energies

Review
Present and Future of Supercapacitor Technology Applied
to Powertrains, Renewable Generation and Grid
Connection Applications
Gustavo Navarro *, Jorge Torres , Marcos Blanco , Jorge Nájera , Miguel Santos-Herran and Marcos Lafoz

CIEMAT, Spanish National Research Centre on Energy, Environment and Technology, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
[email protected] (J.T.); [email protected] (M.B.); [email protected] (J.N.);
[email protected] (M.S.-H.); [email protected] (M.L.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Energy storage systems (ESS) are becoming essential as a solution for troublesome industrial
systems. This study focuses on the application of a type of ESS, a high-power technology known in
the literature as supercapacitors or electric double layer capacitors (EDLC). This technology has had
a huge impact during the last decade on research related to the electric traction drives, renewable
sources and powergrids. Related to this aspect, this paper summarizes the most relevant scientific
publications in the last five years that study the use of supercapacitor technology (SCs) in electric
traction applications (drives for rail vehicles and drives for road vehicles), generation systems for
renewable energy (wind, solar and wave energy), and connection systems to the electric grid (voltage
and frequency regulation and microgrids). The technology based on EDLC and the practical aspects





 that must be taken into account in the op-eration of these systems in industrial applications are
briefly described. For each of the aforementioned applications, it is described how the problems are
Citation: Navarro, G.; Torres, J.;
solved by using the energy storage technology, drawing the solutions proposed by different authors.
Blanco, M.; Nájera, J.; Santos-Herran,
M.; Lafoz, M. Present and Future of
Special attention is paid to the control strategies when combining SCs with other technologies, such
Supercapacitor Technology Applied as batteries. As a summary, some conclusions are collected drawn from the publications analyzed,
to Powertrains, Renewable evaluating the aspects in which it is necessary to conduct further research in order to facilitate the
Generation and Grid Connection integration of EDLC technology.
Applications. Energies 2021, 14, 3060.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113060 Keywords: supercapacitors; electric traction drives; electrical vehicle; microgrid; renewable energy;
energy storage system
Academic Editor: Alon Kuperman

Received: 20 April 2021

Accepted: 20 May 2021
1. Introduction
Published: 25 May 2021
Energy storage systems have begun to play a fundamental role in recent years, being
one of the most used solutions to improve industrial processes. These devices increase
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
both the production systems performance, improving the energy efficiency, reliability,
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
and flexibility of electrical systems. This topic has nowadays a high relevance due to the
iations.
expectations of a high integration of renewable energies in electrical grids.
There are different types of energy storage systems (ESSs), divided according to their
nature or their operating cycle duration, listed in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. From those
tables, the market niches of each ESS could be extracted, considering those technologies
with short cycle to applications with fast response, e.g., frequency stability or regenerative
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
braking. Meanwhile, those devices with long cycle could be used in long term applications,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
as for example massive energy storage or backup system for critical loads.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
This paper focuses on a promising energy storage system, supercapacitors (SCs),
conditions of the Creative Commons
also known as electrolytic double layer capacitors (EDLC), which have better trend than
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// other competitors. This ESS has a high technology readiness level (TRL), TRL8, and a
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ very promising track record, since it closes the gap between batteries and conventional
4.0/).

Energies 2021, 14, 3060. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113060 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

  Flywheels (FESS)
 Compressed Air (CAES)
Electromechanical
 Hydro Pumped Energy Storage (HPES)
Energies 2021, 14, 3060
Pumped Energy Storage (HPES) 2 of 29
Electromagnetic Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SME
Electrochemical Batteries (BESS)
Chemical
capacitors, competing Fuel Cells
with other technologies with (FCs)
similar characteristics such as fly-
wheels, see Figure 1, Tables 1 and 2. SCs are
Electrostatic characterized by high
Supercapacitors (SCs)power density and low
specific energy.
TableAs2.described before,
Classification of SCs focusbased
the ESSs on applications thatduration
on their cycle require charge-discharge
(based on [3,4]). cycle
times ranging from a few seconds to several minutes. Based on this and considering
the objective
Cycleof improving
Duration the performance of the Electrical
(time) industrial processes and the electrical
Energy Storage Technology
systems, countless research articles have been published, as well as research & development
Very short (<10 s) Capacitors, inductors
projects have been developed in recent years. The aim of these studies is to create new
industrial Short (1 softoESS
products 15 min)
based on SCs. This great amount SCs, FESS,related
of studies SMESto SCs
evidenceMedium (5 min
the current need tofor24 h)technology, having inter-annualBatteries
this market growth and
encouraging impressive
Long (days) expectations for the future [1]. Batteries, CAES, HPES

Figure 1. Storage time against the power delivered for electrical energy storage technologies,
Figure 1.
adapted Storage
from [5]. time against the power delivered for electrical energy storage technologies,
adapted from [5].
Table 1. ESSs Classification according to their nature, data from [2].
After showing the operating ranges of some of the most widespread storage tech
Nature Electrical Energy Storage Technology
ogies in the industry, a comparison between the SCs and their competitors (batteries
• Flywheels (FESS)
• Compressed Air (CAES)
Electromechanical
• Hydro Pumped Energy Storage (HPES)
Pumped Energy Storage (HPES)
Electromagnetic Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
Electrochemical Batteries (BESS)
Chemical Fuel Cells (FCs)
Electrostatic Supercapacitors (SCs)

Table 2. Classification of the ESSs based on their cycle duration (based on [3,4]).

Cycle Duration (Time) Electrical Energy Storage Technology

Very short (<10 s) Capacitors, inductors
Short (1 s to 15 min) SCs, FESS, SMES
Medium (5 min to 24 h) Batteries
Long (days) Batteries, CAES, HPES

After showing the operating ranges of some of the most widespread storage technolo-
gies in the industry, a comparison between the SCs and their competitors (batteries and
Energies 2021, 14, 3060 3 of 29

flywheels) is collected in Table 3, where the advantages and disadvantages are described in
order to establish criteria to select the most suitable techonology for an application.

Table 3. Comparison based on benefits and drawbacks of the Batteries, flywheels and Supercapacitors.

ESS Technology Advantages Drawbacks

Accelerated aging with large
Low self discharge power pulses
Narrow range of voltage variation Low recyclability of materials
Batteries in operation Reduced operating
High energy density temperature range
Low installation cost Low power density
Need for a BMS
Wide voltage variation in operation
High power density
Power converter required
Wide operating temperature range
to operate
Ageing not dependent on the
Supercapacitors Voltage balancing system between
duty cycle
cells required
More stable efficiency throughout
Low energy densisty
the operating range
Higher cost (€/kWh)
High energy density
High self-discharge
Power and Energy decoupling
High installation cost
Less ageing than batteries and
Flywheels Lower efficiency than batteries
supercapacitors
and SCs
Very wide operating
Power converter required
temperature range

Regarding the comparison in the above table, the supercapacitors show better per-
formance in some areas, especially regarding cost (specially when cost in terms of power
terms, $/W), compared with flywheels, and in the dynamic response and their aging, in
applications with short cycle and high power delivered. Supercapacitors will be more
preferred than batteries in general for applications where high power, low energy, and
large cycling requirements are demanded.
One important aspect when designing and dimensioning SC-based ESS is to define
a model of the system which represents its performance under a particular application
profile or conditions with high accuracy. Countless SC models for industrial applications
have been published in the literature, classified in three main categories: equivalent
circuit models, electrochemical models and intelligent models [6]. From these categories,
equivalent circuit models are suitable for industry applications, since they describe the SCs
behavior using basic common components: capacitors, inductances, and resistors (RLCs) [7].
Within equivalent circuit models, three subcategories can be established, according to their
complexity and accuracy: RC models, transmission line models, and frequency domain
models [8–11].
Following the SCs model analysis, the next step is to define the main parameters that
define the SCs performance:
• The first and main feature is the capacitance. This parameter represents the energy
storage behavior of the SCs, being a function of the voltage and the frequency [12].
This variation, shown in Figure 2a, is between 15% and 20% of the rated capacity [13].
This effect is important in ESS applications since the ESS operating voltage impose a
capacitance value different to its rated value, which provokes less stored energy. More-
over, the operation frequency of the SCs modifies the capacitance value. Figure 2b
shows that there is a cut-off frequency, usually around 1 Hz depending on the materi-
als and manufacturing processes, where the rated capacitance drastically decreases.
Therefore, SCs are usually considered for fast charge–discharge cycles, from tens of
seconds to minutes.
4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 31
Energies 2021, 14, 3060 4 of 29

(a)

(b)
Figure 2. (a) Capacitance
Figurevariation respect to
2. (a) Capacitance the voltage;
variation respect(b)
to Capacitance variation
the voltage; (b) as avariation
Capacitance functionasofa function of
the frequency adapted
the from [7]. adapted from [7].
frequency

 •
The second effect The second
is the innereffect is the inner
resistance. resistance.
Joule Jouleplace
effect takes effectin
takes
the place in the
positive positive and
and
negative current collectors, the positive and negative porous electrodes and in the
negative current collectors, the positive and negative porous electrodes and in the
separator [12]. Due to the electron transportation process, their kinetic energy is
separator [12]. Due to the electron
converted into heat.transportation process,
These effects on their kinetic
the conductors energy
and the is con-
electrolyte are grouped
verted into heat. These effects
in a single termonnamed
the conductors and the and
ohmic phenomena electrolyte are grouped
represented in a
by the equivalent series
single term named ohmic phenomena and represented by the equivalent series re-
resistance (ESR). The ESR is not constant and depends on the frequency and the cell
sistance (ESR). The ESR is not
temperature in aconstant
non-linearand depends
form on theinfrequency
[14], as shown andESR
Figure 3. The thevalue
cell is reltively
low compared
temperature in a non-linear formto[14],
otheraselectrochemical
shown in Figure ESS
3. such
The ESRas batteries.
value is However,
reltively attention
low compared toshould
other be paid to the ohmicESS
electrochemical losses on the
such SCs in thoseHowever,
as batteries. applications which require high
attention
power [15]. Moreover, ESR provokes a voltage drop,
should be paid to the ohmic losses on the SCs in those applications which require decreasing the SCs efficiency,
and a temperature rise inside the cells. This heat produced from losses needs to be
high power [15]. Moreover, ESR provokes a voltage drop, decreasing the SCs effi-
evacuated in order to avoid accelerated aging due to overtemperature. Therefore,
ciency, and a temperature rise inside
proper operation the cells.
of cooling Thisisheat
systems produced
always required. from losses needs
to be evacuated in order to avoid accelerated aging due to overtemperature. There-
• The third parameter in a SC is the self-discharge, which is a drawback of using SCs for
fore, proper operation of cooling systems is always required.
cycles longer in the order of hours [16]. The origin of this effect is the redox reactions
at the electrode surface when the electrons cross the double layer [17]. This parameter
depends mainly on voltage, temperature and aging. Therefore, it could be modelled
 Energies 2021, 14, 3060 5 of 29

2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 31

as a voltage-controlled temperature-dependent current source. The self-discharge
current value is given by the manufacturer in the datasheet as a constant value [16].

