®

Electrical Energy
Storage
PHS

White paper
CAES

Li-ion H2
SNG

NaS
SMES
FES

DLC

RFB December 2011

BEV
2 introduc tion

Electrical Energy Storage, EES, is one of the key electric vehicles with batteries are the most
technologies in the areas covered by the IEC. promising technology to replace fossil fuels by
EES techniques have shown unique capabilities electricity from mostly renewable sources.
in coping with some critical characteristics
of electricity, for example hourly variations in The Smart Grid has no universally accepted
demand and price. In the near future EES will definition, but in general it refers to modernizing
become indispensable in emerging IEC-relevant the electricity grid. It comprises everything
markets in the use of more renewable energy, to related to the electrical system between any
achieve CO2 reduction and for Smart Grids. point of electricity production and any point of
consumption. Through the addition of Smart
Historically, EES has played three main roles. Grid technologies the grid becomes more
First, EES reduces electricity costs by storing flexible and interactive and can provide real-
electricity obtained at off-peak times when its time feedback. For instance, in a Smart Grid,
price is lower, for use at peak times instead information regarding the price of electricity
of electricity bought then at higher prices. and the situation of the power system can be
Secondly, in order to improve the reliability exchanged between electricity production and
of the power supply, EES systems support consumption to realize a more efficient and
users when power network failures occur due reliable power supply. EES is one of the key
to natural disasters, for example. Their third elements in developing a Smart Grid.
role is to maintain and improve power quality,
frequency and voltage. In October 2010, the IEC MSB (Market Strategy
Board) decided to establish a project team to
Regarding emerging market needs, in on-grid plan future IEC activities in EES. This White
areas, EES is expected to solve problems Paper summarizes present and future market
– such as excessive power fluctuation and needs for EES technologies, reviews their
undependable power supply – which are technological features, and finally presents
associated with the use of large amounts of recommendations for all EES stakeholders.
renewable energy. In the off-grid domain,

Acknowledgements

This paper has been prepared by the Electrical

Energy Storage project team, a part of the
Special Working Group on technology and
market watch, in the IEC Market Strategy Board,
with a major contribution from the Fraunhofer
Institut für Solare Energiesysteme.
List of abbreviations 6

Section 1 The roles of electrical energy storage technologies

in electricity use 9

1.1 Characteristics of electricity 10

1.2 Electricity and the roles of EES 10
1.2.1 High generation cost during peak-demand periods 10
1.2.2 Need for continuous and flexible supply 11
1.2.3 Long distance between generation and consumption 12
1.2.4 Congestion in power grids 12
1.2.5 Transmission by cable 12
1.3 Emerging needs for EES 12
1.3.1 More renewable energy, less fossil fuel 12
1.3.2 Smart Grid uses 13
1.4 The roles of electrical energy storage technologies 15
1.4.1 The roles from the viewpoint of a utility 15
1.4.2 The roles from the viewpoint of consumers 16
1.4.3 The roles from the viewpoint of generators of renewable energy 17

Section 2 Types and features of energy storage systems 19

2.1 Classification of EES systems 20

2.2 Mechanical storage systems 20
2.2.1 Pumped hydro storage (PHS) 21
2.2.2 Compressed air energy storage (CAES) 22
2.2.3 Flywheel energy storage (FES) 23
2.3 Electrochemical storage systems 24
2.3.1 Secondary batteries 24
2.3.2 Flow batteries 28
2.4 Chemical energy storage 30
2.4.1 Hydrogen (H2) 30
2.4.2 Synthetic natural gas (SNG) 31
2.5 Electrical storage systems 32
2.5.1 Double-layer capacitors (DLC) 32
2.5.2 Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) 33
2.6 Thermal storage systems 33
2.7 Standards for EES 35
2.8 Technical comparison of EES technologies 36

3
4 CONT E NT S

Section 3 Markets for EES 41

3.1 Present status of applications 42

3.1.1 Utility use (conventional power generation, grid operation & service) 42
3.1.2 Consumer use (uninterruptable power supply for large consumers) 45
3.1.3 EES installed capacity worldwide 47
3.2 New trends in applications 47
3.2.1 Renewable energy generation 47
3.2.2 Smart Grid 51
3.2.3 Smart Microgrid 53
3.2.4 Smart House 54
3.2.5 Electric vehicles 55
3.3 Management and control hierarchy of storage systems 57
3.3.1 Internal configuration of battery storage systems 57
3.3.2 External connection of EES systems 58
3.3.3 Aggregating EES systems and distributed generation (Virtual Power Plant) 58
3.3.4 “Battery SCADA” – aggregation of many dispersed batteries 60

Section 4 Forecast of EES market potential by 2030 61

4.1 EES market potential for overall applications 62

4.1.1 EES market estimation by Sandia National Laboratory (SNL) 62
4.1.2 EES market estimation by the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) 62
4.1.3 EES market estimation for Li-ion batteries by the Panasonic Group 64
4.2 EES market potential estimation for broad introduction of renewable energies 65
4.2.1 EES market potential estimation for Germany by Fraunhofer 65
4.2.2 Storage of large amounts of energy in gas grids 68
4.2.3 EES market potential estimation for Europe by Siemens 68
4.2.4 EES market potential estimation by the IEA 70
4.3 Vehicle to grid concept 71
4.4 EES market potential in the future 72

Section 5 Conclusions and recommendations 75

5.1 Drivers, markets, technologies 76

5.2 Conclusions regarding renewables and future grids 77
5.3 Conclusions regarding markets 78
5.4 Conclusions regarding technologies and deployment 78
5.5 Recommendations addressed to policy-makers and regulators 79
 5.6 Recommendations addressed to research institutions and companies carrying out R&D 80
5.7 Recommendations addressed to the IEC and its committees 81

References 83

Annexes 87

Annex A – Technical overview of electrical energy storage technologies 88

Annex B – EES in Smart Microgrids 90

5
 ons
6 L is t o f a b b r e v i at i

Technical and scientific terms

Br Bromine
BMS Battery management system
CAES Compressed air energy storage
Cd Cadmium
Ce Cerium
CHP Combined heat and power
CO2 Carbon dioxide
Cr Chromium
CSP Concentrated solar power
DLC Double layer capacitor
EES Electrical energy storage
EMS Energy management system
EV Electric vehicle
FB Flow battery
FES Flywheel energy storage
H 2 Hydrogen
HEV Hybrid electric vehicle
HFB Hybrid flow battery
HP High pressure
LA Lead acid
Li-ion Lithium ion (battery)
LP Low pressure
Me-air Metal-air
NaS Sodium sulphur
NiCd Nickel cadmium
NiMH Nickel metal hydride
PCM Phase change material
PHS Pumped hydro storage
PV Photovoltaic
R&D Research and development
RE Renewable energy/ies
RES Renewable energy systems
RFB Redox flow battery
SCADA Supervisory control and data acquisition
SMES Superconducting magnetic energy storage
SNG Synthetic natural gas
UPS Uninterruptable power supply
V2G Vehicle to grid
V2H Vehicle to home (appliances)
VRFB Vanadium redox flow battery
Zi-air Zinc air
Zn Zinc
 Companies, institutions and organizations
IEA International Energy Agency
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
Fraunhofer ISE Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems
MSB (IEC) Market Strategy Board
SEI Sumitomo Electric Industries
SMB (IEC) Standardization Management Board
TEPCO Tokyo Electric Power Company

7
 SECTION 1
The roles of electrical energy
storage technologies in
electricity use
 S E C T I O N 1  ologies in electricity use
10 The roles of ele ctr ical energy storag e techn

1.1 Characteristics of electricity 1.2 Electricity and the roles of EES

Two characteristics of electricity lead to issues 1.2.1 High generation cost during peak-
in its use, and by the same token generate demand periods
the market needs for EES. First, electricity is
consumed at the same time as it is generated. Power demand varies from time to time (see
The proper amount of electricity must always Figure 1-1), and the price of electricity changes
be provided to meet the varying demand. An accordingly. The price for electricity at peak-
imbalance between supply and demand will demand periods is higher and at off-peak
damage the stability and quality (voltage and periods lower. This is caused by differences in
frequency) of the power supply even when it the cost of generation in each period.
does not lead to totally unsatisfied demand.
During peak periods when electricity
The second characteristic is that the places consumption is higher than average, power
where electricity is generated are usually located suppliers must complement the base-load
far from the locations where it is consumed 1. power plants (such as coal-fired and nuclear)
Generators and consumers are connected with less cost-effective but more flexible
through power grids and form a power system. forms of generation, such as oil and gas-fired
In function of the locations and the quantities generators. During the off-peak period when
of power supply and demand, much power less electricity is consumed, costly types of
flow may happen to be concentrated into a generation can be stopped. This is a chance
specific transmission line and this may cause for owners of EES systems to benefit financially.
congestion. Since power lines are always From the utilities’ viewpoint there is a huge
needed, if a failure on a line occurs (because potential to reduce total generation costs
of congestion or any other reason) the supply by eliminating the costlier methods, through
of electricity will be interrupted; also because storage of electricity generated by low-cost
lines are always needed, supplying electricity power plants during the night being reinserted
to mobile applications is difficult. The following into the power grid during peak periods.
sections outline the issues caused by these
characteristics and the consequent roles of EES. With high PV and wind penetration in some
regions, cost-free surplus energy is sometimes
available. This surplus can be stored in EES and
used to reduce generation costs. Conversely,
from the consumers’ point of view, EES can
lower electricity costs since it can store electricity
bought at low off-peak prices and they can use
it during peak periods in the place of expensive
power. Consumers who charge batteries during
1
However, in the future there will be an increase in off-peak hours may also sell the electricity to
distributed generation (as mentioned for example utilities or to other consumers during peak hours.
in sections 3.1 and 3.2), where consumption and
generation are typically close together.
 Figure 1-1 – Comparison of daily load curves
(IEEJ – The Institute of Energy Economics, Japan, 2005)

1.2.2 Need for continuous and flexible fluctuations in demand, using the extra power
supply from the “kilowatt function” if necessary.
Renewable energy facilities such as solar and
A fundamental characteristic of electricity wind do not possess both a kW function and
leads to the utilities’ second issue, maintaining a frequency control function unless they are
a continuous and flexible power supply for suitably modified. Such a modification may be a
consumers. If the proper amount of electricity negative power margin (i.e. decreasing power)
cannot be provided at the time when consumers or a phase shift inverter 2.
need it, the power quality will deteriorate and at
worst this may lead to a service interruption. To EES is expected to be able to compensate
meet changing power consumption appropriate for such difficulties with a kW function and a
amounts of electricity should be generated frequency control function. Pumped hydro has
continuously, relying on an accurate forecast of been widely used to provide a large amount
the variations in demand. of power when generated electricity is in short
supply. Stationary batteries have also been
Power generators therefore need two utilized to support renewable energy output with
essential functions in addition to the basic their quick response capability.
generating function. First, generating plants
are required to be equipped with a “kilowatt
function”, to generate sufficient power (kW)
when necessary. Secondly, some generating
facilities must possess a frequency control
2
In Germany such a modification, called “system
function, fine-tuning the output so as to follow
services”, must be implemented in large wind
minute-by-minute and second-by-second power generators.

11
 S E C T I O N 1  ologies in electricity use
12 The roles of ele ctr ical energy storag e techn

1.2.3 Long distance between generation approach also helps utilities to postpone or
and consumption suspend the reinforcement of power networks.

Consumers’ locations are often far from power

generating facilities, and this sometimes leads to 1.2.5 Transmission by cable
higher chances of an interruption in the power
supply. Network failures due to natural disasters Electricity always needs cables for transmission,
(e.g. lightning, hurricanes) and artificial causes (e.g. and supplying electricity to mobile applications
overload, operational accidents) stop electricity and to isolated areas presents difficulties.
supply and potentially influence wide areas. EES systems such as batteries can solve this
problem with their mobile and charge/discharge
EES will help users when power network failures capabilities. In remote places without a power
occur by continuing to supply power to consumers. grid connection recharging an electric vehicle may
One of the representative industries utilizing EES is present a challenge, but EES can help realize an
semi-conductor and LCD manufacturing, where environmentally friendly transport system without
a voltage sag lasting for even a few milliseconds using conventional combustion engines.
impacts the quality of the products. A UPS system,
built on EES and located at a customer’s site, can
keep supplying electricity to critical loads even
1.3 Emerging needs for EES
when voltage sag occurs due to, for example,
There are two major emerging market needs
a direct lightning strike on distribution lines. A
for EES as a key technology: to utilize more
portable battery may also serve as an emergency
renewable energy and less fossil fuel, and the
resource to provide power to electrical appliances.
future Smart Grid.

1.2.4 Congestion in power grids

1.3.1 More renewable energy, less fossil
fuel
This issue is a consequence of the previous
problem, a long distance between generation
On-grid areas
and consumption. The power flow in transmission
grids is determined by the supply and demand
In on-grid areas, the increased ratio of
of electricity. In the process of balancing supply
renewable generation may cause several issues
and demand power congestion can occur. Utility
in the power grid (see Figure 1-2). First, in power
companies try to predict future congestion and
grid operation, the fluctuation in the output of
avoid overloads, for example by dispatching
renewable generation makes system frequency
generators’ outputs or ultimately by building
control difficult, and if the frequency deviation
new transmission routes. EES established at
becomes too wide system operation can
appropriate sites such as substations at the ends
deteriorate. Conventionally, frequency control is
of heavily-loaded lines can mitigate congestion,
mostly managed by the output change capability
by storing electricity while transmission lines
of thermal generators. When used for this
maintain enough capacity and by using it when
purpose thermal generators are not operated at
lines are not available due to congestion. This
full capacity, but with some positive and negative or non-fossil energy in such products as plug-
output margin (i.e. increases and decreases in in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) or electric
output) which is used to adjust frequency, and vehicles (EVs) (see Figure 1‑2). More precisely,
this implies inefficient operation. With greater fossil fuels should be replaced by low-carbon
penetration of renewable generation this output electricity produced mainly by renewable
margin needs to be increased, which decreases generation. The most promising solution is to
the efficiency of thermal generation even more. replace petrol or diesel-driven cars by electric
Renewable generation units themselves in most ones with batteries. In spite of remaining issues
cases only supply a negative margin 3. If EES can (short driving distance and long charging time)
mitigate the output fluctuation, the margins of EES is the key technology for electric vehicles.
thermal generators can be reduced and they can
be operated at a higher efficiency.
1.3.2 Smart Grid uses
Secondly, renewable energy output is
undependable since it is affected by weather EES is expected to play an essential role in the
conditions. Some measures are available to future Smart Grid. Some relevant applications
cope with this. One is to increase the amount of EES are described below.
of renewable generation installed, i.e. provide
First, EES installed in customer-side substations
overcapacity, so that even with undependability
can control power flow and mitigate congestion,
enough power can be secured. Another is to
or maintain voltage in the appropriate range.
spread the installations of renewable generators
over a wide area, to take advantage of weather
Secondly, EES can support the electrification of
conditions changing from place to place
existing equipment so as to integrate it into the Smart
and of smoothing effects expected from the
Grid. Electric vehicles (EVs) are a good example
complementarity of wind and solar generators.
since they have been deployed in several regions,
These measures are possible only with large
and some argue for the potential of EVs as a mobile,
numbers of installations and extension of
distributed energy resource to provide a load-
transmission networks. Considering the cost of
shifting function in a smart grid. EVs are expected
extra renewable generation and the difficulty of
to be not only a new load for electricity but also a
constructing new transmission facilities, EES is a
possible storage medium that could supply power
promising alternative measure.
to utilities when the electricity price is high.

