Manual DOW FilmTech Membrane

FILMTEC
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
Table of Contents
Key Word Index
Introduction to Reverse Osmosis
Water Chemistry and Pretreatment
System Design
Assembly and Loading of Pressure Vessels
System Operation
Cleaning and Disinfection
Handling and Preservation
Troubleshooting
Addendum
FILMTEC Introduction to Reverse Osmosis
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS Table of Contents
2.0 Introduction to Reverse Osmosis
2.1 General Information
2.2 Desalination Technologies and Filtration Processes
2.3 Principle of Reverse Osmosis

2.3.1 How Reverse Osmosis Works
2.3.2 How to Use Reverse Osmosis in Practice
2.3.3 Reverse Osmosis Module Designs
2.3.4 Factors Influencing Reverse Osmosis Performance
2.4 FT30 Membrane Description
2.5 Membrane Specifications
2.6 FT30 - Spiral Wound Element

2.6.1 Introduction
2.6.2 Spiral Wound Element Configuration
2.6.3 FILMTEC® Element Characteristics
FILMTEC Water Chemistry and Pretreatment
3.0 Water Chemistry and Pretreatment
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Feed Water Analysis
3.3 Scale Control

3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 Acid Addition
3.3.3 Scale Inhibitor Addition
3.3.4 Strong Acid Cation Exchange Resin Softening
3.3.5 Weak Acid Cation Exchange Resin Dealkalization
3.3.6 Lime Softening
3.3.7 Preventive Cleaning
3.3.8 Adjustment of Operating Variables
3.4 Scaling Calculations

3.4.1 General
3.4.2 Calcium Carbonate Scale Prevention
3.4.2.1 Brackish Water
3.4.2.2 Sea Water
3.4.3 Calcium Sulfate Scale Prevention
3.4.4 Barium Sulfate Scale Prevention
3.4.5 Strontium Sulfate Scale Prevention
3.4.6 Calcium Fluoride Scale Prevention
3.4.7 Silica Scale Prevention
3.5 Colloidal Fouling Prevention

3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Media Filtration
3.5.3 Oxidation Filtration
3.5.4 In-Line Filtration
3.5.5 Coagulation-Flocculation
3.5.6 Crossflow-Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration
3.5.7 Cartridge Filtration
3.5.8 Other Methods
3.5.9 Design and Operational Considerations
3.6 Biological Fouling Prevention

3.6.1 Introduction
3.6.2 Assessment of the Biological Fouling Potential
3.6.2.1 Culture Techniques
3.6.2.2 Direct Bacteria Count
3.6.2.3 Biofilm Monitoring
3.6.2.4 Other Methods
3.6.3 Chlorination
3.6.4 Dechlorination
3.6.5 Shock Treatment
3.6.6 Sanitation
3.6.7 Other Methods
3.6.8 Pretreatment Design and Operation
3.7 Prevention of Fouling by Organics
3.8 Prevention of Membrane Degradation
3.9 Summary of Pretreatment Options
3.10 References
FILMTEC System Design
4.0 System Design
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Batch Versus Continuous Process
4.3 Single-Module System
4.4 Single-Array System
4.5 Multi-Array System
4.6 Plug Flow Versus Concentrate Recirculation
4.7 Permeate Staged System
4.8 Special Design Possibilities
4.9 Element Type Selection
4.10 Number of Elements
4.11 System Performance Projection

4.11.1 System Operating Characteristics
4.11.2 Design Equations and Parameters
4.11.3 System Evaluation Computer Program
4.12 Testing
4.13 System Components

4.13.1 High Pressure Pump
4.13.2 Pressure Vessel
4.13.3 Shutdown Switches
4.13.4 Valves
4.13.5 Control Instruments
4.13.6 Tanks
4.13.7 Optional Equipment
4.14 Materials of Construction, Corrosion Control

FILMTEC Assembly and Loading of Pressure Vessels
5.0 Assembly and Loading of Pressure Vessels
5.1 Preparation
5.2 PAYNE PV-1512/1812 Pressure Vessel
5.3 A.S.I. PVS-2.5-1000 Pressure Vessel
5.4 A.S.I. PVB-4-600 Pressure Vessel
5.5 A.S.I. PVU-4-1000 Pressure Vessel
5.6 A.S.I. PVE-8 Pressure Vessel

FILMTEC System Operation
6.0 System Operation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Initial Start-Up

6.2.1 Equipment
6.2.2 Pre-Start-Up Check
6.2.3 Start-Up Sequence
6.3 Operation Start-Up
6.4 Shutdown
6.5 Adjustment of Operation Parameters

6.5.1 Introduction
6.5.2 Brackish Water
6.5.3 Sea Water
6.6 Record Keeping

6.6.1 Introduction
6.6.2 Start-Up Report
6.6.3 RO Operating Data
6.6.4 Pretreatment Operating Data
6.6.5 Maintenance Log
6.7 Plant Performance Normalization
6.8 Control of Microbiological Activity
6.9 References
FILMTEC Cleaning and Disinfection
7.0 Cleaning and Disinfection
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Cleaning Requirements
7.3 Safety Precautions
7.4 Cleaning Equipment
7.5 Cleaning Procedure
7.6 Cleaning Chemicals
7.7 Disinfecting RO Systems

7.7.1 Introduction
7.7.2 Formaldehyde
7.7.3 Hydrogen Peroxide - Peracetic Acid
7.7.4 Chlorinated Disinfectant
7.7.5 Other Disinfectant
7.8 Cleaning and Disinfection Programs
7.9 Emergency Cleaning

FILMTEC Handling and Preservation
8.0 Handling and Preservation
8.1 General
8.2 FILMTEC® Element

8.2.1 Preservation
8.2.2 Storage
8.2.3 Shipping
8.2.4 Disposal
8.3 RO Systems
FILMTEC Troubleshooting
9.0 Troubleshooting
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Localization of High Salt Passage
9.3 Element Analysis

9.3.1 Sample Selection
9.3.2 Leak Test
9.3.3 Standard Test
9.3.4 Cleaning Test
9.3.5 Destructive Analysis
9.4 Cause and Corrective Measures

9.4.1 High Salt Passage
9.4.1.1 High Permeate Flow
9.4.1.2 Normal Permeate Flow
9.4.1.3 Low Permeate Flow
9.4.2 Low Permeate Flow
9.4.2.1 Normal Salt Passage
9.4.2.2 Low Salt Passage
9.4.2.3 High Salt Passage
9.4.3 High Differential Pressure
9.4.4 Overview
9.5 References
FILMTEC Addendum
10.0 Addendum
10.1 Terminology
10.2 Specific Conductance of Sodium Chloride
10.3 Conductivity of Ions
10.4 Conductivity of Solutions
10.5 Conversion of Concentration Units of Ionic Species
10.6 Conversion of Temperature Units
10.7 Conversion of U.S. Units into Metric Units
10.8 Ionization of Carbon Dioxide Solutions
10.9 Osmotic Pressure Sodium Chloride
10.10 Osmotic Pressure of Solutions
10.11 Chemical Compatibility Process

®
FILMTEC Key Word Index
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
1.0 Key Word Index
A-value, 4.11:p21 concentrate recycling, 4.3:p8