(a)

(b)
Figure 3. (a) ESRFigure
variation respect
3. (a) to the voltage,
ESR variation respectadapted from [7];
to the voltage, (b) ESRfrom
adapted variation
[7]; (b)asESR
a function
variation as a function of
of the frequency.the frequency.

 The third parameter

Navarroin G.
a SC
[18]ispresents
the self-discharge, whichall
a study in which is these
a drawback of using
parameters SCs
are analyzed and aging
for cycles longer
andin voltage
the order of hoursin[16].
imbalance Theseries
a large originconnection
of this effect is the
of SCs areredox reactions
calibrated. Table 4 collects the
at the electrodemain
surface when the
parameters electrons cross
of commercial cellsthe
fordouble
severallayer [17]. This parameter
manufacturers.
depends mainly on With voltage, temperature
respect and aging.
to the lifespan of theTherefore, it could
SCs, several limitsbeare
modelled as a that imply the
established
voltage-controlled temperature-dependent
SCs replacement. A SC cell is current source.
considered Theachieved
to have self-discharge
the end current
of its useful life when
value is given by
any the
ofmanufacturer
the following in the are
point datasheet as a constant value [16].
fulfilled:
• [18]ESR
Navarro G. current
presents value in
a study haswhich
doubled from parameters
all these its initial value.
are analyzed and ag-
ing and voltage• imbalance
The current capacitance
in a large value has decreased
series connection of SCs arebycalibrated.
20% compared
Tableto its nominal value.
4 col-
• The SCofoperating
lects the main parameters cycle
commercial number
cells is more
for several than 1 million.
manufacturers.
Finally, the last step in the designing and dimensioning process is to evaluate the
Table 4. Main parameters of SCs cell
system losses. for different
A SC-based ESSmanufacturers.
comprises the SC cells and an interface DC/DC power
converter.
Max- Power losses take place in both devices, Ls imposing the following issues [15]:
Skeleton Ioxus EATO Kamcap Vina Yunakaso
Characteristics• well
The ohmic losses in the system located inMtron
the SCs, represented by the ESR value, the
[20]
cell-bars which [21]
connectsN [22]
the SCs [23]
and the power Tech
cables.[25] [23]
[19] [24]
Rated voltage• 2.7 The
V cooling
2.85 Vsystem
2.85 to
V maintain
2.85 V the2.7SCs
V in 2.7an optimum
V 2.7 Voperating
2.7 Vtemperature range.
• The power electronics (conduction and conmutation) losses.
Initial rated ca-
3000 F 3200 F 3000 F 3400 F 3000 F 3000 F 3000 F 3000 F
pacitance
Initial ESR 0.29 mΩ 0.14 mΩ 0.20 mΩ0.23 mΩ 0.29 mΩ 0.23 mΩ 0.28 mΩ 0.28 mΩ
 Energies 2021, 14, 3060 6 of 29

Considering a literature review, there are many articles focusing on organizing and
summarizing the new published research advances of this type of technology, as collected
in [26]. This paper collects both small- and large-scale applications. For this purpose,
the applications have been classified in four main groups: electric traction applications;
renewable generation systems; microgrid and power grid connection applications; and
autonomous power systems for energy distribution and ships and aircraft applications.

Table 4. Main parameters of SCs cell for different manufacturers.

Maxwell Skeleton Ls Mtron Vina Tech Yunakaso

Characteristics Ioxus [21] EATON [22] Kamcap [23]
[19] [20] [24] [25] [23]
Rated voltage 2.7 V 2.85 V 2.85 V 2.85 V 2.7 V 2.7 V 2.7 V 2.7 V
Initial rated
3000 F 3200 F 3000 F 3400 F 3000 F 3000 F 3000 F 3000 F
capacitance
Initial ESR 0.29 mΩ 0.14 mΩ 0.20 mΩ 0.23 mΩ 0.29 mΩ 0.23 mΩ 0.28 mΩ 0.28 mΩ
Operating
temperature [−40 ◦ C , 65 ◦ C]
range
Maximum
1900 A 3100 A 2700 A 2700 A − − − 2200 A
current
Maximum
Leakage 5.2 mA 11 mA 4.5 mA 8 mA − − 5 mA
current

Figure 4 shows the percentage of scientific publications in the last five years related to
SCs for the four application groups:
• The most published topic is related to the use of SCs in electric traction applications.
This group represents 50% of the published studies. Most of them related to electric
vehicles (EV) or hybrid electric vehicles (HEV).
• The second group of the most published topics is related to power grid applications.
Most of them are related to the improvement of the control strategy of a microgrid,
the voltage and frequency regulation, and the increase of the battery lifespan.
FOR PEER REVIEW • The third position is for the group of studes related to the renewable generation
7 of 31
systems, especially solar PV, wind and wave energy sources. Finally, the last group
with 10% of the papers are those applications related to the autonomous power
systems, ships and aircrafts.

Figure 4. Classification of the research publications related to SCs in the last decade respect to their application.
Figure 4. Classification of the research publications related to SCs in the last decade respect to
their application.

This paper describes the most important studies done for the three main groups
which represent most of the SCs present applications. Those groups collect almost 90% of
the whole researches related to SCs.
 Energies 2021, 14, 3060 7 of 29

This paper describes the most important studies done for the three main groups which
represent most of the SCs present applications. Those groups collect almost 90% of the
whole researches related to SCs.
The information is structured into the following sections. Following this introduction,
in Section 2 the applications related to the electric traction are described. This section
collects both the railway and the road vehicles. This is followed in Section 3, describing in
detail the applications related to the renewable generation systems, which include solar,
wind, wave energy and hybrid generation systems. In Section 4, those studies that analyze
the electrical systems connected to the grid are detailed; within them, there are topics
as frequency regulation, voltage drop problems, etc. Furthermore, this group includes
those researches related to microgrids. Finally, the paper concludes with Section 5, which
contains a summary of the most important aspects covered, as well as the future prospects
of the technology based on the information provided for different applications.

2. Electric Traction Applications

The electric traction drives can be applied to diverse means of transport that use the
road or rail transport modes. Regarding the road mode, SCs might be applied in:
• Means of public transport power by catenary
• Hybrid electric vehicles
• Pure electric vehicles
On the other hand, within the vehicles that move on rails, it is possible to distin-
guish between:
• Heavy-rail catenary supplied vehicles
• Heavy-rail diesel–electric vehicles
• Light-rail rapid transit vehicles
Whether they are vehicles that move on rails or on the road, they have a common
structure: a traction drive and control system. Its power stage is formed by the traction
motor, the power electronic converter, a braking chopper or dynamic brake and a high
impedance/ high power density power supply. This power supply has the capacity to
absorb high power consumption peaks, while the power inverter drives the traction motor,
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and the braking chopper limits the DC voltage during braking dissipating the excess energy
into a resistor. Figure 5 shows a general electric scheme of the traction system for this type
of vehicles.

Figure5.5.Electrical
Figure Electricaldiagram of a traction
diagram converter
of a traction connected
converter to a high energy/high
connected impedance
to a high energy/high imped
power source.
power source.
Regarding the stages in which the route of a vehicle can usually be divided, the
Regarding
followings the stages in which the route of a vehicle can usually be divided,
are distinguished:
lowings are distinguished:
I. Acceleration section (beginning of the route): During this acceleration stage, t
cle goes from zero speed to nominal speed. Moreover, during this phase, th
consumed begins to increase until it reaches its maximum value when the
reaches its nominal speed.
 Energies 2021, 14, 3060 8 of 29

I. Acceleration section (beginning of the route): During this acceleration stage, the
vehicle goes from zero speed to nominal speed. Moreover, during this phase, the
power consumed begins to increase until it reaches its maximum value when the
vehicle reaches its nominal speed.
II. Nominal or cruising speed: At this stage, the power drops till a minimum value
required to maintain the vehicle speed at its nominal value.
III. Braking or deceleration phase (end of route): During deceleration, the kinetic energy
of the vehicle is transformed into electrical energy by means of a regenerative braking.
As a consequence, the power fluctuations are very high: positive, minimum and
finally negative. The problems in the power system derived from this highly irregular
power profile are:
• Fluctuations in the supply voltage and instability [27].
• Higher losses in the power system.
• Significant energy consumption due to not being able to take advantage of the braking
energy: not reversible power supplies and braking chopper.
• Oversized power system due to the need to fully supply the energy consumed by
the vehicle.
A possible solution to the aforementioned problem is the inclusion of a storage system
in the vehicle’s power train to supply/absorb high power peaks for short periods (accelera-
tion and deceleration section) and to recover braking energy by eliminating or reducing
considerably the size of the chopper. When sizing the storage system, it is required to
define the maximum power peaks (positive and negative) and the stored energy level.
In general, those vehicles use other main power systems and the storage system would
usually operate for periods of less than 1 min. Considering the particular characteristics of
SCs (high power density and low energy density), they are a highly recommended option
for this type of application.

2.1. Electric Drive for Rail Vehicles

2.1.1. Heavy-Rail Catenary Supplied Vehicles
This category mainly includes transport locomotives such as high-speed short-distance
passenger and freight trains [28]. In general, the traction system of these vehicles is fed
from an overhead line (primary power supply) through a pantograph. The voltage level
varies depending on the country, generally 1.5–3 kV DC (short-haul train) or single phase
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
25–50 Hz (short and long-distance trains). Figure 6 shows a typical block diagram of a
common heavy-rail catenary supplied traction drive without any ESS.

Figure 6. Simplified electrical diagram of the traction drive of a heavy-rail catenary supplied vehicles.
Figure 6. Simplified electrical diagram of the traction drive of a heavy-rail catenary suppl
cles.