A third role expected for EES is as the energy

Off-grid areas
storage medium for Energy Management
In off-grid areas where a considerable amount of Systems (EMS) in homes and buildings. With a
energy is consumed, particularly in the transport Home Energy Management System, for example,
sector, fossil energy should be replaced with less residential customers will become actively
involved in modifying their energy spending
patterns by monitoring their actual consumption
3
With extra investment in advanced control in real time. EMSs in general will need EES, for
schemes and regulation they can also be made to
provide a positive margin. example to store electricity from local generation

13
 S E C T I O N 1  ologies in electricity use
14 The roles of ele ctr ical energy storag e techn

CO2 reduction Independence from fossil fuels

“More renewable energy,

less fossil fuel”

On-Grid Area Off-Grid Area

Renewable generation EV powered by electricity
from less or non-fossil
energy sources

Electrical Energy Storage

Power fluctuation Undependability

Difficult to maintain Difficult to meet power
power output demand

Electrical Energy Storage Electrical Energy Storage

(EES) (EES)
Stabilize wind and PV Increases self
output in low, medium consumption of dispersed
and high voltage grids PV energy in house-
holds for low voltage
grid release
Time shifting of wind
Partial load operation of
and PV energy in low
thermal power generation and medium voltage grid
(inefficient operation)

Excessive RE installation
to secure enough
generation capacity

Reinforce transmission
facilities to cover wider
area to utilize wind farms
smoothing effects

Figure 1-2 – Problems in renewable energy installation and possible solutions

(TEPCO)
when it is not needed and discharge it when some utilities generation cost can be reduced by
necessary, thus allowing the EMS to function storing electricity at off-peak times, for example
optimally with less power needed from the grid. at night, and discharging it at peak times. If the
gap in demand between peak and off-peak is
large, the benefit of storing electricity becomes
1.4 The roles of electrical energy even larger. Using storage to decrease the gap
storage technologies between daytime and night-time may allow
generation output to become flatter, which
Generally the roles for on-grid EES systems can
leads to an improvement in operating efficiency
be described by the number of uses (cycles)
and cost reduction in fuel. For these reasons
and the duration of the operation, as shown
many utilities have constructed pumped hydro,
in Figure 1-3. For the maintenance of voltage
and have recently begun installing large-scale
quality (e.g. compensation of reactive power),
batteries at substations.
EES with high cycle stability and short duration
at high power output is required; for time shifting
2) Power quality
on the other hand longer storage duration and
fewer cycles are needed. The following sections A basic service that must be provided by power
describe the roles in detail. utilities is to keep supply power voltage and
frequency within tolerance, which they can
do by adjusting supply to changing demand.
1.4.1 The roles from the viewpoint of a Frequency is controlled by adjusting the output
utility of power generators; EES can provide frequency
control functions. Voltage is generally controlled
1) Time shifting
by taps of transformers, and reactive power
Utilities constantly need to prepare supply with phase modifiers. EES located at the end of
capacity and transmission/distribution lines to a heavily loaded line may improve voltage drops
cope with annually increasing peak demand, by discharging electricity and reduce voltage
and consequently develop generation stations rises by charging electricity.
that produce electricity from primary energy. For

Duration
0,1 s 1s 15 s 1 min 15 min 1h 8h

1 / month
Electricity supply
reserve
Number of uses

1 / day
Timeshift
12 / day
Primary
Regulation
30 / h

30 / min Power
Quality
5 / sec

Figure 1-3 – Different uses of electrical energy storage in grids, depending on

the frequency and duration of use
[eus06]

15
 S E C T I O N 1  ologies in electricity use
16 The roles of ele ctr ical energy storag e techn

3) Making more efficient use of the network reduce peak power needed from the grid during
the day and to buy the needed electricity at off-
In a power network, congestion may occur
peak times.
when transmission/distribution lines cannot
be reinforced in time to meet increasing power
2) Emergency power supply
demand. In this case, large-scale batteries
installed at appropriate substations may Consumers may possess appliances needing
mitigate the congestion and thus help utilities continuity of supply, such as fire sprinklers and
to postpone or suspend the reinforcement of security equipment. EES is sometimes installed
the network. as a substitute for emergency generators to
operate during an outage. Semiconductor
4) Isolated grids and liquid-crystal manufacturers are greatly
affected by even a momentary outage (e.g.
Where a utility company supplies electricity
due to lightning) in maintaining the quality of
within a small, isolated power network, for
their products. In these cases, EES technology
example on an island, the power output from
such as large-scale batteries, double-layer
small-capacity generators such as diesel and
capacitors and SMES can be installed to avoid
renewable energy must match the power
the effects of a momentary outage by instantly
demand. By installing EES the utility can supply
switching the load off the network to the EES
stable power to consumers.
supply. A portable battery may also serve in
an emergency to provide power to electrical
5) E
 mergency power supply for protection and
appliances.
control equipment

A reliable power supply for protection and 3) Electric vehicles and mobile appliances
control is very important in power utilities.
Electric vehicles (EVs) are being promoted for
Many batteries are used as an emergency
CO2 reduction. High-performance batteries
power supply in case of outage.
such as nickel cadmium, nickel metal hydride
and lithium ion batteries are mounted on EVs
and used as power sources. EV batteries are
1.4.2 The roles from the viewpoint of
also expected to be used to power in-house
consumers
appliances in combination with solar power and
fuel cells; at the same time, studies are being
1) Time shifting/cost savings
carried out to see whether they can usefully
Power utilities may set time-varying electricity be connected to power networks. These
prices, a lower price at night and a higher one possibilities are often abbreviated as “V2H”
during the day, to give consumers an incentive (vehicle to home) and “V2G” (vehicle to grid).
to flatten electricity load. Consumers may then
reduce their electricity costs by using EES to
1.4.3 The roles from the viewpoint of
generators of renewable energy

1) Time shifting

Renewable energy such as solar and wind

power is subject to weather, and any surplus
power may be thrown away when not needed
on the demand side. Therefore valuable energy
can be effectively used by storing surplus
electricity in EES and using it when necessary;
it can also be sold when the price is high.

2) Effective connection to grid

The output of solar and wind power generation

varies greatly depending on the weather and
wind speeds, which can make connecting them
to the grid difficult. EES used for time shift can
absorb this fluctuation more cost-effectively
than other, single-purpose mitigation measures
(e.g. a phase shifter).

17
 SECTION 2
Types and features of energy
storage systems
 S E C T I O N 2 
20 Types and features of energy
storage systems

In this section the types of EES system and electricity can be generated in a gas or steam
their features are listed. A brief classification turbine. Consequently, they are classified as
is followed by a description of the various EES chemical energy storage systems. In Figure 2-1
types with their advantages and disadvantages. thermal energy storage systems are included
Finally the main technical features are as well, although in most cases electricity is
summarized. not the direct input to such storage systems.
But with the help of thermal energy storage the
energy from renewable energy sources can be
2.1 Classification of EES systems buffered and thus electricity can be produced
on demand. Examples are hot molten salts
A widely-used approach for classifying EES in concentrated solar power plants and the
systems is the determination according to the storage of heat in compressed air plants using
form of energy used. In Figure 2-1 EES systems an adiabatic process to gain efficiency.
are classified into mechanical, electrochemical,
chemical, electrical and thermal energy storage
systems. Hydrogen and synthetic natural gas 2.2 Mechanical storage systems
(SNG) are secondary energy carriers and can be
used to store electrical energy via electrolysis of The most common mechanical storage systems
water to produce hydrogen and, in an additional are pumped hydroelectric power plants
step, methane if required. In fuel cells electricity (pumped hydro storage, PHS), compressed
is generated by oxidizing hydrogen or methane. air energy storage (CAES) and flywheel energy
This combined electrolysis-fuel cell process is storage (FES).
an electrochemical EES. However, both gases
are multi-purpose energy carriers. For example,

Electrical energy storage systems

Mechanical Electrochemical Electrical

Secondary batteries Double-layer
Pumped hydro - PHS Lead acid / NiCd / NiMh / Li / NaS Capacitor - DLC

Flow batteries Superconducting

Compressed air - CAES Redox flow / Hybrid flow magnetic coil - SMES

Flywheel - FES
Chemical Thermal
Hydrogen Sensible heat storage
Electrolyser / Fuel cell / SNG Molten salt / A-CAES

Figure 2-1 – Classification of electrical energy storage systems according to energy form
(Fraunhofer ISE)
2.2.1 Pumped hydro storage (PHS) technically possible. A seawater pumped hydro
plant was first built in Japan in 1999 (Yanbaru,
With over 120 GW, pumped hydro storage 30 MW) [fuj98].
power plants (Figure 2-2) represent nearly
99 % of world-wide installed electrical storage PHS has existed for a long time – the first
capacity [doe07], which is about 3 % of global pumped hydro storage plants were used
generation capacity  4
. Conventional pumped in Italy and Switzerland in the 1890s. By
hydro storage systems use two water reservoirs 1933 reversible pump-turbines with motor-
at different elevations to pump water during off- generators were available 5. Typical discharge
peak hours from the lower to the upper reservoir times range from several hours to a few days.
(charging). When required, the water flows back The efficiency of PHS plants is in the range of
from the upper to the lower reservoir, powering 70 % to 85 %. Advantages are the very long
a turbine with a generator to produce electricity lifetime and practically unlimited cycle stability
(discharging). There are different options for the of the installation. Main drawbacks are the
upper and lower reservoirs, e.g. high dams can dependence on topographical conditions and
be used as pumped hydro storage plants. For large land use. The main applications are for
the lower reservoir flooded mine shafts, other energy management via time shift, namely non-
underground cavities and the open sea are also spinning reserve and supply reserve.

Figure 2-2 – Pumped Hydro Storage

(Vattenfall, IEC MSB/EES Workshop, 2011)

4
The largest PHS plant in the world, with
2 
100 MW peak power, is the Bath County
hydroelectric pumped storage plant located in 5
Adjustable-speed machines are now being used to
Virginia, USA [bat85]. improve efficiency.

21
 S E C T I O N 2 
22 Types and features of energy
storage systems

2.2.2 Compressed air energy storage gas turbine. Typical underground storage
(CAES) options are caverns, aquifers or abandoned
mines. If the heat released during compression
Compressed air (compressed gas) energy is dissipated by cooling and not stored, the
storage (Figure 2-3) is a technology known air must be reheated prior to expansion in the
and used since the 19th century for different turbine. This process is called diabatic CAES
industrial applications including mobile ones. and results in low round-trip efficiencies of
Air is used as storage medium due to its less than 50 %. Diabatic technology is well-
availability. Electricity is used to compress air proven; the plants have a high reliability and are
and store it in either an underground structure capable of starting without extraneous power 6.
or an above-ground system of vessels or pipes. The advantage of CAES is its large capacity;
When needed the compressed air is mixed with disadvantages are low round-trip efficiency and
natural gas, burned and expanded in a modified geographic limitation of locations [nak07].

Figure 2-3 – Underground CAES

[rid11]

In an adiabatic CAES process, currently under

6

development, the released heat is retained in

thermal storage (e.g. porous stones) and used again
during expansion in a turbine.
2.2.3 Flywheel energy storage (FES) Advanced FES systems have rotors made of
high-strength carbon filaments, suspended by
In flywheel energy storage (Figure 2-4) magnetic bearings, and spinning at speeds
rotational energy is stored in an accelerated from 20 000 to over 50 000 rpm in a vacuum
rotor, a massive rotating cylinder. The main enclosure. The main features of flywheels are
components of a flywheel are the rotating the excellent cycle stability and a long life, little
body/cylinder (comprised of a rim attached to maintenance, high power density and the use
a shaft) in a compartment, the bearings and the of environmentally inert material. However,
transmission device (motor/generator mounted flywheels have a high level of self-discharge due
onto the stator 7). The energy is maintained in to air resistance and bearing losses and suffer
the flywheel by keeping the rotating body at from low current efficiency.
a constant speed. An increase in the speed
results in a higher amount of energy stored. To Today flywheels are commercially deployed
accelerate the flywheel electricity is supplied by for power quality in industrial and UPS
a transmission device. If the flywheel’s rotational applications, mainly in a hybrid configuration.
speed is reduced electricity may be extracted Efforts are being made to optimize flywheels for
from the system by the same transmission long-duration operation (up to several hours) as
device. Flywheels of the first generation, which power storage devices for use in vehicles and
have been available since about 1970, use a large power plants.
steel rotating body on mechanical bearings.

Field Replaceable
Bearing Cartridge

Magnetic Bearing
Integrated into Field Coil
Field Circuit

Air-Gap Armature Flywheel

Motor/Generator
Rotor

No Permanent
Magnets Enables
Smooth Back-Iron,
High Tip-Speed and
No Slots & Low Loss
High Output
Power

Figure 2-4 – Flywheel energy storage

[act11]

7
The stator is the static part of the assembly at the
top of the tower.

23
 S E C T I O N 2 
24 Types and features of energy
storage systems

2.3 Electrochemical storage One disadvantage of lead acid batteries is

systems usable capacity decrease when high power
is discharged. For example, if a battery is
In this section various types of batteries are discharged in one hour, only about 50 % to
described. Most of them are technologically 70 % of the rated capacity is available. Other
mature for practical use. First, six secondary drawbacks are lower energy density and the
battery types are listed: lead acid, NiCd/NiMH, use of lead, a hazardous material prohibited or
Li-ion, metal air, sodium sulphur and sodium nickel restricted in various jurisdictions. Advantages
chloride; then follow two sorts of flow battery. are a favourable cost/performance ratio, easy
recyclability and a simple charging technology.
Current R&D on lead acid batteries is trying to
2.3.1 Secondary batteries improve their behaviour for micro-hybrid electric
vehicles (cf. section 3.2.5) [etg08] [lai03].
Lead acid battery (LA)

Lead acid batteries are the world’s most widely Nickel cadmium and nickel metal hydride
used battery type and have been commercially battery (NiCd, NiMH)
deployed since about 1890. Lead acid battery
systems are used in both mobile and stationary Before the commercial introduction of nickel
applications. Their typical applications are metal hydride (NiMH) batteries around 1995,
emergency power supply systems, stand-alone nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries had been in
systems with PV, battery systems for mitigation commercial use since about 1915. Compared to
of output fluctuations from wind power and as lead acid batteries, nickel-based batteries have
starter batteries in vehicles. In the past, early a higher power density, a slightly greater energy
in the “electrification age” (1910 to 1945), many density and the number of cycles is higher;
lead acid batteries were used for storage in grids. many sealed construction types are available.
Stationary lead acid batteries have to meet far
higher product quality standards than starter From a technical point of view, NiCd batteries
batteries. Typical service life is 6 to 15 years are a very successful battery product; in
with a cycle life of 1 500 cycles at 80 % depth particular, these are the only batteries capable
of discharge, and they achieve cycle efficiency of performing well even at low temperatures in
levels of around 80 % to 90 %. Lead acid the range from -20 °C to -40 °C. Large battery
batteries offer a mature and well-researched systems using vented NiCd batteries operate on
technology at low cost. There are many types a scale similar to lead acid batteries. However,
of lead acid batteries available, e.g. vented and because of the toxicity of cadmium, these
sealed housing versions (called valve-regulated batteries are presently used only for stationary
lead acid batteries, VRLA). Costs for stationary applications in Europe. Since 2006 they have
batteries are currently far higher than for been prohibited for consumer use.
starter batteries. Mass production of lead acid
batteries for stationary systems may lead to a NiMH batteries were developed initially to replace
price reduction. NiCd batteries. Indeed, NiMH batteries have all
the positive properties of NiCd batteries, with the larger-scale Li-ion batteries. The main obstacle
exception of the maximal nominal capacity which is the high cost of more than USD 600/kWh due
is still ten times less when compared to NiCd to special packaging and internal overcharge
and lead acid. Furthermore, NiMH batteries have protection circuits.
much higher energy densities (weight for weight).
In portable and mobile applications sealed NiMH Lithium ion batteries generally have a very high
batteries have been extensively replaced by efficiency, typically in the range of 95 % - 98 %.
lithium ion batteries. On the other hand, hybrid Nearly any discharge time from seconds to
vehicles available on today’s market operate weeks can be realized, which makes them a
almost exclusively with sealed NiMH batteries, very flexible and universal storage technology.
as these are robust and far safer than lithium ion Standard cells with 5 000 full cycles can be
batteries. NiMH batteries currently cost about obtained on the market at short notice, but
the same as lithium ion batteries [etg08] [smo09] even higher cycle rates are possible after
[dah03]. further development, mainly depending on the
materials used for the electrodes. Since lithium
ion batteries are currently still expensive, they
Lithium ion battery (Li-ion) can only compete with lead acid batteries in
those applications which require short discharge
Lithium ion batteries (Figure 2-5) have become times (e.g. as primary control backup).
the most important storage technology in the
areas of portable and mobile applications (e.g. Safety is a serious issue in lithium ion battery
laptop, cell phone, electric bicycle, electric car) technology. Most of the metal oxide electrodes
since around 2000. High cell voltage levels of are thermally unstable and can decompose at
up to 3.7 nominal Volts mean that the number of elevated temperatures, releasing oxygen which
cells in series with the associated connections can lead to a thermal runaway. To minimize this
and electronics can be reduced to obtain the risk, lithium ion batteries are equipped with a
target voltage. For example, one lithium ion cell monitoring unit to avoid over-charging and
can replace three NiCd or NiMH cells which over-discharging. Usually a voltage balance
have a cell voltage of only 1.2 Volts. Another circuit is also installed to monitor the voltage
advantage of Li-ion batteries is their high level of each individual cell and prevent voltage
gravimetric energy density, and the prospect of deviations among them. Lithium ion battery
large cost reductions through mass production. technology is still developing, and there is
Although Li-ion batteries have a share of over considerable potential for further progress.
50 % in the small portable devices market, Research is focused on the development of
there are still some challenges for developing cathode materials [etg08] [esp11].