ASTM, 3.2:p4 concentrate valve, 2.3:p7
abrasion, 9.4:p6 concentration polarization, 4.11:p21
activated carbon, 3.6:p34, 3.6:p36, 3.7:p37, 9.4:p9 concentration units, 10.5:p9
alarms, 4.13:p30 conductance, 10.2:p3
aldehyde, 8.2:p2 conductivity, 6.4:p7, 10.3:p5, 10.4:p6
anthracite, 3.5:p28 conductivity meter, 4.13:p29
antiscalant, 3.3:p6, 3.5:p29 conductivity profile, 9.2:p2
antiscalants, precipitated, 9.4:p9 control instruments, 4.13:p29
applications, 2.2:p5 corrosion, 4.14:p31
autopsy, 9.3:p5 copper sulfate, 3.6:p35
crossflow, 2.2:p4, 3.5:p30
B-value, 4.11:p21
bacteria, 3.6:p32 dealkalization, 3.2:p4
barium sulfate, 3.4:p20 dechlorination, 3.6:p34
barrier layer, 2.4:p10 De Danske Sukkerfabriken, 2.1:p1
batch process, 4.2:p6 degasser, 3.3:p7
biocides, 7.7:p10 desalination, 2.2:p3
biofilm, 3.6:p32 design equations, 4.11:p22
biofouling, 3.6:p32, 6.6:p9, 7.8:p11, 9.4:p7, 9.4:p9 destructive analysis, 9.3:p5
birm, 3.5:p29 diatomaceous earth, 9.4:p9
brackish water, 3.2:p2 differential pressure, 9.4:p8
brand name biocides, 7.7:p10 direct count, 3.6:p32
brand name cleaning, 7.6:p7 disinfection, 6.6:p9, 7.7:p9
brine seal damage, 9.4:p9 disposal, 8.2:p3
bromide, 3.6:p34 distillation, 2.2:p3
Dow Sales offices, 2.1:p2
CAC, 3.6:p33 DOWEX*, 3.3:p7
CF, 3.4:p10 dry element, 8.2:p2
CRC, 3.6:p33
Cadotte, 2.1:p1 electrodialysis, 2.2:p3
calcium carbonate, 3.3:p5, 3.4:p11 element, 2.6:p15
calcium fluoride, 3.4:p20 element types, 2.6:p16
calcium sulfate, 3.4:p12 emergency cleaning, 7.9:p13
carbonate scaling, 7.8:p12 energy recovery, 4.13:p27
carbon dioxide, 10.8:p12 ethanol, 7.7:p10
cartridge filter, 3.5:p30, 9.4:p8
centrifugal pump, 4.13:p27 FAC, 3.6:p33
chlorinated disinfectants, 7.7:p9 FRC, 3.6:p33
chlorination, 3.6:p33 feed concentration, 2.3:p9, 2.5:p12
chlorine dioxide, 7.7:p10 feedwater pH, 2.5:p12
chlorine tolerance, 3.6:p34 FilmTec Corporation, 2.1:p1
cleaning chemicals, 7.6:p7 filtration, 2.2:p4
cleaning procedure, 7.5:p5, 7.8:p11 flocculant, 3.5:p29
cleaning pump, 7.5:p6 flow meter, 4.13:p29
cleaning system, 7.4:p4 flush system, 4.13:p30
cleaning tank, 7.4:p4 flux, 2.3:p9, 2.5:p11, 4.1:p1
cleaning test, 9.3:p5 formaldehyde, 7.7:p9, 8.2:p2
coagulant, 3.5:p29 fouling, 7.1:p1
colloidal fouling, 9.4:p7
compaction, 9.4:p8 glycol, 8.2:p2
computer program, 4.11:p21, 4.11:p25 grease, 3.7:p37
greensand, 3.5:p28
* Trademark of The Dow Chemical Company
April 1995 Technical Manual page 1

®
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
high pressure pump, 4.13:p27 permeate tube, 2.3:p7, 2.6:p15

hollow fiber, 2.3:p8 pH meter, 4.13:p29
hour meter, 4.13:p29 pH range, 7.6:p8
humic substance, 3.7:p37 phenolic disinfectant, 7.7:p10
hydrogen peroxide, 7.7:p9 plate & frame, 2.3:p8
hydroxide floc, 3.5:p29 polyamide, 2.4:p10
polyester web, 2.4:p10
INT, 3.6:p31 polysulfone, 2.1:p1, 2.4:p10
inhibitor, 3.3:p6 positive displacement pump, 4.13:p27
in-line filtration, 3.5:p29 preservation, 8.2:p2
iodine, 7.7:p10 preservation solution, 8.2:p2, 9.4:p8
ion exchange, 2.2:p3 pressure, 2.3:p9, 2.5:p11
ionic strength, 3.4:p10 pressure gauge, 4.13:p29
iron, 3.5:p28, 3.5:p31 pressure vessel, 4.13:p27
preventative cleaning, 3.3:p8
K factor, 6.4:p7 preventative disinfection, 3.6:p35
KMnO4, 3.5:p28
quaternary germicides, 7.7:p10
LSI, 3.3:p5, 3.4:p10 recorder, 4.13:p30
Langelier, 3.3:p5 record keeping, 6.4:p7
leak, 9.4:p6 recovery, 2.3:p7, 2.3:p9
leak test, 9.3:p4 re-wetting, 8.2:p2, 9.4:p8
lime softening, 3.3:p8
S & DSI, 3.3:p5, 3.4:p14
manganese, 3.5:p28 SBS, 3.6:p34
maintenance, 6.6:p11 SDI, 3.5:p27
materials, 4.14:p31 SHMP, 3.3:p6
media filter, 9.4:p7 SHMP, hydrolized, 7.8:p12
media filtration, 3.5:p28 SMBS, 3.6:p34
metal oxides, 7.8:p12, 9.4:p7 salt passage, 2.3:p7, 4.6:p12
microfiltration, 2.2:p4, 3.5:p30, 3.6:p35 salt rejection, 2.3:p7, 2.3:p9, 2.5:p1
microorganism, 3.6:p32 sample port, 4.13:p29
module, 2.3:p8 sampling points, 6.6:p9
molal/molar, 3.4:p10 sand, 3.5:p28
MONOSPHERE*, 3.3:p7 sanitation, 3.6:p35
scaling, 7.1:p1, 9.4:p7, 9.4:p9
nanofiltration, 2.2:p4 shipping, 8.2:p3
normalization, 6.5:p8 shock treatment, 3.6:p35
shutdown, 6.4:p7, 8.3:p4
oil, 3.7:p37 shutdown switches, 4.13:p28
operating data, 6.4:p7 silica, 3.4:p24, 3.3:p8
operating log, 6.4:p9 sodium bisulfite, 8.2:p2
organic fouling, 7.8:p11, 9.4:p8 sodium chloride, 10.2:p3, 10.9:p13
organics, 3.7:p37 softening, 3.3:p7, 3.5:p30
osmosis, 2.3:p6 solubility product, 3.3:p5, 3.4:p10
osmotic pressure, 6.5:p8, 10.9:p1 spiral wound, 2.3:p8, 2.6:p15
oxidation damage, 9.3:p5, 9.4:p6 staging ratio, 4.10:p18
oxidation filtration, 3.5:p38 stainless steel, 4.14:p31
ozone, 3.6:p36 standard sea water, 3.2:p2
standard test, 9.3:p4
peracetic acid, 7.7:p9 start-up, 6.2:p2, 6.4:p7
performance, 2.3:p9 storage, 8.2:p2
permeate backpressure, 4.13:p29, 4.7:p15, 9.4:p5 strontium sulfate, 3.4:p20
permeate staged system, 4.7:p15