There are several researchers that describe the use of SCs in this type of
Dutta, O. [29] proposed a mathematical optimization methodology and a model
Energies 2021, 14, 3060 9 of 29

There are several researchers that describe the use of SCs in this type of vehicle. Dutta,
O. [29] proposed a mathematical optimization methodology and a model of a stationary
storage systemfor a DC rail transportation application, New York City Transit (NYCT).
In this study different technologies are compared, including batteries, flywheels and SCs
working independently or together. The results of the optimization process are based
on the percentage of energy savings because of regenerative braking, voltage regulation,
reduction in peak demand, estimated payback period and system re-siliency. The paper
concludes that the cheapest storage system to operate autonomously are SCs. On the other
hand, it highlights that regarding the the resilience of the system, a hybrid system made
up of batteries and SCs is the economic option as long as the percentage of regenerative
braking energy recovery is greater than 30%.
Khodaparastan, M. [30] compares two storage technologies (SCs and high-speed
flywheels), from an economic point of view, to take advantage of the braking energy of a
continuously powered train (650 V rectified voltage from the utility grid AC 13 kV). Two
case studies are presented depending on the objective to be achieved: reduce the demand
peak or stabilize the supply voltage. A cost analysis of both technologies is also performed
for both purposes. It is concluded that the flywheel is the most suitable technology from the
economical point of view. However, due to their technical characteristics, both technologies
are appropriate for the purpose described.
Chen, J. [31] also proposedthe use of SCs to take advantage of the regenerative braking
of a high-speed railway powered by a 27 kV AC catenary. The storage system is connected
through a bidirectional DC/DC converter to the intermediate DC stage of a back-to-back
converter, whose input and output are connected to two different points on the main power
line of the trains. A state machine logic is proposed with four states (charge, discharge,
transfer and standby mode) and transitions between them depending on the power line
charge level and the maximum state of charge (SoC) of the ESS. One of the back-to-back
converters acts as the master converter and the other converter and the DC/DC of the
SCs act as slaves. The proposed control coordinates the operation of several converters to
stabilize the DC bus voltage, improve the power supplyquality in high-speed railways and
take advantage of braking energy. The cost savings will depend on the policy of power
utility companies for the returned regenerative braking energy.
Zhong, Z. [32] proposes SCs as an on-board storage system to absorb braking energy
and completely replace the brake resitor (see Figure 7). Despite the weight that this
implies, it is justified that the storage system is on board and not stationary in order to take
advantage of the whole braking energy and to be able to completely replace the on-board
brake resistor. A hierarchical optimization energy management strategy is proposed based
on an additional power stage in series, connected between the inverter of the traction motor
and the main supply voltage (DC). The storage system would be connected to the DC stage
through a bidirectional converter. The three benefits extracted from this configuration are:
1. The voltage level of the DC stage is adjusted to its optimal value to extract the
maximum torque for each speed.
2. The use of braking energy in any operational scenario.
3. A 10% reduction in system losses is achieved by adjusting the SCs duty cycle in
real time.
Xu, C. [33] presented a study related to the use of SCs to extend the service life of
the pantographs that feed high-speed trains. The arcing phenomenon due to the irregular
movements of the trains and the intermittent line pantograph disconnection reduces its
useful life. Morreover, it can even damage onboard equipment and measuring elements.
In this study, the SCs based ESS absorbs the inductive energy and reduces the surges in
the power line. The strategy to manage the system energy between the storage system, the
train and the main power system is analyzed and validated by simulations to compensate
the voltage fluctuations and take advantage of braking energy.
 Energies 2021, 14, 3060 10 of 29
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 31

Figure 7.
Figure Topology of
7. Topology ofonboard-wayside
onboard-waysidesupercapacitor hybrid
supercapacitor energy
hybrid storage
energy system
storage extracted
system extracted
adapted from [32].
adapted from [32].
2.1.2. Heavy-Rail Diesel–Electric Vehicles
Zhong, Z. [32] proposes SCs as an on-board storage system to absorb braking energy
This section analyzes the applications of SCs in Heavy-Rail Diesel—Electric Vehicles.
and completely replace
These types of vehicles runtheon brake resitor
fossil fuel and (see Figure 7).used
are commonly Despite the weight
in North Americathat
and this im-
plies, it is justified
some European that the
countries [34].storage system
The traction is onofboard
scheme andofnot
this type stationary
vehicle in order
is composed of to take
advantage of the whole
an internal combustion braking
engine energy
(ICE) groupand
(gasto be able
engine, to completely
petrol replace
engine, diesel theoron-board
engine,
brake resistor.
gas turbines) A hierarchical
coupled to an electricoptimization
generator that,energy
through management strategy is
two power converters, proposed
feed
the traction
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
based on anmotors. They power
additional have also an energy
stage dissipation
in series, connectedsystem to evacuate
between the braking
the inverter of the trac-
energy
tion (DC chopper).
motor A typical
and the main electrical
supply voltagediagram
(DC).of thisstorage
The type of system
vehicle without
would be anyconnected
ESS to
is shown Figure 8.
the DC stage through a bidirectional converter. The three benefits extracted from this con-
figuration are:
1. The voltage level of the DC stage is adjusted to its optimal value to extract the maxi-
mum torque for each speed.
2. The use of braking energy in any operational scenario.
3. A 10% reduction in system losses is achieved by adjusting the SCs duty cycle in rea
time.
Xu, C. [33] presented a study related to the use of SCs to extend the service life of the
pantographs that feed high-speed trains. The arcing phenomenon due to the irregular
movements of the trains and the intermittent line pantograph disconnection reduces its
useful life. Morreover, it can even damage onboard equipment and measuring elements
In this8.study,
Figure theelectrical
Simplified SCs based ESSof absorbs
diagram the
the traction inductive
drive energy
of diesel-electric and reduces
vehicles the surges in
with permanent
Figure
magnet
the 8. Simplified
synchronous
power line. The electrical
generator
strategy diagram
(PMSG). of the traction drive of diesel-electric
to manage the system energy between the storage vehicles with
system, the
nent magnet
trainDa
and synchronous generator (PMSG).
the main power system is analyzed and validated by simulations to compensate
Silva Moraes, C.G. [35] proposed a hybrid storage system (lithium-ion batteries
the voltage fluctuations
and SCs) whereby and of
a percentage take
the advantage
braking energyof braking
is used toenergy.
power auxiliary equipment,
Da Silva Moraes, C.G. [35] proposed a hybrid storage system (lithium-ion b
while the ICE group remains the main power supply for the traction motor. Thids would
and SCs)
2.1.2.
reduce whereby
Heavy-Rail
the cost a percentage
andDiesel–Electric
volume ofgroup.
the braking
Vehicles
of the diesel SCs are energy is used
used as buffers to to power
absorb rapidauxiliary
ment,
power while
This theanalyzes
fluctuations
section ICE
in group
a multiport remains theof
configuration
the applications main
in which
SCs power
in each supply
storage
Heavy-Rail for the
system traction
consists
Diesel—Electric moto
of aVehicles
DC/DC
would converter.
reduce the cost and volume of the diesel group. SCs are used
These types of vehicles run on fossil fuel and are commonly used in North America and as buffers to
rapidLight-Rail
some
2.1.3. power fluctuations
European countries
Rapid in The
[34].
Transit a multiport
Vehicles configuration
traction scheme in which
of this type eachisstorage
of vehicle composed syst
of
sists
an of a
internal DC/DC converter.
combustion engine (ICE) group (gas engine, petrol engine, diesel engine,
Light vehicles powered by a catenary constitute a type of transport that is normally
or
gas turbines)
used for moving coupled to an
passengers electric
in urban generator[36].
environment that,The
through two or
locomotive power converters,
towing vehicle feed
the traction motors. They have also
2.1.3. Light-Rail Rapid Transit Vehicles an energy dissipation system to evacuate the braking
energy (DC chopper). A typical electrical diagram of this type of vehicle without any ESS
Light vehicles powered by a catenary constitute a type of transport that is n
is shown Figure 8.
used for moving passengers in urban environment [36]. The locomotive or towing
 sists of a DC/DC converter.

2.1.3. Light-Rail Rapid Transit Vehicles

Energies 2021, 14, 3060 Light vehicles powered by a catenary constitute a type of transport that is n
11 of 29

used for moving passengers in urban environment [36]. The locomotive or towing
is powered by an overhead line through a pantograph. The catenary in turn is f
power supply
is powered by ansubstation.
overhead lineThe supply
through voltage level
a pantograph. varies in
The catenary from
turnone
is fedcountry
by a to a
power supply substation. The supply voltage level varies from one country
stablishing in most of them in the range of 1.5 kV or 3 kV. Figure 9 shows the mo to another,
stablishing in most of them in the range of 1.5 kV or 3 kV. Figure 9 shows the most common
mon electrical scheme used by this type of vehicle without any ESS. A three-phase i
electrical scheme used by this type of vehicle without any ESS. A three-phase inverter is
is usually
usually usedused to power
to power the motors
the traction traction motors
from from the
the catenary. catenary.
On the Onitthe
other hand, alsoother
has hand
has a DC/DC converter (DC chopper) to evacuate
a DC/DC converter (DC chopper) to evacuate the braking energy. the braking energy.

Figure 9. Simplified electrical diagram of the traction drive of light-railupplied vehicles.

Figure 9. Simplified electrical diagram of the traction drive of light-railupplied vehicles.
In the literature, there are several papers that study the SCs introduction in the feeding
scheme of this type of vehicle. Zhang, X. [37] studied the existing problem arises due to
In the literature, there are several papers that study the SCs introduction in th
the overcurrents suffered by the SCs that feed some light urban transport vehicles during
ing scheme
charging fromof thethis type This
catenary. of vehicle.
problem Zhang, X. [37]when,
is more serious studied
due the existing
to power needs,problem
it is ari
to the overcurrents
necessary suffered
to connect several by in
chargers the SCs that
parallel. feed
These some light
overcurrents alsourban transport vehic
cause accelerated
ing
agingcharging
of the SCs. from
The the catenary.
authors proposeThis problem
a protocol is more serious
to coordinate when,
the load of due to powe
the different
storage systems to reduce the current overshoot without hardly increasing
it is necessary to connect several chargers in parallel. These overcurrents the load time.also caus
The study proposed in [38] shows a power management control of wayside lithium-
erated aging of the SCs. The authors propose a protocol to coordinate the load of
ion capacitor to improve the efficiency of a light railway vehicle. The particularity of
ferent storage
this paper systems the
is it concludes to reduce the current
SC technology overshoot
that best suits the without hardly increasing
present application are t
time.
Li-ion capacitor and not EDLC due to its higher energy density. The energy stored during
regenerative
The studybraking is used again
proposed during
in [38] the acceleration
shows a powersection. The energy
management management
control of wayside l
strategy is based on monitoring the SCs SoC and the current vehicle speed. Other important
ion capacitor to improve the efficiency of a light railway vehicle. The particularity
conclusions drawn from the study are that the peak power of the power supply is reduced
by up to 46% and the maximum energy saved represents 30% of the energy consumed by a
system without an ESS.
Zhu, F. [39] suggests a hierarchical control of a stationary supercapacitor-based energy
storage system to save energy by taking advantage of braking power. The main power
supply for the vehicle is a 750 V or 1500 V voltage catenary. The ESS is connected to this
DC bus through a DC/DC converter. A real case study is described and analyzed in which
the proposed control strategy is applied with a maximum energy saving of 12%.
Additionally, although no references related to real applications have been found, it is
worth mentioning the possibility to use energy storage for ultrafast rail vehicles, mag-netic
levitated trains, and the hyperloop, resulting in an especially convenient option in the
second one, since the use of a power supply just for the acceleration leads to the use of
short-term energy storage [40].

2.2. Electric Drive for Road Vehicles

2.2.1. Public Transportation Catenary-Supplied Vehicles
This section describes the applications of SCs in urban passenger transport vehicles
powered by a catenary. This type of vehicle is usually known by the name of trolleybus [41].
The difference respect to light vehicles is the electrical circuit is not closed by the rail,
 2.2. Electric Drive for Road Vehicles
2.2.1. Public Transportation Catenary-Supplied Vehicles
This section describes the applications of SCs in urban passenger transport
Energies 2021, 14, 3060
powered by a catenary. This type of vehicle is usually known by the12name of 29
of tro
[41]. The difference respect to light vehicles is the electrical circuit is not closed by
but the catenary must consist of two poles. The predominant electrical scheme of t
of vehicle
but is shown
the catenary in Figure
must consist 10.poles.
of two The catenary voltageelectrical
The predominant is usually a direct
scheme of thisvoltage
900 VDC
type generated
of vehicle is shownfrom a three-phase
in Figure rectifier
10. The catenary connected
voltage is usually to an electrical
a direct voltage ofsubstat
equipment
600–900 VDC on boardfrom
generated the avehicle is made
three-phase upconnected
rectifier of the inverter that feeds
to an electrical the tractio
substation.
The equipment on board the vehicle is made up of the inverter that feeds
and an electrical braking to avoid overvoltages in the power line (catenary). The the traction
motor and an electrical braking to avoid overvoltages in the power line (catenary). The
this type of transport is to replace the chopper with an ESS to take advantage of r
trend in this type of transport is to replace the chopper with an ESS to take advantage of
ative braking
regenerative energy,
braking save
energy, a percentage
save a percentage of energy,and,
of energy, and,
in in a second
a second step step
for thefor the e
power system,
electrical to place
power system, charging
to place chargingpoints
pointsinindifferent sections
different sections of the
of the route.
route.