25
 S E C T I O N 2 
26 Types and features of energy
storage systems

Figure 2-5 – Typical Li-ion prismatic cell design and battery modules
(A123, IEC MSB/EES Workshop, 2011)

Metal air battery (Me-air) reaction rate can be controlled by varying air
flow, and oxidized zinc/electrolyte paste can
A metal air electrochemical cell consists of the be replaced with fresh paste. In the 1970s, the
anode made from pure metal and the cathode development of thin electrodes based on fuel-cell
connected to an inexhaustible supply of air. For research made small button prismatic primary
the electrochemical reaction only the oxygen cells possible for hearing aids, pagers and
in the air is used. Among the various metal air medical devices, especially cardiac telemetry.
battery chemical couples, the lithium air battery is Rechargeable zinc air cells have a difficulty in
most attractive since its theoretical specific energy design since zinc precipitation from the water-
excluding oxygen (oxygen is not stored in the based electrolyte must be closely controlled.
battery) is 11.14 kWh/kg, corresponding to about A satisfactory, electrically rechargeable metal
100 times more than other battery types and even air system potentially offers low materials cost
greater than petrol (10.15 kWh/kg). However, the and high specific energy, but none has reached
high reactivity of lithium with air and humidity can marketability yet [wor02] [atw11].
cause fire, which is a high safety risk.

Currently only a zinc air battery with a theoretical Sodium sulphur battery (NaS)
specific energy excluding oxygen of 1.35 
kWh/kg is technically feasible. Zinc air Sodium sulphur batteries (Figure 2-6) consist of
batteries have some properties of fuel cells and liquid (molten) sulphur at the positive electrode
conventional batteries: the zinc is the fuel, the and liquid (molten) sodium at the negative
electrode; the active materials are separated stored energy, partially reducing the battery
by a solid beta alumina ceramic electrolyte. The performance. In daily use the temperature of the
battery temperature is kept between 300 °C battery can almost be maintained by just its own
and 350 °C to keep the electrodes molten. reaction heat, with appropriately dimensioned
NaS batteries reach typical life cycles of around insulation. Since around 1990 NaS batteries
4 500 cycles and have a discharge time of 6.0 have been manufactured by one company in
hours to 7.2 hours. They are efficient (AC-based Japan, with a minimum module size of 50 kW
round-trip efficiency is about 75 %) and have and with typically 300 kWh to 360 kWh. It is not
fast response. practical for the present to use only one isolated
module. Because 20 modules are combined
These attributes enable NaS batteries to be into one battery the minimal commercial power
economically used in combined power quality and energy range is on the order of 1 MW,
and time shift applications with high energy and 6.0 MWh to 7.2 MWh. These batteries are
density. The NaS battery technology has suitable for applications with daily cycling. As
been demonstrated at around 200 sites in the response time is in the range of milliseconds
Japan, mainly for peak shaving, and Germany, and NaS batteries meet the requirements for
France, USA and UAE also have NaS batteries grid stabilization, this technology could be very
in operation. The main drawback is that to interesting for utilities and large consumers
maintain operating temperatures a heat source [esp11] [kaw11].
is required, which uses the battery’s own

Battery Cell
– +
Thermal enclosure
Gas Tight Seal
(TCB – thermal
compression bonding) Cell
Insulator
(alpha-Alumina)

Sodium

Safety Tube
Sodium
Na Beta-Alumina
Sulfur Electrode
Sulfur Thermal enclosure
Sulfur Housing Main
S (with corrosion pole Main
protection layer) pole
Beta
Alumina tube

Figure 2-6 – NaS Battery: Cell design and 50 kW module

(NGK, IEC MSB/EES Workshop 2011)

27
 S E C T I O N 2 
28 Types and features of energy
storage systems

Sodium nickel chloride battery (NaNiCl) and design of the electrochemical cell whereas
the energy depends on the size of the tanks.
The sodium nickel chloride (NaNiCl) battery, With this characteristic flow batteries can be
better known as the ZEBRA (Zero Emission fitted to a wide range of stationary applications.
Battery Research) battery, is – like the NaS Originally developed by NASA in the early
battery – a high-temperature (HT) battery, and 70s as EES for long-term space flights, flow
has been commercially available since about batteries are now receiving attention for storing
1995. Its operating temperature is around energy for durations of hours or days with a
270 °C, and it uses nickel chloride instead power of up to several MW. Flow batteries are
of sulphur for the positive electrode. NaNiCl classified into redox flow batteries and hybrid
batteries can withstand limited overcharge flow batteries.
and discharge and have potentially better
safety characteristics and a higher cell voltage
than NaS batteries. They tend to develop low Redox flow battery (RFB)
resistance when faults occur and this is why
cell faults in serial connections only result in In redox flow batteries (RFB) two liquid
the loss of the voltage from one cell, instead of electrolyte dissolutions containing dissolved
premature failure of the complete system. These metal ions as active masses are pumped to
batteries have been successfully implemented the opposite sides of the electrochemical
in several electric vehicle designs (Think City, cell. The electrolytes at the negative and
Smart EV) and are an interesting opportunity positive electrodes are called anolyte and
for fleet applications. Present research is in catholyte respectively. During charging and
developing advanced versions of the ZEBRA discharging the metal ions stay dissolved in
battery with higher power densities for hybrid the fluid electrolyte as liquid; no phase change
electric vehicles, and also high-energy versions of these active masses takes place. Anolyte
for storing renewable energy for load-levelling and catholyte flow through porous electrodes,
and industrial applications [esp11]. separated by a membrane which allows protons
to pass through it for the electron transfer
process. During the exchange of charge a
2.3.2 Flow batteries current flows over the electrodes, which can
be used by a battery-powered device. During
In conventional secondary batteries, the discharge the electrodes are continually
energy is charged and discharged in the active supplied with the dissolved active masses
masses of the electrodes. A flow battery is from the tanks; once they are converted the
also a rechargeable battery, but the energy is resulting product is removed to the tank.
stored in one or more electroactive species
which are dissolved in liquid electrolytes. The Theoretically a RFB can be “recharged” within
electrolytes are stored externally in tanks and a few minutes by pumping out the discharged
pumped through the electrochemical cell that electrolyte and replacing it with recharged
converts chemical energy directly to electricity electrolyte. That is why redox flow batteries
and vice versa. The power is defined by the size are under discussion for mobile applications.
However, up to now the energy density of reducing agent. The main advantage of this
the electrolytes has been too low for electric battery is the use of ions of the same metal
vehicles. on both sides. Although crossing of metal
ions over the membrane cannot be prevented
Today various redox couples have been completely (as is the case for every redox
investigated and tested in RFBs, such as a flow battery), in VRFBs the only result is a
Fe-Ti system, a Fe-Cr system and a polyS-Br loss in energy. In other RFBs, which use ions
system (Regenesys installation in UK with 15 of different metals, the crossover causes an
MW and 120 MWh, but never commissioned) irreversible degradation of the electrolytes and
[jos09]. The vanadium redox flow battery a loss in capacity. The VRFB was pioneered at
(VRFB, Figure 2-7) has been developed the the University of New South Wales, Australia,
furthest; it has been piloted since around 2000 in the early 1980s. A VRFB storage system of
by companies such as Prudent Energy (CN) up to 500 kW and 10 hrs has been installed
and Cellstrom (AU). The VRFB uses a V2+/V3+ in Japan by SEI. SEI has also used a VRFB in
redox couple as oxidizing agent and a V5+/V4+ power quality applications (e.g. 3 MW, 1.5 sec.).
redox couple in mild sulphuric acid solution as

Figure 2-7 – Schematic of a Vanadium Redox Flow Battery

(Fraunhofer ISE)

29
 S E C T I O N 2 
30 Types and features of energy
storage systems

Hybrid flow battery (HFB) and SNG is low compared to storage technologies
such as PHS and Li-ion, chemical energy storage
In a hybrid flow battery (HFB) one of the is the only concept which allows storage of large
active masses is internally stored within the amounts of energy, up to the TWh range, and for
electrochemical cell, whereas the other remains greater periods of time – even as seasonal storage.
in the liquid electrolyte and is stored externally Another advantage of hydrogen and SNG is that
in a tank. Therefore hybrid flow cells combine these universal energy carriers can be used in
features of conventional secondary batteries and different sectors, such as transport, mobility,
redox flow batteries: the capacity of the battery heating and the chemical industry.
depends on the size of the electrochemical cell.
Typical examples of a HFB are the Zn-Ce and
the Zn-Br systems. In both cases the anolyte 2.4.1 Hydrogen (H 2 )
consists of an acid solution of Zn2+ ions. During
charging Zn is deposited at the electrode and A typical hydrogen storage system consists of
at discharging Zn2+ goes back into solution. As an electrolyzer, a hydrogen storage tank and a
membrane a microporous polyolefin material is fuel cell. An electrolyzer is an electrochemical
used; most of the electrodes are carbon-plastic converter which splits water with the help of
composites. Various companies are working on electricity into hydrogen and oxygen. It is an
the commercialization of the Zn-Br hybrid flow endothermal process, i.e. heat is required during
battery, which was developed by Exxon in the the reaction. Hydrogen is stored under pressure
early 1970s. In the United States, ZBB Energy in gas bottles or tanks, and this can be done
and Premium Power sell trailer-transportable practically for an unlimited time. To generate
Zn-Br systems with unit capacities of up to electricity, both gases flow into the fuel cell where
1 MW / 3 MWh for utility-scale applications an electrochemical reaction which is the reverse
[iee10]. 5 kW / 20 kWh systems for community of water splitting takes place: hydrogen and
energy storage are in development as well. oxygen react and produce water, heat is released
and electricity is generated. For economic and
practical reasons oxygen is not stored but vented
2.4 Chemical energy storage to the atmosphere on electrolysis, and oxygen
from the air is taken for the power generation.
In this report chemical energy storage focuses
on hydrogen and synthetic natural gas (SNG) as In addition to fuel cells, gas motors, gas
secondary energy carriers, since these could have turbines and combined cycles of gas and steam
a significant impact on the storage of electrical turbines are in discussion for power generation.
energy in large quantities (see section 4.2.2). The Hydrogen systems with fuel cells (less than
main purpose of such a chemical energy storage 1 MW) and gas motors (under 10 MW) can
system is to use “excess” electricity to produce be adopted for combined heat and power
hydrogen via water electrolysis. Once hydrogen is generation in decentralized installations. Gas
produced different ways are available for using it and steam turbines with up to several hundred
as an energy carrier, either as pure hydrogen or as MW could be used as peaking power plants.
SNG. Although the overall efficiency of hydrogen The overall AC-AC efficiency is around 40 %.
Different approaches exist to storing the step is required beyond the water splitting process
hydrogen, either as a gas under high pressure, in an electrolyzer, a step in which hydrogen and
a liquid at very low temperature, adsorbed on carbon dioxide react to methane in a methanation
metal hydrides or chemically bonded in complex reactor. As is the case for hydrogen, the SNG
hydrides. However, for stationary applications produced can be stored in pressure tanks,
gaseous storage under high pressure is the most underground, or fed directly into the gas grid.
popular choice. Smaller amounts of hydrogen can Several CO2 sources are conceivable for the
be stored in above-ground tanks or bottles under methanation process, such as fossil-fuelled power
pressures up to 900 bar. For larger amounts of stations, industrial installations or biogas plants.
hydrogen, underground piping systems or even To minimize losses in energy, transport of the
salt caverns with several 100 000 m³ volumes gases CO2 (from the CO2 source) and H2 (from the
under pressures up to 200 bar can be used. electrolysis plant) to the methanation plant should
be avoided. The production of SNG is preferable
Up to now there have not been any commercial at locations where CO2 and excess electricity
hydrogen storage systems used for renewable are both available. In particular, the use of CO2
energies. Various R&D projects carried out from biogas production processes is promising
over the last 25 years have successfully as it is a widely-used technology. Nevertheless,
demonstrated the feasibility of hydrogen intermediate on-site storage of the gases is
technology, such as a project on the self- required, as the methanation is a constantly
sufficient island of Utsira in Norway. Another running process. Recently this concept “power to
example is a hybrid power plant from Enertrag methane” has been the subject of different R&D
in Germany which is currently under projects (e.g. in Germany, where a pilot-scale
construction [ene11]. Wind energy is used to production plant is under construction [kuh11]).
produce hydrogen via electrolysis if the power
cannot be directly fed into the grid. On demand, The main advantage of this approach is the use
the stored hydrogen is added to the biogas of an already existing gas grid infrastructure
used to run a gas motor. Moreover the hydrogen (e.g. in Europe). Pure hydrogen can be fed into
produced will be used for a hydrogen refilling the gas grid only up to a certain concentration,
station at the international airport in Berlin. in order to keep the gas mixture within
specifications (e.g. heating value). Moreover,
Water electrolysis plants on a large scale (up methane has a higher energy density, and
to 160 MW) are state-of-the-art for industrial transport in pipelines requires less energy (higher
applications; several were built in different density of the gas). The main disadvantage of
locations (Norway, Egypt, Peru etc.) in the late SNG is the relatively low efficiency due to the
1990s. conversion losses in electrolysis, methanation,
storage, transport and the subsequent power
2.4.2 Synthetic natural gas (SNG) generation. The overall AC-AC efficiency, < 35  %,
is even lower than with hydrogen [ste09]. A
Synthesis of methane (also called synthetic comprehensive overview of the combined use of
natural gas, SNG) is the second option to store hydrogen and SNG as chemical energy storage
electricity as chemical energy. Here a second is shown in Figure 2-8 [wai11].