®
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
Stiff & Davis, 3.3:p5

symbol definitions, 4.11:p23
system checking, 6.6:p9
TBC, 3.6:p32
TCF, 6.5:p8
TDS, 3.2:p2, 6.4:p7, 9.2:p2
TRC, 3.6:p33
tanks, 4.13:p29
tapered recirculation system, 4.6:p3
telescoping, 9.4:p6
temperature, 2.3:p9, 2.5:p11
temperature limits, 7.6:p8, 8.2:p2
temperature units, 10.6:p10
tubular, 2.3:p8
UPCORE*, 3.3:p7
U.S. units, 10.7:p11
ultrafiltration, 2.2:p4, 3.5:p30, 3.6:p35
vacuum test, 9.3:p4

valves, 4.13:p29
water hammer, 9.4:p6, 9.4:p8

water meter, 4.13:p29
Werner, 3.6:p33
x-ray analysis, 9.3:p5

®
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 1 General Information
2. Introduction to Reverse Osmosis
2.1 General Information An important development in the Through the combination of selling
thin film composite approach was only to approved water treatment
Since their development as practical the discovery of microporous companies and Dow’s sales network
unit operations in the late 1950’s polysulfone support films in 1967 by sustained by Technical Service
and early 1960’s, reverse osmosis John Cadotte. Not only did this Centers, Dow assures the technical
(RO) and ultrafiltration (UF) have result in twice the flux for ultrathin success of its FILMTEC products
been continually expanding the cellulose acetate composite and the commercial and technical
scope of their applications. Initially, membranes, but it subsequently led success of its customers.
reverse osmosis was applied to the to the invention of four important
desalination of sea water and non-cellulosic thin film composite For technical and commercial in-
brackish water. Increased demands membranes by Cadotte: NS-100, formation on FILMTEC products,
on the industry to conserve water, NS-200, NS-300 and finally the please contact one of the following
reduce energy consumption, control FT30. Each of these discoveries is Liquid Separations Sales offices.
pollution and reclaim useful mate- either embodied in a commercial
rials from waste streams have made reverse osmosis membrane, or has
new applications economically led to a modified, closely-related
attractive. In addition, advances in commercial membrane. Microporous
the fields of biotechnology and polysulfone itself has achieved
pharmaceuticals, coupled with ad- widespread use as an ultrafiltration
vances in membrane development, membrane.
are making membranes an impor-
tant separation step, which, com- In 1977 the FilmTec Corporation
pared to distillation, offers energy was founded in Minneapolis USA.
savings and does not lead to
thermal degradation of the products. After important and dramatically
evolving product changes and
Basic membrane research with res- company development between
pect to the foundation of FilmTec 1981 and 1984, the FilmTec
Corporation and the development of Corporation became a wholly owned
the FILMTEC® FT30 membrane subsidiary of The Dow Chemical
started in 1963 at the North Star Company in August 1985.
Research Institute in Minneapolis,
MN, USA. To assure supply of FILMTEC
products to the rapidly growing
Since then, products and product reverse osmosis market, Dow has
improvements have been developed committed capital to expand its
in the North Star Laboratories, such manufacturing capabilities and
as besides the production site in
Minneapolis, established a second
• original thin film composite production site in Europe through
membrane the acquisition of the Membrane
division of DDS (De Danske
• microporous polysulfone
Sukkerfabriken) in December 1989.
• first non-cellulose thin film
composite membrane (NS-100)
• thin film composite mem-
branes NS-200 and NS-300
• ultrathin cellulose hemodia-
lysis membrane
April 1995 Technical Manual Page 1

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 1 General Information
Dow Suomi OY Dow Liquid Separations

Simonkatu 8b Dow Deutschland Inc.
P.O. Box 117 Industriestraße 1
SF-00100 Helsinki 77836 Rheinmünster
Finland P.O. Box 20
Tel. (0) 693 22 11 77834 Rheinmünster
Fax (0) 693 22 44 Germany
Tel. (72 27) 91 0
Fax (72 27) 91 38 08
Dow France S.A.
17–21, rue Saint-Denis
B.P. 110 Dow North America
92106 Boulogne-Billancourt-Cedex Liquid Separations
France P.O. Box 1206
Tel. (1) 49 09 78 78 Midland, MI 48641-1206
Fax (1) 49 09 06 19 Tel. 1-800-447-4369
Fax 1-517 832 1465
Dow Deutschland Inc.

Vertrieb Dow Chemical Japan Ltd.
Am Kronberger Hang 4 Liquid Separations
D-65824 Schwalbach Tennoz Central Tower
Tel. (6196) 567-0 2-24, Higashikanagawa 2-chome
Fax (6196) 567-444 Shinagawa-ku, TOKYO 140
Japan
Tel. (813) 5460 2100
Dow Italia S.p.A. Fax (813) 5460 6246
Liquid Separations
Via G. Murat 23
20159 Milano Dow Chemical Pacific Ltd.
Italy Liquid Separations
Tel. (2) 6 96 21 47th Floor, Sun Hung Kai Centre,
Fax (2) 69 62 23 66 30 Harbour Road, Wanchai
GPO Box 711
Hong Kong
Dow Chemical Iberica S.A. Tel. 852-2879 7261
Bilbao Sales Office Fax 852-2827 5909
Apartado 502
48080 Bilbao
Spain Dow Latin America
Tel. (4) 481 71 30 Liquid Separations
Fax (4) 463 11 60 Rua Alexandre Dumas, 1671
Sao Paulo - SP - Brazil
CEP 04717-903
Dow Liquid Separations Tel. 55-11-546 9348
Springfield House Fax 55-11-546 9919
Water Lane
Wilmslow, Cheshire SK9 5BA
England
Tel. (1625) 54 83 06
Fax (1625) 54 83 07

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2 Desalination Technologies and Filtration Processes
2.2 Desalination Technologies and Filtration Processes
Out of the several desalination processes considered, reverse osmosis, ion exchange, distillation and
electrodialysis are the major processes used in desalination. Of lesser significance due to their practical application
as well as their less beneficial operation, are refrigerant freezing, vacuum freezing, vapor compression and
piezodialysis.
Reverse osmosis is in general the most economical process for desalination of brackish water and sea water. As a
widely accepted technology, reverse osmosis became more and more competitive and is superior to the traditional
thermal process when a comparison is made of capital investment and energy consumption.
Raw Water Salt Concentration (mg/l)
Figure 1: Major Desalination Processes

The most typical operating span of

these four major desalination
processes is shown in Figure 1,
indicating also the standard
operating ranges of the different
FILMTEC® element types.
The various filtration technologies
which currently exist can be
categorized on the basis of the size
of particles removed from a feed
stream. Conventional macrofiltration
of suspended solids is accomplished
by passing a feed solution through
the filter media in a perpendicular Figure 2: Crossflow Membrane Filtration
direction. The entire solution passes
through the media, creating only
one exit stream. Examples of such Microfiltration (MF) molecular weights greater than 200-
filtration devices include cartridge Microfiltration removes particles in 400 are rejected. Also, dissolved
filters, bag filters, sand filters, and the range of approximately 0.1 to salts are rejected in the range of 20-
multimedia filters. Macrofiltration 1 micron. In general, suspended 98%. Salts which have monovalent
separation capabilities are generally particles and large colloids are anions (e.g. sodium chloride or
limited to undissolved particles rejected while macromolecules and calcium chloride) have rejections of
greater than 1 micron. dissolved solids pass through the 20-80%, whereas salts with divalent
MF membrane. Applications include anions (e.g. magnesium sulfate)
For the removal of small particles removal of bacteria, flocculated have higher rejections of 90-98%.
and dissolved salts, membrane materials, or TSS (total suspended Typical applications include removal
separation systems are utilized solids). Transmembrane pressures of color and total organic carbon
which use a different method than are typically 0.7 bar (10 PSI). (TOC) from surface water, removal
conventional particle filtration. of hardness or radium from well
Termed crossflow membrane Ultrafiltration (UF) water, overall reduction of total
filtration (see Figure 2), this method Ultrafiltration provides macro- dissolved solids (TDS), and the
uses a pressurized feed stream molecular separation for particles in separation of organic from inorganic
which flows parallel to the the 20 to 1,000 Angstrom range (up matter in specialty food and
membrane surface. A portion of this to 0.1 micron). All dissolved salts wastewater applications.
stream passes through the mem- and smaller molecules pass through Transmembrane pressures are
brane, leaving behind the rejected the membrane. Items rejected by typically 3.5 to 16 bar (50 to
particles in the concentrated the membrane include colloids, 225 PSI).
remainder of the stream. Since proteins, microbiological
there is a continuous flow across the contaminants, and large organic Reverse Osmosis (RO)
membrane surface, the rejected molecules. Most UF membranes Reverse osmosis is the finest level
particles do not accumulate but have molecular weight cut-off values of filtration available. The RO
instead are swept away by the between 1,000 and 100,000. membrane acts as a barrier to all
concentrate stream. Thus, one feed Transmembrane pressures are dissolved salts and inorganic
stream is separated into two exit typically 1 to 7 bar (15 to 100 PSI). molecules, as well as organic
streams: the solution passing molecules with a molecular weight
through the membrane surface Nanofiltration (NF) greater than approximately 100.
(permeate) and the remaining Nanofiltration refers to a speciality Water molecules, on the other hand,
concentrate stream. membrane process which rejects pass freely through the membrane
particles in the approximate size creating a purified product stream.
There are four general categories of range of 1 nanometer (10 Rejection of dissolved salts is typi-
crossflow membrane filtration: Angstroms), hence the term cally 95 to greater than 99%.
Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration, “Nanofiltration.” NF operates in the
Nanofiltration, and Reverse realm between UF and reverse
Osmosis. osmosis. Organic molecules with