Figure 10. Simplified electrical diagram of the traction drive of public transportation catenary-
Figure 10.
supplied Simplified electrical diagram of the traction drive of public transportation
vehicles. caten
supplied vehicles.
Cignini, F. [42] made a comparison of four prototypes of electric buses with an on-
boardCignini,
storage system to fulfill
F. [42] madecertain speed requirements
a comparison of four in a specific time.
prototypes The study
of electric is
buses with
carried out from the real data taken from the vehicles (energy consumption, acceleration,
board storage system to fulfill certain speed requirements in a specific time. The
and maximum speed) in different scenarios. The four storage technologies being compared
carried
are outenergy
a hybrid from storage
the real data(HESS)
system taken consisting
from theof:vehicles (energy consumption, accel
and SCs
1. maximum speed)
and absorbent inmat
glass different scenarios.
(AGM) lead batteries.The four storage technologies bein
pared
2. are
SCs a lithium-ion
and hybrid energy storage system (HESS) consisting of:
batteries.
3. SCs and lead-acid batteries.
1. SCs
4.
SCsand
and absorbent glass mat (AGM) lead batteries.
lithium-ion iron phosphate batteries.
2. SCs and lithium-ion batteries.
An economic analysis is also carried out to complement the previous comparison
from a life cycle cost point of view. The paper concludes that the best option (lowest cost)
is formed by SCs and lithium-ion batteries followed by option 1 (SCs/AGM batteries). On
the other hand, from a technical point of view, option 2 is the best because it is the option
that supports the highest charging rates.
Soltani, M. [43] proposed a HESS made up of lithium batteries and lithium-ion capaci-
tor (LiC) as the only power source for a city bus. LiCs complement the use of batteries to
extend their useful life by reducing the power peaks in the acceleration and decelaration
stages, supplying/absorbing that energy in the LiCs. This study proposes an electrical,
thermal and aging model of each ESS is presented and a methodology for the distribution
of power requirements. The research concludes the HESS, compared to the ESS made
up only of batteries, reduces the size of the energy storage required by 30% and the cost
by 16%. The reason for this development is the increase of the battery lifetime and an
improvement in the dynamic response and efficiency of the system.

2.2.2. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)

SCs also have application in hybrid electric vehicles. This type of vehicle combines
an ICE group and an electric drive. The aim of the electrical system is to operate at the
point of maximum efficiency of the motor at each situation. The main elements are a fossil
y of batteries, reduces the size of the energy storage required by 30% and the cost by
%. The reason for this development is the increase of the battery lifetime and an im-
vement in the dynamic response and efficiency of the system.

2. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)

Energies 2021, 14, 3060 13 of 29
SCs also have application in hybrid electric vehicles. This type of vehicle combines
CE group and an electric drive. The aim of the electrical system is to operate at the
nt of maximum efficiency of the motor at each situation. The main elements are a fossil
mbustion engine, an electric traction machine combustion engine,
(generally an electricmagnet
a permanent tractionmachine),
machine (generally a permanent magnet machine),
a power converter and an ESS.
ower converter and an ESS. According to the arrangement of these elements, four dif-According to the arrangement of these elements, four
nt configurations are distinguished: (1) series based on ICE, (2) parallel based on ICE,series based on ICE, (2) parallel based on
different configurations are distinguished: (1)
series-parallel based on ICE, and (4) plug-in ICE, (3) series-parallel
based on ICE. based on ICE, and (4) plug-in based on ICE.
In the series
In the series configuration the heat engine and the electric configuration thethe
drive share heattraction
engine and the electric drive share the traction
shaft (see Figure
ft (see Figure 11a). In the parallel configuration, 11a). In
the thermal the parallel
motor and theconfiguration,
electric the thermal motor and the electric
drive are connected through a
ve are connected through a transmission element (see Figure 11b). In ICE based on transmission element (see Figure 11b). In ICE based on
series-parallel, the hybrid double conversion,
es-parallel, the hybrid double conversion, the heat engine and the electric drive are the heat engine and the electric drive are
interconnected
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW through an electrical link as shown in Figure 11c. The ICE-based plug-in 14 o
rconnected through an electrical link as shown in Figure 11c. The ICE-based plug-in
has the same characteristics as the parallel-based ICE, but it allows one to recharge the
the same characteristics as the parallel-based ICE, but it allows one to recharge the
battery with an external charger (see Figure 11d).
ery with an external charger (see Figure 11d).

(a) (c)

(b) (d)
Figure 11. Simplified electrical diagrams Figure 11. Simplified
of different electrical
traction drive diagramsin
configurations ofHEV
different traction
adapted fromdrive
[44]: configurations
(a) ICE-based in HEV adap
from [44]: (a) ICE-based series; (b) ICE-based
series; (b) ICE-based parallel; (c) ICE-based series-parallel; (d) ICE-based plug-in. parallel; (c) ICE-based series-parallel; (d) ICE-base
plug-in.
In the literature, there are several studies which propose to include SCs in HEVs to
In the literature,
improve their efficiency and reduce therethearecost
several studies
of their which propose
powertrain. to include
Passalacqua, SCs in HEV
M. [45]
describes the future possible advantages of a serial versus parallel architecture due to M. [45]
improve their efficiency and reduce the cost of their powertrain. Passalacqua,
scribesofthe
the development thefuture possible
technology of advantages of a serial(power
the power elements versuselectronics
parallel architecture
and ESS) due to
that make updevelopment
the powertrain of theof technology
a medium size of the power
HEV. elements (power
An SC-based electronics
ESS is proposed asanda ESS) t
makeResults
storage system. up the obtained
powertrain of a mediumare
in simulations size HEV. Anwhere
presented SC-based
fuelESS is proposed
consumption is as a stor
system. Results
shown for different obtained
speed profiles in simulations
(road missions) and are serial
presented where
vehicle fuel consumption
configurations. The is sho
for different
vehicle studied is based isspeed profiles
equipped with(road missions)
a diesel engine,andSiCserial
power vehicle configurations.
converters and SCs in The veh
studied isThe
series configuration. based is equipped
paper concludes with
thata the
diesel engine,
serial SiC powerand
configuration converters and SCs in se
the proposed
configuration.
energy management systemThe(EMS)
paper concludes
achieve anthat the serial
energy savingconfiguration
of 35–48% and the proposed
compared to ene
conventionalmanagement
configurations. system (EMS) achieve an energy saving of 35–48% compared to conv
Passalacqua,
tional M. [46] also described and analysed how the sizing of SCs affects engine
configurations.
number of startsPassalacqua,
(comfort) and M.the
[46]amount of energy
also described andthat can behow
analysed stored
theduring
sizing ofbraking.
SCs affects eng
A review ofnumber
the characteristics of a series
of starts (comfort) and configuration
the amount of in HEVsthat
energy is made
can beand SCsduring
stored are braki
studied as the only storage system to make series configuration more efficient
A review of the characteristics of a series configuration in HEVs is made and SCs are st compared
to the parallel
iedconfiguration in a HEV.
as the only storage systemAnto EMSmake and seven
series experimentally
configuration more measured
efficient road
compared to
missions are proposed
parallel to calculate
configuration in the required
a HEV. An EMS energy
andfrom
seventhe ESS to recover
experimentally all the road m
measured
braking energy.
sionsFrom the point to
are proposed of calculate
view of the theneed for storage
required energyenergy, mountain
from the missionall
ESS to recover is the brak
the most demanding.
energy. From The energy
the pointneeds for the
of view of road missions
the need studiedenergy,
for storage are 150–200 Wh with
mountain mission is
most demanding. The energy needs for the road missions studied are 150–200 Wh w
an approximate weight of 40–50 kg. It is suggested that, if LiCs are used instead of ED
technology, the storage weight would be reduced to 25–35 kg.

2.2.3. Electric Vehicles (EV)

 Energies 2021, 14, 3060 14 of 29

an approximate weight of 40–50 kg. It is suggested that, if LiCs are used instead of EDLC
technology, the storage weight would be reduced to 25–35 kg.

2.2.3. Electric Vehicles (EV)

EVs are vehicles with a pure electric powertrain, i.e., without another power source of
a nature other than electric [47]. Figure 12 shows an overall diagram of the traction system
in this type of vehicle. In general, the parts that make up the electric drive of an EV are: an
ESS (electrochemical battery, fuel cell), a power converter, and an electric traction drive.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Depending on the ESS, a braking resistor is necessary (e.g., fuel cells as power source) or
not (battery) to dissipate the braking energy.

Figure 12. Simplified electrical diagram of the traction drive of EVs.