31
 S E C T I O N 2 
32 Types and features of energy
storage systems

Figure 2-8 – Overall concept for the use of hydrogen and SNG as energy carriers
[wai11]

2.5 Electrical storage systems thousand farads, and the possibility of very fast
charges and discharges due to extraordinarily
2.5.1 Double-layer capacitors (DLC) low inner resistance which are features not
available with conventional batteries.
Electrochemical double-layer capacitors
(DLC), also known as supercapacitors, are a Still other advantages are durability, high
technology which has been known for 60 years. reliability, no maintenance, long lifetime and
They fill the gap between classical capacitors operation over a wide temperature range and in
used in electronics and general batteries, diverse environments (hot, cold and moist). The
because of their nearly unlimited cycle stability lifetime reaches one million cycles (or ten years
as well as extremely high power capability of operation) without any degradation, except
and their many orders of magnitude higher for the solvent used in the capacitors whose
energy storage capability when compared disadvantage is that it deteriorates in 5 or 6
to traditional capacitors. This technology still years irrespective of the number of cycles. They
exhibits a large development potential that are environmentally friendly and easily recycled
could lead to much greater capacitance and or neutralized. The efficiency is typically around
energy density than conventional capacitors, 90 % and discharge times are in the range of
thus enabling compact designs. seconds to hours.

The two main features are the extremely high They can reach a specific power density which is
capacitance values, of the order of many about ten times higher than that of conventional
batteries (only very-high-power lithium batteries conditioning equipment and a cryogenically
can reach nearly the same specific power cooled refrigeration system.
density), but their specific energy density is
about ten times lower. The main advantage of SMES is the very quick
response time: the requested power is available
Because of their properties, DLCs are suited almost instantaneously. Moreover the system
especially to applications with a large number is characterized by its high overall round-trip
of short charge/discharge cycles, where their efficiency (85 % - 90 %) and the very high
high performance characteristics can be power output which can be provided for a short
used. DLCs are not suitable for the storage of period of time. There are no moving parts in the
energy over longer periods of time, because of main portion of SMES, but the overall reliability
their high self-discharge rate, their low energy depends crucially on the refrigeration system.
density and high investment costs. In principle the energy can be stored indefinitely
as long as the cooling system is operational, but
Since about 1980 they have been widely applied longer storage times are limited by the energy
in consumer electronics and power electronics. demand of the refrigeration system.
A DLC is also ideally suited as a UPS to bridge
short voltage failures. A new application could Large SMES systems with more than 10 MW
be the electric vehicle, where they could be power are mainly used in particle detectors
used as a buffer system for the acceleration for high-energy physics experiments and
process and regenerative braking [esp11]. nuclear fusion. To date a few, rather small
SMES products are commercially available;
these are mainly used for power quality control
2.5.2 Superconducting magnetic energy in manufacturing plants such as microchip
storage (SMES) fabrication facilities [iea09].

Superconducting magnetic energy storage

(SMES) systems work according to an 2.6 Thermal storage systems
electrodynamic principle. The energy is stored
in the magnetic field created by the flow of Thermal (energy) storage systems store
direct current in a superconducting coil, which available heat by different means in an insulated
is kept below its superconducting critical repository for later use in different industrial and
temperature. 100 years ago at the discovery of residential applications, such as space heating
superconductivity a temperature of about 4 °K or cooling, hot water production or electricity
was needed. Much research and some luck has generation. Thermal storage systems are
now produced superconducting materials with deployed to overcome the mismatch between
higher critical temperatures. Today materials demand and supply of thermal energy and
are available which can function at around thus they are important for the integration of
100 °K. The main component of this storage renewable energy sources.
system is a coil made of superconducting
material. Additional components include power

33
 S E C T I O N 2 
34 Types and features of energy
storage systems

Thermal storage can be subdivided into source heats up an adsorbent (e.g. silica gel or
different technologies: storage of sensible heat, zeolite), and vapour (working fluid, e.g. water) is
storage of latent heat, and thermo-chemical ad- desorbed from this adsorbent and condensed
and absorption storage [sch08]. The storage in a condenser at low temperatures. The heat
of sensible heat is one of the best-known of condensation is withdrawn from the system.
and most widespread technologies, with the The dried adsorbent and the separated working
domestic hot water tank as an example. The fluid can be stored as long as desired. During
storage medium may be a liquid such as water the discharging process the working fluid takes
or thermo-oil, or a solid such as concrete or up low-temperature heat in an evaporator.
the ground. Thermal energy is stored solely Subsequently, the vapour of the working
through a change of temperature of the storage fluid adsorbs on the adsorbent and heat of
medium. The capacity of a storage system is adsorption is released at high temperatures
defined by the specific heat capacity and the [jäh06]. Depending on the adsorbent/working
mass of the medium used. fluid pair the temperature level of the released
heat can be up to 200 °C [sch08] and the energy
Latent heat storage is accomplished by using density is up to three times higher than that
phase change materials (PCMs) as storage of sensible heat storage with water. However,
media. There are organic (paraffins) and sorption storage systems are more expensive
inorganic PCMs (salt hydrates) available for due to their complexity.
such storage systems. Latent heat is the energy
exchanged during a phase change such as the In the context of EES, it is mainly sensible/latent
melting of ice. It is also called “hidden” heat, heat storage systems which are important. CSP
because there is no change of temperature plants primarily produce heat, and this can be
during energy transfer. The best-known latent stored easily before conversion to electricity
heat – or cold – storage method is the ice cooler, and thus provide dispatchable electrical energy.
which uses ice in an insulated box or room to State-of-the-art technology is a two-tank
keep food cool during hot days. Currently most system for solar tower plants, with one single
PCMs use the solid-liquid phase change, such molten salt as heat transfer fluid and storage
as molten salts as a thermal storage medium medium [tam06]. The molten salt is heated by
for concentrated solar power (CSP) plants solar radiation and then transported to the hot
[iee08]. The advantage of latent heat storage is salt storage tank. To produce electricity the hot
its capacity to store large amounts of energy in salt passes through a steam generator which
a small volume and with a minimal temperature powers a steam turbine. Subsequently, the
change, which allows efficient heat transfer. cold salt (still molten) is stored in a second tank
before it is pumped to the solar tower again. The
Sorption (adsorption, absorption) storage main disadvantages are the risk of liquid salt
systems work as thermo-chemical heat pumps freezing at low temperatures and the risk of salt
under vacuum conditions and have a more decomposition at higher temperatures. In solar
complex design. Heat from a high-temperature trough plants a dual-medium storage system
with an intermediate oil/salt heat exchanger is used to cover the temperature range from 50 °C
preferred [tam06]. Typical salt mixtures such as to 650 °C [bul04]. Direct contact between the
Na-K-NO3 have freezing temperatures > 200 °C, pressurized air and the storage medium in a
and storage materials and containment require solid thermal storage system has the advantage
a higher volume than storage systems for solar of a high surface area for heat transfer. The
tower plants. The two-tank indirect system is storage material is generally cheap, but the
being deployed in “Andasol 1-3”, three 50 MW pressurized container costs are greater.
parabolic trough plants in southern Spain, and
is planned for Abengoa Solar’s 280 MW Solana
plant in Arizona. Apart from sensible heat 2.7 Standards for EES
storage systems for CSP, latent heat storage
is under development by a German-Spanish For mature EES systems such as PHS, LA,
consortium – including DLR and Endesa – at NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion various IEC standards
Endesa’s Litoral Power Plant in Carboneras, exist. The standards cover technical features,
Spain. The storage system at the pilot facility testing and system integration. For the other
is based on sodium nitrate, has a capacity of technologies there are only a few standards,
700 kWh and works at a temperature of 305 °C covering special topics. Up to now no general,
[csp11]. technology-independent standard for EES
integration into a utility or a stand-alone grid
In adiabatic CAES the heat released during has been developed. A standard is planned for
compression of the air may be stored in large rechargeable batteries of any chemistry.
solid or liquid sensible heat storage systems.
Various R&D projects are exploring this Standardization topics for EES include:
technology [rwe11] [bul04], but so far there are • terminology
no adiabatic CAES plants in operation. As solid • basic characteristics of EES components
materials concrete, cast iron or even a rock bed and systems, especially definitions and
can be employed. For liquid systems different measuring methods for comparison and
concepts with a combination of nitrate salts and technical evaluation
oil are in discussion. The round-trip efficiency is - capacity, power, discharge time, lifetime,
expected to be over 70 % [rad08]. standard EES unit sizes
• communication between components
Of particular relevance is whether a pressurized - protocols, security
tank is needed for the thermal storage, or if a • interconnection requirements
non-pressurized compartment can be used. In - power quality, voltage tolerances,
liquid systems, a heat exchanger can be used frequency, synchronization, metering
to avoid the need for a large pressurized tank • safety: electrical, mechanical, etc.
for the liquid, but the heat exchanger means • testing
additional costs and increases the complexity. • guides for implementation.
A dual-media approach (salt and oil) must be

35
 S E C T I O N 2 
36 Types and features of energy
storage systems

2.8 Technical comparison of EES to months. Figure 2-9 comprises not only the
technologies application areas of today’s EES systems but
also the predicted range in future applications.
The previous sections have shown that a wide Not all EES systems are commercially available
range of different technologies exists to store in the ranges shown at present, but all are
electrical energy. Different applications with expected to become important. Most of the
different requirements demand different features technologies could be implemented with even
from EES. Hence a comprehensive comparison larger power output and energy capacity, as
and assessment of all storage technologies is all systems have a modular design, or could at
rather ambitious, but in Figure 2-9 a general least be doubled (apart from PHS and some
overview of EES is given. In this double- restrictions for underground storage of H2, SNG
logarithmic chart the rated power (W) is plotted and CAES). If a larger power range or higher
against the energy content (Wh) of EES systems. energy capacity is not realized, it will be mainly
The nominal discharge time at rated power can for economic reasons (cost per kW and cost per
also be seen, covering a range from seconds kWh, respectively).

Figure 2-9 – Comparison of rated power, energy content and discharge time
of different EES technologies
(Fraunhofer ISE)
On the basis of Figure 2-9 EES technologies with an energy-to-power ratio of between 1
can be categorized as being suitable for and 10 (e.g. between 1 kWh and 10 kWh for
applications with: a 1 kW system). Batteries can be tailored
to the needs of an application: tradeoffs
• S
hort discharge time (seconds to may be made for high energy or high power
minutes): double-layer capacitors (DLC), density, fast charging behaviour or long life,
superconducting magnetic energy storage etc.
(SMES) and flywheels (FES). The energy-to-
power ratio is less than 1 (e.g. a capacity of • L
ong discharge time (days to months):
less than 1 kWh for a system with a power of hydrogen (H2) and synthetic natural gas
1 kW). (SNG). For these EES systems the energy-
to-power ratio is considerably greater than
• M
edium discharge time (minutes to 10.
hours): flywheel energy storage (FES) and –
for larger capacities – electrochemical EES, Pumped hydro storage (PHS), compressed air
which is the dominant technology: lead-acid energy storage (CAES) and redox flow batteries
(LA), Lithium ion (Li-ion) and sodium sulphur are situated between storage systems for
(NaS) batteries. The technical features of medium and long discharge times. Like H2 and
the different electrochemical techniques are SNG systems, these EES technologies have
relatively similar. They have advantages in external storage tanks. But the energy densities
the kW - MW and kWh - MWh range when are rather low, which limits the energy-to-power
compared to other technologies. Typical ratio to values between approximately 5 and 30.
discharge times are up to several hours,

37
 S E C T I O N 2 
38 Types and features of energy
storage systems

In Figure 2-10 the power density (per unit density, which explains the broad range of
volume, not weight) of different EES technologies applications where Li-ion is currently deployed.
is plotted versus the energy density. The higher
the power and energy density, the lower the NaS and NaNiCl have higher energy densities in
required volume for the storage system. Highly comparison to the mature battery types such as
compact EES technologies suitable for mobile LA and NiCd, but their power density is lower in
applications can be found at the top right. Large comparison to NiMH and Li-ion. Metal air cells
area and volume-consuming storage systems have the highest potential in terms of energy
are located at the bottom left. Here it is again density. Flow batteries have a high potential
clear that PHS, CAES and flow batteries have a for larger battery systems (MW/MWh) but have
low energy density compared to other storage only moderate energy densities. The main
technologies. SMES, DLC and FES have high advantage of H2 and SNG is the high energy
power densities but low energy densities. Li-ion density, superior to all other storage systems.
has both a high energy density and high power

Figure 2-10 – Comparison of power density and energy density

(in relation to volume) of EES technologies
(Fraunhofer ISE)
Figure 2-11 summarizes the maturity of the are a more severe limit for this technology
storage technologies discussed. The state than the characteristic of low energy density
of the art for each EES technology is plotted (although the two may be linked in some
versus the power range. Thus the suitability cases). Figure 2-11 shows a lack of immediately
for different applications of the available deployable storage systems in the range from
technologies covered can be compared. 10 MW to some hundreds of MW. Diabatic CAES
is well-developed but adiabatic CAES is yet to
Clearly PHS, CAES, H2 and SNG are the only be demonstrated. Single components of H2 and
storage technologies available for high power SNG storage systems are available and in some
ranges and energy capacities, although energy cases have been used in industrial applications
density is rather low for PHS and CAES. Large for decades. However, such storage systems
power ranges are feasible as these EES systems become viable and economically reasonable
use the turbines and compressors familiar from only if the grids have to carry and distribute
other power generation plants. However, only large amounts of volatile electricity from REs.
PHS is mature and available. Restrictions in The first demonstration and pilot plants are
locations (topography) and land consumption currently under construction (e.g. in Europe).

Figure 2-11 – Maturity and state of the art of storage systems for electrical energy
(Fraunhofer ISE)

39
 S E C T I O N 2 
40 Types and features of energy
storage systems

From the technical comparison it can be 3) For long discharge times, days to months,
concluded that a single universal storage and huge capacities (GWh - TWh), no EES
technology superior to all other storage systems technologies have so far been put into
does not exist. Today and in the future different practical operation. New EES technologies
types of EES will be necessary to suit all the such as H2 and SNG have to be developed.
applications described in section 1. Bearing in
mind the findings from Figures 2-9 and 2-10,
Figure 2-11 suggests the following conclusions.

1) EES systems for short and medium discharge

times cover wide ranges of rated power
and energy density. Several mature EES
technologies, in particular FES, DLC and
battery systems, can be used in these ranges.

2) PHS is the only currently feasible large-

capacity EES for medium discharge times;
further development in CAES is expected.
Suitable locations for large PHS and CAES
systems are topographically limited. An
increase in the capacity of other EES
systems, and control and integration of
dispersed EES systems (see section 3.3),
will be required for medium-duration use.
SECTION 3
Markets for EES
 S E C T I O N 3
42 Markets for EES

In this section an overview of the markets 2) Maintain power quality, voltage and frequency,
for EES is given by describing existing EES by supplying/absorbing power from/into EES
application cases. Applications for conventional when necessary.
electric utilities and consumers are presented
3) Postpone investment needed by mitigating
as well as near-future use cases, concentrating
network congestion through peak shift.
on storage applications in combination with
renewable energy generation. 4) Provide stable power for off-grid systems
(isolated networks).

5) Provide emergency power supply.

3.1 Present status of applications

In this section, those cases are described which Utility use of pumped hydro storage for time
have already been implemented by electric shift and power quality
utilities and consumers. These are respectively
time shift and investment deferral for the former, Pumped hydro storage (PHS) has historically
and emergency supply and power quality for been used by electric utilities to reduce total
the latter. generation cost by time-shifting and to control
grid frequency. There are many PHS facilities
in different countries, and they have the largest
3.1.1 Utility use (conventional power proportion of total storage capacity worldwide.
generation, grid operation A conventional installation cannot function
& service) as a frequency controller while pumping, but
an advanced variable-speed-control PHS
1) Reduce total generation costs by using (Figure 3-1) can do so by varying the rotational
pumped hydroelectricity for time shifting, speed of the motor.
which stores electricity during off-peak times
and provides electricity during peak hours.

