
B=-3 2. But wecan also form an elementary matrix by applying this
sha
9 4
|1 0 0 | 1 -5 1 -5]
[1 0 0] 2 -B.
-3
E=0 0 1 then EA=|0 0 1||9
4

2| 9 4
0 10 0 1 0|-3

IE ECHELON FORM OF A MATRIX

Amatrix of order row (column) echelon form if
mXn is sajd to be in
Wue entries in a row (column) appear to the right
(below) of the first non-zero entry.
row (column) is less than
ie number of zeros preceding the first non-zero element in the
that of the number of such zeros in the (i + 1)h row (column) and
264
bottomn
Advanced Engne
cntircly of zeros lie at the
rows (columms) that consists
( ) all
| I2 3 4) (righ) of he
For example, the matrices
0 0 12
00 I
and
0 0
0 0
1 2
0 0 arc in thcir matY
0
|0 0 0 0
|0 0 0 0
I 0 0 01
|1 0 0 0]
| 0 0 are in
|5 1 0 0 and -1 their column
while the matriccs

2 1 0|
| 2 0 0
12 0 0
echelon foTm.
form is an
of a souare matrix the roW-echelon upper
triangulat
Note herethat in case
triangular matrix.
the column echelon form is a lower
A matrix Ais reduced to
its row-ec helon form by
carrying out a sequence nat y
column echelon form by carrying out a
transformations over it and is reduced toits
column transformations over it. sequence of ab

ExAMPLE 6.9. Reduce the matrices

[1 2 3 41
1 3 5 2 1 4 5
0 120
() 15 (iii) A=|2 4 8
12 42124
(i)| 2 -1 4 5 7
8 2| |8 1 14 17|
torow echelon form.
|136 I3
1 3 5] 1 3 5|
2 -1 4 ~0 -7 -6 after applying R, -2R,,and
SoLUTION: ()) Let A=
-2 8 2 0 14 12|
R, +28,
1 3 5
~0 -7 -6 (on applying R, +2R,). This is the row-echelon ffom of
0 0
[1 2 3 4
2 1 4
(i) Let A= Applying R, -2R, R, -R, and R,-&R,
15 5 7
8 1 14 17
1 2 3 4

-3 -2 -3
3 2
Now applying R, +R, and R- SR
|0 -15 -10 -15|
|1 2 3 4
|0 -3 -2 -3
0 0 0
(which is is row echelon form).
0

Since the number of non-zero rows in the row echelon form of 4 is 2, we get rank (4)=2.
 Inverse, Rank Hermitian and Skew-Hemitien Mattcon 265

owsI and2 that is, applying R, R,

4)
8 2
24 20 3

4 22
now applying R, -’R,
2
4

3
2 0 (applying R, ’ R, -R, and R, ’ R,-R,)
o 1 2 2
4
l 2
I 5/
|13 6
27 |1 2 4 1 21
[12 4 1
lo 1 2
0 3 lo 1 20 3 which is inechelon form.
(applying R,’R,-R)~ 0 00 I 0
0 3 |0 00 00
|0 1 2
MATRIX BY GAUSS-JORDAN METHOD
FA
statedasfollows:
be operations which reduce a given matrix A(n Xn) to a unit matrix I(n x n), when
rOW
velementary theinverse of A."
matrix y give
the
nialo
unit row operations which reduce the given square matrix A(n x n) to ., result from the
succeSIVe
Iethe of4by the elementaryy matrices R, R,.., R sothat
atrlaion

Ax-ultiplyingthisby
A we obtain (RR .RR,A) 4=IA!
RyRR,R,I=41.
find l we write theaugmented1 matrix (4,] where I is the unit matrix of the same order as that
Tisto
pertormthe same row operations on both A and I, till such time when Areduces to the other
Tiea
IpMsents However, this methodIfails when det(4) =0.
Applying Gauss-Jordan technique, find the inverse ofthe matrix
[1 2 31 1 3 5]
()|2 4 5 (i)|3 2 4 [GGSIPU 2011, 2013]
3 56 |5 4 2|
2 3!1 0 0]
SLTON: () Theaugmented matrix [A, I] =|2 4 5i0 10
3 5 60 0 1
1 2 3 1 0 0
(A.]-0 0 -1-2 1 0 Applying R,-2R, and R,-3R,
|0 -1 3-3 0 1
|1 2 3! 1 0 0
~0 1 31 3 0 Next, applying R, ’ R, and R, ’-R,
|0 0 -1-2 1 0|
266
Advanced Engino rtng W
|I0 -3!-5 0 2| M
Now, applying
0 | 3 3 0 -1|
|0 0 1 2 -I 0| R’R-2R,
I0 0! 3 2

0 1 0 -3 3 -I Finally,:,applying R,’R
l0 0 1 2 -1 o
,+3R, and R.
[1 -3 2
Hence =-3 3 -1
2 -1 0|
1 3 5| [1 3 S||| 0 07
4
(i) Let A =3 2 4 then Al =|3 2
|5 4 2 |5 4 2||0 0 1
(Applying R, ’R,-3R, and R’Ry-5R, on both
Aand 1,
3 51 1 0 07
-7 -11|| 3 1 0 (Applying R, ’R,-2R,)
=0
0 -11 -23| -5 0 1
3 0 0|
=|0 -7 -11||-3 10 (Next applying R, ’R -R, and
|0 -1|| 1 2 1|

|1 0 61| 0 2 -1|
0 -1 -13|| -1 -3 2 (Now applying R, ’R, +3R,)
-1|| 1 -2 1
0 3
[1 0 61 0 2 -1|
=0 -1 -13||-1 -3 2 (Next applying R, ’-ky and R-R)
0 0 40| -2 -11 7

610 2 -1| 1 0 6|| 0 2 -

1
=0 1 13|| 1 3 -2 (Now applying R, ’ 40 3)=|0 1 13 13 -1
40|| 2 11 -7| 0 0 1| 2 11 -
L40 40 4)

10 61| 0 80 -40|
0 1 13 40 120 -80 (Applying R, ’R, -6R, and R,’R-13R)
40
00 1|| 2 11 -7
I 0 0][-12 14 21 -12 14 2|
14 -23 11 14 -23 11 Ans.
0 1 0
40
40|0 0 2 11 -7 2 1I 7
 Iverse, Rank, Hermitian end Skew-Hermitian Matricos 267

2 4
inverse of the matrix () 2 S 15
Findthe. (i) 2 -2
6 15 46|

by usingelementary row operations as per Gauss Jordan method. [GGSIPUJ2007; 2009)

[i 2 6 1 2 6] [1 0 0
A=/2 5 15=2 5 15 0 1 0 =Al
|6 15 46 6 15 46|0 0 1

[1 2 6|1 0 0]
=|2 5 15 10 (Applying R’R-3 R, on A and Iboth)
1||0 -3 1|
[1 2 6 | 1 0 0|
0 13 -2 1 0| (Next applying R,’ R,-2R, on A and 1,)
lo 0 1 0 -3 1
’R,-2R, andithen R, ’R,-3R3,
1 0 0|S -2 0 [5 -2
=|0 1 |-2 10 -3 A'=-2 10 -3 Ans.

0 0 1||0 -3 1 0 -3

1 0 4 1 4|| 1 0

Aled=| 2 -2 1|=Al -2 0 1

-1 1 -1| l-1 1 -1|| 0

0 4|| 1 0 01

|0 -2 -7||-2 1 0 (Applying R, ’R,-2R and R, ’ R,+R)

0 1 3|| 1 1
4| 1 0 0
[!
0 -2 -7||-2 1 0 (Further applying R, ’2R, and R’R, +R)
0 0 -1| 1 2

0 0| 1 4 8 (Next, applying R, R+4R, and R, ’R,-7R,)

=0 -2 0||-2 -6 -14 1
(Finally applying R, ’ R, and R,’-R)
0 0 -1 1 2

I 0 0|1 4 4 8
=0 1 0||1 3 7 A=1 3 7 Ans.

0 0 1o -1 -2| |0 -1 -2
268

RANK OF A MATRIX
Advanced Englneoring
A matrix is said to be of rank r if
order , and
() it has at least one non-zero minor of vanishes.
(i)n other order greater than r
minortheof rank
everywords, ofa matrix Ais equal to the order of the highest order

A and is denoted by r(A) or by p(A). matrix of order n is

Thus, the rank of a non-singular square
For example, let A=
[ 2 then p (A) = 2. and if A =

3
3 4
1 4 |1 4
- then
A = 0 and 0
Further, if A =|2 5
3 6
2. we have
hence p
(A) =2.
equivalent if they are of the same
Two matrices Aand Bare said to be
note here that when a matrix is
subjected order and of
We write A~B. It is important to
operations, its rank does not change.
to one or same rank
more
EXAMPLE 6.12. Find the rank of the matrix el mena
1 2 3 |1 2 3
1 2 3 2]
2 3 5 1 (6) 1 4 2 (c) 2 4 7
(a)
1 3 4 S| 2 6 5 3 6 10|

[GGSIPU 2009: 2010,20

|1 2 3 2]
SoLUTION: (a) Let A=2 3 5 1|. (Applying R, - 2R and R, -R)
13 4 5
2 3 21
A ~0 -1 -1 -3. (Applying R, + R,)
1 1 3
2 3 2|
l0 -1 -1 -3 Clearly rank (A) =2 Ans,
|0 0 0 0|
2 31
(b) A=| | 4 2 (Applying R,’R,-R and R, ’R,-2R, )
2 6 5
1 2 3
A~0 2 (Next, applying R, ’ R, -R,)
2
2 3
A~0 -4. Hence rank of A is 3. Ans.
3
 Inverse Rank Hermitlen and 269
Skew-Hemitan Matricos

7
(Applying.here R, ’R,-2R, and R,’R- 3R)
10
3/
Itsrank=2 since Ans.
. p(4)=2

matrix
Cindthe rank ofthe
6 1 3 8
4 2 6 -1
A=| 10 3
(GGSIPU 2011]|
9 7
16 4 12 15|
3 8
6
l2 4 6 -1
A~ 3 10 9 7
(on operating C C, on A)
4 16 12 15