Figure 12. Simplified electrical diagram of the traction drive of EVs.
As in the previous sections, there are studies which analyse the inclusion of SCs in
the electric
As indrive of an EV tosections,
the previous improve its dynamic
there responsewhich
are studies and reduce the cost
analyse theofinclusion
the o
ESS because of the higher battery lifetime. One of these studies is [48], in which a HESS
the electric drive of an EV to improve its dynamic response and reduce the cost of
made up of batteries and SCs is analyzed to be used in EVs. Two options of EMSs are
because
proposed, of onethe higher
based battery
on a low lifetime.
pass filter with aOnefuzzyof these
logic studies
controller andisanother
[48], in which
based on a HES
up of batteries
an adaptive and SCs
proportional is analyzed
integrator. to be used
This control in EVs.
distributes the Two
poweroptions
suppliedof EMSs are pr
between
the battery and the SCs during acceleration and stores the energy
one based on a low pass filter with a fuzzy logic controller and another based during braking in the SCs on a
considering their SoC. A simulation study has been done for different drive cycles (New
tive proportional integrator. This control distributes the power supplied between
York City cycle, Artemis urban cycle, and New York composite cycle). The conclusions of
tery and are
the paper theasSCs during
follows. Theacceleration
proposed control andstrategy
stores allows
the energy
to reduceduring brakingofin the S
the variation
sidering
the voltage, their
higherSoC.SoCA ofsimulation
the battery and study has been
efficiency, lowerdonelosses for different
in the battery, adrive cycles (Ne
reduction
City
of thecycle,
currentArtemis urbanthe
ripple through cycle, andand
battery, New Yorkincrease
a slight composite cycle). The
in temperature. In conclusion
this
case, no economic analysis is performed to compare this configuration
paper are as follows. The proposed control strategy allows to reduce the variatio to one that uses
only batteries.
voltage, higher SoC of the battery and efficiency, lower losses in the battery, a re
Sadeq, T. [49] also proposed an EMS for a HESS (battery/SC) to improve the dynamic
of the current
response of EVs.ripple through
The proposed the battery,
topology and a slight
is a battery/SCs system increase in temperature.
in semiactive configura- In th
no
tioneconomic
[50]. In order analysis is performed
to distribute to compare
the power delivered by eachthis ESS,configuration to one that us
two adaptive algorithms
(optimal adaptive and fuzzy adaptive controller) are compared taking into account the
batteries.
profile traveled by the vehicle. Three profiles are simulated in MATLAB-Simulink at three
Sadeq, T. [49] also proposed an EMS for a HESS (battery/SC) to improve the d
different speeds, demonstrating that the useful life of the batteries is increased due to the
response
reduction of ofthe
EVs. The
stress onproposed topology
the battery during highisload
a battery/SCs
operations. On system in semiactive
the other hand, it con
tion [50]. Inthat
is concluded orderthe to distribute
response of the the power
vehicle withdelivered by eachcontroller
an optimal adaptive ESS, twoisadaptive
better alg
than with a fuzzy adaptive controller in most cycles.
(optimal adaptive and fuzzy adaptive controller) are compared taking into acco
Additionally,
profile traveled the by research
the vehicle.described
Threein [51] proposes
profiles areasimulated
traditional topology of a HESS
in MATLAB-Simulink
(battery/SC) to improve the drawbacks of using a ESS made up only of batteries (high
different speeds, demonstrating that the useful life of the batteries is increased du
cost, low power density and short cycle life). For the sizing of the ESS and the power
reduction
distribution,of the stress
a bilevel on the battery
multiobjective design and during
controlhigh load operations.
framework On the other ha
with the nondominated
concluded
sorting genetic that the response
algorithm (NSGA-II) of the
and vehicle
fuzzy logicwith an optimal
control (FLC) is adaptive
described. controller
The i
than with a fuzzy adaptive controller in most cycles.
Additionally, the research described in [51] proposes a traditional topology of
(battery/SC) to improve the drawbacks of using a ESS made up only of batterie
cost, low power density and short cycle life). For the sizing of the ESS and the pow
Energies 2021, 14, 3060 15 of 29

authors conclude that a good EMS allows reducing the dimensioning of the SCESS (size
and volume), achieving the same dynamic response as with a larger mass of the HESS.
Finally, regarding the most common topologies, Shi, R. [52] proposed a new topology
of a HESS comprising batteries and SCs is proposed to distribute the power needed by
an open winding motor. This topology connects both ESS to the electric motor through
a power converter (dual in-verter drive), which makes it easier for both the batteries and
the SCs to deliver the active/reactive power requirements (see Figure 13). This allows the
use of machines with a higher voltage level than those that can be used with a traditional
configuration. During the periods in which the required power is low, SCs remain in
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 31
stand-by to improve the efficiency of the set. Experimental tests are carried out with a
10-kW liquid-cooled EV motor.

Figure 13. Single

Figure 13. Single stage
stage HESS
HESS topology
topology adapted
adapted from
from [52]
[52] for
for its
its integration
integration in
in EVs.
EVs.
2.2.4. Wireless Charging of EVs
2.2.4. Wireless Charging of EVs
This section describes the existing papers in the bibliography that propose the use of
SCs in This section
wireless describes
power transfer the(WTP)
existing papersfor
systems in EV
the recharging.
bibliography that
The propose
selected the use
papers have of
SCs in wireless power transfer (WTP) systems for EV recharging.
been those considered most relevant in the last three years. In general, the use of an ESS, in The selected papers have
beencase
this those considered
SCs, is justifiedmost relevant
to reduce thein the fluctuations
high last three years. In general,
in power the use and
consumption of anallow
ESS,
in this case SCs, is justified to reduce the high fluctuations
the power flow in the charger to be bidirectional, increasing its versatility. The papers that in power consumption and
allow the power flow in the charger
have been considered most relevant are described below. to be bidirectional, increasing its versatility. The pa-
pers Lu,
thatW.have been considered most relevant are described below.
and Geng, Y. [53,54] propose the inclusion of a HESS (SCs/lithium-ion batteries)
in WTP Lu,systems.
W. and Geng, Lu, W.Y.[53] [53,54] propose
proposed the inclusion for
a methodology of asizing
HESSthe (SCs/lithium-ion
HESS for recharging batter-
aies) in WTP
100kW systems.
electric bus Lu, W. [53]
during the proposed
time the vehicle a methodology
is at onefor of sizing
the stopsthe onHESSthefor recharg-
route. The
ing a 100kW
proposed electric busisduring
methodology applied thetotime the vehicle
a laboratory is at onein
prototype ofwhich
the stopsthe on the route.
output power Theis
proposedbased
analyzed methodology
on the poweris appliedtransferto adistance,
laboratory prototype
reaching in which the
an efficiency outputAddition-
of 89.6%. power is
analyzed
ally, Geng,based
Y. [54] onfocused
the power on thetransfer
control distance,
strategy reaching
from the anpoint
efficiency
of viewof 89.6%. Addition-
of the efficiency
ally, Geng, Y. [54] focused on the control strategy from
and cost of the system. The proposed strategy is based on the dynamic distribution the point of view of the efficiency of
and cost
power of the system.
between both ESSThe proposed
to get the WPT strategy
system is to
based
workonatthe thedynamic
optimumdistribution
power point of
power between
throughout both ESS
the entire to get range.
operating the WPT Thesystem
strategy toiswork at theinoptimum
validated a 27.8 kWpower point
laboratory
throughout The
prototype. the entire
efficiencyoperating
achieved range.of theTheWPT strategy
Systemis validated in a 27.8
is 93% with kW laboratory
a reduction of the
prototype.
required The efficiency
power achieved of
of 27.6% compared withthenon WPT System
optimal is 93%charging.
control with a reduction of the re-
quired power
Azad, A. of 27.6%
[55] compared
proposes the use with of non
SCs optimal
as the only control
ESScharging.
to dampen power grid fluc-
tuationsAzad, A.occur
that [55] proposes
in dynamic the use
andofwireless
SCs as the poweronlytransfer
ESS to dampen
(DWPT)power in EVsgrid fluctu-
charging.
It seeksthat
ations to ensure
occur inthe stability
dynamic and ofwireless
the network powertotransfer
which the (DWPT)charging
in EVs point is connected.
charging. It seeks
Atocomplete
ensure theanalysis
stabilityofofthe thesystem
network is carried
to which out
thethrough
charging simulation includingA
point is connected. the design
complete
of the regulator
analysis and theismodeling
of the system carried out of the converter,
through achieving
simulation a reduction
including of gridoftransients
the design the regu-
by 75%.
lator andRuddell,
the modeling S. [56]ofpresents
the converter, a newachieving
topology aofreduction
a WTP system,of grid also with SCs,
transients by 75%.for
the dynamic recharging of EVs. Experimental tests are carried
Ruddell, S. [56] presents a new topology of a WTP system, also with SCs, for the dynamic out on a 3.8 kW prototype
highlighting
recharging ofthe EVs. advantages
Experimental of the proposed
tests are carried topology
out onover a 3.8 the
kWconventional ones due
prototype highlighting
to
theitsadvantages
reduced complexity
of the proposed and lower topology number overofthe required switches.
conventional onesFinally,
due to Wu, Y. [57]
its reduced
also proposes
complexity andSCs loweras an
numberenergy of buffer
required forswitches.
dynamicFinally,loading Wu,in WPT
Y. [57]systems.
also proposes The ESS SCs
stores energybuffer
as an energy when for thedynamic
couplingloading is strong inand
WPT discharges
systems. The when ESSthe coupling
stores energy is weak.
when the To
coupling is strong and discharges when the coupling is weak. To optimize the dimension-
ing of the ESS (smallest capacitance) and the pole spacing between two adjacent transmis-
sion coils and capacitance of SCs (maximum distance) a genetic algorithm is used. The
proposed method is verified by simulations to demonstrate that the WPT system allows
Energies 2021, 14, 3060 16 of 29

optimize the dimensioning of the ESS (smallest capacitance) and the pole spacing between
two adjacent transmission coils and capacitance of SCs (maximum distance) a genetic
algorithm is used. The proposed method is verified by simulations to demonstrate that the
WPT system allows for increasing the power density and reducing the construction cost
compared with WPT systems without SCs.

3. Renewable Generation Applications

There are two main problems in the operation of generation plants based on renewable
energy sources. The first is related to the fluctuating nature of the renewable resource and,
as a consequence, the fluctuation of the electrical power generated. Power fluctuation
injected into the grid can cause the variation of the point of common coupling (PPC)
voltage and affect the system’s stability [58]. The second problem is related to the operation
and behavior of the renewable generation system when there are disturbances at the grid
point where it is connected. In general, this section describes the existing papers in the
bibliography that include SCs as a possible solution to the problems discussed. This section
is divided into three main points depending on the renewable resource: wind, solar energy,
and wave energy.

3.1. Wind Energy

Wind energy is the renewable energy used mostly in the world. The power of wind
turbines today can reach up to 3 MW. However, the power generated is highly variable
as is the wind speed [59]. A generic electrical scheme used in wind turbines is shown in
Figure 14a. It consists of a variable speed wind turbine, an electric generator and a double
power conversion stage with two power converters. There are different variants, but
normally the converter connected between the generator and the intermediate continuous
stage controls the turbine pitch and the generator torque (maximun power in function of
the wind speed). On the other hand, the converter connected between the continuous stage
and the power grid regulates the DC bus voltage and the reactive power exchanged with
the power grid. Although the variation in the power generated can be reduced, it cannot be
eliminated due to the dynamic response of the pitch control, which for fast speed variations
is not capable of eliminating the fluctuation reflected in the output power. Another effect
to take into account is the power fluctuation as a consequence of the tower shadow effect
that causes a pulse in the torque and in turn a fluctuation in the output power.
Panhwar, I.H. [60] proposed a HESS (SC/lead-acid battery) to smooth the generated
wind power. The wind energy converter consists of a wind turbine mimicking converter
(wind turbine generator, rectifier and DC/DC converter), a SCs module, a charge controller
and a battery as shown in Figure 14b. The first DC/DC converter charges the SCs and the
charge controller control is designed to charge the battery from the energy stored in the SCs.
The conclusion of the paper is that the proposed configuration allows smooth charging and
extended discharging of the battery. On the other hand, the topology and the proposed
mode of operation causes reduced stress on the generator and ancillary components of
the circuit.
Liu, J. [61] also proposed a HESS (battery/SC) to smooth out the fluctuations of
wind power. The low-frequency components of the generated power are absorbed by the
battery and the high-frequency components by the SCs. That makes possible to reduce
the charge/discharge times of the batteries and thus extend their useful life. A control
strategy is proposed in which the SoC of the storage systems is taken into account to
avoid deep discharges, overloads and allow them to work at the optimum efficiency
points. Experimental results are presented in which a DC/AC converter controls the HESS
to achieve bidirectional active and reactive power exchange. The proposed strategy is
validated, demonstrating the optimal response of the HESS to improve power quality and
enhance the stability of power systems.
 the charge controller control is designed to charge the battery from the energy stored in
the SCs. The conclusion of the paper is that the proposed configuration allows smooth
charging and extended discharging of the battery. On the other hand, the topology and
the proposed mode of operation causes reduced stress on the generator and ancillary com-
Energies 2021, 14, 3060 17 of 29
ponents of the circuit.