Figure 3-1 – Variable-speed PHS operated by Tepco

(TEPCO)
Utility use of compressed air energy storage and is also based on a diabatic CAES process,
for time shift and power quality but additionally a recuperator is used to recover
heat from the exhaust at the outlet of the gas
Today only two diabatic compressed air energy turbine. Therefore a higher round trip efficiency
storage (CAES) power plants are in operation of 54 % can be achieved. Both systems use
worldwide. In 1978 the first CAES power plant off-peak electricity for air compression and are
was built in Huntorf, Germany (Figure 3-2). It operated for peak levelling on a daily basis.
works as a diabatic CAES plant with a round-trip
efficiency of roughly 41 % [rad08]. It consists of Worldwide several CAES plants are under
a low-pressure and high-pressure compressor development and construction. In Germany
with intercooler, two salt caverns (2 x 155 000 m³ for example a small adiabatic CAES plant is
usable volume, 46 - 72 bar pressure range), scheduled for demonstration in 2016 (project
a motor-generator (60 MW charging, 321 MW ADELE), which will achieve a higher efficiency
discharging) and a high-pressure (inlet conditions: in comparison to a diabatic CAES [rwe11].
41 bar, 490 °C) and low-pressure turbine (13 bar,
945 °C). The second CAES plant is in McIntosh
(Alabama, USA) and was commissioned in
1991. It has a net electrical output of 110 MW

Figure 3-2 – CAES plant in Huntorf

(Vattenfall, IEC MSB/EES Workshop 2011)

43
 S E C T I O N 3
44 Markets for EES

Figure 3-3 – Li-ion battery supplying up to 12 MW of power at Los Andes substation in Chile
(A123, 2009)

Utility’s more efficient use of the power need power sources for their control
network installations with high power quality and
reliability, since these are the very facilities
As one of the examples of EES for utilities, a which are most needed for power in the
Li-ion battery can provide the benefit of more case of an interruption. EES systems for
efficient use of the power network. this application are mostly DC sources and
supported by batteries. Historically lead acid
In 2009 the US companies AES Energy Storage batteries have been used for this purpose.
and A123 Systems installed a 12 MW, 3 MWh
Li-ion battery at AES Gener's Los Andes sub-
station in the Atacama Desert, Chile (Figure 3-3). Utility’s off-grid systems (isolated grids)
The battery helps the system operator manage
fluctuations in demand, delivering frequency In the case where a utility company supplies
regulation in a less expensive and more responsive electricity in a small power grid, for example on
manner than transmission line upgrades. In an island, the power output from small-capacity
addition, because the project replaces unpaid generators such as diesel and renewable energy
reserve from the power plant, AES Gener will must also match with the power demand. On
receive payment for its full output capacity by Hachijo-jima (island), where about 8 000 people
selling directly to the electric grid. live, TEPCO uses NaS batteries with diesel
generators and a wind power station to meet the
varying demand. For off-grid photovoltaic systems
Utility’s emergency power supply in the power range (50 W -) 1 kW - 500 kW lead
acid batteries for EES are commonly used.
Important facilities, such as power stations,
substations and telecommunication stations,
3.1.2 Consumer use (uninterruptable Example: consumers’ use of NaS batteries
power supply for large consumers)
Figure 3-4 shows the applications of NaS
1) Suppress peak demand and use cheaper batteries installed in the world with their
electricity during peak periods, i.e. save cost respective power capacities. The systems
by buying off-peak electricity and storing it used exclusively for load levelling (LL) account
in EES. The result is load leveling by time- for almost half the total, and installations for
shifting. load levelling with the additional functions of
emergency power supply or stand-by power
2) Secure a reliable and higher-quality power
supply represent another 20 % each. However,
supply for important factories and commercial
the need for storage linked to renewable energy,
facilities.
as explained in section 3.2, is growing.

Figure 3-4 – NaS battery applications and installed capacities

(NGK, IEC MSB/EES Workshop, 2011)

45
 S E C T I O N 3
46 Markets for EES

2% 3%

Factory equipment
19 %
Water supply /
sewage systems

Schools & research

institutions

7% Office buildings

Hospital facilities

5% 64 % Substations

Figure 3-5 – Locations of NaS systems in the TEPCO service area

(TEPCO)

Compressed Air Energy Storage

Pumped Hydro
440 MW 3,730 MWh

Sodium Sulphur Battery

316 MW 1,900 MWh
127,000 MW Lithium Ion Battery
~1,500,000 MWh
~70 MW ~17 MWh

Lead Acid Battery

~35 MW ~70 MWh

Nickel Cadmium Battery

over 99 % of the total storage 27 MW 6,75 MWh
capacity
Flywheels
<25 MW <0,4 MWh
Redox Flow Battery
<3 MW <12 MWh

Figure 3-6 – Worldwide installed storage capacity for electrical energy

[epr10] [doe07]
Figure 3-5 shows the locations of NaS batteries 3.2.1 Renewable energy generation
installed in the TEPCO service area; the
average capacity per location is about 2 MW. In order to solve global environmental problems,
The majority of batteries are installed in large renewable energies such as solar and wind will
factories (64 %), but there are some in large be widely used. This means that the future energy
commercial buildings (19 %) as well as in supply will be influenced by fluctuating renewable
water supply/sewerage systems and schools/ energy sources – electricity production will follow
research institutes (12 % together). weather conditions and the surplus and deficit in
energy need to be balanced. One of the main
functions of energy storage, to match the supply
3.1.3 EES installed capacity worldwide and demand of energy (called time shifting), is
essential for large and small-scale applications.
Figure 3-6 shows the installed capacity of In the following, we show two cases classified
EES systems used in electricity grids. Pumped by their size: kWh class and MWh class. The
hydro storage (PHS) power plants, with over third class, the GWh class, will be covered in
127 GW, represent 99 %, and this is about 3 % section 4.2.2.
of global generation capacity. The second-
largest EES in installed capacity is CAES, but Besides time shifting with energy storage,
there are only two systems in operation. The there are also other ways of matching supply
third most widely-used EES is the NaS battery. and demand. With a reinforced power grid,
As of the end of September 2010, NaS systems regional overproduction can be compensated
were installed and operational in 223 locations for by energy transmission to temporarily
in, for example, Japan, Germany, France, USA less productive areas. The amount of energy
and UAE (total: 316 MW). However, a large storage can also be reduced by overinstallation
quantity of other EES is expected to be installed of renewable energy generators. With this
given the emerging market needs for different approach even weakly producing periods are
applications, as shown in the next section. adequate for the load expected.

A further option is so-called demand-side

3.2 New trends in applications management (described under Smart Grid in
section 3.2.2), where users are encouraged to
Five new trends in EES applications are shift their consumption of electricity towards
described: renewable energy, smart grids, periods when surplus energy from renewables
smart microgrids, smart houses and electric is available.
vehicles. Current use cases of these applications
include experimental equipment and plans. These balancing methods not requiring EES
need to be considered for a proper forecast of
the market potential for EES.

47
 S E C T I O N 3
48 Markets for EES

Decentralized storage systems for increased supplied to the grid. The generated energy that
self-consumption of PV energy (kWh class) is not immediately consumed is stored in the
battery.
With the increasing number of installed PV
systems, the low-voltage grid is reaching In order to examine how much electricity can be
its performance limit. In Germany, the EEG self-supplied from PV, the results from a simulation
(Renewable Energies Law) guarantees, for for a typical household in Madrid may be of interest
a period of 20 years, a feed-in tariff for every [sch11]. The total consumption of the household
kWh produced and a fixed tariff for every kWh over one year is about 3 400 kWh. The aim is to
produced and self-consumed. To encourage use as much energy internally as possible, with
operators of decentralized systems, the price for a 10.7 kW PV generator and a 6 kWh lithium ion
self-consumed PV energy is higher. Therefore storage system. Figure 3-8 shows the electricity
self-consumption of power will become an consumption of the household over a year.
important option for private households with Regardless of the time of energy production, the
PV facilities, especially as the price of electricity storage provides the energy generated by the
increases. PV generator to electrical appliances. Supply
and demand can be adjusted to each other. The
Figure 3-7 shows an example of system design. integrated storage system is designed to cover
To measure the amount of energy consumed or 100 % of the demand with the energy generated
fed into the grid two meters are needed. One by the PV system during the summer. During the
meter measures the energy generated by the PV rest of the year a little additional energy has to be
system. The other meter works bidirectionally purchased from the grid.
and measures the energy obtained from or

=
~
PV Generator Inverter Meter Bidirectional Meter Grid

=
=
Storage DC/DC Load
Changer

Figure 3-7 – PV system designed for energy self-consumption

(Fraunhofer ISE)
 Figure 3-8 – Consumption of a typical household with a storage system:
energy consumed from the grid and from the PV system
(Fraunhofer ISE)

To provide a consumer-friendly system at low Smoothing out for wind (and PV) energy
cost, maintenance cost in particular needs (MWh class)
to be low and the most important factor for
stationary batteries is still the price per kWh. The Japan Wind Development Co. Ltd. has
Currently for this application lead acid batteries constructed a wind power generation facility
are the most common technology because of equipped with a battery in Aomori, Japan
the low investment costs. Lithium ion batteries (Futamata wind power plant, shown in Figures
are generally better in efficiency and in the 3-9 and 3-10). This facility consists of 51 MW of
number of cycles, but they have much higher wind turbines (1 500 kW x 34 units) and 34 MW
investment costs. NaNiCl batteries are also an of NaS batteries (2 000 kW x 17 units). By
option for this application, but they need daily using the NaS battery, the total power output
cycling to avoid additional heating. of this facility is smoothed and peak output
is controlled to be no greater than 40 MW.
Operation started in June 2008.

49
 S E C T I O N 3
50 Markets for EES

Wind turbines

Interconnected power transformation unit

NaS battery units PCS building Administration/control building

Figure 3-9 – General view of the Futamata wind power plant

(Japan Wind Development Co.)

Figure 3-10 – NaS battery units – 34 MW

(Japan Wind Development Co.)
 Data Interval: 1 sec
50,000
Wind Power
40,000

30,000

20,000
Power (kW)

10,000

0
Total Power

-10,000

-20,000 NAS Power

-30,000
(23-Oct) 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00

Figure 3-11 – Example operational results of constant output control over 8 hours
(NGK)

Figure 3-11 shows an example of output from typically conducted by centralized facilities and
this facility. The electric power sales plan is there is little or no consumer participation.
predetermined one day before. In order to
achieve this plan, the NaS battery system For the future distribution system, grids
controls charging or discharging in accordance will become more active and will have to
with the output of wind power generation. This accommodate bi-directional power flows and an
facility meets the technical requirements of the increasing transmission of information. Some of
local utility company to connect to the grid. the electricity generated by large conventional
plants will be displaced by the integration
of renewable energy sources. An increasing
3.2.2 Smart Grid number of PV, biomass and on-shore wind
generators will feed into the medium and low-
Today’s grids are generally based on large voltage grid. Conventional electricity systems
central power plants connected to high-voltage must be transformed in the framework of a
transmission systems that supply power to market model in which generation is dispatched
medium and low-voltage distribution systems. according to market forces and the grid control
The power flow is in one direction only: from centre undertakes an overall supervisory role
the power stations, via the transmission (active power balancing and ancillary services
and distribution grid, to the final consumers. such as voltage control).
Dispatching of power and network control is

51
 S E C T I O N 3
52 Markets for EES

The Smart Grid concept (Figure 3-12) is proposed transformers, transmission lines and
as one of the measures to solve problems in such distribution lines through load levelling in
a system. The Smart Grid is expected to control certain areas at times of peak demand. EES
the demand side as well as the generation side, for this purpose may also be used to enhance
so that the overall power system can be more frequency control capability.
efficiently and rationally operated. The Smart
Grid includes many technologies such as IT and 3) A further option is so-called demand-side
communications, control technologies and EES. management, involving smart grids and
Examples of EES-relevant applications in the residential users. With intelligent consumption
Smart Grid are given below. management and economic incentives
consumers can be encouraged to shift their
1) Penetration of renewable energy requires energy buying towards periods when surplus
more frequency control capability in the power power is available. Users may accomplish this
system. EES can be used to enhance the shift by changing when they need electricity,
capability through the control of charging and by buying and storing electricity for later use
discharging from network operators, so that when they do not need it, or both.
the imbalance between power consumption
and generation is lessened. Electrochemical storage types used in smart
grids are basically lead acid and NaS batteries,
2) In some cases, EES can reduce investment and in some cases also Li-ion batteries. For
in power system infrastructure such as this application redox flow batteries also have

Figure 3-12 – The Smart Grid

(Fraunhofer ISE)
potential because of their independent ratio (battery) capacities according to the application
of power and energy, leading to cost-efficient in for example a factory, a building, a hospital or
storage solutions. a store. The microgrid and EES should in general
be connected to the network; even if a particular
Smart Microgrid is not connected to a grid,
3.2.3 Smart Microgrid for example in the case of an isolated island, it
should still have similar possibilities of intelligent
A smart factory, smart building, smart hospital, adjustment, because an isolated Smart Microgrid
smart store or another intermediate-level can also expand or shrink. Figure 3-13 shows a
grid with EES may be treated as a “Smart schematic of a scalable architecture.
Microgrid” 8. For flexibility in resisting outages
caused by disasters it is very important to deploy In Annex B two examples are given, a factory
Smart Microgrids, that is, distributed smart power and a store, which have fairly different sizes
sources, as an element in constructing smart grids. of batteries, but with controllers in common.
Microgrids controlled in this way have the features
EES is an essential component of a Smart of connecting and adjusting to the main grid
Microgrid, which should be scalable, intelligently, showing and using the input and
autonomous and ready to cooperate with other output status of batteries, and controlling power
grids. The architecture for the Smart Microgrid smoothly in an emergency (including isolating the
should have a single controller and should be microgrid from the main grid if needed). These are
scalable with respect to EES, i.e. it should adjust the characteristics needed in Smart Microgrids,
smoothly to the expansion and shrinkage of EES regardless of EES scale or applications.

Figure 3-13 – Scalable architecture for EES applications in a Smart Microgrid

(Sanyo, IEC MSB/EES Workshop, 2011)

8
Note that the term “microgrid” has been the subject
of various specific definitions, none of which is
assumed here.

53
 S E C T I O N 3
54 Markets for EES

3.2.4 Smart House 2) Some consumers prefer to use their own

renewable energy sources. EES can reduce
The concept of the Smart House is proposed the mismatch between their power demand
in order to use energy more efficiently, and their own power generation.
economically and reliably in residential areas.
EES technologies are expected to play an 3) In specific situations such as interruption
important role. of power supply, most on-site renewable
generators have problems in isolated
1) The consumer cost of electricity consists operation because of the uncontrollable
of a demand charge (kW) and an energy generation output. EES may be a solution.
charge (kWh). Load levelling by EES can
suppress the peak demand; however, Figure 3-14 schematically represents the smart
charge/discharge loss will simultaneously house, and Figure 3-15 maps a possible energy
increase the amount of electricity architecture for it. In smart houses mainly lead
consumed. Consumers may be able to acid systems are used currently, but in the future
reduce electricity costs by optimizing EES Li-ion or NaNiCl batteries in particular may be
operation. installed because of their high cycle lifetime and
their ability to deliver high peak power.