1 6 3 81
-17
0 -8 0
0 -8 0 -17
(on operating R, ’ R,-2R,, Ry’R,-3R,, R, ’ Ry-4R,)
|0 -8 0 -17|
[1 0 0
0 -8 0 -17
0 -8 0 -17
(on operatingC, ’C,-6C,G’G-3C,C, ’C,-8C,)
0 -8 0 -17|
[1 0 0 0]
010 0
0 10 0
(on operating C,’-C,
8 andthen C, ’C,-17C,)
0 1 0 0|
[1 0 0 01
0 10 0
0 00 0 (on operating R, ’R, -R and R,’ R,-R)
|0 0 0 0
hckealy establishes that rank (A)=2. Ans.
41
LaMLE 6.14. (o) For what value of K, the rank of the matrix 3 2 is 2. [AKTU 2010]
|K 13 10|
|1 -2 3 1|
(6) Find the values ofa and b such that the rank of matrix A=|2 1 -1 2 is 2.
|6 -2 ab
[GGSIPU 2007]
270 Advanced Engine tng
5 4
4
3 2 0 (on applying R,’R;-KR)
SoLUTION: (a) A= 4K
K 13 10 0 13- 5K 10-
Its rank willbe 2 when |A|=0
3 2 -0 hence K=2. Ans.
|A| |13-SK 10 4K
3 1
I -2
0 (on applying R, ’R-3RR, and.
R,’R,-2R)
A ~ 5 -7
(6)
0 -5 a+3 b-6
3 1
1 -2
A~ 0 5 -7 o (on applying R, ’R +R)
0 a-4 b-6
0
Ans.
we must have a=4, b=6.
Since rank of A is given to be 2
IfAis a non-zero column vector (n x 1) thenthe rank of the matrix A4T
ExAMPLE 6.15.
or (1) n-1 or (iv) n
(ii) 1
i) 0
SoLUTION: A is of order nx1 then A'
or

is is of order 1xn (GGSIPU X%:

a
hence AA?=
If A= then 4= (a, ay . a

one of a, ag, ., a, is not zero

AA! is of ordernxn. Since A is non zero, 1.e., at least
is (ii). Ans.
Therefore rank of AA' is 1. Hence correct choice

NORMAL FORM OF A MATRIX

elementary transformations. to the f
Every non-zero matrix A of rank r, can be reduced by a sequence of
which is called the normal form of A.

column transformations such that the too ket

Inother words, we can perform any number of row or
diagonal should be zero or one. Count the
element becomes 1 and the other elements on the leading
the matrix.
numbers 1 on the leading diagonal and that is the rank of
pre-multiplication or post-multiplicaia
Because each elementary transformation can be affected by
non-singular, therefore, hence the followg
with a suitable elementary matrix and each elementary matrix is
result.
matrices P and Q such t
Corresponding to every matrix A of rank r there exist non-singular
matrices
I, Note that if A is a matrix of order mxn then P and Ì are Square
PAQ = 0
of order m x m and n xn respectively.
 Iverse, Rank, Hermitian and Skew-Homitian Matrices 273

performing R, 2R, and R, ,

2

20 applying R, and then R, 2R,

8

4 applying R,’,R, and R,-R, and R, -R,

107
0
[1 0
A Finally operating C,’C;-10C, and C ’
C,-4C,
[1 0 0 07
lo 1 00 which is in normal form, hence the rank of A is 3. Ans.

LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE OF VECTORS

vectorslike 2i-3j +5k having components 2, -3, 5alongthe coordinate axes. In
withthe
having n components is called a vector of order n. As such the co-efficients of un-
requationforn avector. Elements of a row matrix or a column matrix also, form vectors.

vectors
X, X, .X, is said to be linearly dependent if there exist scalars
of
set
The allzero,such thatcX t,t.., teX, =0 ..(1)
exist, the vectors X, X, ., X are called linearly independent.
scalarsother than zero
nSuch

abovedefinition, out of Cj,

C , C, if at least t one of themis non-zero, say C,#0 then the relation
tthe

zewriüenas X,= 3x,.-x,

C
Advedtor X, is a linear combination of the vectors X, Xq, .., X,. In other words, if atleast
linear
combination of the other vectors then the vectors X,, X, .. X
edO can be expressed as a
udtobelinearly
dependent; and if not a single vector can be expressed as alinear combination of
independent.
-shesthen the vectors are called linearly
uE618. (@) Investigate if the following set of vectors are linearly independent or dependent:
X,-[1,2,3], X,-[3,-2, 1]', X,=[1,-6,-5].
0 Show that the system of vectors [1, 3, 2]', [1, -7, -81, and [2, 1, -1| is linearly
dependent. [GGSIPU 2013]
ITION: (4) Let us assume that the given vectors are linearly dependant then there must exist scalars
not allzero, such that ...(1)
274
Advanced Enginoening
3

2c,-2c,
However,
Which are homogencous having trivial solution c, = C, = C; =0. for
find the rank of the coefficicnt matrix.
11|| 3
non-trivial
|1 3 1 I 3
-8~|0 -8 -8
2 -2 -6 0 -8
3 1 -5 |0 -8 -8 0 0
less than the number of unknowns
The rank of this matrix is 2 which is
=0 and C,tc, =0.
therefore, non-trivial
Thus, we have two independent equations as c +3c, +e;
If wetake c, = then c, =-à and hence c;=2A.
sohuione
2X, -X, + X,=0.
Putting these values of c,, C, C, in (1), we have
Therefore, the vectors are dependent.
2

(b) X-3 X,=|-7 and X,=| 1

2
dependent if
As done in part (a), X,, X,, X, will be linearly
1 1 2|
3 -7 1l =0
l2 -8 -1
hence dependent.
or 1(+7 +8) -1(-3-2) +2)-2(-24 +14) =0,
COMPLEX MATRIX

HERMITIAN AND SKEW-HERMITIAN MATRICES

skew-Hermitian matrix is 3
Hermitian matrix is a generalisation of symmnetric matrix whereas
skew-symmetrix matrix, when the elements of the matrix are complex quantities.
Consider a square matrix Z of complex numbers z, given by
Z=z) where Zmn mn + ib'mn'
The matrix Z, conjugate of the matrix Z, is given by Z =(Zmn) where

Now, let us define a matrix Z* as transpose of Z, that is, Z* = (Z)'.

The matrix Z is called Hermitian if Z* Z then Zm=Z for all m, n

+ ib.mn hence mm amm and

=
b.nm for all m, n.

When m =n we have b =-b. i.e., b.nn =0 for all n.

 Inverse, Rank, Hermitian and
Skew-Hermitian Matrlcos 279

EXERCISE 6A
[2 I 3
-1 4 1 as the sum of a
the
matrix symmetric anda skew-symmetric matr1x.
s |0 2 -2|
show that A-! 1
ab, - azbl-a a and hence find the inverse of the matrix
cos -sin9
Is B orthogonal?
/sinß cos9

-2 41
inverse ofthe matrix -2 1
ethe
4 0

1 -1) 1 -1 1
A=/2 -2 and B =| -3 2 -1 verify (AB= B-'A-.
Giventhat 3 -2 1
|3 -2

[-1 -2 -2]
-2 show that adj A=3A' and find adj {adË A).
2 -2 1

tan 9
-tan
4 Find 1
tan9 - tan

Solveby matrix
inversion method the following set of equations
r+3y+3z=1
xt4y+ 3z =0
r+3y+4z=2.
1whether the vectors (1, 1, 1,3), (1, 2, 3, 4) and (2, 3, 4, 7) are linearly dependent or not. If
dependent, find the relation between them.
Sbow that the square matriX
cos$ cos8 sin coso sin0
-sin#cos8 cos -sin sin is orthogonal.
- Sin cos

| 2 3 4 -1|
1 3 -2 1
Find the rank of the matrix i) 5 2 0 -l,(11) [GGSIPU 2007]
2 0 -3 2
|-4 5 12 -1|
3 3 0 3
280
Advancod Engine rtng
Using tow opcrations computethe inverse of the matrix
2
--6 -2.
(GGSIPU2011, 2012, 2018] (b) -13

|3 0

[3 3 4]
of thematrix 2-3 4
12. Use Gauss-Jordan method to findtheinverse

13. Reduce the following matrix into its normal form

and hence find its rank . (GGSIPU 2016; ,AKTU
2 3 -1 -1 8 3 61 2 -1
4
1 -1 -2 -4 2 2
2 4
(i) 3 (ii) 4
(i) 4= 1 3 -2 1
3 -8 -1 -3 4 3 4
6 3 0 -7 |-1 -2 6 -1
14. Find two non-singular matrices Pand [GGSIPU 014;
such the PAO is in the normal form where

[1 2 3 -2]
AKTU ,
|1 -1 -1|
(a) A=1 1 1 (b) A =|2 -2 1 3
|3 0 4
3 1 1
3 -1 21 i 2 1 01
-6 2 -4 (ii)-2 4 3 o by
15. Findthe rank of the matrix (i)
-3 1 -1| 1 0 2 -8 reducing it in its NGn
form. [GGSIPU 2013, 20
linearly dependent? lf
16. Arethe vectors X, =(1,3,4,2), X,=(3,-5,2,2), X,= (2,-1, 3, 2)
one of these as a linearly combination of others. so.exps
17. Examine the following system of vectors for linear dependence. If dependem
findthe relation between them X,=(1, 1,-1, 1), X, =(1, -1,2, -1), X=(3, 1,0, 1).
[AKTU 2016, X03
18. Prove that every Hermitian matrix can be written as A+ iB where Ais real and symmetric and Riel
and skew-symmetric. [GGSIPU 2O16
a+ir -B+ i8|
19. Show that the matrix is unitary if a+B°+y+ §² =1. (AKTU 2018
TB+i8 a-ir|
 HAPTER
Consistency of General
System of Simultaneous
Equations, Eigen Values,
Eigen Vectors,
Diagonalizing
Matrix, Vector Spaces a

AolicatonoffMatrices finding Solution of a System of

in:
Equations. Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors and their
Homogeneous and Non-homogeneses
Properties,
Diagonalizinga Maatrix, Quadratic form and Reduction of Cayley-Hamilton Theorem,
QuadraticSpan,
VectorSpace Over a Field,,LLinear Dependence and Independence, formBasic
to Canonical Form,
and Dimension
ofVector
rSpace,Linear
Transformation (mapping) Rank-Nullity Theorem.

cONSISTENCY OF ASYSTEM OF
SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
ztlierwehave.discussedthe consistency of asystem of n-simultaneous linear equations involving the same
Amberof unknowns. Now we shall take up the case of mequations in n variables where m#n, is general.
Considerfirsttthe following general non-homogeneous system of mlinear
equations in n unknowns:

The abovesystem can be written in matrix equation form as AX =B ..()

An
dgn b
A=|.. X= B=

|am) am2 dmn

IB=0, ie,. if b, = b, =... =b. =0 then (1) is called the
system of homogeneous equations.
When (1) has a solution it is said to be consistent, otherwise the
system is called inconsistent.
OPAOmogeneous consistent system of equations may have only one solution called unigue solution,
Inay bave infinitely many
solutions.
dn
Considerthematrix D= d2n b
in which B is appended to A.