4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 31

(a)

(b)
Figure 14. (a) Simplified
Figureelectrical diagramelectrical
14. (a) Simplified of a variable speed
diagram of a wind turbine
variable speed with
windfull-scale power
turbine with full-scale power
converter; (b) Windconverter;
Energy Conversion System
(b) Wind Energy with proposed
Conversion HESS
System with adapted
proposed from
HESS [60]. from [60].
adapted

3.2. Solar PV Energy

Liu, J. [61] also proposed a HESS (battery/SC) to smooth out the fluctuations of wind
power. The low-frequency Solar Photovoltaic
components(PV) panels
of the are usedpower
generated to convert
aresolar energyby
absorbed into
theelectrical
bat- energy.
The system that extracts energy from the sun is made up of a solar panel and a power
tery and the high-frequency components by the SCs. That makes possible to reduce the
conversion stage that connects the PV panel with the load or the electrical grid. The
charge/discharge power
times of the batteries and thus extend their useful life. A control strategy
conversion stage (power electronic converter) can be single stage (solar PV panel
is proposed in which the SoC
connected of the
directly to storage
the power systems
inverter)is or
taken intostage
double account
(solarto
PVavoid
paneldeep
connected to a
discharges, overloads
power converter with an intermediate direct voltage stage). Figure 15aExperi-
and allow them to work at the optimum efficiency points. shows a possible
mental results aresimplified
presented in which
electrical a DC/AC
diagram converter controls
of a double-stage solar PVthe HESS
plant to achieve
connected to the electrical
bidirectional active and
grid. Thereactive
problemspower exchange.
associated The energy
with solar proposed strategy
are the is validated,
irregular generation of power,
demonstrating the maximum in periodsofofthe
optimal response highest
HESSlevels of solarpower
to improve irradiation or unregulated
quality and enhance in partially
cloudy days.
the stability of power systems.
Cabrane, Z. [63] proposed SCs to compensate voltage drops during short periods
of time in soalr PV systems connected to the grid. A coordinated control algorithm is
3.2. Solar PV Energy
described to compensate the effects caused by the variable solar irradiance in PCC and
Solar Photovoltaic
results (PV) panels
obtained fromare used to convert
simulations solarThe
are shown. energy into electrical
algorithm energy. topology
applies a two-stage
The system that extracts energy connected
with the SCESSS from the to sun
theisintermediate
made up ofDC a stage
solar through
panel and a power
a DC/DC converter.
conversion stage that connects the PV panel with the load or the electrical grid. The power the power
Ma, W. [64] proposed a HESS composed of batteries and SCs to smooth out
conversion stage fluctuations of solar PV
(power electronic systems. can
converter) A multi-objective
be single stage optimization
(solar PVmodel
paneliscon-
established to
nected directly to the power inverter) or double stage (solar PV panel connected to aaccount in
split the required power between both ESS. The variables that are taken into
the algorithm to decide how much power each one contributes are: power losses, lifetime
power converter with an intermediate direct voltage stage). Figure 15a shows a possible
aging, cost of batteries and the SoC of the SCs.
simplified electrical diagram
Cabrane,ofZ.a[62]
double-stage
proposes ansolar
EMSPV forplant
a HESS connected to theapplied
(battery/SCs) electrical
to PV energy
grid. The problems associated with solar energy are the irregular generation
in order to stabilize the DC voltage. Different topologies are compared of power,
(hybrid passive
maximum in periods of semi-active,
parallel, highest levelsand of solar converters)
multiple irradiationfor or the
unregulated
connection ofin SCs
partially
and batteries in
cloudy days. photovoltaic energy systems. The advantages and disadvantages of each of them are listed.
The control proposed by the authors applies to the configuration of multiple converters.
 3.2. Solar PV Energy
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) panels are used to convert solar energy into electrical energy.
The system that extracts energy from the sun is made up of a solar panel and a power
conversion stage that connects the PV panel with the load or the electrical grid. The power
Energies 2021, 14, 3060 conversion stage (power electronic converter) can be single stage (solar PV panel con- 18 of 29

nected directly to the power inverter) or double stage (solar PV panel connected to a
power converter with an intermediate direct voltage stage). Figure 15a shows a possible
simplifiedFor
electrical diagram of
the distribution of athe
double-stage solar PV
necessary energy plant batteries
between connected to SCs,
and the electrical
a low pass filter is
grid. The applied.
problemsProportional
associated with solar energy are the irregular generation
integral (PI) controllers are used to regulate the DCof power,
bus voltage. The
maximumoutput
in periods of highest
of these regulatorslevels ofESS
is the solar irradiation or unregulated
charge/discharge in partially
current reference. Finally, results
cloudy days.
obtained from simulations are shown and the SoC of batteries is compared for different
filter constants.

x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 31

(a)

(b)
Figure 15. (a) Simplified electrical
Figure 15. (a)diagramam of grid connected
Simplified electrical diagramamdouble
of gridconversion PV system;
connected double (b) PV system;
conversion
Structure of a multiple(b)
converters configuration
Structure of with maximum
a multiple converters power
configuration point
with tracking
maximum (MPPT)
power point tracking (MPPT)
adapted from [62]. adapted from [62].

3.3. Wave Energy

Cabrane, Z. [63] proposed SCs to compensate voltage drops during short periods of
time in soalr PV systems Another source
connected toofthe
renewable
grid. A energy is the energy
coordinated controlextracted fromiswaves.
algorithm de- Currently
there are different systems capable of extracting energy from waves, commonly known
scribed to compensate the effects caused by the variable solar irradiance in PCC and re-
as wave nergy converter (WEC). As in the case of other renewable sources, the energy is
sults obtained fromconverted
simulations are shown.
and delivered intoThe algorithm
the grid by meansapplies a two-stage
of a power topology
take-off (PTO). The intermittency
with the SCESSS connected
associatedtotothe
theintermediate DC stage
wave energy causes throughimbalance
a continuous a DC/DCbetween
converter.
the power generated
Ma, W. [64] proposed
and the apower
HESSdemanded
composed of batteries
leading and SCs
to potential powerto quality
smoothproblems,
out the power
such as voltage and
fluctuations of solarfrequency
PV systems. A multi-objective
deviations, specially in weakoptimization
electric gridsmodel is established
with high penetrationto of renewables.
split the required power between both ESS. The variables that are taken into account in frequency
The period of the wave energy generated is in the range of 1–10 s, causing
variations
the algorithm to decide and voltage
how much powerdistortion, such as flicker
each one contributes and
are: harmonics
power losses,atlifetime
the grid connection
point [65–68]. Figure 16
aging, cost of batteries and the SoC of the SCs. shows a general scheme of WEC solution.
Cabrane, Z. [62] proposes an EMS for a HESS (battery/SCs) applied to PV energy in
order to stabilize the DC voltage. Different topologies are compared (hybrid passive par-
allel, semi-active, and multiple converters) for the connection of SCs and batteries in pho-
tovoltaic energy systems. The advantages and disadvantages of each of them are listed.
The control proposed by the authors applies to the configuration of multiple converters.
For the distribution of the necessary energy between batteries and SCs, a low pass filter is
applied. Proportional integral (PI) controllers are used to regulate the DC bus voltage. The
 Energies2021,
Energies 14, 3060
2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 29 20 of

Figure
Figure16.16.Simplified
Simplifiedelectrical diagramam
electrical of aofWEC+PTO
diagramam withwith
a WEC+PTO linear generator
linear connected
generator to
connected to the
the grid.
grid.
Nunez Forestieri, J. [69] proposes an integrative sizing and EMS based on reinforce-
Nunez Forestieri, J. [69] proposes an integrative sizing and EMS based on reinforc
ment learning (RL) for a HESS (SC/undersea energy storage) applied to grid connected
ment learning
operation (RL) wave
of an offsore for aenergy
HESS source.
(SC/undersea
Differentenergy storage)
power profiles areapplied to grid
used to verify theconnecte
adaptability of the reinforcement learning-based energy management system (RLEMS). to veri
operation of an offsore wave energy source. Different power profiles are used
the adaptability
Real-time simulationsofconfirm
the reinforcement
that the power and learning-based
energy of the HESSenergy management
is reduced when syste
EMS is con-sidered
(RLEMS). Real-timein the sizing stage.confirm
simulations The numberthat of
theSCpower
cells andandtheenergy
rate power of the
of the HESS is r
undersea energy storage calculated with the proposed RL-based sizing allows
duced when EMS is con-sidered in the sizing stage. The number of SC cells and the ra to reduce the
required
power capacity (power and
of the undersea energy)storage
energy of the HESS to regulate
calculated withpower oscillations.RL-based
the proposed Real-time sizing a
simulation results are also presented that validate the viability of the proposed method
lows to reduce the required capacity (power and energy) of the HESS to regulate pow
(sizing and EMS) for applications in grid-connected renewable generation systems.
oscillations. Real-time simulation results are also presented that validate the viability
Rajapakse, G. [70] applies a predictive control model to smooth the power delivered
to the network ofmethod
the proposed (sizing
an oscillating andcolumn
water EMS) for applications
(OWC) wave energyin grid-connected
conversion (WEC). renewable
Due ge
toeration systems.
the nature of the resource, as well as the duration of the high-power pulses generated
by the Rajapakse, G. [70]
air turbine plus appliesmagnet
permanent a predictive controlgenerator
synchronous model to(PMSG)
smoothonthe power
which thedelivere
to the network of an oscillating water column (OWC) wave energy conversion
study is based, SCs technology is considered the most suitable for this purpose. SCESS is (WEC
connected
Due to theto the intermediate
nature DC stage as
of the resource, of well
a back-to-back converter
as the duration ofthrough a bidirectional
the high-power pulses gene
DC/DC converter. Simulation results are shown in which the model predictive
ated by the air turbine plus permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) on whic control
(MPC) strategy is used, taking as one of the criteria that the SoC of the ESS remains within
the study is based, SCs technology is considered the most suitable for this purpose. SCES
the limits established to extend the useful life. The THD of the output current obtained in
is connected to the intermediate DC stage of a back-to-back converter through a bidire
simulations is lower than 5%, below the grid code requirement.
tional DC/DC converter. Simulation results are shown in which the model predictive co
4.trol (MPC)
Power Gridstrategy is used,
Connection taking as one of the criteria that the SoC of the ESS remain
Applications
within the limits established to extend
In this Section, the applications relatedthe
to useful life.
electrical The THD
systems, of the in
especially output current o
electric
tained
grids andinmicrogrids,
simulationsareiscollected.
lower than 5%, below
Within themost
them, the gridpublished
code requirement.
topics have been
listed, describing in detail the use of SCs as well as the most relevant bibliography. Those
studies are Grid
4. Power relatedConnection
to the limitations of the renewable energies sources, especially with
Applications
their oscillatory nature, and the requirement of introducing flexibility in the electrical
In this Section, the applications related to electrical systems, especially in electr
systems. This entails the integration of an ESS in order to increase the stability of the grid,
grids and
absorbing or microgrids, are collected.
delivering energy, improving Within them,and
the voltage thefrequency
most published
regulationtopics
of thehave bee
listed, describing
electrical systems. in detail the use of SCs as well as the most relevant bibliography. Tho
studies are related to the limitations of the renewable energies sources, especially wi
4.1. Grid
their Regulation:nature,
oscillatory Voltage and
and Frequency Compensation
the requirement of introducing flexibility in the electrical sy
TheThis
tems. increasing trend
entails theofintegration
integrating RES
of aninto thein
ESS electric
ordergrids induces inthe
to increase thestability
uncertainty
of the gri
inabsorbing
their operation and control. Their massive penetration into the power
or delivering energy, improving the voltage and frequency regulation systems forces of th
to increase the flexibility of the electric grid, due to the vulnerability of RES towards
electrical systems.
the unforeseeable variation of meteorological conditions. Related to this issue, ESS are
a potential solution to support RES penetration, especially the hybridization of multiple
4.1.forming
ESS Grid Regulation:
a hybrid Voltage and Frequency
energy storage system Compensation
(HESS). This system has ability to fulfil
all the The increasing
requirements of trend of integrating
a certain application. RES into the
However, the electric
limitationgrids induces
of the inisthe unce
solution
itstainty
complex control
in their strategy,and
operation sincecontrol.
it playsTheir
a keymassive
role in optimizing
penetration theinto
capabilities
the powerof system
each technology. Related to this scenario, the uses of SCs in the literature are focused
forces to increase the flexibility of the electric grid, due to the vulnerability of RES toward on
the unforeseeable variation of meteorological conditions. Related to this issue, ESS are
potential solution to support RES penetration, especially the hybridization of multiple ES
forming a hybrid energy storage system (HESS). This system has ability to fulfil all th
 Energies 2021, 14, 3060 20 of 29