Figure 3-14 – The Smart House

(Fraunhofer ISE)
 AC 50/60 Hz Air
Air conditioner
conditioner Refrigerator
Refrigator Washing machine
Washing machine
AC 100 - 200 V
Power station
Power station Transformer
Transformer Heat pump
Heat pump

Microwave
Microwaweoven
oven

Induction heater
Induction heater

Secondary
Secondary TV DVD/BD Audio
TV DVD/BD Audio set
set
Cell
Cell
Photovoltaic LVDC PC
PC Printer
Printer Game
Game machine
machine
24~48 V
Fax
Fax
Hybrid
Control DC PLC LED
LED lighting
lighting Sensor
Sensor Ventilation
Ventilation

Wireless charger
Wireless charger Electric toothbrush
Electric toothbrush
Hydrogen
Hydrogen FC
FC

Electric shaver

Bath
Bath

Heat pump Kitchen

Kitchen

Waste heated water Wash

Wash basin
basin

Figure 3-15 – Future home energy network in a smart house

(IEC White Paper 2010)

3.2.5 Electric vehicles be compensated for by the electric motor. Electric

drive-trains are particularly well suited to road
Electric vehicles (EVs) were first developed vehicles due to their precise response behaviour,
in the 19th century but, since vehicles with their high efficiency and the relatively simple
conventional combustion engines are much handling of the energy storage. In spite of the
cheaper and have other advantages such as advantages of electric motors, the combination of
an adequate driving range of around 500 km, an electric drive-train with an internal combustion
electric vehicles have not been introduced engine is reasonable. That is because electricity
in large quantities to the market. The main storage for driving ranges of up to 500 km, which
obstacle for building electricity-driven vehicles are achieved by conventional drive-trains (and
has been the storage of energy in batteries. Due petrol tanks), are not feasible today.
to their low capacity it has not been possible to
achieve driving ranges that would be accepted Hybrid classes and vehicle batteries
by the consumer. The emerging development of
battery technology in recent years presents new Generally the different hybrid vehicles are
possibilities, with batteries displaying increased classified by their integrated functions, as
energy densities. shown in Figure 3-16. The power demand on
the battery increases with additional integrated
In the transitional period of the next few years, functions. The more functions are integrated
mainly hybrid cars will come onto the market. in the vehicle, the higher the potential of fuel
They combine an internal combustion engine with savings and therefore the reduction of carbon
an electric motor, so that one system is able to dioxide emissions. While vehicles up to the full
compensate for the disadvantages of the other. hybrid level have already entered the market,
An example is the low efficiency in partial-load plug-in hybrids and pure electric vehicles are
states of an internal combustion engine, which can not yet established in larger quantities.

55
 S E C T I O N 3
56 Markets for EES

Electric vehicle
Increasing electric power & electric driving range

Pure electric driving

Plug-In Hybrid
Charging at sockets

Full Hybrid
Integrated motor assist
Limited electric driving

Mild Hybrid
Recuperation of braking energy
Acceleration assistance (boost)

Micro Hybrid
Start-Stop System

improvement of the conventional combustion engine

Increasing electrification of the drive train

Figure 3-16 – Hybrid classes sorted by electrical power and functional range,
against stage of development
(Fraunhofer ISE)

Regarding energy storage for vehicles, today improvements. With lithium ion batteries
lead acid batteries are commonly used in micro- becoming technically more favorable and
hybrids. In combination with a double-layer having significant potential for cost reduction
capacitor there might also be options for their there does not seem to be a medium-term
use in mild or full hybrids, but since technically future for NiMH batteries.
better solutions are available and economically
feasible they will not play any role in the future. Lithium batteries are ideally suited for
automotive use, for both electric vehicles and
NiMH batteries are mainly used in hybrid vehicles hybrid electric vehicles. For the hybrid vehicles
because their system is well-engineered and, a good choice might be the lithium-titanate
compared to Li-ion batteries, they are actually battery because of its high cycle stability and
more favourable especially due to safety issues. power density. With rising battery capacities for
Good cycle stability in low states of charge which more advanced hybrid types, the relatively low
often appear in hybrid cars is characteristic for energy density of the lithium-titanate batteries
these batteries. All Toyota hybrid vehicles use a has a bigger effect on the total car weight that
NiMH battery with 1.3 kWh and 40 kW. Toyota results in a higher energy demand. Therefore
has sold in total about 3 million hybrid vehicles lithium-iron-phosphate and especially lithium-
with this battery; this means the total storage NMC batteries with high energy densities are
volume sold is about 4 GWh and 120 GW. preferred for plug-in-hybrids and pure electric
cars – for the latter the driving range is the most
A major problem of this technology is the limited important criterion.
potential for further technical or economic
 Table 3-1 – Differences between hybrid and electric vehicles’ power trains
[smo09]

Specifications Micro Hybrid Mild Hybrid Full Hybrid Plug-In Hybrid Electric vehicle
Power electric
2 – 8 kW 10 – 20 kW 20 – 100 kW 20 – 100 kW < 100 kW
motor
Capacity
< 1 kWh < 2 kWh < 5 kWh 5 – 15 kWh 15 – 40 kWh
Batteries
DC voltage 12 V 36 – 150 V 150 – 200 V 150 – 200 V 150 – 400 V
Potential - 8 % - 15 % - 20 % - 20 % --
in saving fuel
Range for
-- < 3 km 20 – 60 km < 100 km 100 – 250 km
electrical driving
Lead Acid,
EES type NiMH, Li-Ion NiMH, Li-Ion Li-Ion Li-Ion, NaNiCl
NiMH, Li-Ion

An alternative battery technology for pure Many storage systems are connected to the grid
electric cars is the high-temperature sodium- via power electronics components, including
nickel-chloride battery (also called ZEBRA the converter which modulates the waveforms
battery). It has a huge self-discharge rate of of current and voltage to a level that can be fed
about 10 % per day in stand-by status from into or taken from the grid directly. Sometimes the
having to keep the battery at a high temperature. converter is connected to a transformer before the
Therefore these NaNiCl batteries are preferred grid connection in order to provide the required
for fleet vehicles such as buses, where they voltage. The converter is managed by a controller
are in permanent operation and no additional which defines the set-points of the storage
battery heating is usually necessary. system. These set-points can be expressed as
the magnitude of active and reactive power, P and
Q. Such a controller may also be called control
3.3 Management and control electronics – a controller in this context is simply a
hierarchy of storage systems representation of the place where intelligence for
decision-making is applied.
In this section the concepts of the management
and control of storage systems are introduced.
While it is essential to have local management 3.3.1 Internal configuration of battery
for the safe and reliable operation of the storage storage systems
facilities, it is equally important to have a
coordinated control with other components in the Complex storage systems consisting of batteries
grid when grid-wide applications are desired. The are equipped with a Battery Management
purpose of this section is to help readers visualize System (BMS) which monitors and controls the
the components and their interactions for some of charge and discharge processes of the cells
the applications described in this paper. or modules of the batteries. This is necessary

57
 S E C T I O N 3
58 Markets for EES

~
Converter
Storage Controller

Communication
Connection
BMS Batteries
Electrical
Battery Energy Storage System Connection

Figure 3-17 – A possible realization of internal control architecture for a battery storage system
(ABB)

in order to safeguard the lifetime and ensure which only needs to know the loading conditions
safe operation of the batteries. The diagram in of the local equipment (e.g. lines, transformers)
Figure 3-17 shows a possible realization of the next to which the EES is installed. The same
internal control architecture for a battery storage applies for applications which have pre-
system. It should be noted that for bulk energy determined set-points that do not change during
storage it is very likely that there is a more refined operation. However, set-points for applications
hierarchy for the BMS, which involves a master which require dynamic adaptation to the network
control module coordinating the charging and operational environment and much remote data
discharging of the slave control modules. It is or measurements might be better determined
possible that the batteries and converters are by a remote controller which can gather these
from two different manufacturers, and therefore remote inputs more efficiently. One example of
compatibility and interoperability of the two such an application is wind power smoothing,
systems regarding both communication and which uses wind output forecasts as well as
electrical connections is imperative. measurements from the wind farm as inputs.
Another example is energy time-shifting, making
use of dynamic market prices. A generalized
3.3.2 External connection of EES systems setup with remotely determined set-points is
shown in Figure 3-18. Batteries and the BMS are
The P and Q set-points for an EES for a certain replaced by the “Energy Storage Medium”, to
application can be set locally or remotely, represent any storage technologies including the
depending on the control scheme implemented. necessary energy conversion subsystem.
The control scheme should in turn be determined
by the application. More precisely, the application
determines the algorithmic and input/output 3.3.3 Aggregating EES systems and
requirements for the EES system. For instance, distributed generation (Virtual
an application which requires simple logic using Power Plant)
only local measurements can have the set-points
determined locally through the storage controller. The control hierarchy can be further generalized
An example of such an application is load levelling, to include other storage systems or devices
 Remote Data/Measurements

Control Center/Substation

P, Q Set-points
to grid
Storage Status

~
Storage Controller

Energy Storage Medium Communication

Connection
Electrical

EES System Connection

Figure 3-18 – A Control hierarchy involving remote data/measurements

(ABB)

Communication
Connection

Remote Data/Measurements Electrical

Connection

Control Center/Substation
to grid

EES System DG
EES System DG
EES System DG
EES System DG
VPP with EES

Figure 3-19 – A generalized control concept for aggregated EES systems and DGs
(ABB)

connected to the grid, illustrated in Figure 3-19. production from a cluster of grid-connected
This diagram represents an aggregation of EES distributed generation sources via smart grid
systems and DGs (Distributed Generators) technology, by a centralized controller which
which can behave like one entity, a so-called can be hosted in a network control centre or a
“VPP with EES” in this example. VPP stands major substation. The integration of distributed
for Virtual Power Plant which, according to one energy storage systems at different locations of
definition, is the technology to aggregate power the grid will further enhance the capabilities of

59
 S E C T I O N 3
60 Markets for EES

the VPP. It should be noted that in the figure the implement such uses, a group of battery
communication and electrical infrastructures manufacturers and electric utilities in Japan is
are highly simplified in order to show the general developing technologies for central control of
concept but not the details. dispersed batteries, named “Battery SCADA”.

A concrete example of an implementation Using Battery SCADA distributed batteries can

based on aggregated energy storage systems be assembled and managed like a virtual large-
using batteries is given in the following section capacity battery, and batteries with different
on “battery SCADA”. specifications made by different manufacturers
can be controlled and used by grid operators
in an integrated way. Battery SCADA is shown
3.3.4 “Battery SCADA” – aggregation of schematically in Figure 3-20. Information from
many dispersed batteries batteries on both the grid side and the customer
side is collected by Battery SCADA, processed,
As progress is realized in battery capabilities and transmitted to the control centre. Based on
and costs, many batteries will be installed this information and the situation of the network,
both by consumers and in the grid, with large the control centre sends commands to Battery
cumulative capacity and correspondingly large SCADA, which distributes corresponding
effects. Most will be small battery storage commands to each battery system.
systems, dispersed in location and used
locally. However, if they are gathered into a Demonstration of this technology will start in
virtual assembly and controlled centrally, they 2012 in Yokohama City, Japan, with various
may also be used for many utility applications, types of Li-ion batteries installed on the grid
such as load frequency control, load levelling side and in consumer premises, to be controlled
and control of transmission power flow. To by the Battery SCADA.

Figure 3-20 – Schematic diagram of Battery SCADA

(TEPCO)
 SECTION 4
Forecast of EES
market potential by 2030
 S E C T I O N 4
62 Forecast of EES market poten
tial by 2030

As mentioned in section 3, there are many Sandia National Laboratory. Market size and
applications for EES. For some applications EES benefits corresponding to the break-even cost
has already been commercially deployed and it will of EES per kW are estimated for each application
continue to be used for these applications in the separately. While this study only treats present
future. Furthermore, some new applications for EES market potential and only for one (large) market,
are emerging, such as support for the expansion of it provides useful suggestions for considering
renewable energy generation and the smart grid. the future EES market. The results indicate that
The importance of EES in the society of the future no market exists for any application at present
is widely recognized, and some studies on the which is both high-value and large. For example,
future market potential for EES have already been the application “Substation On-site”, which
carried out. While these studies vary in target time means an emergency power source installed
range, target area, applications considered and at a substation, presents a relatively high value,
so on, they can be classified into two categories: but its market is small. On the other hand, for
estimates of the future market covering almost all the application “Time-of-use Energy”, meaning
the applications of EES, and estimates of the future time shifting at a customer site, a large market
market focusing on specific new EES applications. size is expected but its value is not high.
In this section some studies’ results are shown for
these two categories. The study indicates that value and market size for
each application can vary with circumstances in
the future, and that one EES installation may be
4.1 EES market potential for used for multiple applications simultaneously,
overall applications which increases the benefits. One factor
affecting the future market is the scale of new
In this section two examples of studies and one installation of renewable energies.
specialized simulation are presented: a study
from Sandia National Laboratory (USA) which
evaluates EES benefits and maximum market 4.1.2 EES market estimation by the
potential for almost all applications in the USA; a Boston Consulting Group (BCG)
study prepared by the Boston Consulting Group
which forecasts the cost reductions in EES In this study, a price reduction in EES technologies
technologies and estimates the profitability of is forecast for 2030 and the investment profitability
investments in EES by application, so as to judge by EES application is evaluated. Eight groups of
the world market potential; and a simulation of applications are defined. To help determine the
the future Li-ion market by Panasonic. future EES market potential by application this study
also evaluates the feasibility of implementation,
which is made up of the existence of conventional
4.1.1 EES market estimation by Sandia technologies, technological difficulty of the
National Laboratory (SNL) EES technology development concerned,
compatibility with the related existing business
Figure 4-1 shows EES market potential by and the social circumstances. The results are
application type in the USA, as estimated by shown in Figure 4-2.
 Figure 4-1 – EES benefit (break-even cost) and market size by application in the US
[eye11]

The most promising market, where a large short periods. Large storage technologies such
market and high profitability can be expected, is as PHS and CAES are already economically
“Conventional Stabilization”, where pumped hydro feasible in this application, and other EES
storage and CAES are applicable. Conventional technologies will have great opportunities in the
stabilization includes time shift, smoothing of future. The need for balancing energy is likely
output fluctuations and efficiency improvement to rise as renewable energy generation causes
of conventional generators. The reason why this fluctuations on the supply side to increase, and
application is promising is that the need for time more and more power markets will introduce
shift and smoothing output fluctuations will grow sophisticated market mechanisms for the
dramatically in accordance with the expected procurement of balancing energy. The study
broad introduction of renewable energies. concludes that total market potential for the
eight groups of applications is 330 GW.
Another attractive market is “Balancing
Energy”, which corresponds to adjusting power
supply to meet demand that fluctuates within

63
 S E C T I O N 4
64 Forecast of EES market poten
tial by 2030

Figure 4-2 – EES market forecast by application for 2030

[bcg11]

4.1.3 EES market estimation for Li-ion 3) for UPS, assuming the probability of
batteries by the Panasonic Group replacement of a lead acid battery by Li-ion
to save space, for easy maintenance and
Panasonic Group (Sanyo) has estimated the considering the price gap;
EES market potential of the Li-ion battery. This
4) assuming that growth in EV stations will be
estimation was made by a simulation, with the
comparable to that in EVs themselves;
following assumptions:
5) assuming no lithium shortage.
1) assuming that the trend of battery purchase
prices will continue as determined by a The result of the simulation, shown in Figure 4-3,
market survey, and comparing with the indicates that the Li-ion battery market will grow
future price of the Li-ion battery; steadily, and the residential market in particular
will increase rapidly starting in 2017. There are,
2) for utility use, assuming community energy
and will be, a wide variety of Li-ion battery
storage and partial substitution of investment
applications, from small to large in battery size.
for transmission and distribution;
 Figure 4-3 – Global market for Li-ion batteries
(Sanyo, 2011)

4.2 EES market potential achieving the targets. For this reason some
estimation for broad studies have been done to determine the
introduction of renewable amount of EES needed to match the planned
energies introduction of renewable energy.