:
amn
281
282

as [A/B].
Advanced Engine ring hat
Iis callcd augmented matriK written as (A : B) or
We find here the ranks ofthe co-eticinent matrix A
and of thc augmented
lor the consistency of the given system of cquations, is as
ollows : matrix (A:B].
() rank (A) rank (A : B) then thesystem is inconsistent hence no The y
(i) rank (A) =ank (A: B) then the system is
consistent and sol u
following twotion,
(@) if rank (A) =rank (A : B) =n,
the number of unknowns, we have a cases arise
(6) if rank (A) = rank (A : B) <n, there are infinitely
many solutions
simultaneous equations AX
unique soluton
In the case of linear homogencous system of =0 we irst fir
above homogeneous
OT the co-efficient matrix Aas r. sav, If r=n the
gives non-trivial system has tri
* 1 . = = 0. But if r<n, the above system
there would exist solutions where unknowns are expressed as a linear solcombi
utions.natioActn ualofly,
(n - r) unknowns. the rema
solve also the
EXAMPLE 7.1. Discuss the consistency and if possible, fol2x+3y+
lowing syst4z =11em of
(b)
(a) x+y+2z + w =5
equati
2r+3y-z-2w =2
4x+ Sy+ 3z =7
x+5y+7z =15
3x+1ly +13z =25.
SOLUTION: (a) The matrix equation is AX=B where

|i 1 2 1
A=|2 3 -1 -2 X= B=|2
|4 5 3
W

[i 1 2 1
-1 -2 : 2
The augmented matrix [A:B]=2 3
|4 5 3 0 : 7
1 1 2 1: 5
[A:B]~o 1 -5 -4 -8 (On operating R, R3-2R and’R,-R
0-1 4 3
2 1 5

~0 1 -5 -4 : -8. (On applying R, ’R, +R)

0 0 0 0 : -5
2 1 [1 1 2 1]
-4 -8 0 and Rank (A) =rank of 0 1 -5 -4=2.
Rank [A: B]=3 since
0 0¿ 0 0
Since p [A:B]p(A) the given system of equations is inconsistent. Ans.
(b) The given system can be written in matrix equation form as AX = B
|2 3 4 4 : 11|
where A=|| B=15 and [A:B]=|1 5 7 : 15
|3 11 13| |25| |3 11 13 : 25
 Consistency oft General System of Simultaneous Equations, Eigen Values, Eigen Vectors, Diagonalizing . 283

5 7
[A:B] ~ 0 -7 -10: -19 (on applying R, e> R,, R, ’R,- 2R, and Rq’Ry-sk)
lo -4-8: -20|
1 7 1s
0 1
(on applying R’ Rand R, R)
0 -7 -10 -19 4

[1 S7: 1s]
0 12: S
(on operating R, ’R,+7 R)
0 0 4: 16|
1 5 7 : 151
0 1 0 : -3 (on 1

0 0 1: 4
applying R, ’R, and R, 4 ’Ry-2R)
[1 0 0: 2]
o 10 : 3| (on
|0 0 1 :
applying R,
4 ’R-SR,-7 R)
.aA :B]=3 and p(A)=3. Thus p (A:
B)=p(A) =3= number of unknowns,
henceeunique solution as x=2, y=-3, z= 4. Ans.
ExAMPLE7.2. Discuss the consistency of the following of
equations for various values of A:
2x-3x, t6x;-Sx, =3
Xy-4x, t x,= 1
4x-Sx,t &x,-9x, =A
And, if consistent, solve it.
SoLUTION: The matrix equation is AX=B. Hence, the augmented
matrix is
2 -3 6 -5: 3 2 -3 6 -5:
3
[A:B]=0 1 -4 1: 0 1 -4 1 : 1 (on operating R, ’R-2R)
4 -5 8 -9: 1 -4 1 : -6|
2 -3 6 -5 : 3

0 1 -4 1: 1
(on operating R, ’ Rz-R)
|0 0 0
0 : -7
When .#7, rank (A: B)=3 and rank (A) =2 hence the
system is inconsistent.
And when h=7, rank (A:B)=2 and rank
(A)=2 hence consistent.
Also, since rank (A: B) = rank (A)<4, the number of
lo obtain many solutions when =7, we take two unknowns, shall have infinitely many solutions.
we
independent equations as :
X;-4x,tx, =1 ..1)
Here the 2r,-3r,+ 6x,- 5x, =3 ...2)
us we
number of arbitrary solutions = number of unknowns -rank of A.
take X3*, and x=t, then
from (1), we get x, =41-,t1
 284

2,3(4I, , +1)-61, 51, +3

Or
Advanced Engie
and trom (2)
GiNing arhitrary values to t, and t, we gct
infinitcly many values of x
consistency of the following set of
and x, Xt,+3
ENAMPL 7.3. (a) Test for
2r- 3y + Sz 1, 3x
ty-z=2, and x+
system. |
cquat
4y-6zions
and, ifconsistent,solve the
the equatione
(b) Find the values of a, b for which
22 =b, x+5y+3z =9
xt ay +z=3, x + 2y + are
SoLUTION: (a)
When willthe equations have a unique solution?
Given system of equations can be written as AX: =B where consistent.
|2 -3 S 2
A=3 1 -1|, B=|2 and (A:B) = 3 -31 -\

|1 4 -6| 1 4 -6

1 4 -6
(A:B) ~0 -11 17 : -1| (applying R, ’ R, andIthen R,--3R, and
|0 -11 17 : -1| Rq-2R)
4 -6 : 1|
0 -11 17 : -1| (operating R, ’ R-R,)
|0 0 0: 0
Obviously, here rank (A: B) -2, rank(A) =2 hence-the system is consistent. Also since the cor
value of the ranks is less than the number of unknowns, we can have
From (1) it follows that we have only two independent equations,
infinitely many solutions
x+4y-6z= 1 ..2) and -1ly+ 17z=-1
(1+171)
If weset z=1, then from (3), y= 11
and from (2), x=1-4y +6z=(-21)
11
Thus, the infinitely many solutions are given by
7-21 1+171
X= -, y= 11
-, z=twhere is an arbitrary quantity. Ans.
11
1 a 1!31
(6) The coefficient matrix A=| 2 2 and augmented matrix D=|1 2 2b
1 5 3 1 5 39
Applying R,’R,-R and R, ’R,-R, we get
3 5 1! 3]
D ~ 2-a 1ib-3 = 0 -3 1 ib-3| at a=[
0 5-a 2 6 0 0 2 6

which shows that Rank (4) = Rank (D) =3. Hence consistent.
Further, since here rank (4) =rank (D) =3 =number of unknowns
Ans.
The equations have a unique solution when a=5 and b may have any value.
 Sustem of 285
Yo
Gonera
Simuteneous Equations, Eigen Valuos, Llgen Voclors. Diagonalizing ...

Test for consistency of the following system of cquations and, if ycs, solvethem:
--3, 3x2, 1, 2r, 2r, t 3r"2, x*
SYstemin the matriN Cquation form is AX B; (case of 4equations and 3 variables)
[1 2 -1)
X= B=
2 -2 3 2

|I 2 -1:3 1 2 -1 : 3
3 -1 2 1 0 -7
A:B)=
S:-8
3 2 0 -6 5
2 -2 -4
-1 1 : -1] 0 -3 2: -4|
(on operating R, ’R,-3R, R, ’ R,-2R,and
2 -1 : 3] R’R-K)
l0 -1 0 4
(on performing R,-’R,-R, and R,
lo 0 1: 4 ’R,-2R4)
0 -3 2: 4
[1 2 -1:3
0 1 0 4
(on performing R, ’-R, and R, ’R+3R,)
0 0 1 :4
0 0 2:8
1 2 -1: 37
0 1 0: 4
00 1 : 4
(on performing R, ’R-2R,)
0 0 0:0
Therefore, rank(A:B) =rank (A) =3=
3 number of unknowns, hence unique
solution.
[1 0 0: -1]
010: 4
(A:B) ~ |0 0 1: 4 (on operating R-’R +R and R,’R, -2R,).
|0 0 0 0
Therefore, the unique solution is x=-1, y=4, z=4. Ans.

RLE 15. (a) Determine the value(s) of for which the following homogeneous set of
equations
possess a non trivial solution and find the solutions for real 2.:
3x+y-z=0, 4x-2y-3z=0, 22x+4y+ Az=0.
(b) Find the value of for which the system of equations
xty+4z=l, x +2y- 2z=1, r ty tz=1 will have unique solution.
(GGSIPU 2010]
NTTION: (a) Given equations are homogeneous and these will have non-trivia! solution when the
tTmLnant of theecoefficient matrix issequal to 0, i.e; when
286
Advanced Engine in
-2-3 0 or 3(-2) + 12)-(4 +62)-
-(16+44,)=0
4
4
|22
For A -9, the set of
cquations are 3x+y+9z=0, 4x-2y-3z=0, -\8x+ Ay-9
say first two, the solution js
laking any two of the above cquations, 3 ==
-3k z=k where k is an arbitrary quantity.
- 9k -2
2 2
equations are 3x +y-z=0, 4x-2y - 3z = 0,
Similarly, for = l the set of

Taking anytwo
k'
of(1), say firsttwo, the solutioni s-5= = 5
2 Or
- 10 1

z=k' where k' isanother artbitrary quantity,

2x+Ayt2= 2

4
Applying R’R,-R, and
(b) (A:B) =|| 2 -211
11
Ry’ R,-AH
1
[1 1 4
0 1 -6 Applying Ry’Rz-(l-2)R,, gives
0 1-1 1-42 1
1 1 4

0 1 -6 0
10
p(A:B)=r(A)=3.
0 0 7-102 1
7
Uniquesolutionwhen Ans.
10
equations
ExAMPLE 7.6. (a) Find, for what values of a and b, the
x+2y+3z=6, x+ 3y +Sz=9, 2x+ 5y +az =b
one solution. [GGSIPU
have (i) no solution (ii) a unique solution (iii) more than
(b) Find the values of a and b for which the equations
xtay+z=3, x+2y +2z=b, x+ 5y +3z =9 [GGSIPU:2
are consistent. Will these have unique solution?
SOLUTION: (a)The given system of equations is AX=B where
[1 2 31 6

A=|1 3 5 X = y B = 9
|2 5 a b

|1 2 3 : 6 R,’R,-2R)
and
The augmented matrix D=1 3 5 : 9 (On applying R, ’Ry- Ri
2 5 a: b
 ofGeneral svstem of Simuteneous Equations, Eigon Values Flaen Vectors, Diagonalk 287

|| 2 3:
D~0 1 2:
0 1 3| (On applying R,- R-R,)
a-6 : h-12
1 2 3:
0 1 2 : 3
0 0 a-8 :
b-15|
we have p(A)= 2, p(D)=3 so p(A)#
p(D) hence system has no
at8 we have pA) = 3.
pD) = 3, the system is Soluro
:
p4) =pD) number of unknowns hence the system will
= consistent.
rifa=8 and h=15 we have p(A)=2, have unique solution.
further,
<3 hence more than
p(D) =2 the system is consistent,
p4) = p(D) one solution. Ans.
systemnof equationsis AX=B, where
p