The applications for RO are Also, RO is often used in the the IX system. Transmembrane
numerous and varied, and include production of ultrapure water for use pressures for RO typically range
desalination of sea water or brackish in the semiconductor industry, from 14 bar (200 PSI) for brackish
water for drinking purposes, power industry (boiler feed water), water to 69 bar (1,000 PSI) for sea
wastewater recovery, food and and medical/laboratory applications. water.
beverage processing, biomedical Utilizing RO prior to Ion Exchange
separations, purification of home (IX) dramatically reduces operating The normal range of filtration
drinking water and industrial process costs and regeneration frequency of processes is shown in Figure 3:
water.
Figure 3: Ranges of Filtration Processes

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 3 Principle of Reverse Osmosis
2.3 Principle of brane is permeable to water, but not Figure 1 also shows that osmosis
Reverse Osmosis to salt. Then, place a salt solution can cause a rise in the height of the
in one compartment and pure water salt solution. This height will
2.3.1 in the other compartment. The increase until the pressure of the
How Reverse Osmosis Works membrane will allow water to per- column of water (salt solution) is so
meate through it to either side. But high that the force of this water
The phenomenon of osmosis occurs salt cannot pass through the mem- column stops the water flow. The
when pure water flows from a dilute brane. equilibrium point of this water
saline solution through a membrane column height in terms of water
into a higher concentrated saline As a fundamental rule of nature, this pressure against the membrane is
solution. system will try to reach equilibrium. called osmotic pressure.
That is, it will try to reach the same
The phenomenon of osmosis is concentration on both sides of the If a force is applied to this column of
illustrated in Figure 1. A semi- membrane. The only possible way water, the direction of water flow
permeable membrane is placed to reach equilibrium is for water through the membrane can be
between two compartments. “Semi- to pass from the pure water com- reversed. This is the basis of the
permeable” means that the mem- par-tment to the salt-containing term reverse osmosis. Note that this
brane is permeable to some compartment, to dilute the salt reversed flow produces a pure water
species, and not permeable to solution. from the salt solution, since the
others. Assume that this mem- membrane is not permeable to salt.
Osmosis Reverse Osmosis

Water diffuses through a semi-permeable membrane Applied pressure in excess of osmotic pressure
toward region of higher concentration to equalize reverses water flow direction. Hence the term “reverse
solution strength. Ultimate height difference between osmosis.”
columns is “osmotic” pressure.
Figure 1: Overview of Osmosis / Reverse Osmosis

2.3.2 a high saline brine, called of the element. Up to seven

How to Use concentrate or reject. A flow elements are connected together
Reverse Osmosis in Practice regulating valve, called concentrate within a pressure vessel. The
valve, controls the percentage of feedwater becomes more and more
The simplified reverse osmosis feedwater that is going to the concentrated and will enter the next
process is shown in Figure 2. concentrate stream and the element, and at last exits from the
permeate which will be obtained last element to the concentrate valve
With a high pressure pump, pres- from the feed. where the applied pressure will be
surized saline feed water is released. The permeate of each
continuously pumped to the module In the case of a spiral wound element will be collected in the
system. Within the module, module consisting of a pressure common permeate tube installed in
consisting of a pressure vessel vessel and several spiral wound the center of each spiral wound
(housing) and a membrane element, elements, pressurized water flows element and flows to a permeate
the feed water will be split into a low- into the vessel and through the collecting pipe outside of the
saline product, called permeate and channels between the spiral windings pressure vessel.
Permeate Flow ·100 Permeate Salt Concentration ·100

Recovery (%) = Salt Passage (%) =
Feed Flow Feed Salt Concentration
Salt Rejection (%) = 100 – Salt Passage
Figure 2: Reverse Osmosis Process

2.3.3 permeators is that abrasion through As for system space requirements,

Reverse Osmosis fiber-fiber contact or via fiber contact tubular modules require the most
Module Designs with trapped particles appears to space, hollow fiber and spiral
occur during RO operation. This modules require the least space.
Four basic types of RO module results in gradual fall-off of salt
designs are in commercial use: rejection with time. One specific advantage of spiral
tubular, plate-and-frame, spiral wound units is that they can be
wound, and hollow fiber modules. Below is a set of comparisons linked together into series of two to
between the four basic module seven elements within a single
The tubular and the plate-and-frame designs. Comparing their pressure vessel. Thus, up to seven
devices date back to the early days susceptibility to fouling for example, times the flow of product water can
of RO membrane technology. Both hollow fiber devices are much worse be handled with only a single set of
of these designs involve a high initial than spiral wound devices, which in plumbing connections for feed,
capital cost and a low membrane turn are much worse than tubular concentrate and permeate to a
packing density (very low for the devices and plate-and-frame pressure vessel. In the case of
tubular design). However, these devices. hollow fiber modules, each hollow
designs can operate on highly
fouling feedwaters. Thus, these
designs find use in the food industry
(examples: milk concentration for
cheese manufacture, tomato juice Comparisons of Reverse Osmosis System Types
concentration), and in concentration/
treatment of wastewaters. They System Costs:
seldom compete with spirals and Tubular, plate & frame >> hollow fiber, spiral
hollow fiber modules in desalination
and water purification applications. Flexibility in Design:
Spiral >> hollow fiber > plate & frame > tubular
The design of spiral wound elements
contains two layers of membrane Cleaning Behaviour:
glued back-to-back onto a permeate Plate & frame > tubular > spiral > hollow fiber
collector fabric (permeate channel
spacer). This membrane envelope is System Space Requirements:
wrapped around a perforated tube Tubular >> plate & frame > spiral > hollow fiber
into which the permeate empties
from the permeate channel spacer. Susceptibility to Fouling:
A plastic netting is wound into the Hollow fiber >> spiral > plate & frame > tubular
device, and maintains the
feedstream channel spacing. It also Energy Requirement:
promotes mixing of the feedstream Tubular > plate & frame > hollow fiber > spiral
to minimize concentration
polarization.
The design of a hollow fiber

permeator can package a Referring to system costs, spiral fiber unit requires installation of one
tremendous amount of membrane wound and hollow fiber systems are feedwater inlet, one concentrate
area into a small volume. The relatively equal on well water outlet, and one permeate outlet. For
difficulty in this approach, however, sources. For surface water sources, large modular systems for field
is that these fibers act almost like a pretreatment costs tend to be higher application, a significant per-
string filter. This design requires a for hollow fiber systems because of centage of the system cost will be in
high level of feedwater pretreatment their fouling potential. Tubular and the plumbing connections.
to minimize the fouling potential of plate-and-frame systems are far
the feedwater. And when they are more expensive than hollow fiber
fouled, they are very difficult to and spiral wound devices, and are
regenerate by cleaning methods. relatively cost competitive to each
Another aspect of hollow fiber other.