The integration of renewable energies into the

electric power grid can cause problems of output 4.2.1 EES market potential estimation for
fluctuation and unpredictability. When the total Germany by Fraunhofer
volume of renewable energies connected to the
grid exceeds a certain level such problems will Germany is well known as a leading country
appear and countermeasures will be needed. for the introduction of renewable energies, so a
Ambitious plans with significant incentives for large market for EES is expected. As shown in
the introduction of renewable energies exist Figure 4-4, Germany has set a target to increase
in certain markets (notably in the EU), and the share of renewable energy from less than
it is expected that EES will be a key factor in 20 % to around 60 % to 80 % by 2030.

65
 S E C T I O N 4
66 Forecast of EES market poten
tial by 2030

Figure 4-4 – Expected penetration of renewable energy in Germany

[ste11]

To achieve the German target more EES and future [ste11]. For both short-term and
capacity is necessary: Figure 4-5 shows a long-term needs a very large amount of EES will
scenario for wind production in the Vattenfall be needed to deliver peak power. In 2030 the
grid in 2030 which is estimated to be four times following capacities are necessary (peak power
higher than today. The blue curve, representing multiplied by time):
wind power, shows a massive fluctuation
resulting in huge amounts of energy which will • Hourly: 16 GWh
need to be charged and discharged, while the • Daily: 170 GWh
red curve displays the actual load. The light • Weekly: 3.2 TWh
blue field indicates the storage capacity in • Monthly: 5 TWh
Germany in pumped hydro (40 GWh, 7 GW), • Total: ~8.4 TWh
which represents 95 % of total energy storage
today [den10], and is totally inadequate for the The present installed storage capacity of 40 GWh
quantity of energy which will need to be stored PHS can cover only the hourly demand and a
(area under the purple curve). part of the daily demand. To cover the additional
hourly and daily demand electrochemical EES
Figure 4-6 shows the estimation of required such as batteries can be used. For the weekly
EES capacity by time range to handle the and monthly demand, CAES, H2 and SNG
integration of renewable energies in the past storage technologies are expected.
Figure 4-5 – Load curve (red) and wind power (blue) in the Vattenfall grid (north-east Germany):
charge and discharge volume in 2030 in comparison with pumped hydro storage capacity
[alb10]

Figure 4-6 – Distribution of required peak power for integration of renewables by time
[ste11]

67
 S E C T I O N 4
68 Forecast of EES market poten
tial by 2030

4.2.2 Storage of large amounts of energy 4.2.3 EES market potential estimation for
in gas grids Europe by Siemens

For the storage of large amounts of energy Another study on the EES market potential to
electrochemical EES would be too expensive manage the issues caused by large amounts
and require too much space. An alternative is of renewable energies has been carried out
the transformation of electricity into hydrogen or by Siemens [wol11] [hof10]. This study covers
synthetic methane gas for storage and distribution the whole of Europe and adopts an extreme
within the existing natural gas grid (see sections assumption, that all of the electricity is supplied
2.4.1 and 2.4.2). The efficiency of full-cycle by renewables (65 % wind, 35 % solar).
conversion of electric power to hydrogen is about
55 % - 75 %, and to SNG about 50 % - 70 %. Since renewable energies are by nature
In Germany the storage capacity of the existing uncontrollable, a mismatch between demand
natural gas grid is very large, at about 200 TWh and supply can happen both in the geographic
(about 400 TWh including the distribution grid). domain and the time domain. When there is
From a technical point of view it is possible to a mismatch between supply and demand,
inject up to 10 % hydrogen into natural gas shortage of supply is conventionally backed up
without any negative effects on the gas quality. by a reliable power supply such as fossil fuel
Because hydrogen has one-third the energy generators. To avoid this, geographic mismatch
of natural gas it is possible to inject hydrogen in an area can be decreased by reinforcement
containing 7 TWh of energy into the natural gas of interconnections with neighbouring areas,
grid. At any point of the gas grid it is possible to and time mismatch can be solved by the EES
convert the gas back into electricity with a high- time shift function. A simulation was carried out
efficiency gas power plant (~60 %). In Germany in order to determine how much EES would be
in 2030 the weekly and monthly EES demand needed if it alone, without any reinforcement
will be about 8.2 TWh (see section 4.2.1), which of interconnections, were used to eliminate
can nearly be covered by such an injection of backup capacity (see Figure 4-7). Europe was
hydrogen into the gas grid. This solution is only divided into 83 areas, each with a different mix
possible in countries where a gas grid exists; of renewable energy – in the figure, “EMix 1 %
otherwise, the hydrogen or synthetic methane PV” for example means 1 % PV and 99 % wind.
must be stored in additional high-pressure For the whole of Europe 65 % is generated by
vessels (which normally presents no difficulties) wind and 35 % by PV. The results show that
or caverns. 30 % - 50 % of the load needs to be backed up
by fossil fuel generators if there is no EES (“0h” renewables takes place. For hourly and daily
in Figure 4-7). The backup needed decreases storage the study suggests using PHS and
to 10 % - 20 % of demand if EES equivalent to electrochemical EES (NaS, Li-ion, LA or RFB).
one week’s load is available (“7d” in Figure 4-7), For the weekly and monthly demand CAES and
which corresponds to EES of 60 TWh or about H2 are recommended. As an alternative for the
2 % of the annual demand (3 200 TWh). weekly and monthly demand, large, new PHS
in the TWh range in the Scandinavian countries
In practice, for 100  % renewables, both (Sweden, Norway) is discussed. However,
reinforcement of interconnection lines and connecting these would need transmission
EES capacity of between 2 % and 8 % of lines over long distances. The financing and
the annual total demand is necessary. The acquisition of such transmission lines seem to
value depends on how much reinforcement be difficult from today’s viewpoint.
of grid connections and over-dimensioning of

Figure 4-7 – Necessary backup energy related to EES capacity

[wol11]

69
 S E C T I O N 4
70 Forecast of EES market poten
tial by 2030

4.2.4 EES market potential estimation by 50 GW to 90 GW according to the assumed rate
the IEA of net output variation in wind power between
15 % and 30 %.
Another study on the potential EES market
to cope with massive renewable energy In Figure 4-9, the necessary amount of EES
introduction in the world has been done by the by region is estimated based on the forecast
IEA (International Energy Agency) [iea09]. In this of renewable energy introduction. Since high
study the necessary amount of EES is calculated renewable energy penetration is expected
in relation to variation of output from renewable in Western Europe and China, EES potential
energies. As shown in Figure 4-8, the required markets in both regions are relatively large. The
amount of EES increases with renewable energy necessary amount of EES in the world in 2050 is
penetration and the assumed output variation estimated at 189 GW or 305 GW, corresponding
from renewable energies. For example, if the net to an output variation rate of renewable energies
variation in wind power is assumed to be 30 % of 15 % or 30 % respectively.
of its rated output, the amount of EES needed
in Western Europe will increase from 3 GW in Total current EES capacity (mainly PHS) being
2010 to 90 GW in 2050 to keep pace with the 100 GW, a doubling or tripling of available EES
forecast increase in wind power generation. The will be needed (assuming perfect geographical
necessary amount of EES in 2050 can vary from distribution – otherwise even more).

Assumed Variation
120
2050(Wind:25%)
Storage Capacity (GW)

80

Existing 2015(Wind:18%)
33GW
40

2010(Wind:10%)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Net Variation of Wind Power (%)
Figure 4-8 – Necessary storage capacity in Western Europe againts wind variability
[shi11]
 Figure 4-9 – Necessary storage capacity estimation by region (wind variation rate: 15 %)
[shi11]

4.3 Vehicle to grid concept The IEA has also carried out a worldwide
study on using EV batteries for mitigation
Depending on the probable development and of renewable energy output variations. If EV
spread of electric vehicles, there will be a great batteries are used for time shift and smoothing
potential for power to be fed back from car of short-term fluctuations by using vehicle-to-
batteries into the grid. The federal government grid (V2G) technology, the EES needed can be
of Germany has forecast up to one million EVs decreased from 189 GW to 122 GW or from
by 2020 [bmw10]. Including hybrid and pure 305 GW to 280 GW in the two scenarios (see
EVs the average capacity is about 20 kWh per section 4.2.4). If these capacities are used in
vehicle. In a scenario in which about 30 % of the future, grid operators will have more scope
these capacities are used, we would have about for short-term time shift and a higher level of
6 GWh available for energy storage. Compared security of supply can be guaranteed.
to pumped hydro storage in Germany with
capacities of about 40 GWh in 2011 this would
represent about 15 % extra.

71
 S E C T I O N 4
72 Forecast of EES market poten
tial by 2030

A field where development is needed is the 3) European studies indicate huge expectations
reinforcement of the low-voltage power grid, for EES technologies to compensate for the
whose infrastructure is not yet ready for the fluctuation of renewable energy power output.
power feed-in of a large number of electric Large installations of wind turbines and PVs
vehicles – the grid’s limited transmission may require numerous EES systems, capable
capacity would be overstretched. For the of discharging electricity for periods from two
communication between vehicles and grid hours up to one day. Hence the market for
operators an intelligent system will also be conventional large-scale EES, such as PHS
needed, one acceptable to the consumer. and adiabatic CAES, is attractive. But in
Consumer acceptance will play a major role many countries such as Germany and Japan
in the success of the V2G concept. Different the future potential of PHS and CAES is very
business models are under discussion, e.g. limited due to the lack of suitable locations or
one where the car owner is not the owner of underground formations.
the battery but rents or leases it, or pays for
4) The extensive introduction of electrochemical
the electricity at a rate which covers the battery
EES such as NaS, Li-ion and RFB in the
cost.
MW - MWh range is expected, for discharge
times of hours to days.

4.4 EES market potential in the 5) Long-term energy storage is essential

future to achieving very high renewable energy
ratios. The IEA report shows that further
Several studies on market potential have been installation of renewable energy will lead to
mentioned in this section; they have suggested an insufficiency of thermal power generators
the following conclusions. for power control, and cause short-time
output fluctuations. This scenario may be
1) The potential market for EES in the future is expected in Western Europe and China
much larger than the existing market, mainly which have both set high renewable-energy-
driven by the extended use of renewable penetration targets.
energy sources and the transformation of the 6) To cover longer discharge times of days
energy sector, including new applications to months hydrogen and SNG technology
such as electric mobility. The market volume have to be developed. The well-established
is related to the (future) renewable energy natural gas grid and underground storage in
ratio and varies among regions. regions such as Europe can be (partly) used
2) If further cost reductions and technology for H2 and SNG storage.
improvement can be achieved, EES systems 7) Smart Grid technology using many small,
will be widely deployed, for example, to shift dispersed batteries, such as EV batteries, is
the demand, smooth renewable energy attractive for many applications. But even if all
output and improve the efficiency of existing EV batteries are used for this purpose they will
power generation. be insufficient to cover future demand for EES.
 Table 4-1 – EES present feasibility, future potential, need for further research and development
(Fraunhofer ISE)

Given these studies, Table 4-1 shows which production to achieve cost effectiveness.
EES technology is or will become feasible for CAES, RFB and H2 applicable to utility use for
what applications, and where further research time shifting also need further development and
and development are necessary. mass production to achieve cost effectiveness.
HFB and SNG, also potentially applicable to this
In addition to the conclusions above, Table 4-1 application, need further fundamental research
shows that Li-ion has great potential for and development to achieve reliable and cost-
many applications, but needs further careful effective products.
development and introduction of mass

73
 SECTION 5
Conclusions
and recommendations
 S E C T I O N 5 
76 Conclusions and recommenda
tions

5.1 Drivers, markets, technologies in the areas of policy (including regulation),

research & development, and standardization.
From the first four sections of the present paper This is summarized in Figure 5-1.
– the substantive, factual, objective part – the
present section seeks to derive conclusions In the electricity market, global and continuing
in the form of a coherent picture. From these goals are CO2 reduction and more efficient and
in turn recommendations may be formulated reliable electricity supply and use.

Objectives
• CO2 reduction
• More efficient and reliable electricity

Drivers
• Renewable energies
• Smart Grid
• Dispersed generation/Microgrid

Market forecasts
• Total EES market
• Conventional large-scale
• Long-term storage
• Dispersed storage

Technological and practical implications

• Batteries
• H2 /SNG (synthetic natural gas)
• Lifetime costs
• Control / interoperability

Recommendations
a) Policy recommendations
b) R&D recommendations
c) Standards recommendations

Figure 5-1 – Conclusions in the form of a logical progression

 and H2/SNG) and two constraints (lifetime costs
The IEC is convinced that electrical energy
and control/interoperability), seem merely to be
storage will be indispensable to reaching
the most important areas for future actions.
these public policy goals. It is therefore
essential that deployment of storage should
This, finally, leads to the actions themselves, i.e.
receive long-term and robust support from
to recommendations. It will be seen below that
policy-makers and regulators.
recommendations fall into groups addressed to
Corresponding to these goals, three major three different audiences: policy-makers including
drivers determining the future of EES have regulators, companies and laboratories deciding
been identified (see section 3): the foreseeable what research and product development to
increase in renewable energy generation, the pursue, and the IEC itself for what standards will
design and rollout of Smart Grids, and the be needed by all EES market players.
future spread of dispersed generation and
dispersed management of electrical energy –
referred to here for simplicity as “microgrids”. 5.2 Conclusions regarding
These drivers are only partly independent of renewables and future grids
each other: renewables clearly encourage,
and simultaneously need, microgrids, and the Many studies have shown that EES is indispen-
increase in both renewables and dispersed sable for the introduction of large amounts of
sources demands a smarter grid. However, this renewable energy. Therefore the necessary
paper has shown that the three drivers usefully volume and timing of EES is strongly dependent
illuminate different aspects of what will condition on the pace of renewable energy development.
the future of electrical energy storage systems.
The Smart Grid integrates facilities on both
The results of these drivers on future demand the utility (grid) side and the customer side by
for EES may be conveniently divided into using advanced information technologies; the
four market segments, the total EES market, benefits from this can only be achieved if storage
conventional large-scale systems (e.g. pumped is available. EES is therefore considered to be
hydro storage, PHS), long-term storage a key component of the Smart Grid, among
(e.g. H2), and dispersed storage. How these other things as a basic requirement for coping
markets are expected to develop has direct with electrical outages caused by disasters.
implications for which technologies will be most In addition the Smart Grid is likely to use, and
needed, which technology will need what type possibly to require, dispersed storage (e.g.
of further development, what considerations batteries installed for local purposes). This in
will influence rollout and penetration, and what turn implies overall control of many dispersed
implementation problems may be expected. A small storage installations together in the grid 9.
serious analysis of these complex factors, going The implication is that autonomous operation,
beyond what has already been attempted in easy extension and coordination with grids are
previous sections, is not the purpose here; the four important characteristics of future EES.
aspects listed, two technology families (batteries
9
A single virtual energy storage installation.

77
 S E C T I O N 5 
78 Conclusions and recommenda
tions

Microgrids will be a key to the “smart” energy use needed which, since the storage period is up
of communities, factories, buildings etc. Small- to several months, implies very large storage
scale EES is absolutely imperative for microgrids amounts. A possible solution is the new EES
to achieve fair and economic consumption technologies hydrogen and synthetic natural
of electrical energy. In order to optimize cost gas (see sections 2.4 and 4.2.2). Development
efficiency, microgrids also require that their EES of these involves chemical research and
should be connected to the grid (as does the engineering, which are beyond the traditional
grid – see above) and be able to adjust smoothly scope of work of the IEC; this gives rise to
to increases and decreases in the amount of certain recommendations.
electrical energy consumed. Dispersed facilities,
whether generation or storage (for example the With rollout of the Smart Grid and microgrids,
EES in a smart house or an electric vehicle), implying storage installed at customer sites,
are normally owned by end users, who have the market for small and dispersed EES is also
in principle the right to decide how to use the expected to be quite large. EES will be used not
facilities. This implies a differentiated policy and only for single applications but simultaneously
regulatory regime, with conditions applying to for several, made possible by integrating
centralized facilities distinguished from those multiple dispersed storage sites.
applying to dispersed ones.