(b)Gven
a 1
A=1 2 2| B=b
|1 5 9
|1 a l!3|
IA:B]=|1 2 2b| (applying Rg’R-R, and R,’R,-R)
|1 5 39
a 1| 3

0 2-a 1b-3
3 19-5|
1 2 1| 3 1
When a=2, [A:B]~0 0 1ib-3 we have
0 3 19-b|
p(A)=p(A:B)=3 hence unique solution.
|1 -1 1! 3 3
When a=-1, [A:B]~0 3 1|b-3 0 3 1 b-3
|0 3 1|9-b| to 0 012-26|
Therefore, when a =-1 and b= 6
|1 -1 1!31
[A:B] ~0 3 113 then p(A) =p(A:B) =2 hence many solutions.
|0 0 00
and when q=-l and b 6,
p(A)=2 and p(A:B)=3
us, System of equation is inconsistent when
a=-1, b#6. Ans,
XAMPLE T1. Determine the values of 1 for which the following equations are consistent. Also solve
the system for these values of 1.
x+2y+z=3, x+y+z=, 3x+y+ 3z=24 [GGSIPU 2012]
288

SOUON: The mal NcQuatiomis AN Bwhere

Advancod Enginogrlng
3

X=X, B=
3 1 3
|1 2 1! 3
The augmented matrix A:B=1 1| 2 (on applying R ’ Rz, R,

=0
[3 1 3A?

3- (on applying R;’Ry +2R,)

’Ry-RyRy
0 -2 0 -32.|
22-3
0 1 0 3-2 3-
0 0 0 (a-3) (^ -2)|
(on applying
1 0 13
0 0 04-5A +6|
R-ky
When =3 A:B=0 1 00
0 0 00|
Hence p(4) =2 and p(A: B) = 2. The system is consistent having many solutione ax s
Here y =0 and xtz=3. The solutions are (2, 0, 1) and ingeneral (3 -k, 0, k). kel

When =2 A:B=|0 1 01 Here p (4: B) =p(4) =2.

|0 0 0o
system 1s consistent having many solutions.
Here y 1 and xtz=1 solution is (0, 1, 1) or in general(1 - k, 1, k), ke I. Ans.
ExAMPLE 7.8. Consider the following system of equations in which p is a real parameter.
x-2x, +3x, =-1, 2r -3x, +4x, =-l, px,t x, t (p´-p-3) x, -2p +2
By using row operations on the associated matrix obtain a row equivalent triangular fom
and solve the system completely. [GGSIPU 204
SOLUTION: The given equations can be written as AX= B
-2 3 -1
1 -2 3 -11]
-1|, [4: B]=|2 -3 4
where A=|2 -3 4 X=X,,B=
2p +2 p´-p-3 2p+2
I p-p-3 R,’R-P
(Apply R, ’R,- 2R, and
-2 3
D~0 1 -2 1 (Applying R, ’R, and R, -pRy)
|0 1+2p p'-4p-3 3p +2
 289
/GeneralSystemof Simultameous Equations, tigon Valuns, tigon Vectors, Dingonalizing "

-2
1 1
0
(Applying R, -> R, (1 t 2p) R,) D, say
0
dhen D(4)= 2 and PD)=3. Since p(4) *p(D) the system is inconsistent.
then p(4) =2 and p(D)=2. Since p(4)=p(D)<3, the number of unknowns, we get
manysolutions.

1 -2 3!
1
wehave
D'=0 1 -21
Ifp=2 1.(Applying-R, -’ ; R, and R, ’ R,+ 2R,)
0 0 3 3

[1 -2 3! -1]
3. Lastly applying R’R,-3R, and R-’R + 2R, w get
0 0 1| 1
[1 0 0!2]
D-|0 1 03 Hence the solution, for p=2 is x=2, x,=3, X,=l Ans.
290

EXERCISE 7A
Advanced Engine ing
1. Using thc rank concept investigate the consistency of the system of cquatiOns and
4-2y +62 = 8
xty-3z = -1
15x- 3y +9z = 21.
2. Show that the following system of equations has no solution.
xty+3z = 6
2r+3y+z =8.
x+ Sy+ 72 = 20
x+z = 10
3. (a) Investigate whether the set of equations is consistent or not, and, if
2r-y -z = 2
X+ 2y+z = 2
consistent, solve j
4x-7y-5z =2.
(b) Find the value of so that the following equations have a non-trivjal
2r+ 3y+ 4z =0
x+2y-Sz =0
solution (G SIPUN
3x+5y- =0
4. Determine the values of and u so that the equations
2x+ 3y +5z =9 (GGSIPU
7x+3y-2z = 8
2x+ 3y+z =
have (i) no solution, (i) a unique solution and (ii) infinitely many solutions.
5. Solve, by matrix method, the system of equations [GGSIPU X;
x+3y-z-0 = 0
3x+y+2z-20 = 4
4x-3y -4z-30 =-13.
6. Test for consistency, the following system of equations
(a) xty+z=3 (b) 10y+3z =0
x+2y+3z =4 3x+3y+2z =1
x+4y+ 9z =4 2x-3y -z =5
2x+3y +9z =6. x+ 2y =4. [AKTU 0I8
7. Find the values of a and b such that the following system of equations may have unique solutin
3x-2y+z = 6
5x-8y+ 9z =3
2x+y+ az = - b [GGSIPU204
8. (i) For what values of the parameters and do the system of equations x *)yT*
x+ 2y + 3z = 10, x+2y +z= u, have (i) no solution (ii) unigue solutions (ii) more the
solution?
[GGSIPU2011: 2013: AKTU20I8
(ii) Show that, if A#-5 the system of equations 3x - y t 4z = 3, x + 2y - 3z =--2and
6x + 5y+ z=-3 has unique solution. If =-5 show that the equations are consistent.AlN
[GGSIPU:206
determine the solution when =-5.
 GeneralSystem of Simultaneous Equations, Eigen Valune Eien Vectors Diagonalzing "* 291

CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION, EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN VECTORS

transfomation Y AX vhich transtorms the into the column

column vcctor X

:a1 : 2
:
throughthe transformmation matrix, given by A=
...

|a,,1 an2 an3 ann

yheinterestingtoconsider a particular transformation Y = X (where à
is scalar) under whicn
istransformed into a vector Y. This implies that AX = AX
)X'-0 where I is an identity matrix of order n.
(4- .(1)
havethe
ThLS,We
following system of
homogeneous equations in xj Xz ., Xn
-À)x, t***+a, =0
...2)

TrISSVStem of equations has trivial solution X = 0 for any . but we are interested only
Isolutionsof (2) which is possible only when |A-I| =0
a12 a3
a - az3
:
=0
..(3)

an3 ann -
This is called the characteristic equation of the square matrix A.
EuFanding the determinant in (3), we get a polynomial equation of degree n in , which is of the form
P,4)=|4-N|=(-1 (2"-Cal++CA"-. +(-1yC]=0
"-C,2+C,N-..+(-1y' C,=0
*4;Cy C, can be expressed in terms of the elements ofthe matrix A.
ero0s A , , of the equation P.(0) =0 are called the Eigenvalues or Characteristic values or
teristic roots or latent roots of the matrix A.
By using gthe relation
betweenthe roots and the coefficients, we can write
ti,t..t,-C=a|ta t...tn
 292
Advanced Engine ing M
Iwe set A 0 in cquation (3), we get |4|=(-1"C,=C,=y- ,
the product of the
Sum of the cigen values =TRACE(4) and
eigenvalues =\A\
the largestt
Note: Thc set ofcigen valbes is called the spectrum of Aand
eigenvalue
in
the spectral radius of 4 and is denoted by p(A). If|A|=0then trom cquation (4) we
CIgenvalues is zero. Conversely ifone of the eigen values is zero then |4|=0.
Also.
matrix or an uppertriangular matrix or alower triangular matrix then the diagonal.
note that if rmagntude
are the eigenvalues of A.
Corresponding to values of the column vector
n eigen values we can get n vectors
Y eby l ments Asatd he m
AX =AX. These column vectors are calledeigen
the
or characteristic
matrix of the order 3x
vectorsofthe
3.
solvinmatg rihex A. equai.
Letus take up the frequently occurring case of

Let A=a1 then the characteristicequation is

A'-(a, t ay t a,y) 1? +la1 aga32 a33 31 33||

Animportant property to note here, is if Ais a symmetric matrix the eigen vectors offthe
equatM
(A-A) X=0 are pairwise orthogonal" Thus, if and are any two eigen vectors of a
|
symmet.
matrix A then xx,'+ x,x,' +t x*t ... + x,=0.
SOME USEFUL DEDUCTIONS
If A an eigen value of a square matrix A, then
(i) A+ k is an eigen value of the matrix A+ kI
(ü) kA is an eigen value of kA
1
(ii) is aeigen value of 4. In otherwords (product of eigen value) is the eigen val1e
of the matrix adj. (4). [GGSIPUI2009; 2011; 20181
(iv) 2 is aeigen value of 4. Ingeneral, 2 is an eigen value of 4. [GGSIPU 20121

Proof: Since à is aeigen value of Awe have (4-/) X=0 ..)