2.3.4 Pressure value where the osmotic pressure of

Factors Influencing With increasing effective feed the concentrate is as high as the
Reverse Osmosis Performance pressure, the permeate TDS will applied feed pressure. The salt
decrease while the permeate flux rejection will drop with increasing
Permeate Flux1 and salt rejection will increase as shown in Figure 3. recovery (see Figure 5):
are the key performance parameters
of a reverse osmosis process. They
are mainly influenced by variable
parameters which are as follows:
• pressure
• temperature
• recovery
• feed water salt concentration
Figure 3: Performance vs. Figure 5: Performance vs.
The following graphs show the Pressure Recovery
impact of each of those parameters
when the other three parameters are Temperature Feedwater Salt Concentration
kept constant. In practice, there is If the temperature increases and all Figure 6 shows the impact of the
normally an overlap of two or more other parameters are kept constant, feedwater salt concentration on the
effects. the permeate flux and the salt pas- permeate flux and the salt rejection.
sage will increase (see Figure 4).
Not to be neglected are several
main factors which cannot be seen
directly in membrane performance.
These are maintenance and
operation of the plant as well as
proper pretreatment design.
Consideration of these three
‘parameters’, which have very strong
impact on the performance of a
reverse osmosis system, is a must
for each OEM (original equipment
manufacturer) and end user of such Figure 4: Performance vs. Figure 6: Performance vs.
a system. Temperature Feedwater
Salt Concentration
Recovery
The recovery is the ratio of Table 1 shows a summary of the
permeate flow to feed flow. In the impacts influencing reverse osmosis
case of increasing recovery, the plant performance.
permeate flux will decrease and stop
if the salt concentration reaches a
Table 1: Factors Influencing Reverse Osmosis Performance

Increasing Permeate Salt
Flow Passage
Effective Pressure ↑ ↓
Temperature ↑ ↑
Recovery ↓ ↑
Feed Salt Concentration ↓ ↑
increasing ↑ decreasing ↓
1 Permeate flow through unit membrane area (in l/m2h or GFD)

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 4 FT30 Membrane Description
2.4 FT30 Membrane

Description
Composition of the FT30 membrane

The FILMTEC® FT30 thin film com-
posite reverse osmosis membrane
is made from one of the simplest
aromatic diamines: 1,3-benzene-
diamine (meta phenylene diamine).
The final chemical structure of the
membrane is believed to be as
shown in Figure 1. FT30 polyamide is cross-linked and contains carboxylate groups
Thin Film Composite Configuration FT30 membrane.
The FT30 membrane is defined as a
thin film composite membrane
consisting of three layers: a
polyester support web, a
microporous polysulfone interlayer,
and an ultra thin barrier layer on the Polyamide
top surface. A schematic diagram of
the membrane is shown in Figure 2.
Ultrathin Barrier
The major structural support is Layer
provided by the non-woven web, 0.2 µm
which has been calendered to Microporous
produce a hard, smooth surface free 40 µm Polysulfone
of loose fibers. Since the polyester
web is too irregular and porous to
120 µm
provide a proper substrate for the Polyester Support Web
salt barrier layer, a microporous
layer of engineering plastic
(polysulfone) is cast onto the
surface of the web.
Figure 2: Schematic Cross-Section of
Thin Film Composite Reverse Osmosis Membrane
The polysulfone coating is
remarkable in that it has surface
pores controlled to a diameter of
approximately 150 Angstroms. The Ultrathin Barrier Layer
FT30 barrier layer, about 2,000
Angstroms thick, can withstand high
pressures because of the support Microporous Polysulfone
provided by the polysulfone layer.
Because of its barrier layer
thickness, FT30 is very resistant to
mechanical stresses and chemical
degradation.
Figure 3 shows an SEM-photograph Polyester Support Web

of a cross-section of the FILMTEC
Figure 3: SEM Photograph of a Cross-Section of the

FILMTEC FT30 Membrane

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 5 Membrane Specifications
Figure 1: FILMTEC FT30

Membrane Structure
2.5 Membrane
Permeate Flux (l/m2h (GFD))

Specifications
Salt Rejection (%)

FILMTEC® thin film composite
reverse osmosis (RO) membranes
give excellent performance for a
wide variety of applications,
including low-pressure tapwater
use, single-pass sea water and
brackish water desalination,
chemical processing and waste
treatment. This membrane exhibits
excellent performance in terms of
flux, salt rejection, and
microbiological resistance.
FILMTEC elements can operate Pressure (bar (PSI))
over a pH range of 2 to 11, are
resistant to compaction and are Results: Permeate flux increases linearly with pressure. Salt rejection
suitable for temperatures up to reaches a plateau at about 60 l/m2h flux. Intercept at zero permeate
45°C. flux is approximate osmotic pressure of feedwater.
FILMTEC spiral wound elements Figure 1: Feedwater Pressure - Effect on FT30 Flux & Salt Rejection
have been extensively used since
1980. In numerous trials under
actual sea water conditions, FT30
elements have provided salt
rejections of better than 99.5% and
fluxes of 24 l/m2h (14 GFD). On a
0.2% salt solution at 15.5 bar (225
PSI), rejections above 98% and

fluxes of 40 l/m2h (24 GFD) are
Salt Rejection (%)

routinely obtained.
Figures 1 to 4 show the

performance of the FT30 membrane
(SW grade) vs. pressure,
temperature, feedwater pH and
feedwater salt concentration.
Typical solute rejections of FT30

membrane are shown in Table 1.
Temperature (°C)
Results: Flux increases almost linearly with temperature. Salt rejection falls
off with increasing temperature. Some hysteresis is evident in flux
curves for temperature cycles (not shown) but not in salt rejection
curves.
Figure 2: Feedwater Temperature - Effect on

FT30 Flux & Salt Rejection

Salt Rejection (%)

pH
Results: Salt rejection and flux are rather constant over a broad pH range.
Maximum salt rejection occurs at pH 8.5.
Figure 3: Feedwater pH - Effect on FT30 Flux & Salt Rejection

Salt Rejection (%)
Feed Water Salinity

(%)
Results: Permeate flux will decrease as feedwater salinity increases. Salt

rejection eventually also declines when permeate flux becomes
insufficient.
Figure 4: Feedwater Concentration -

Effect on FT30 Flux & Salt Rejection

Table 1: Typical Solute Rejections of FT30 Membrane

Rejection (%)
Solute MW BW Grade SW Grade SW HR Grade
Sodium Fluoride NaF 42 99 >99 >99
Sodium Cyanide NaCN (pH 11) 49 97 98 99
Sodium Chloride NaCl 58 99 >99 >99
Silica SiO2 (50 ppm) 60 98 99 >99
Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3 84 99 98 99
Sodium Nitrate NaNO3 85 97 96 98
Magnesium Chloride MgCl2 95 99 >99 >99
Calcium Chloride CaCl2 111 99 >99 >99
Magnesium Sulfate MgSO4 120 >99 >99 >99
Nickel Sulfate NiSO4 155 >99 >99 >99
Copper Sulfate CuSO4 160 >99 >99 >99
Formaldehyde 30 35 50 60
Methanol 32 25 35 40
Ethanol 46 70 80 85
Isopropanol 60 90 95 97
Urea 60 70 80 85
Lactic Acid (pH 2) 90 94 97 98
Lactic Acid (pH 5) 90 99 >99 >99
Glucose 180 98 99 >99
Sucrose 342 99 >99 >99
Chlorinated Pesticides (traces) - >99 >99 >99
Standard Conditions
2,000 ppm Solute, 225 PSI Feed Pressure (1,6 MPa)

Feed Temperature 77°F (25°C), Feed pH 7 (unless otherwise noted)
As a general rule, the rejection of a

solute increases from the BW grade
to the SWHR grade membrane, and
with the
• degree of dissociation
• ionic change
• molecular weight
• nonpolarity
• degree of molecular bran-
ching
of the considered chemical
compound.