improving the performance of the RES and the electric grids, collecting those studies in the
21 of 31
following topics:
• Smoothing the power generated by renewable energy plants in order to mitigate the
harmonics of the power injected to the grid.
trol strategy, since it plays a key role in optimizing the capabilities of each tech-
• HESS control strategy improvement, especially controlling the power and energy flow
Related to this scenario, the uses of SCs in the literature
between theare focused on
renewable improving
generation sources and the storage systems, with the aim of
rmance of the RES and the electric grids, collecting
improving their capabilitiesfollowing
those studies in the against the frequency and voltage fluctuations.
• Introduce the flexibility required by the electric system to improve the voltage and
oothing the power generated by renewable energy frequency plants in order to mitigate the
stability.
monics of the power injected to the grid. • Increasing the lifetime of batteries, using the SCs to suppress the high-frequency
SS control strategy improvement, especially controlling
oscillations the
and thepower andtoenergy
batteries smooth the low-frequency power fluctuations.
w between the renewable generation sources and the storage systems,
Babu, T.S. [71] presents a review ofwith thethe control strategies proposed in the literature
of improving their capabilities againstfor theHESS.
frequency and voltage fluctuations.
The paper classifies the control techniques into interconnection topologies,
oduce the flexibility required by the electric system
classical tostrategies,
control improve the voltage
advanced and techniques and real cases studies, being briefly
control
uency stability. discussed with their limitations, see Figure 17. The study collects the challenges faced 22 of 31
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
easing the lifetime of batteries, using the SCsan
when toimplementation
suppress the high-frequency os-
of HESS for standalone microgrid or a grid connected is made.
tions and the batteries to smooth the low-frequency power fluctuations.
This paper shows a guide to several control techniques implemented for HESS on grid
u, T.S. [71] presents a review of the controlconnection applications.
strategies proposed in the literature
. The paper classifies the control techniques into interconnection topologies, clas-
trol strategies, advanced control techniques and real cases studies, being briefly
d with their limitations, see Figure 17. The study collects the challenges faced
implementation of HESS for standalone microgrid or a grid connected is made.
er shows a guide to several control techniques implemented for HESS on grid
on applications.

(c)

(a)

(b) (d)
Figure 17. for
Figure 17. Main interconnection topologies Main interconnection
a HESS, formed by topologies for a HESS,
a high power formed
storage (HPS)byand
a high power
a high storage (HPS) and
energy
a high and
storage (HES): (a) passive, (b) semi-active energy storageadapted
(c) active (HES): (a)
frompassive, (b)Classification
[71]; (d) semi-active and (c) active
of HESS adapted
control from [71]; (d) Clas-
techniques
adapted from [71]. sification of HESS control techniques adapted from [71].

The study [72] proposes a strategy to manage a HESS in renewable generation sys-
tems which currently require controlling bidirectional power flow. The device is com-
posed by a direct connection of a battery and a SCs unit linked through a dc-dc converter.
The proposed strategy includes a power control loop which distributes the power flow
through each device, achieving an optimized performance, providing grid-frequency reg-
Energies 2021, 14, 3060 21 of 29

The study [72] proposes a strategy to manage a HESS in renewable generation systems
which currently require controlling bidirectional power flow. The device is composed
by a direct connection of a battery and a SCs unit linked through a dc-dc converter. The
proposed strategy includes a power control loop which distributes the power flow through
each device, achieving an optimized performance, providing grid-frequency regulation
and maximizing the lifespan of the batteries, reducing their number of cycles. As in other
researches, the SCs perform the fast response, absorbing the high-frequency term and
the batteries provide the long-term power fluctuations. The HESS are controlled using a
droop control strategy that considers the converter characteristics, SC voltage levels, and
power demand.
Manandhar, U. [73] presents a new energy management scheme proposed for a grid
connected HESS, composed of the battery and the SC, under different operating scenarios.
The objective of the proposed energy management scheme is to reduce the stress in the
battery system, controlling the dynamic power sharing between the battery and grid. The
study presents a faster DC link voltage regulation to a generation and load disturbances, a
reduced rate cycle on the BESS based on its state of charge. Finally, the SCs are in charge
of absorbing the high-frequency power fluctuations, reducing the stress on the BESS, and
maintaining the SOC limits of energy storage within the safe operating region.
Akram, U. [74] presents an innovative design and operation framework for a BESS and
a HESS used for frequency regulation in the electric grid. The proposed design considers
the total system cost, the investment, replacement and maintenance cost, as well as the
penalty imposed due to not supplying the required regulation service. Moreover, this study
shows a comparison based on cost per unit between two scenarios: a HESS and a BESS
used both for frequency regulation. The results show that the HESS is more economical.
Nguyen-Huu, T. [75] proposes a coordinated operating control of a HESS (SCs unit
and a battery bank) that provides frequency regulation service. The control, based on a
droop control with the state-of-charge (SoC) feedback, includes the power flow scheme
between the ESSs considering the coverage of the frequency band for each device, as
well as the SoC of the SCs and batteries. Moreover, this study provides a guideline for
dimensioning the HESS based on based on the smoothing time constant, droop rate, and
renewable energy source power rating. The benefits of this method are improving the
lifespan of the battery, estimated using a real-time state-of-health (SOH) method based on
the temperature, SOH, and throughput degradation.
Pham, V.L. [76] proposes a triple active bridge converter for what will be DC grid in
the future. This system is an isolated bidirectional DC-DC converter, used in DC grids
and integrated energy systems, composed by different types of renewable energies and
storages, such as the photovoltaic and battery systems in grid connection applications
or fuel cells and battery/SC in EVs. The advantages of the triple active bridge converter
include multiple interfacing ports with isolation, achievable implementation of centralized
controls, and improved flexibility of electric systems.
Georgious, R. [77] presents a control strategy for a buck-boost bidirectional converter
used in a HESS for DC microgrids. The HESS connected to the DC bus is formed by a Li-ion
battery bank and a SCs unit, combined to achieve the energy and power requirements.
The control strategy shows a DC bus short-circuit fault-tolerant scheme which provides a
protection to HESS and the converter during a short-circuit fault.
Arkhangelski, J. [78] presents a study of a hybrid renewable energy system (HRES),
which includes a HESS formed by SCs and batteries, as a reliable source to connect to
the grid. This grid connection imposes restrictions relating to the power delivered and
its harmonic content. The aim of SCs is to absorb the high-frequency fluctuations of the
power along with smoothing the power of the batteries. This study proposes the use of
a low-pass second order filter, which splits the high-frequency component for the SCs
and the low-frequency component for the battery system. This solution greatly increases
the reliability and durability of the HRES. The results show that the proposed strategy
improves the lifetime of the batteries (see Figure 18).
Energies 2021,
Energies 2021, 14, x3060
FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of
24 of 31
29

Figure 18. Scheme of model studied adapted from [78].

Figure18.
Figure
Malkawi, A.M.A. [79] shows the benefits of using a SCs-based ESS alo
Schemeof
18.Scheme ofmodel
modelstudied
studiedadapted
adaptedfrom
from [78].
[78].
ies in a HESS to mitigate the impact of high and fast current variations on
Malkawi, A.M.A.
Malkawi,
lifespan ofA.M.A. [79] shows
[79]
the batteries.shows thethe benefits
The benefits
system of
ofusing
using aaSCs-based
is used in DC ESS
SCs-based ESSalong
alongwith
nanogrids withbatteries
batter-
and microgrid
ies in a HESS to mitigate the impact of high and fast current variations on the losses lifes-
in a HESS to mitigate the impact of high and fast current variations on the losses and and
uted
pan
lifespan
renewable
of the batteries.
of the batteries.
sources,
The system
The issee
system used Figure
in DC
is used in DC
19. Thisand
nanogrids
nanogrids
paper presents
microgrids
and
a HESS
withwith
microgrids distributed
distrib-
contro
unit
renewable
uted or sources,
renewableeach ESS
sources, module
see Figure
see Figure independently,
19. This
19. paper
This presents
paper since
a HESS
presents ifcontrolled
the as
controlled
a HESS SCa single
asinterface
unit is co
a single
or each ESS module independently, since if the SC interface is controlled independently
pendently
unit or each ESS from the battery
module interface,
independently, since ifthe
theSCsSC are ableistocontrolled
interface produceinde- both high
from the battery
pendently interface,
from the batterythe SCs arethe
interface, able
SCstoare
produce
able toboth high and
produce bothshort
high current pulses,
and short cur-
rent pulses,
reducing reducing
the voltage theimproving
variations, voltagethe variations, improving the voltage regulat
voltage regulation.
rent pulses, reducing the voltage variations, improving the voltage regulation.

Figure 19. Scheme of the SC nanogrid adapted from [79].