() We can write (1) as (4 +kl-kI-AX=0 or [4+kI -(^ +))X= 0
which establishes that A + kI has eigen value + k.
(ü) Multiplying () by k we get k(4-A) X=0 or [k4-(a)JX=0
which establishes that the matrix kA has eigen value as k.
(ü) Premultiplying (1) by 4", we get {4(4-A)} X=0 or (4-s)x=0.
Now multiplying (2) throughout by ,we get
(a'1-4)X -0 Iseigenvalue
of A-!
or
(4-1'DX=0
 293
Gener Sustem of Simultaneous EquAtions, Élgon Volues, Elgen Vectors, Diagonalizing ...
9sisONY

Also, since A adi(4)

|A| 0T adj (A) AA! v e have cioen valuc of ad) (M

(pnoduet of eigen val1ucs ofA)

Premultiplying(1)by/A, we get {A(4-)}X0 or

t-A(4-)-17) X-0 (4-A)X= 0
(4?-2)X-NA-)X-
Or
0 But (4-N)X=0
hence 2-2)X=0 which shows that ' is the eigen value of the
matrix
The deduction(iv) can be extended as 2* will bethe eigen value of the square matrix 4 if Ais the
givenvalue of the square matrix 4.
Importantt coonclusionfrom the above results is that
valuessof () asymmetric marix are real
Theeigen (i) a
skew-symmetric matrix are zero or purely imaginary.
(iii) an orthogonal matrix are of
conjugate pairs.
magnitude 1l and are either real or complex

[3 0. 0
ExAMPLE 7.9, (a) Fiindthe trace of the matrix A, if A=|8 4 0
|6 2 5|
-(b) Forthe matrix A=2 3 0, find the eigen values of 4.
1 4 2|
[GGSIPU 2007, AKTU 2016]
SOLUTION: (a) Since Ais alower triangular matrix its characteristic roots are =3, 4 and S.
Therefore the characteristic roots of the matrix A are 1 as 3,4' 5. :. Trace
ofA=9+16+25 = 50.
6: The characteristic equation of Ais |4-I|=0
|-1-2 0 0
2 -3-2 0 =0 Hence A=-1;-3 and 2 are
0
eigen values of A.
1 4 2
Therefore, the eigen values of 4 are (-1)',(-3),2 or -1,-27, 8.
EXAMPLE 7.10, (a) If the eigen values of A are 1, 1, 1, find the eigen values of A' + 24 +
3I.
[AKTU 2019)
(b) If the eigen values óf matrix A are 2, 3, 6 then write the eigen values of A',
A, A" (me N), and of adj 4. [GGSIPU 2012]
SOLUTION: (a) Eigen values of A are 112, 1 these of 24 are 2,2,2 and those of 3I are 3, 3, 3.
Eigen value of 4 +2A +31 are 6,6,6. Ans.
0) Eigen values of A are 2, 3 and 6 and since eigen values of 4 are same as
values of A are 2,3 and 6. these of A, hence eigen
Next, the eigen values ofA are 1/2, 1/3 and 1/6.
and eigen values of 4 are 2m3m and 6"
(mE N).
S
ae 18, 12
mentioned earlier, the eigen values of adj(A) are
1
;(2:3-6), (2:36) and ¿2:36), that is,
and 6.
294
Advanced Engine ning Ma
EXAMPLE 7.11, Find the cieen valnes andcigen vectors of the matrix
| 2 1 1| | 2 3)
(a) (b) | 3 2 (c) A =0 3
-I I 2|
||-2 3
1 31 Characteristic equation is
SoLUTION: (a) A= -2 6
-2 6
=0

À-77 + 12 =0 h=3,4 are eigen values of A.

For eigen vectors we have (4-) X= 0.
When A=3 we have -2x +3y=0 .. eigen vector 1s

and when A=4 we have -3r+ 3y=0 or y=x . eigen vector is Ans.

[2 1 1 |2
1 3-2
(b) Let A= 1 3 2 then its characteristic equation is 2
-1 2 1
|-1 1 2|
(2-)(4-)(1-) =0 hence =1, 2, 4 are the eigen valuessof the given
The eigen vectors are given by (4-)X=0
matrix.
[2-2 1 1

Or 3-2 2 |y|=0
-1 1 2-2 || 2
xty+z= 0, x + 2y +2z = 0, xty +z= 0
For =1 we have
which give x = 0, y= 1, z=-1, hence [0 1-1] is the eigen vector.
For = 2, we have Ox + ytz=0, x +y+ 2z = 0, -* +y=0.
These give y+ z =0 and y=x hence eigen vector is [1 1 -1]'.
And for \= 4, we have -2x + y tz =0, x-y+ 2z = 0, -x ty - 2z =0

or -2x + y + z=0 and x -y+ 2z=0 + 5 1

.:. eigen vector is [3 S 1] Ans
3

|1-2 2 3
(c) The characteristic equation of A is 0 3-2 1 =0

0 1-2
or
(1-2)(3-.) (1-2)=0. Hence the eigen values of A are A=1, 1,3.
Next, for 2=3 the eigen vector is the solution of (4-3) X=0
-2 2 31| x
or
0 0 1||y =0 which gives z=0 and -2x +2y + 3z=0 or x=y
0 0 -2
Eigen vector of A for =3 is [1 1 01.
 295
Dlagonallzing
System of SimultaneouIs Lquations, Eigon Values, Eigon Voctors,
the cigcn vCctors arc the solution of (4- )X 0.
|0 2
2 1||0 2y +3z-0 and 2y+ z 0

then y=(-3/2)/ and y=

Ihus,let 2
vectorsfor A=1 are ((1 -3 21" and [1 -I 21'. Ans.
thecigen
12, Determine the characteristic roots andthe corresponding characteristic vectors ofthe matrix
AxMPLE
2 1 01
A=0 2 1 [GGSIPU 2007]
|0 0 2

SOLUTION:Since Ais an upper triangular matrix the characteristic roots are =2, 2, 2.
characteristicvectors, we write (4-)X=0
For
(2-)xty =0, (2- ^) y +z= 0 and (2- ) z=0
=2 we have y.= 0,. z =0
Ontaking

Thus,the eigen vector can be taken as x=1, y=0,z=0 whete t is arbitrary that is,0 Thus three

eie vectors can be obtained by taking three different values of t as [1 0 01, [2 0 01,
illustration. Ans.
B0 0'as
ExAMPLE7.13. Obtain the eigen values and eigen vectors for the matrix
[2 0 1 8 -6 2
(a) A=0 2 0 (b) A=-6 7 -4
2 -4 3
and verify that their eigen vectors are orthogonal. (GGSIPU 2011, 2014, 2015]
SoLUTION: (a) The characteristic equation for the matrix A is |4-N|=0
2 1
0 2-2 0 =0 (2-1-(2-)=0
1 0 2-2

(2-2) (2-+ 1) (2--1) =0 Hence theeigen values ofAare =1, 2, 3. Ans.

Now for eigen vectors Xof 4, we have (4 ) X=0 where X- [x y z]'.

2-A 0 1 (2-)x +z = 0
0 2-1 0 y| =0 (2-2)y =0
1 x+(2-)z =0
Now,, when =1 we have xtz=0, y=0, that is, if x=1, then z=-1, y=0
nd the eigen vector for 2=1, is X, =[1 0
Next, when h=2 we have z -:
=0, x=0, y=)
296

and the eigen vector for d 2 is N, (0 I 01. Advanced Englne r

Next, when -3 we have -xtz0, y) and X-z0.
Thus, if we take x | then z 1,y= 0, the cigen vector for
Now, for orthogonality of eigenvectors =
X,.N,=1.0+0.1 +(-1)0=0
X,.X=1.l +0.0+(-1) | =0
and X,.X=0.1 +1.0+0.l =0
Therefore X,. A,. X, are orthogonal to each other.
(b) The characteristic equation of A is |A-I|=0

-6
-6
7-2
2
-4 =0 or 13-1824 45,=0 or
Hen
Nh-3)(-15)=0
or

2 -4 3-2
Thus, the eigen values of Aare , =0, Ay =3, y=15.
The eigen vector X, ofA corresponding to , =0 isthe solution of the
system of eg
that is,
(A-,)X = 0, where X=[x, x, x]'.
&x -6x, +2x, =0
equations
- 6x,+7x,-4x, = 0
2x,-4x, t+ 3x, =0
Eliminating x, from the last twoequations, gives - Sx, +5x, =0 Or

Setting x, = kj we get X, =k and x=k,/2.

The eigen vector of A corresponding to ) =0, is 2

(k0)

Similarly, for A=3 we get X, k, 1 (k, 0) and for = 15, we get -2 (+0,
-2
Further, since A is symmetric matrix, the eigen vectors X,, X,, X should be mutually orthogonal.
X,X, = (1) (2) +(2)(1) +(2)(-2)=0
X,X, = (2) (2) +(1)(-2) +(-2) (1) =0
Hence verihi
X,. X, =(2) (1) +(-2) (2) +(1) (2) =0.
CALEY-HAMILTON THEOREM:
JGGSIPU2M
Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
PROOF: For asquare matrix A oforder nthe characteristic equation is JA-1|=0
or (-1y' ["+ a,r*ta,rt. ta]=0
Replacing by A, gives A"+a,At=l +a, A+...ta, I=0.
We knowthat [A-A I] adj[A- I]=|A-2I|I
 297
crstem f Simuianeous tquations, Eigen Valuos Eioe) Vectors.,
Diagonans
- ) has clements
as cofactors of the and theclencnts of
mocr of first clemcnts of |A 2 I|
degree in A. the elennents of adi (A ) are polynomialsin 2. of degree
lhe
M (A I) can be
adi
i l l Therefore,
an wrilten as a matrix
A)-B,"- I4 B,"... B,
polynomialin , as .(3)
Cquation()))becomes
w8()ano(.)
l+,"+. ta, powersA)|B,"+
Tmamgthe,o-cflicicntsof terms of same]1-(A of on bothB,2"2t...
sides, we getB" |
(-)"|= -B,!
(-1'a,l = AB,-B,1
(1Y'a,l = AB, -B,I

(-1y' a,l = AB,

wllngthe"above equations by A", A,An-2 .,Irespectively, and then adding them, we get
4*4,4a,4^2t..ta,] =--B,A"
+A'B,-B,A+AB,-B,A"+.. t AB,
A"+a,A-l t a,A"Z+... t a,l =0, hence the
find A-! as given below :
theorem.
0

theoremis often used to

The
Pemultiplyingthe.above equation by A, gives A" +t a,A-2+ a,A-3 +... ta,jI t a,A=0
HAl+ a,A*+ a,A*t.. +t a, I].
aMPLE 7.14. (a) UseeCaley-Hamilton theorem to express A -4A-7A+11A'-A-10 I
in terms of A where A=
[GGSIPU 2011; AKTU 2018]

(0) Using Caley Hamilton theorem, find 4$, if A=| 2|

|2 -1 [GGSIPU 2009]
uTON: (9) Characteristic equation of Ais A-AI|=0
|1-1 4
=0 or 2-42-5 =0
2 3-2 ...(1)
BCaley-Hamilton theorem, A satisfies (1) hence A'-4A-5I =0.
..(2)
Thetefore the given expression A-4A*-7A+11A'-A- 10I
=A(A'-4A-SI)-2A'+ 11A²-A-10I =AO)-
=-2A (A'-4A -SI) +3A'-11A-101 = -2A
2A'+11A-A-10I
(0)+3A-11A-101
- 3(A'-4A- SI) +A +5I = 0+A+5I = 6 4
|2 8|
|. Hence the characteristic equation is |1-2 2
2
-1| 2 -1
=0 Or 22-5=0.
Dyaley-Hamiltontheorem we have A-5/=0 or
|0
25 0 [625
and 48= Ans.
0 25| 0 625|
298