FDA has approved the Food Addi- The FDA evaluates the petition for Based on the test results the
tive Petition covering the FT30 the specific biological properties of institute determined compliance with
barrier layer the component and its demonstrated the French law on drinking water,
Under the food additive provision of safety for the proposed use. The which takes into account the
the Federal Food, Drug and data and experimental methods are European Community legislation on
Cosmetic Act, contact surfaces of also evaluated for adequacy and drinking water.
components used in the production reliability. As a guideline for this Then a dossier was submitted by
of food, including water, must evaluation, the FDA uses the the petitioner to the French Health
comply with established regulations principles and procedures for Ministry including
set forth by the U.S. Food and Drug establishing the safety of food
Administration (FDA) in order to additives stated in current • the above mentioned test
receive approval for safe use. In publications of the Nation Academy results with the compliance
accordance with its long-standing of Sciences-National Research statement
commitment to quality, petitions Council.
• composition of the membrane
were submitted to the FDA for the
FILMTEC® FT30 reverse osmosis The Food Additive Petition elements with references to
membrane for evaluation and concerning both FILMTEC whether the substances used
in the manufacturing process
approval. membranes for use in processing
liquid foods and purifying water for are listed in the EC legislation
The procedure for FDA approval is food applications received FDA on plastic materials intended
to come into contact with
rigorous and thorough. First, a food approval. This approval is published
additive petition must be submitted in the Code of Federal Regulations foodstuffs
to the FDA. This petition includes under Title 21, Section 177.2550, • a description of the manufac-
information about the chemical Reverse Osmosis Membranes. The turing process
identity and composition of the FT30 reverse osmosis membrane
component and its physical, has been approved under the above • the quality control system
chemical and biological properties. procedure. The French Health • the disinfectant process for
The petitioner must also describe Ministry has approved a Petition the membrane elements
the proposed use of the component, covering the BW30 reverse osmosis
including all directions, and NF70 nanofiltration membrane
recommendations and suggestions. elements to be used in the drinking The Petition concerning the
Data must be included which water production process. FILMTEC BW30 reverse osmosis
establish that the component will and NF70 nanofiltration membrane
have the intended effect when used The membrane elements were elements for use in drinking water
in this manner. In addition, tested under the French procedure production process has been
experimental data must show the (static and dynamic conditions which approved by the French Health
extent that the component directly or simulate the real conditions) by an Ministry in an official letter dated 17
indirectly affects the safety of the independent institute in France Nov. 1992 with the reference No.
food with which it comes in contact. (Laboratoire d'Hygiene et de 2005 (NF70) and No. 2006 (BW30)
The petition must finally analyze the Recherches en Santé Publique = under the above mentioned
environmental impact of the LHRSP). approval procedure.
manufacturing process and the
ultimate use of the component.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 6 FT30 – Spiral Wound Element
2.6 FT30 – Spiral Wound

Element
2.6.1 plate and frame and hollow fiber 2.6.2

Introduction module design for most of the Spiral Wound Element
reverse osmosis applications in water Configuration
FILMTEC® membranes are thin film treatment. Typically, spiral wound
composite membranes packed in a configuration offers significantly The construction of a spiral wound
spiral wound configuration. lower replacement costs, simpler FILMTEC RO membrane element as
Spiral wound designs offer many plumbing systems, easier mainte- well as its installation in a pressure
advantages compared to other nance and greater design freedom vessel is schematically shown in
module designs, such as tubular-, than other configurations. Figure 1.
Figure 1: Construction of Spiral Wound FILMTEC RO Membrane Element

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 6 FT30 – Spiral Wound Element
2.6.3 Table 1: FILMTEC Element Types

FILMTEC Element
Element Type Diameter Permeate Flow 1 Maximum
Characteristics at Standard Operating
Test Conditions 2 Pressure
Element Types inch l/h (GPD) bar (PSI)
The FILMTEC® membrane is
classified in different types of
elements, each selected and TW30 1.5-1.8 1.6-7.9 (10-50) 8.6 (125)
optimized with respect to the 2.0-4.0 16-442 (100-2,800) 21 (300)
application and the needed 4.6 106-410 (675-2,600) 41 (600)
conditions for it. There are four
element types:
BW30 2.5-4.0-8.0 24-2240 (150-14,200) 41 (600)
• TW30 - typically used for Tap
Water
SW30 2.5-4.0-8.0 16-946 (100-6,000) 69 (1,000)
• BW30 - typically used for
Brackish Water
SW30HR 2.5-4.0-8.0 10-631 (65-4,000) 69 (1,000)
• SW30 - typically used for Sea
Water 1
Varying with different element dimensions
• SW30HR - typically used for 2
Standard Test Conditions:
Sea Water and High Rejec-
tion Feedwater Temp. Feed Pressure
°F (°C) bar (PSI)
There are several element sizes:
see Table 1. TW30 ≤ 1.8" Tapwater, 77 (25) 3.45 (50)
TDS=250 ppm
The nomenclature of the elements is TW30 ≥ 2" 2,000 ppm 77 (25) 15.5 (225)
according to Table 2. BW30 NaCl
Element Performance SW30 Sea Water, 77 (25) 55 (800)

The performance of the four types of TDS=35,000 ppm
elements is different and depends SW30HR 32,000 ppm 77 (25) 55 (800)
on applied feed pressure and used NaCl
element dimensions.
The table on the following page

shows the whole list of FILMTEC Table 2: Element Nomenclature
reverse osmosis elements with The element nomenclature for FILMTEC elements is for example as follows:
physical characteristics, operating
limits and standard conditions.
TW 30 - 40 40
Length of Element in inches
Diameter of Element, divided by 10, in inches
FT30 - Element Family
TW - Tap Water
BW - Brackish Water
SW - Sea Water
SWHR - Sea Water High Rejection
At times the membrane surface area is used in place of diameter and length
(i.e. BW30-400).

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 1 Introduction
3. Water Chemistry and Pretreatment
3.1 Introduction The proper treatment scheme for the Finally, the application often
feed water will depend on: determines the type or extent of
To increase the efficiency and life of reverse osmosis pretreatment. For
a reverse osmosis system, effective • Feed water source example, pretreatment in an
pretreatment of the feed water is electronics application might be
required. Selection of the proper • Feed water composition much more sophisticated than for a
pretreatment will maximize efficiency • Application municipal system due to the different
and membrane life by minimizing: product water quality requirements.
• Fouling The type and extent of a