Fang, J. [80] proposed a HESS comprising a battery system and SCs to manage the
coordinated control of the ESSs as virtual synchronous generators (VSGs). The study uses
aFigure Schemethe
19.where
control of the
SCsSC nanogrid the
adapted from [79]. power modeled as an inertia and the
Figure 19. Scheme ofattendant fast-changes
the SC nanogrid adapted from [79].
batteries provide the remaining parts of the VSGs, compensating with slow dynamics and
Fang, J. [80] proposed a HESS comprising a battery system and SCs to manage the
a droop control, the long-term power fluctuations.
coordinated control of the ESSs as virtual synchronous generators (VSGs). The study uses
Fang, J. [80] proposed a HESS comprising a battery system and SCs
coordinated control of the ESSs as virtual synchronous generators (VSGs).
a control where the SCs attendant the fast-changes power modeled as an
batteries provide the remaining parts of the VSGs, compensating with slow
Energies 2021, 14, 3060 23 of 29

a control where the SCs attendant the fast-changes power modeled as an inertia and the
batteries provide the remaining parts of the VSGs, compensating with slow dynamics and
a droop control, the long-term power fluctuations.

4.2. Microgrids
The use of SCs in a microgrid is linked to a HESS, i.e., the use together with batteries.
Within this approach, researchers are focused on improving the performance of a microgrid,
analyzing the following topics:
• Lifespan improvement of the batteries, using the batteries to smooth the low-frequency
power fluctuations in the long-term, while the SCs suppress the high-frequency oscil-
lations.
• Capacity and dimensioning optimization of the HESS required to fulfill with the
Microgrid restrictions.
• Consumption reduction by diesel groups or fuel cells.
• Control strategy improvement of the microgrid, especially in controlling the power
and energy flow between the renewable generation sources and storage systems, with
the aim of improving their behavior in transients and faults.
• Voltage and frequency regulation.
Khalid, M. [81] presents a comprehensive review of the research development of the
hybrid storage topic over the last two decades. In this paper, each application-focused
is thoroughly and independently investigated. The HESS-focused application comprises
battery and SC modules, which have complementary characteristics improving their scope
in various fields. The review collects research works about regulation of renewable energy
sources; grid regulation, especially voltage and frequency compensation; energy storage
enhancements, including lifespan improvement, and capacity reduction; and regenerative
braking in electric vehicles.
Torkashvand, M. [82] compared a battery ESS and a hybrid energy storage system
combining SCs with Li-ion batteries and lead-acid batteries for islanded microgrid ap-
plications. This study presents the economical effective of the hybridization, as well as
the dimensioning calculation of the ESS to use in the energy management and frequency
control of microgrids operating in islanded mode. The results show that the HESS with SC
has considerable cost reduction.
Zhu, Y. [83] proposed a strategy based on droop control method for a HESS, comprised
of a battery and a SC module, under unbalanced load and nonlinear load conditions. The
battery system works in droop mode, providing energy and fundamental active power,
i.e., the static performance. Meanwhile, the SC module works in compensation mode,
providing the reactive power required, as well as transient changes in the power conditions.
This strategy provides better system performance, especially in unbalanced and nonlinear
load conditions. Moreover, microgrid stability and the battery lifespan are increased, as
well as the power quality.
Oriti, G. [84] presents a novel power flow control system for a remote military micro-
grid with a HESS, combining batteries and SCs to increase the battery life redirecting the
higher frequency current over the SCs. Moreover, this analysis considers several configura-
tions for SCs and filter parameters to achieve the highest cash flow for the overall system,
reducing the fuel consumption for the diesel generator. Finally, these results are linked
with the sensitivity analysis of the economics of the military microgrid.
Oriti, G. [85] describes an economic analysis combined with a novel power flow
control strategy for an energy management system (EMS) involving a HESS. This device is
formed by a battery and a SCs module. The aim of the study is increasing the lifetime of the
batteries, introducing a SCs module on the EMS to absorb the higher frequency currents,
leaving the slow current changes for the batteries. Moreover, the lifetime effect over the
economics of the system is analysed.
Akram, U. [86] describes a methodology for the joint capacity optimization of two
renewable energy generation system (wind and solar PV) and a HESS, comprised of
Energies 2021, 14, 3060 24 of 29

batteries and SCs. The optimization problem of the sizing the HESS, solar and wind systems
of the microgrid comprises the objective of minimising the cost, improving the reliability
and reducing the greenhouse gases emissions. The results show that a microgrid with a
HESS is more reliable and has lower greenhouse gases emissions and an economical benefit.
Ghosh, S.K. [87] proposes an energy management system (EMS)-based control scheme
for DC microgrids with solar photovoltaic systems as the primary generation and energy
storage systems, comprised by a battery ESS and SCs. The main feature of the study is to
improve the dynamic performance of the microgrid during severe transients, especially
in changes of the load demands and power oscillations of the PV units. Moreover, the
EMS aims to increase the lifespan of the battery ESS and improve the voltage stability. The
control strategy uses proportional-integral (PI) controllers to regulate the switching control
actions based on the decision of the EMS achieving the desired objectives.
Kamel, A. [88] presented in the above studies, a control strategy based on a classic PI
controller for an EMS and an isolated microgrid is described. It combines PV panels, FC
as power sources and batteries and SCs as ESS. The system includes a maximum power
point tracking (MPPT) to maximize the harvested energy from PV units. The aim is to
optimize the energy management in the microgrid and the cost savings, using different
control strategies, and reduce the hydrogen consumption. The PV array supplies the main
power and the FC compensates the transient fluctuation of the solar source. Meanwhile,
the battery and SC are used to solve the problems of slow response of the FC during the
fast change of the load power and to remove the peak power from the system.
Wu, T. [89] introduces an improved hierarchical control strategy which considers
the energy storage status of a distributed hybrid energy storage system, leading to the
inconsistency of the remaining capacity of the energy storage system in the process of
system operation, improving the stability of the microgrid.
Yu, M. [90] proposes a new control method for a HESS to improve the power quality
and the fault ride-through capability of islanded forest microgrids. The system is composed
by a wind turbine as source and batteries and SCs as energy storage. The method includes
a basic control scheme represented by a mode-based sectional coordinated control, and an
improved strategy for the HESS, using the batteries to smooth the low-frequency power
fluctuations in the long-term, meanwhile the SCs suppress the high-frequency oscillations.
A predictive control of the converters is adopted to reduce control delay and ensure the
effectiveness of the energy storage power converters. Moreover, as an additional energy
storage unit, a wind turbine is used, analysing its capacity of suppressing the huge power
disturbance thanks to its large rotating kinetic energy, improving the fault-ride through
capacity of the microgrid.

5. Conclusions
The present manuscript describes the most relevant papers that propose the integration
of SCs in electric traction drives, renewable energy sources, and grid connection applications.
Regarding the publications related to electric traction drives, the largest number of
them are related to the use of SCs in EVs. Regarding heavy-rail catenary supplied vehicles,
most publications focus on the analysis of a DC catenary voltage (1.5–3 kV) against AC
(25 kV), because DC voltage levels facilitate the integration of SCs without additional power
electronics. SCs in heavy-rail vehicles are used to regenerative braking energy recovery
and to stabilize the supply voltage. Energy savings with an ESS is around 12–20% and
economic viability will depend on the incentives of each country for the energy returned to
the grid. In relation to heavy-rail diesel-electric vehicles, there are hardly any publications
because there are few vehicles of this type, due to thatsupply energy is based on fossil fuel
sources. In light-rail rapid transit vehicles, SCs are proposed as one of the most appropriate
technologies to function as a supplementary power source to the main one, absorbing high
power peaks and recovering part of the braking energy. In this application there are also
papers that highlight, in terms of cost, Li-ion capacitors (higher energy density) technology
compared to EDLC technology.
Energies 2021, 14, 3060 25 of 29

Regarding electric drive for road vehicles, most of the papers suggest the use of SCs
to work in a coordinated manner with batteries as an on-board hybrid storage system
(HESS). In the case of public transportation catenary-supplied vehicles, the ultimate goal is
to replace the catenary with a HESS with charging points in different sections of the road.
Different battery technologies are compared, and strategies are proposed in order to split
the required power between SCs and batteries. SCs/lithium-ion batteries combination is
the one that offers the best results from a technical point of view. It is also contemplated to
replace EDLC technology with Li-ion capacitors due to the latter having a higher energy
density (reduction in weight and volume of the ESS), which is an important aspect in on-
board systems. The papers related to HEVs study the feasibility of alternative powertrain
architectures to the parallel configuration (generally considered the one that offers the
best overall efficiency) to reduce fuel consumption when SCs are used as the only ESS. On
the other hand, the papers related to EVs study the inclusion of SCs as part of the power
system to extend the useful life of the batteries. In both cases (HEVs and EVs), an EMS is
necessary to maximize the efficiency of the entire system. Controllers based on fuzzy logic
and adaptive algorithm are considered essential tools to optimize the power distribution
between SCs and batteries in the case of EVs.
Regarding the papers related to the inclusion of SCs in renewable energy systems
(wind and PV solar), most of them consider a HESS (SCs/batteries). In the particular case
of wave energy systems, SCs are considered as single and sufficient ESS due to the nature
of the resource (high power and low energy peaks) and due to that main requirement is
reduction of power oscillations. Solar PV and wind power systems need higher energy
density ESS (e.g., batteries) in addition to SCs. The papers related to the inclusion of SCs
in solar and wind applications are based on studying the optimal configuration for the
connection of the HESS. Multi-objective optimization algorithms are also proposed for
dimensioning of energy storage system and control strategies (e.g., low pass filter) to split
the required power between both ESS. On the other hand, in wave energy applications the
use of reinforcement learning-based energy management system is proposed in the SCESS
sizing methodology to reduce and optimize the power and energy required. On the other
hand, it is necessary to take into account the SoC of the ESS in the control strategy for the
operation of the system.
Regarding the power grids applications, SCs are focused on improve their perfor-
mance. The results of the studies show that the use of SCs together with batteries as a HESS
improves the voltage and frequency stability of the electric grids, as well as the flexibility of
the system allowing to introduce a higher number of renewable energy plants. Moreover,
the SCs allow to use an advanced control strategy for the HESS, improving their efficiency
and their capabilities against frequency and voltage fluctuations. Finally, the use of a HESS,
composed by a high energy system and a SC based ESS, allows to dimension the system
with high accuracy in order to fulfill the grid codes requirements and minimize its cost
and maintenance.
In a nutshell, some generic conclusions of the use of SCs in the mentioned applica-
tions are:
• SCs can act as a buffer against large magnitudes and rapid fluctuations in power and
for recycling the regenerative braking energy in electric traction vehicles.
• In order to ensure the suitability of SCs in certain applications, it is necessary to
define the operating modes of the system, considering the load conditions and taking
into account in the control strategy the SoC of ESS. It is also a very important a
good dimensioning methodology of energy storage system taking into account the
proposed EMS.
• In some cases, HESS can be the best option, but it is necessary to define a control
strategy (optimization algorithm) to split the required power between both ESS. This
optimization has to take into consideration the cost analysis, the aging of ESS, and
weight and volume in the case of on-board systems.
Energies 2021, 14, 3060 26 of 29

• Remuneration policies for energy returned to the grid and grid code compliance will
play a key role in integrating ESS into industrial applications.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization G.N. and J.T.; investigation, G.N., M.B., M.S.-H. and
J.T.; writing—original draft preparation, G.N., J.T. and J.N.; writing—review and editing, M.S.-H.,
M.L. and M.B.; visualization, G.N., J.N. and M.S.-H.; complete review and adding contents, M.L.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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