Advanced Engine ring

2 -1
ExAMPLE 7.15. Verify Caley-Hamiltontheorem for the matrix 4 2 -1
2

SoLUTION: Characteristic cquation ofthe matrix Ais |1-/|=0. (GGSIPU 201 ,2012
2- -1
-1 2 -| | 0 or -64+92-4 =0
1 -1 2-|
Using Caley-Hamilton theorem, we get A'-64+94-4/= 0 or 43

Here 2=-5
6-5
6 -5 4'=AA=|-21 22 -21
2221] -21=4|. -6A+9A
6 | 21 -21 22
22 -21 211 6 -5
2 -1 1
A -64 +94 =21 22 -21|-6|-5 6 -5+9| -1 2
-1
|21 -21 22| 5 -5 6| 1 -1 2
4 0 0
=0 4 0=4/

0 0 4| HencePr
EXAMPLE 7.16. Verify Caley Hamilton theorem for the matrix
1 2 -21|
A =|-1 3 and use it to find A and A4
|0 -2 1

SoLUTION: The characteristic equation of Ais |A-|=0

2 -2
or -1 3-2 0 =0 or 23-522+921=0.
-2 1
This means, we are to verify A-5A+9A-|=0
1 2 -2|| 1 -2| -1 12 -4|
Now A' = -1 3 0| -1 3 -4 2

0 -2 -2 2 -8 1

-1 12 -4 1 2 -2 -13 42 -2|
and A³ =A'A = -4 2|| -1 3 -11 9 10
2 -8 1 0 -2 1 10 -22 -3|
-13+5+9-1 42 -60 +180 -2+20-18-0|
10 10+0-0 =0
A³- 5A+9A-1=-l1+20-9-0 9-35+27-1
10-10+0-0 -3-5+9-1
-22 + 40-180
Hence the theorem is verified.
 Cvetem of 299
Genera Simutaneous Equations, Etgen Valuns Fia0n Vectors.
Diagonalzny
(1)throughout
mulplving by, A, wC gct
ASA 91Ar )
\i, -1 S+9 12--10+0 44 10+0] 3 2 6|
A-A-5A + 9) - -4+5+(0 7-15 +9 24 0+0 |2 Ans.
2+0+0 -8+ 10+0 |-S+9 |2 2 5
we multiply()by Aand get A-5A'+ 9A-A =0
-65+9 +1 210-108+2 -10+36-2| -55 104 24
-9A+ A= -$5 + 36- 1
45-63 +3
|50-18 +0 -110+72-2 50-18+0
-20 -15 32 Ans.

-15-9+1 32 -40 -23 |

[2 1 1|
Verify Caley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix
4=0 1 0. Also express
1 1 2|
8 Sal+74-34+A-S4' + 84- 24 +I as quadratic polynomial in A.
[GGSIPU 2004, 2007
Thecharacteristic equation of Ais
TION:
1
|A-1|=0
01-2 o =0 or (2-^)(1 -)(2-) +h-1=0 or 23-522+ 7h-3=0
1 2-2|
B,Caley-Hamiltontheorem, we have 4-54 +74-31=0.
[2 1 1| 2 1 1 5 4 4|
S 4 4|2 1 1| 14 13 13|
0 10=|0 1 0 and 4
=A'4=0 1 0 0 1 0= 0 1
|1 1 2 |1 1 2 4 4 5
|4 4 5||L1 2 13 13 14|
[14 13 13] |25 20 20| |14 7 71 3 0 0| 0 0 01
Å-54+ 74-3/ = 0 1 0 50+ 0 7 0 03 0 =0 0 0
| 13 13 14| 20 20 25 7 7 14| 0 0 3| |0 0 0
et. -54'+74°-34 +4-54' +84-24 +l
=4 (4°-SA+74-31) +4(4'-54 +84-2)+1
=0+4(4'-54+7A-3/) +4+A+I= 0+0+4+A+I = A+4+1 Ans.
LaNPLE 1.18, Verify Caley-Hamiltion theorem for the following
matrices and find their inverses.
1 2 0] 1 -1 1|
()|-1 1 2 (ii) 4 10 [AKTU 2019; GGSIPU 2013, 2014, 2015)
|1 2 1| 8 1 1|
|12 0] |1-4 2 0
VALTION: (Ó A=-1 1 2 The characteristic equation is -1 1 2 =0
12 1 1 2 1-4|
(1-4)0*-2-3)-22,
byCaley-Hamilton' theorem,+ 6=0 or A-32+-3=0.
we have A-3A+A-31=0 .)
300
Advanced Engine ring Math
|-1 4 41 [-I 10 12]
Now 0 3 4 and =
0 6 5 -1 16 17
A-3A' +A : =3| = 0 hence Caley-Hamilton theorem is easily verified.
Next, multiplying (i) throughout by A', we get A- 3A + I- 3A-! = )
-| 4 4| -3 -6 0 [1 0 01
1 3
3 -3 -6+0 1 0 -2
Or
A=A-3A +I)= 3
3
0 3 4+
3
3 4
-3 -6 -30 0 1
065
I-3 2
() The characteristic egaution ofA is |4-I|=0
-1 1
4 1-2 0 =0 or 23-322--1=0
8
Now, by Caley-Hamiton theorem, Asatisfies (1 )hence 4'-34-4-1=0
Multiplying throughout by 4', we get A- 341=4-.
1||1 -1 1 | 5 -1 2]
Now A =4 1 0 4 1 0 8 -3 4

8 1 1|| 8 1 1| 20 -6 9

5 -1 21 -3 3 -3| -1 1 2 -1]
A= 8 -3 4+-12 -3 0+ 0 -1 0 =4 -7
Ans.
20 -6 9 |-24 -3 -3| 0 -1 |-4 -9 s

DIAGONALISING A SQUARE MATRIX:

A square matrix A of order n Xn, is called diagonalizable if there exists a matrix Pof order nxn an%
that PAP is a diagonal matrix. When such a matrix P exists, we say that P diagonalizes A.
THEOREM: Forany square matrix A of order n having linearly independent eigen vectors, there existsA
matrix P such that r'AP is a diagonal matrix.
PROOF: For convenience, we choose A as a 3 x 3 square matrix. Let its eigen values be , , , and
corresponding eigen vectors be

so that AX, = ,X,, AX, =,X, AX, =

Z

Now consider the square matrix [X, X, X,] =y 2 '3 P say, then we have

A.P =A[X, X, X,] = [AX,AX, AX,] - x,4,x, ,x] 0

0 01
0
=
0 = PD where D =
Z30 0 3
 System of Simultaneous Equations, Etgen Values. Flgpn Vectors. 301
-p'PD) (P'P) D D
Diagonalzing*"
PwhichdiagonabzCs the given matrix A, is
called the M0DAL
of A. The modal matriy Pis MATRIN the resuluns
thes and
Discalied SPECTRALMATRIX
matrix. found by grouping he ci
MATRICES.
and
AR besqusre matrices of same order, the matrix Ais said to be similar to B if there exists an

Psuchthat
A=PBP or
PA= BP B- PAP-l
Bifand onlywif B is similar to A.
Such a matrix P is called the
that:"Similar
matrices have the same
characteristic equation and
SIMILARITY MATRIA.
lit
converse of it is not true. Thus,two hence same eigen values.
matrices which have same
similar. Also, if A is similar to B and B is similar to C characteristic equation need
then A is similar to C.
consider
erample, itwo matrices A= and B 2|
for

Bwillbe
similarifthere exists an invertible matrix P such
that A= P BP or PA= BP
We are to find a, b, C, d such that PA =
BP, that is.
d

lc d-2 0 or Sa-2b 5a a+2e b+ 2d]

|5c- 2d 5c| -3a +4c -3b+4d|
5a-26=a+2c, 5a=b+2d,
solution is a=1, b=1, c=1, 5c-2d=3a+4c,
d= 2. and 5c=-3b+ 4d
1 1
keeiore, P= which is non-singular, hence Aand B are
|1 2] similar matrices.

7.19, If possible, diagonalize A

TON: Characteristic equation of A is A I = 0
1-. 4
=0 ’ =-1, 3 are eigen
0 3-. values of A.
athe eigen vectors of Aare
solutions of AX= X. Therefore for =-1 and 3 the eigen vectors
and
respectively.

emodal matrix The eigen vectors are linearly independent, since P is

non-singular.
p'AP=
Seigen 0 3|
Tten as values down the main diagonal, corresponding to the order in which the
HNEr, if colwe umns of P. eigen vectors
use the other
order in writing the eigen vectors as columns and write
|1 1] 3 01
then we get Q'AQ= Note it.
0 -1|
302
Advanced Engine ring Me
CNAMPLE 7.20, Find the modal matrix Msuch that M'AM is a
6 -2 2| diagonal matrix,
3 1 -1
(a)-2 3 -1 (b)-2 | 2
2 -1 3 |0 1 2
(GGSIPU 2011: 2013: AKTU 2016, 2019]
SoLUTION: (a) The characteristic equation of matrix4 is |A -T|=0
|6 -2 2
or -2 3 -1| =0 -23+122'-362+32=0 or

(h-2}(-8)-0
or

2 -1 3
Hence, the eigen values are 2, 2 and 8. For eigen vectors, we have (4-)x=0
-2r +(3-2) y-z=0 and
2x-y+(3-2)z=0.
or
(6-)x-2y+ 2z =0,
Now, for =8, wehhave -2x-2y +2z=0, -2r-5y-z=0 and 2x-y-5z=(0,
2

which give I=2, y=-1, z=1, hence one eigen vector is

Next, for A=2, we have onlyone equation as 2x-y+z=0.