pretreatment system will depend to
• Scaling a large extent on whether the feed
• Membrane degradation water source is well water or surface
water. In general, well water is a
The net result of the above will be consistent feed source which has a
the optimization of: low Silt Density Index (SDI)
(typically < 2) and low bacteria
• Product flow count. Well water typically requires a
• Salt rejection very simple pretreatment scheme
such as acid addition, inhibitor
• Product recovery addition, and a 5 µm cartridge filter.
• Operating costs
Surface water, on the other hand, is
For the purpose of this manual, a variable feed water source which
“fouling” will refer to the entrapment is affected by seasonal factors. It is
of particulates such as iron floc or also characterized by a high SDI
silt, whereas “scaling” will refer to and can have a high bacteria count.
the precipitation and deposition Pretreatment for surface water is
within the system of sparingly more elaborate than pretreatment
soluble salts such as calcium sulfate for well water. Additional
(CaSO4) or barium sulfate (BaSO4). pretreatment steps often include
polymer addition, clarification, and
Pretreatment of feed water must multimedia filtration.
involve a total system approach for
continuous and reliable operation. Once the feed water source has
For example, an improperly been determined, a complete and
designed and/or operated clarifier accurate analysis of the feed water
will result in loading the sand or should be made. The importance of
multimedia filter beyond its operating this feed water analysis cannot be
limits. Such inadequate pretreatment over emphasized. It is critical in
often necessitates frequent cleaning determining the proper pretreatment
of the elements to restore and RO system design.
productivity and salt rejection. The
cost of cleaning, downtime, and lost
system performance can be
significant.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2 Feed Water Analysis
3.2 Feed Water Analysis Table 1: “Standard Sea Water” Composition
The major water types being treated Ion Concentration (mg/l) Ion Concentration (mg/l)
by RO are:
• Low salinity brackish waters
with Total Dissolved Solids Calcium 410 Silica 0.04-8
(TDS) of up to 5,000 ppm. Magnesium 1,310 Chloride 19,700
• High salinity brackish waters Sodium 10,900 Sulfate 2,740
with TDS in the range of Potassium 390 Fluoride 1.4
5,000 - 15,000 ppm. Barium 0.05 Bromide 65
• Sea water with TDS in the Strontium 13 Nitrate < 0.7
range of 35,000 ppm. Iron < 0.02 Bicarbonate 152
Sea water with TDS of 35,000 mg/l Manganese < 0.01
is considered as “standard sea TDS 35,000 mg/l
water” as this constitutes by far the pH 8.1
largest amount of water worldwide.
The composition is nearly the same
all over the world (see Table 1). The
actual TDS content may, however,
vary within wide limits from e.g. the Table 2: Brackish Water Composition (Examples)
Baltic Sea with 7,000 mg/l to the
Red Sea and Arabian Gulf with up 1 2
to 45,000 mg/l. The actual
compositions can be proportionally Calcium mg/l 265 75
estimated from the “standard sea
Magnesium mg/l 106 9
water” composition.
Sodium mg/l 530 75
Be aware that seashore wells Potassium mg/l 14 6
depending on the soil, influx from Iron mg/l 0.19 0.5
inland, etc. can often have salinity Manganese mg/l < 0.01 0.4
and composition quite different from
that of a sample taken from the sea Barium mg/l 0.03 0.09
itself. Strontium mg/l 10 2
Ammonium mg/l < 0.1 0.4
In sea water treatment the limiting
factor is of a physical nature, i.e. the
Chloride mg/l 1,025 120
osmotic pressure caused by the
high TDS. Bicarbonate mg/l 350 220
Sulfate mg/l 540 45
In brackish water treatment the Nitrate mg/l 23 0.7
limiting factor is mostly of a
Fluoride mg/l 0.4 0.1
chemical nature, i.e. precipitation
and scale formation by e.g. calcium Phosphate mg/l <1 0.7
carbonate or sulfate. The Silica mg/l 4.1 7
composition of brackish waters is of
extremely wide variation, and a TDS mg/l 2,760 562
water analysis is a must for a good
process design. TOC mg/l 0.3 1.0
Two examples of brackish water pH 1 7.1 7.6
analysis are given in Table 2. Conductivity mS/m 430 70
Temperature °C 29 15

Before a projection of a reverse osmosis system design can be run, a complete and accurate water analysis must
be provided. A water analysis form (see Table 3) must be completed and balanced to electroneutrality, i.e., anion
and cation concentrations must be identical when stated in terms of the calcium carbonate equivalent. In case the
water analysis is not in balance we recommend adding either Na+ or Cl– in order to achieve electroneutrality.
Table 3: Water Analysis for Reverse Osmosis
Sample identification: ...............................................................................................................................................................

Feed source: ............................................................................................................................................................................
Conductivity:....................................................... pH: ................ Temperature (°C): ........................................
Feed water analysis 1: NH4+ : .................... CO2 : .....................

––
K+ : .................... CO3 : .....................
–
Na+ : .................... HCO3 : .....................
–
Mg++ : .................... NO3 : .....................
–
Ca++ : .................... Cl : .....................
–
Ba++ : .................... F : .....................
––
Sr++ : .................... SO4 : .....................
––
Fe++ : .................... PO4 : .....................
––
Fe (tot) : .................... S : .....................
Mn++ : .................... SiO2 (colloidal) : .....................
SiO2 (soluble) : .....................
Other ions:................................................................................................................................................................................
TDS (by method): .....................................................................................................................................................................

TOC: .........................................................................................................................................................................................
BOD: ........................................................................................................................................................................................
COD: ........................................................................................................................................................................................
Total alkalinity (m-value): .........................................................................................................................................................

Carbonate alkalinity (p-value): .................................................................................................................................................
Total hardness: ........................................................................................................................................................................
Turbidity (NTU):........................................................................................................................................................................
Silt density index (SDI): ............................................................................................................................................................
Bacteria (count/ml): ..................................................................................................................................................................
Free chlorine: ...........................................................................................................................................................................
Remarks: ..................................................................................................................................................................................
(odor, smell, color, biological activity, etc.:) ..................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................
Analysis by: ..............................................................................................................................................................................
Date: .........................................................................................................................................................................................
1
Please give units (mg/l as ion or ppm as CaCO3 or meq/l)

Ba++ and Sr++ must be analyzed at Another excellent guide is the

the 1 µg/l (ppb) and 1 mg/l (ppm) “German standard methods for the
level of detection respectively, examination of water, waste water
before a reverse osmosis system and sludge.”
design can be finalized. Also, if iron
is present above 0.5 mg/l (ppm) in A “Standard Guide for Water
the feed water, pretreatment must Analysis for Reverse Osmosis
be implemented to reduce it below Application” is given in ASTM
that level. Standard D4195-88 in the Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 11 –
It is important that the temperature Water. This guide is applicable to
be given as a range rather than an waters including brackish waters
absolute temperature. Temperature and sea waters. A listing of the
variation can impact the scaling relevant ASTM procedures is given
potential of a reverse osmosis in Table 4.
system, especially when silica levels
in the feed water are high.
After the reverse osmosis system is

in service, the reverse osmosis feed Table 4: ASTM Procedures Relevant to Water Analysis for
water should be analyzed on a Reverse Osmosis Application
weekly basis. If more than a 10%
increase is seen in any constituents D511 - Calcium and Magnesium
(anion or cation), particularly D512 - Chloride
detrimental ones, the new analysis
D513 - Carbon Dioxide, Bicarbonate, Carbonate
should be resubmitted to Dow or a
qualified OEM so that new operating D515 - Phosphorus
limits can be computed. D516 - Sulfate
D857 - Aluminium
If the feed water analysis shows D858 - Manganese
constant values the analysis may be
executed on a monthly basis. D859 - Silica
D888 - Dissolved Oxygen
Many standards are available for D1068 - Iron
unifying water analysis techniques. D1179 - Fluoride
As a minimum, Dow supports the
use of the Standard Methods for the D1253 - Residual Chlorine
Examination of Water and Waste D1293 - pH
Water (most recent edition) as D1428 - Potassium and Sodium by Flame Photometry
published jointly by the American D1888 - Particulate and Dissolved Matter
Public Health Association / the
D1889 - Turbidity
American Water Works Association
and the Water Pollution Control D2579 - Total and Organic Carbon
Federation (Endorsement of these D3352 - Strontium
Standards does not constitute any D3370 - Practices for Sampling Water
criticism or value judgement against
D3561 - Lithium, Potassium, Sodium by AAS
other national or professional
standards on behalf of The Dow D3867 - Nitrite - Nitrate
Chemical Company). D4189 - Silt Density Index
D4382 - Barium
F60 - Microbiological Contaminants in Water

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 3 Scale Control
3.3 Scale Control Table 1: Solubility Products of Sparingly Soluble Inorganic Compounds1
3.3.1 Substance Formula Temp. Solubility Negative