5.4 Conclusions regarding

5.3 Conclusions regarding markets technologies and deployment

The total EES market is expected to be large, As the renewable energy (RE) market grows,
but will remain very sensitive to cost (see section the market for EES systems, especially for
5.4 below). This has very specific implications on small and dispersed ones, will also expand and
what R&D and policy goals are recommended. It require technical specifications and regulation
also means that whether the relevant standards frameworks for grid interconnection of EES. The
(e.g. to reduce costs by creating or enlarging aspects of interconnecting dispersed generation
homogeneous markets) are available at the right including RE have been investigated. However,
moment will have a great influence. issues such as power quality and safety in
connecting large numbers of EES intallations,
Some of the total market will be for conventional mostly together with RE, have not yet been
large-scale EES such as PHS to enable the thoroughly researched. Thus, in order to assure
introduction of renewable energies. The need for the smooth connection of EES to grids, additional
extremely large (GWh and TWh-scale) facilities technical requirements and the necessary
will increase; in some applications they will need regulatory frameworks need to be investigated.
to be operated like conventional generators (in
spite of being limited in total energy). Given the cost sensitivity, cost reduction is vital to
implementation. For this, lifetime cost should be
When a very high renewable energy ratio is considered, not simply installation cost but also
achieved, long-term energy storage will be cost of operation and disposal. Low raw material
cost, a part of total installation cost, may become consider seriously the further development
a specific selection criterion for EES technology. of conventional storage, such as pumped
In addition, as explained in sections 3.2 and 3.3, hydroelectricity, notwithstanding the difficulties
interoperability among the various very different of siting and construction.
parts of the whole grid must be ensured, and
sophisticated control intelligence is also essential Recommendation 5.5.2 – Long-term
for availability and overall efficiency 10. Successful storage, on the order of months
deployment in any one country may further
The IEC’s study has shown that many
depend on the size and health of an indigenous
governments’ current plans for how electricity
“EES supply industry” which can help to control
will be generated and managed in the future
costs and ensure availability.
cannot be implemented without long-term
storage with capacities in the multi-TWh range.
Three storage technologies seem to emerge
It therefore recommends policy-makers, whose
from the study as the most significant. In order
actions are essential to the creation of long-term,
of decreasing technological maturity, they are
very-large-capacity storage, to work actively on
pumped hydroelectricity (PHS), electrochemical
the public aspects, and to create the incentives
batteries, and hydrogen/synthetic natural gas.
to encourage private actors to play their part.
In Figure 5-1 only the last two are mentioned
because they both – in different ways – need Recommendation 5.5.3 – Cooperation
more development than PHS. Batteries require between energy sectors; coherent
development primarily to decrease cost, and regulations
for some technologies to increase energy
Hydrogen and synthetic natural gas added to
density as well; hydrogen/SNG must be further
natural gas are likely to be essential elements
researched and developed across a broad
of future electric grids because of their energy
front, including physical facilities, interactions
storage duration and capacity. The IEC
with existing uses of gas, optimal chemical
therefore recommends regulators to achieve
processes, safety, reliability and efficiency.
the conditions for all necessary cooperation
between the energy markets in electricity and
gas, including use of infrastructure.
5.5 Recommendations addressed
to policy-makers and regulators
Recommendation 5.5.4 – Incentives for
development and operation of storage
Recommendation 5.5.1 – Public support
for development of conventional storage The IEC recommends policy-makers to make
the encouragement of storage deployment a
Given their intentions to increase greatly
public policy goal. The long-term storage of
the proportion of renewable energies,
surplus energy from renewables is sometimes
the IEC recommends policy-makers to
more expensive than additional generation from
existing fossil-fuel plants. However, the storage
10
These aspects of implementation will be necessary for future grids will only become
particularly dependent on the existence of the available if private actors see an advantage
relevant international standards.

79
 S E C T I O N 5 
80 Conclusions and recommenda
tions

in acquiring and operating it, and for this environment, challenges involving the materials,
regulations including financial incentives will conditions and land use required to implement
frequently be needed. The regulatory regime them. The IEC recommends regulators to
may also need to differentiate between private help ensure that standards are in place to
consumer-owned storage and storage directly allow an internationally agreed technical basis
connected to the regulated grid. for any new regulations, so that unnecessary
differences among countries and regions may
Recommendation 5.5.5 – Public policy for be avoided.
and investment in storage research

Several areas are described in the IEC’s study

where concentrated research and development
5.6 Recommendations addressed
are needed. The IEC recommends governments
to research institutions and
and public authorities with a role in research to
companies carrying out R&D
adjust their research policies and investments
Recommendation 5.6.1 – R&D targeted to
to the desired targets for storage development.
low-cost materials and manufacturing

Recommendation 5.5.6 – Potential The IEC recommends targeting research

barriers to the introduction of microgrids and development to EES technologies with a
potential for low raw-material cost and low-cost
Some existing regulatory regimes hinder the
mass production techniques.
introduction or operation of microgrids or their
storage components. The IEC recommends
Recommendation 5.6.2 – Research on
these to be revised, since microgrids will be
renewables’ interactions with storage
essential to future electricity distribution and
should be encouraged. Since the specifications and volume of the
storage needed are largely influenced by
Recommendation 5.5.7 – Regulations for renewable energies, the IEC recommends
the safety of new storage technologies further study of the influence of renewable
energies on the power system and the functions
The IEC expects to keep pace, as in other
that storage should fulfil in consequence.
areas in the past, with the need for international
consensus standards for the safety of new
Recommendation 5.6.3 – R&D on
storage technologies. It recommends regulators
hydrogen and synthetic natural gas used
to anticipate the requirement to guarantee this
for EES
safety, and to contribute to shaping suitable
International Standards upon which harmonized Storage and use of hydrogen, and generation
regulations may be based. and use of synthetic natural gas for storing
electricity, are relatively new technologies;
Recommendation 5.5.8 – Environmental improvements particularly in reliability and
regulations for new storage technologies cost are needed. In addition, in order to use
existing gas supply and distribution networks,
New storage technologies may present new
technical and procurement issues will arise in
challenges in protecting the natural and human
infrastructure, system operation and safety. The Recommendation 5.6.7 – Architecture
IEC recommends the electric power sector, the
A precondition to many of the standards
gas sector and research laboratories to pursue
recommended in the IEC study is a robust
collaborative research and development in
architecture and management/control scheme
these areas.
for storage, which today is not available. The
IEC recommends laboratories and industry
Recommendation 5.6.4 – Development of
to collaborate with the IEC to develop rapidly
versatile storage management systems
an architecture and management scheme, to
The IEC recommends industry to develop serve as the basis for standards.
storage management systems which will allow
use of a single storage system for not just one
but many of the applications described in the IEC 5.7 Recommendations addressed
study. Controllers and management systems to the IEC and its committees
are required which function independently of the
types of the batteries being controlled 11. Also, Recommendation 5.7.1 – Cooperation
the control technology should function even needed for hydrogen and SNG standards
when the applications belong to different actors
The MSB recommends the IEC to work out
(grid operator, end-use supplier, consumer).
future standardization solutions in the domain
of hydrogen and synthetic natural gas (SNG)
Recommendation 5.6.5 – Development of
storage in close collaboration with ISO and with
local storage for grid use
industries, such as hydrogen, natural gas and
The IEC recommends industry and utilities to petroleum, with which it has historically had few
develop the technology to use storage rationally contacts.
and efficiently for both local purposes and grid
purposes 12, allowing many dispersed storage Recommendation 5.7.2 – Architecture and
installations to be used as a single, large facility. structure of EES systems

Recommendation 5.6.6 – Development of The IEC study shows that a thorough, shared
vehicle-to-grid and vehicle-to-home comprehension of the roles and functions of
storage in all grid-related circumstances is
Since electric vehicle batteries are a potential currently not available. The MSB therefore
source of storage for grid regulation and recommends the IEC to develop an EES
electricity use outside the vehicle, the IEC architecture and a fundamental standard on the
recommends research and development structure of EES systems, upon which all the
of vehicle-to-grid and vehicle-to-home other standards needed may be based.
technologies.
Recommendation 5.7.3 – Users’ guide on
planning and installing storage

One of the determining factors in successful

11
See also Rec. 5.7.4 which mentions standardization
of control for batteries with different technologies. rollout of storage solutions will be the players’
12
E.g. “Battery SCADA” – see section 3.3.4.

81
 S E C T I O N 5 
82 Conclusions and recommenda
tions

level of understanding of the cost and storage combined with a wind farm, will require
functionality of the different technologies. standards in order to function correctly. The
The MSB recommends the IEC to develop a MSB recommends the SMB to initiate the
users’ guide containing suggested criteria to standards needed.
apply when planning and using each specific
technology (type of product) for a specific Recommendation 5.7.6 – Standards for
application. In addition to data on storage unit size and other factors affecting costs
technology behaviour and characteristics
Reducing lifetime costs of storage requires,
(speed, power, energy), it will probably also
among many other things, a range of standards,
need to contain information on full lifecycle cost,
such as standardized EES unit sizes and
disposal cost, regulatory considerations, and
technical features to allow mass production
environmental advantages and disadvantages.
of associated equipment. The MSB therefore
recommends the SMB to launch such projects.
Recommendation 5.7.4 – Interface,
control and data element standards
Recommendation 5.7.7 – Safety of new
Several elements of the IEC study show storage technologies
a pressing need for the control and
The rapid growth and the new technologies
interconnection of EES installations: small-
involved in electrical energy storage in the near
scale storage in microgrids and its connection
future, as well as their installation by consumers,
to the grid, integration of storage systems with
will impose particular requirements for safety.
different technologies into a single virtual store,
At the same time, society and governments
systems used jointly by different organizations
will need assurance of safety before the
(generation plant owner, grid operator,
much-needed systems can be deployed. The
electricity seller) and for different applications,
MSB therefore recommends the SMB to set
etc. Insofar as the relevant standards do not yet
in motion rapidly the development of storage
exist, the MSB therefore recommends the IEC
safety standards.
to standardize rapidly the interfaces between
storage and other grid elements, protocols Recommendation 5.7.8 – Compatibility of
for data exchange and control rules, and the EES with the environment
data elements for the input, output and control
information supplied by or to storage systems. The scale, the impact and the materials of
EES all represent potential challenges to the
Recommendation 5.7.5 – Standards environment, especially when new technologies
for systems to relieve transmission are involved. Without International Standards
congestion in place the regulatory requirements may be
different in different regions, which would be
The introduction of large quantities of renewable
an unnecessary burden on manufacturers and
energies will cause transmission system
owners. The MSB consequently recommends
congestion, to which storage can be a solution.
that standards for EES compatible with the
Some of the resulting integrated systems,
environment be developed as soon as possible.
for example a hybrid system consisting of
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Annexes
88 Annexes

Annex A
Technical overview of electrical energy storage technologies

Table A-1 – Overview technical data for EES

(Fraunhofer)

Battery Nominal Capacity per Response Energy Energy Density Power

Technology Voltage cell [Ah] Time Density [Wh/l] Density W/l
[V] [Wh/kg]

PHS - - min 0.2 – 2 0.2 – 2 0.1 – 0.2

CAES - - min - 2–6 0.2 – 0.6

Flywheel - 0.7 – 1.7 MW < sec 5 – 30 20 – 80 5 000

Lead acid 2.0 1 – 4 000 < sec 30 – 45 50 – 80 90 – 700

NiCd Vented 2 – 1 300 15 – 40 15 – 80 75 – 700

1.2 < sec
sealed 0.05 – 25 30 – 45 80 – 110 (vented)

NiMH sealed 1.2 0.05 – 110 < sec 40 – 80 80 – 200 500 – 3 000

1 300 –
Li-ion 3.7 0.05 – 100 < sec 60 – 200 200 – 400
10 000

130 –
Zinc air 1.0 1 – 100 < sec 130 – 200 50 – 100
200
100 –
NaS 2.1 4 – 30 < sec 150 – 300 120 – 160
250

100 –
NaNiCl 2.6 38 < sec 150 – 200 250 – 270
200

VRFB 1.6 - sec 15 – 50 20 – 70 0.5 – 2

HFB 1.8 - sec 75 – 85 65 1 – 25

Hydrogen
0.2 – 2
central - - sec – min 33 330 600 (200 bar)
2.0 – 20
decentral

SNG - - min 10 000 1 800 (200 bar) 0.2 – 2

40 000 –
DLC 2.5 0.1 – 1 500 F < sec 1 – 15 10 – 20
120 000

SMES - - < sec - 6 2 600

*) insufficient experience in applications

 Typical Energy- Lifetime Typ. Cycle Typical applications
Discharge Efficiency [a] Lifetime
time ηWh [%] [cycles]

Time shifting, Power quality,

hours 70 – 80 > 50 > 15 000
Emergency supply
hours 41 – 75 > 25 > 10 000 Time shifting
seconds 80 – 90 15 – 20 2*104 – 107 Power quality
Off-Grid, Emergency supply,
hours 75 – 90 3 – 15 250 – 1 500
Time shifting, Power quality

60 – 80 5 – 20 1 500 – 3 000 Off-Grid, Emergency supply,

hours
60 – 70 5 – 10 500 – 800 Time shifting, Power quality

hours 65 – 75 5 – 10 600 – 1 200 Electric vehicle

Power Quality, Network efficiency,

hours 85 – 98 5 – 15 500 – 104
Off-Grid, Time shifting, Electric vehicle

hours 50 – 70 >1 > 1 000 Off-Grid, Electric Vehicle

2 500 –
hours 70 – 85 10 – 15 Time shifting, Network efficiency, Off-Grid
4 500

hours 80 – 90 10 – 15 ~ 1 000 Time shifting, Electric vehicles

hours 60 – 75 5 – 20 > 10 000 Time shifting, Network efficiency, Off-Grid

1 000 –
hours 65 – 75 5 – 10 Time shifting, Network efficiency, Off-Grid
3 650

hours – weeks 34 – 44 10 – 30 103 – 104 Time Shifting

hours – weeks 30 – 38 10 – 30 103 – 104 Time Shifting

seconds 85 – 98 4 – 12 104 – 105 Power Quality, Effective Connection

seconds 75 – 80 *) *) Time Shifting, Power Quality

89
90 Annexes

Annex B
EES in Smart Microgrids

Two examples of Smart Microgrid scalable architectures for EES applications are given. The first is for
a factory (Figure B-1). Panasonic Group (Sanyo) has developed a Smart Microgrid with a large-scale
storage battery system using lithium ion batteries at the Kasai factory in Japan. The system was installed
in October 2010. The system charges the batteries with late-night electricity and surplus solar electricity
and uses it during the day. The EES system has more than 1 000 battery boxes, each box consisting
of 312 18650cell batteries. Therefore, the system consists of more than 300 000 18650cells. With the
battery management system, the whole EES can be used as if it were just one battery. The capacity of
the EES is approximately 1 500 kWh; the PV system can distribute 1 060 kW DC power. The system can
cut off power over 15 % at peak time, through total energy management by controllers.

PCS Batteries
consist of
18650cells

18650Cell

Figure B-1 – The battery management system of a factory

(Sanyo, IEC MSB/EES Workshop, 2011)
The other example is a Smart Microgrid system (EES application) for a convenience store, a next-
generation store in Japan (Figure B-2). Even at a time of electrical outage caused by a disaster, the
system can support the point-of-sale (POS) system, LED lighting and other functions which are critical
for the business, with renewable energy 24 hours a day, every day. The system is located in Kyoto, and
started operation in December 2010. It uses lithium ion batteries and 10 kW PV.

Battery Management System

Lighting
PV
POS

Outlets

Showcase

Figure B-2 – Next generation convenience store

(Sanyo, IEC MSB/EES Workshop, 2011)

91
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