Here, let us take x=t then we have y-z=2t.
Now for z= 0, y= 21., and for y=0, z = -2t

Thus, two eigen vectors for A =2 are 21 and 0 that is, 2 and 0
0 -21 0

2 1 -1] 4 -2 2

Therefore the modal matrix M= -1 2 0 and M= 2 5 1

10 2 15
2 0 0|
M'AM =0 2 0 the diagonal matrix. Ans.

|0 0 8
[3
1 -1| |3-2 1 -1
(b) Let A=-2 1 2 Characteristic equation is -2 1-2 2 =0
0 1 2| 0 2-2
(3-)(0-32) +4-22. +2=0 or (-1)(a-2)(^-3)=0 : the eigen values ofA as )=1,23.
For 2 = | the eigen vector is the solution of (A - )X = 0
2x, t x - x} =0, -2r, + 2x, =0, x, t x = 0.
Eigen vector for l is [1 -1 1.
For A= 2, the eigen vector is the solution of (A -21)X =0.
*tx,-X3 =0, 2x-,+ 2r,=0, x, =0.
The eigen vector for =2 is [1 0 11.
For A=3, the eigen vector is the solution of (A-3DX =0
or x-x; =0, x t x,-}=0, x,=X
 Custem of Simultaneous Equations, 303
Elgon Valuos, Elgon Vectors, Diagonalizing .
Ligenvectorfor
t d=3 is (0 1 1

tnodalmatrix |-1 -1
M=-1 0 1 and M
Thusthe 2 I -1|
|-1 0
-1 -1 1|| 3 1 -11[ 1 1 01
D= M'AM
he diagonalmatrix 2 1 -1|| -2 1 -1 0 I
-1 0 1 0 1
2| 11 1
-1 -1 1|| 1 1 0] |1 0 0|
4 2 -2 -1 0 1 =0 2 0 Ans.
-3 0 3|| 1 1 1| |0 0 3|
ExAMPLE721. The eigen vectors of a matrix A
[L.0, -1] [0, 1, -1]' and [1, 1, 0]'corresponding
to the eigen values 1, 1, 3 are
respectively. Find the matrix A.
[GGSIPU 2008; 201I]
1 0 1|
SOLUTION: Theemodal matrix of Ais P= 0 11
|P|=2.
-1 -1 0
1 -1 1? 1 -1 -1]
Here adj(P) =-1 1 1 .

-1 -1 1
0 0
Therefore, P'AP =D=0 1 0 ’ PP'AP) =PD or AP= PD
|0 0 3
1 0 11|1 0 01 1 -1 -11|
A -PDP-l, 1 1||0 1 0 -1 1 -1
-1 -1 0||0 0 3| 1 1 1
1 0 3|| 1 -1 -1| 2 1 1|
1 3||-1 1 -1 12 1 Ans.
-1 -1 0| 1 1 00 1
00 1 1|
EXAMPLE 722, Diagonalize the matrix A=
-1 2 01
-1 0 2 1
1 0 -1 0|
SoAlhLoUTIugh ON: The eigen' values of the given matrix Afrom|4-N|=0 are A, =0, ,=1, 4=1, , =0.
==1 the matrix has four linearly independent eigen vectors as
 304 Advanced Engine ing Math
0
for , =1, X=
for , -0, X, = -1
for , I, X, = 0 and lor a
1 0
-1 0
2,x,
-1 0 2 1
hence P-l=
Modal matrix P= 1 0 -| 0
-1 I 0 0
I 01 0 0 1 -1 0
J0 0 0 0
010 0
Thus, p-'AP = D =
001 0
|0 0 0 2
matrix 4 with
IMPORTANT: We have seen in the past that a real symmetric n Xn
has a set of n mutually orthogonal linearly independent eigen vectors. It follows
to that
diswhentrict eigen val
the diagonalizing matrix for A when normalized eigen vectors of A are used form the construcoftin.
the resulting diagonalizing matrix willbe an orthogonal matrix. columns
QUADRATIC FORMS:
of X= [x , , is a
Aquadratic form in n variables x, x

the form
n n
, n
homogeneous expresson
as obtained from the coefficient matrix A(a.)
ti

i=lj=l
=4,+ (ap t ay) x t (a, t a,)3 t...t (anta) x,

Putting C,= (4, ta) hen C=G and C +C; 4,t 4r

n n

Therefore, the quadratic form can be written as = C x ;

i=lj=l

where the matrix C(=C)==(4 +A) is areal symmetric matrix. Thus, the coefficient matrix in aquadratic
form can always be assumed (or can be construed) as areal symmetric matrix.
For example, let us find areal symmetric matrix Cofthe quadratic form. Q=x+ 3x+ 2x+ 2r,i, tótt;
Here the coefficient matrix A of Q=X'AN) is given by
| 2 0]
A= 0 3 6
0 0 2|
1 2 0] 1 0 0]
Therefore, the symmetric metrix C=4+4)
2
= 0 3 6+:+2 3 0=| 3 3
|0 0 2 T0 6 2 0 3 2]
Rank ofa Quadratic Form:
In the quadratic form Q=X'AX the rank of thecoefficient matrix A0s
called the rank of the quadrauG
The number of non-zero eigen values of A also gives the rank ofthe quadratic form. Ifthe rank ofthe square
 305
General
of,
System of Simultaneous Equations, Eigen Valuos, Eigon Vectors, Diagonaiziy *
CnsSenCY
otherwise
(order Nn) is less than n, that is, 4| 0 then the quadratic form is calledIsingular
sgstri.1
NO-Smgular

cANONICALFORM (OR STANDARD FORM):

in
torm hich mixed product terms are missing and only squared terms are there, is called
yuatratic sometimes called standard form.
nOnicsl formor
OF QUADRATIC FORM TO
REDUCTION CANONICAL FORM:
be # n Xn
real
symmetric matrix having eigen values ,, ys ., and P be an orthogonal
d Adiagonalizes A, sothat P'AP=D where Dis adiagonal matrix with the eigen values of
thar
mstin
the leading diagonal elements. Then the change of variable X = PY. involving the column vectors
4
As and Y= y 2 , y,) transforms the real quadratic form Q= XAX into the
'+yy
2 +
ndardform
Since P is an orthogonal matrix, P'AP : = D. Putting X = PY in Q = X'AX, we get
x'AX =(PY A(PY) = y (p"A P)Y = Y'DY = y,'+ yy,t.. t y:
ExAMPLE7.23. Reduce the quadratic form () 3x + 5x, + 3x - 2x,x, + 2x,x - 2x}X2
(i)x+3x7+ 3x-2x,, to the canonical form. [GGSIPU 2013,2016]
3 -1

SoLUTION::()Herethe coefficient matrix A=-1 5 -1||, X

1 -1 3
Theeigen values of A e=2,3, 6. Here Q=X'AX.
are
So the standard formof Q is P =2yf+ 3y +6y?.

For A=2, 3,6 the eigen vectors ofA are

1 1 1
V6
1 -2
Normalized modal matrix M= 0 so that M'AM=D.
1 1

Therefore,the canonical form is à +; +hyy = 2y +3y +6y Ans.

|1 0 01
() Here A=0 -3 1 and X= the eigen values of A are 1, 2, 4.
|0 -1 3
i. The canonical form y? +2y + 4y Ans.
nUsenul consequence of the diagonalized form of a
ocr Very easily. Since we have had 4= matrix is that it can be raised to apositive integral
PDP', we can have
nd, in general 4 = (PDP-) (PDP-)= PDP PDP = PDIDP = PD³p-l
AM = PDp, for m=1,2,..
 309
System of Simutaneous Equations, Eigen Velues. Elgen ...
Vectors, Diagonalizing
Gonera/

O
Y

EXERCISE 7B
values and eigen 4 2 --2
the eigen
Determine. vectors of the matrix 5 3 2
-2 4
findits
modal matrix and diagonalize it. (GGSIPU 2017)
Also
anysouare
matrix and its transpose have same [GGSIPU2012]
of an orthogonal matrix then show thatcharacteristic
that
Show
Àisancigen value 1/à is also equation.
its eigen value.
eigen values and eigen vectors of the matrix
Findthe
-9 2 6 2 I 11
[GGSIPU 2018] (i) 5 0 -3, (ii)|2 3 2 [GGSIPU 2012]
"-5 4 16 4 11
values and eigen vectors of the |3 3 4
Findthe eigen matrix
* -2 2-37 2 1 1
(ii) 1 2 1
0 [GGSIPU 2013]
0 0 1

8 -8 -27
Veify Caaley-Hamilton theoremfor the matrix () 4 -3 -2 and hence find A-. GGSIP 2017]
3 -4 1
3 1
Express 24-3A+A?-41 in terms of Aif A= [AKTU 2017
-1 2
3 -3 4
A fA=|2 -3 4 find two non-singular matrices P and O such that PAQ =I
and hence find A.
0 -1 1
[GGSIP 2009)
7 -1 31 |1 2 3
9
Tleing Caley Hamilton theorem, find the inverse of the matrix (a)6 1 4 (b)2 4 5
|2 4 8
|3 5 6|
and express A'-11A'-4A° +A° +A*-11A'-3A'+2A+1I as quadratic polynomial. [AKTU2019)
-1 2 0]
Verify Caley-Hamilton theoremfor the matrix A=-1 1 2. Also, obtain A and A'.
| 1 2 1|
-9 4 4 [GGSIPU 2008]
I1. Show that the matrix A = -8 3 4 can be reduced to the diagonal form with diagonal elements
-16 8 7
as eigen values of A. [GGSIP 2012]
1 1 0] -4 41
I2 Diagonalise the matrix (i) 4=|0 1 1, (ii) A= 12 -11 12 [GGSIP 2013]
0 0 4 -4
Ihe eigne vectors of a3 x 3 matrix Acorresponding to the eigne values 1, 2, 3 are (1, 2, 1)',
2,3,4)', (1,4,9) respectively. Find the matrix A. [GGSIPU 2014; 2015]
USing Gram-Schmidt process, construct an orthogonal normal basis of R given a basis of vectors
1 1
Ay, X, as X, =1|, X,=-2, X=|2
310 Advanced Engine ring Methma
VECTORSPACES

Oplo noW we had a vector with

three components. On occasions it needs to
components. Set of n numbers (x., X, .. x,) can be
dimensional space R". thatis. n tuples. Thus,
throught of as the
n-dimensional vecBor is an
coorgener
d
ordered X= in
set ateal
size
called the dimension of the space to
Wn components x,, X,....x. Here n is
ncomponents. which he
When we say n-Vector it means a vector with
The norm of a vector in R": The norm of a vector X(X|»
q1/2
Xy , , denoted
by |lE
vec¡r be

-||X|
IS given by l(,.x,.. ,)||= y +xt.. +* x |2
A vector X is called a unit vector if |X=1.
Two vectors ( y ,x)and ;J . ) are equal if and
only if x
2
Null(or zero) vector in R" is the vector 0=(0, 0, ., 0) Xy
Scaling a vector in R":
11 X(,Iy,.., x) is a vector and is scalar then the scalingthe vector by , written as NX,
is
gveat,
VECTOR SPACE OVER A
FIELD
If Vis a set of vectors andE is afield of scalars then V) is called a vector space over the field F
vectors X, Y, Ze Vand a, b, ce F,the following properties hold good.
I. Closure property: If X, Ye V then X+ Ye V.
2. Associative property: X+ (Y+Z) = (X+ ) +Z.
3. Existence of additive identity: For all XE Vthere exists a zero or null vector 0'
such th¡
X+0 = X= 0+X.
4. Existence of additive inverse: For a vector X E V there exists a unique vector -Xr .
such that X+(-X) = 0= (-X)+X.
5. Commutativity: X+ Y= Y+X for all X, Ye V.
6. Scalar multiplication: If Xe Vand ae F, then aXe V.
7. Distributivityof scalar product over vector sum: a(X+ Y) =aX+ aY for allX, Ye Vand ae .
8. Distributivity of scalarproduct over ascalar sum: (a+ b)X = aX+ bX for all a, be F and Xe l.
9. Associativity of scalar product: (ab)X = a(bX) for X e V.
10. Existence of multiplicative identity: 1X= X for Xe Vand le F.
REMARKS: () If F is a field of real numbers then Vis a vector space over the field F ofreal numbers. IfF
is a field of complex numbers then Vis taken as a vector space over the field of complex numbers.
(i) If V is abelian w.r.t. vector addition then cancellation law holds good, i.e.,X+Z = Y+Za1=1.
(iii) X+ Y=0 ’ X = -Y (iv) -X) = X.
in R
Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors: Let {X, X,, .., X,} be aset of n-vectors alinea
then it is said to be linearly dependent if and only if one of the n-vectors can be expressed as art
these
combination of the remaining n-vectors. However, if X, X, ., X are not linearly dependentthen
said to be linearly independent.
In other words, if S is a set of non-zero vectors X,, X,, ...,X., then
(a) Set S is linearly dependent if cX, + C,X, +... +c1m X = 0 is true for some seu o
Cj, Cy.., Cm not allzero.
(b) Set S is linearly independent if cX t c,X, +....t c_X.
m m
=0 is true when all c
 311
SVstem of Simultaneous quations, Eigen Values, Eiyen Vectors, Diagonalizing ...

Anorthogonalset of vectors is always lincarly indepcndent.

Y be an othogonal sct of vcctors,then X, X, 0, i4j. Consider the vector equation
. ,CX, t.mm0 wherc , C),C are scalars. .(1)
Or
c,(X, X) 0 or c||X, 0.
1hen
0 we get ;0. Simlarly, taking inncr products in() with X, X,.., X, successively,
0. Therefore, the set of orthogonal vectors X.. X... X is lincarly independent.
ANPE727. Eind the sum of the pairs of vectors X =(2, 1, 0, 2, 2) and Y=(1, -1, 2, 2, 4),
their norms and their dot product.
NTION: |+=(3, 0, 2, 4,,6), X Y=2.1 +l(-)+0(2) + 2(2) +2(4) =13
|X = 2+1+0 +2 +2 =S3.
I|Y| =1+(-1) +22 +2 +4' = V26.
IX+Y|| = 3 +0 +2 +4' +6 =9+ 4+16+36 = J65.
xAMPLE7.28. (a) Testthe vectors X,=(4,0,2), X,=(2,2, 0), X, =(1, 1,0) and X, -(5, 1,2) in R for
linear dependence or independence.
(b) Test the vectors X =(2, 1, 1,0), X, = (0,2, 0, 1), X, =
in R for linear dependence or (1, 1,0,2), X, =(0,2, 1, 1)
independence.
SOLUTION: (a) Consider the vector equation
c,X,t c,, tCz,te440 where C, C, Cg, C¡ are scalars of the field F of R'.
4c, + 2c, tc,+5c=0, 2c, tC, te,=0 and 2c, + 2c, =0
c4=-Cy -c, t2c,+eg=0, -c,+ 2c, tc,=0,
me there is only one equation connecting C, C, and c and hence also
c. This means that if c, and
egiven arbitrary values, not both of which are zero, then constants c, and c, will be determined in
hem Thus, a set of constants C» Cz C3, C4 that are not allzero can be found that satisfy the terms
which showsthat the set of vectors is linearly dependent. vectors equation
) consider the vectors eqaution Ct cy, t cX,t cgX, =0.
2e, te; =0, c,+2c,te,t 2c4=0, cte4 =0, c,t2c,t C, =0
4=-C, hence C, =0, C=0 i: Cc,=C=C4 =0
Hence, the vectors X, X,, X, Xy are linearly independent.
Soan of a Vector Sp¡ce: Let the set of non-zero vectors X, X,
.., X
Vhave the property that every vector in V can be expressed as a linear belonging
to a vector space
Then the combination of these vectors.
vectors X,, X, .., X are said to span the vector space V.
Basis of Vector Space: Let vectors X,, X, ., X in R" are said to form a
basis for the vector space R" if
The vectors X,Xy, .., X, are linearly independent and every vector in R" can be
combination of the vectors X, X, .., X expressed as a linear
Dimension of a Vector Space: The dimension of a vector space is the number of
vectors in its basis.
Inner Product of n

Vectors: Let Xand Y betwo vectors in R", then X"Y=x;y; =Y·X

is called the i i=1
inner product (or dot product) of X and Y and is ascalar quantity.
Orthogonal Vectors: The vectors Xand Yfor which X- Y= 0, are said to be orthogonal vectors.
 3
1. P,() = [351- 30² + 3]) 3.
8(2n-1)
8(2n-1) 4(2n +l) 8(2n+3)
3
4.
f)-P, ( + ,()+P,
416 (1)-P
32 (*)+... 2
8 4 2
6. () f) = 4P, + 4P, + 4P + 3Po (i) fr) = B P½ 5
P +8Po .
4 47
7. () 2P, tP,
3
+ P + Po -4-R+4Pg (i)
3
242
- 3,7(5
3 5x-3x 3
8.
2n +1 10. fa) 7
2 * 2 . .-;R)-B()+..
2

EXERCISE 6A
2 0 3/2 0 1 3/2 1
1
1.
2 (A + A') + (A- A') = 0 4 3/2+ -1' 0 -1/2
|3/2 3/2 -2 -3/2 1/2 0
4 -6
cos sin 0]
2. B-1 = Yes, orthogonal. 3. 1 - 16 -13|
- sin 0 cos0 37
-6 -13 1

cos 20 - sin 20|

5. JA|A 6.
sin 20 COs 20
7. x= 1, y=- 1, z =1.
8. Vectors are linearly dependent. If the given vectors are X, Y, Z then Z =X+ Y.
10. (i) Rank (A) = 2 (ii) rank (A) = 3.
-2 11 0 1
1 -1 1
1 1 0 2 -1
11. (a) -8 6 2 (b)
2 -4 1 -3 1
5 -3 1
-1 0 -2 2
1 -1 01
12. -2 3 -4 13. (i) Rank (A)=3. (i) rank (A) = 3. (iii) rank=3.
-2 3 -3
0 01 1/2 0
| I, 0
14. =PAQ, where P=-1 11 0 and Q=0 1/2 -1
00
-1 -2 0 0 0 1
15. () Rank (A) = 2 (ii) 3. 16. X, + X, - 2X, = 0 17. 2X, +X, - X, =0
Answersand
Hints to the Problems in Exercises 933

Hint : Lctt Z=(Em)= (a t ib,)= A+iB where A= (a,), B=(bmun-

18.
Since Z is Hernmitian Z* = (Zy' = Z.
(Z)'=(amn ibmn)=(a..- ib,n)= (a,m t ib,m)
= a,, and b nm = -b Ais symmetric and B is skew-symmetrics).
Cmn mn

EXERCISE 7A
Consistent, p (A) =p (A:B) = 2 x =1, 2= k, y = -2 +3k. 2. Inconsistent.
1.
6+ K 2-3K
(a)Consistent x= z =K where Ke R, (b) ) = 1.
3. 5
4. () unique solution for A# 5. (ii) no solution for A= 5 and u 9.
(ii) many solution for =$, u =9.
53K -31 5K- 65 -7K+ 164
w=K
5. Many solutions, x 75
y=
75
z =
75
6. (a) Inconsistent. (ii) Inconsistent
7. a#3 and b may have any value.
(a) ()2 =3, u# 10 (i) A+3, 4 has any value (ii) à = 3, 4 = 10
8.
13t -9 47t-32
(b) z = 1, y =
7

EXERCISE 7B

eigen vectors are

1. Eigen values are 1, 2, 5 and corresponding
[2, -1, 3]', [2, -1, 4].
(ii) 1, -1, 2, Eigen vectors [1, -1, 2],
4. (i) -1, 6, (1, 1), (2, -5) 0 1

vectors 2
(ii) 1, 1, 3 eigen
3 (2, -1, 01.
-3, 5; Eigen vectors are |1, 2, -1], [1, 1, 1]',
5. (i)) Eigen values = -3,

1, ,=1, y =3 eigen vectors

(ii) 2, =
|1861 36761 (b) 138A 403 1.
[-11 16 10| 7. (a) 1838 3699
1 -10 14 8
6. 07
6 8 8 -1 0 1 -1
-7 1
0 0 A-= -2 3 -4
1 0
P=
0 -1 1
2 3 |-2 3 -3
8 [16 27 341
0
1 -3 2
-4/25 2/5 -7/50 (b) -3 3 -1 and A+A±I =27 50 61
-1/5
-4/25 1 2 -1 |34 61 77|
(a) 13/50| (Hints: A= A'+ ll4+ 4/
9. -3/5
11/25
934 Advanced Engineering Mathematics
[-2/3 -2 0
-I 10 127
A= and A = 1 -2/3 -2
10.
-1 16 17| -1 -2 -2/3|
0 0 [-3 0 0| 15 -6 31
-1 1
1 0 13. 1 2 7
12. () 0 -2 0 (ii) 0 6
0 0 -3 00 1| -17 2 19|
+1|
14. P, = P, = P, =

EXERCISE 7C

1. u,u, =0, u,' u, =0 and u,u, =0 so the set is orthogonal

set is
|| u, || =|| u, || =|| u, || = V9 =3. Hence the orthonormal
1/3 2/31 [-2/3|
2/3 1/3| and u, = 2/3
1/3
-2/3 2/3
2. [Hint: X and Y are polynomials of degree n but XY will be of degree 2n. V is not vector space.
Here (1, 1) + (K,';)=(K, Y})]
0 element.
3. V is not a vector space where (1, 1) plays the role of
There is no element in V for which at(-a) =0= (1, 1)
Also the property of left distributivity is not satisfied.
4. u, V, W form a basis in R
get the basis as
5 Dimension of the subspace is 2. Choosing c=0, d= 1andc = 1, d= 0 we
(-1, -1, 0, 1), (-1, 0, 1, 0).
u, = u, lu, = uy H4
6. Vy, Vy, V, V4 are linearly dependent and v, = 3v, + 2v, + 2v,. Next, since u,
=0the set of vectors V, Vy, VË is linearly independent.
7. TX- [15 19]
8 6, 112]
1
9. Ker (T) = V -1 and dimension of Ker(T) =1 ran(T) = Av=

Dimension of ran(T) = 2 since

1 2

10. A=-15/2 3 13/2

1 2