°C Product Log K
Introduction
Scaling of a reverse osmosis Aluminium Hydroxide Al(OH)3 20 1.9 x 10-33 32.7

membrane may occur when Barium Carbonate BaCO3 16 7 x 10-9 8.15
sparingly soluble salts are Barium Sulfate BaSO4 25 1.08 x 10-10 9.97
concentrated within the element Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 25 8.7 x 10-9 8.06
beyond their solubility limit. For
example, if a reverse osmosis plant Calcium Fluoride CaF2 26 3.95 x 10-11 10.61
is operated at 50% recovery, the Calcium Sulfate CaSO4 10 6.1 x 10-5 4.21
concentration in the concentrate Cupric Sulfide CuS 18 8.5 x 10-45 44.07
stream will be double the Ferric Hydroxide Fe(OH)3 18 1.1 x 10-36 35.96
concentration in the feed stream. As
Ferrous Hydroxide Fe(OH)2 18 1.64 x 10-14 13.78
the recovery of a plant is increased,
so is the risk of scaling.Therefore, Lead Carbonate PbCO3 18 3.3 x 10-14 13.48
care must be taken not to exceed Lead Fluoride PbF2 18 3.2 x 10-6 7.50
the solubility limits of slightly soluble Lead Sulfate PbSO4 18 1.06 x 10-8 7.98
salts, or precipitation and scaling
Magnesium Ammonium
may occur.
Phosphate MgNH4PO4 25 2.5 x 10-13 12.6
-5
In a reverse osmosis system the Magnesium Carbonate MgCO3 12 2.6 x 10 4.58
most common sparingly soluble Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH)2 18 1.2 x 10-11 10.92
salts encountered are CaSO4, Manganese Hydroxide Mn(OH)2 18 4 x 10-14 13.4
CaCO3 and silica. Other salts
creating a potential scaling problem Nickel Sulfide NiS 18 1.4 x 10-24 23.85
are CaF2, BaSO4 and SrSO4. Strontium Carbonate SrCO3 25 1.6 x 10-9 8.80
Solubility products of sparingly Strontium Sulfate SrSO4 17.4 2.81 x 10-7 6.55
soluble inorganic compounds are Zinc Hydroxide Zn(OH)2 20 1.8 x 10-14 13.74
listed in Table 1.
1 At zero ionic strength
In order to prevent scaling of a
reverse osmosis membrane the Sulfuric acid is easier to handle and The definitions of LSI and S&DSI
following design practices are in many countries more readily are:
possible. available than hydrochloric acid, but LSI = pH - pHS (TDS <10,000 mg/l) (2)
on the other hand, additional sulfate S&DSI = pH - pHS (TDS >10,000mg/l) (3)
3.3.2 is added to the feed stream. This
Acid Addition might be critical with respect to To control calcium carbonate scaling
sulfate scaling (sections 3.4.3 to by acid addition alone, the LSI or
Most natural surface and ground 3.4.5). S&DSI in the concentrate stream
waters are almost saturated with must be negative. If a high quality
respect to CaCO3. The solubility of In order to avoid calcium carbonate scale inhibitor is used, the LSI in the
CaCO3 depends on the pH, as can scaling, CaCO3 should tend to concentrate stream can be < 1.5.
be seen from the following equation: dissolve in the concentrate stream This will reduce or eliminate the acid
Ca++ + HCO3– ↔ H+ + CaCO3 (1) rather than to precipitate. This consumption. Many inhibitors allow
tendency can be expressed by the operation up to an LSI of < 1.8 in the
Accordingly, by adding H+ as acid, Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) for concentrate. Please refer to the in-
the equilibrium can be shifted to the brackish waters and the Stiff & Davis hibitor manufacturer’s own literature
left side in order to keep calcium Stability Index (S&DSI) for sea for reference points.
carbonate dissolved. The acid used waters. At the pH of saturation
should be of food grade quality. (pHS), the water is in equilibrium with
CaCO3.

3.3.3 Table 2: FT30 Compatible Antiscalant

Scale Inhibitor Addition
FT30 Compatible Antiscalant Supplier Minimum Concentration
in Dilution Tank
Scale inhibitors (antiscalants) can
be used to control carbonate AF 100 BF Goodrich
scaling, sulfate scaling and calcium AF 400 BF Goodrich
fluoride scaling. AF 600 BF Goodrich
Scale inhibitors have a “threshold AF 800 (60 ppm max) BF Goodrich 0.5 %
effect”, which means that minor AF 1000 BF Goodrich 5 %
amounts adsorb specifically to the ARRO-TREAT 1100 Arrowhead 5 %
surface of microcrystals thereby ARRO-TREAT 1200 Arrowhead 0.5 %
preventing further growth and ARRO-TREAT 1300 Arrowhead 5 %
precipitation of the crystals. The Betz 602 (15 ppm max) Betz 0.75 %
most widely used scale inhibitor is Betz 605 Betz 10 %
sodiumhexametaphosphate Betz 606 (36 ppm max) Betz 10 %
(SHMP). Food grade quality should COATEX EM201ASP (20 ppm max) Coatex 15 %
be used. Care has to be taken in D8062 (20 ppm max) Grace Dearborn 50 %
order to avoid hydrolysis of SHMP Dearborn 8563 Grace Dearborn
Dequest 2054 Monsanto
in the dosing feed tank. Hydrolysis
Drew 11-428 (36 ppm max) Drew 10 %
would not only decrease the scale
Drewsperse 770 Drew 10 %
inhibition efficiency, but also create
Ecolosperse Ecolochem 10 %
a calcium phosphate scaling risk.
EL 4010 Calgon
SHMP should be dosed to give a EL 5500 Calgon
concentration in the concentrate EL 5600 Calgon
stream of 20 mg/l. For example, Flocon 100 FMC
the dosage into the feed stream of Flocon 135 FMC
a system with 75% recovery will be Flocon 200 (20 ppm max) FMC 5 %
5 mg/l. Flocon 385 FMC
Polymeric organic scale inhibitors Flomate 5405 Grace Dearborn 10 %
are more effective than SHMP. Flomate 5406 (36 ppm max) Grace Dearborn 10 %
However, precipitation reactions Flomate 5407 Grace Dearborn
may occur with cationic HYPER-Sperse Argo Scientific
polyelectrolytes or multivalent IPC 5986 Chemlink 10 %
cations, e.g. aluminium or iron. The Kemazur 2120 Degremont 10 %
resulting gumlike products are very N-7295 Nalco 25 %
difficult to remove from the N-7306 Nalco 25 %
membrane elements. NALCO 2843 Nalco 10 %
Permatreat 471 Houseman 10 %
For dosage rates please contact
Permatreat 475 (36 ppm max) Houseman 10 %
the antiscalant manufacturers. POLYACRYL PT115A (20 ppm max) Polyacryl 15 %
Overdosing should be avoided. Pretreat 110 (20 ppm max) King-Lee 1 %
In RO plants operating on sea Pretreat Plus King-Lee
water with TDS in the range of Sludgex 692 Maxwell Chemicals 10 %
35,000 mg/l, scaling is not such a Sludgex 693 (36 ppm max) Maxwell Chemicals 10 %
problem as in brackish water Sodiumhexametaphosphate (SHMP) -
plants, because the recovery of SP-2946 Petrolite Ltd. 10 %
sea water plants is limited by the SP-2948 (36 ppm max) Petrolite Ltd. 10 %
osmotic pressure of the
concentrate stream to 30-45%.
However, for safety reasons we
recommend using a scale inhibitor
when operating above a recovery
of 35%.

The antiscalants listed in Table 2 With DOWEX* ion exchange resins, to 4-5. As the acidic groups of the
have been tested for at least 1,000 the removal efficiency for Ca++, Ba++ resin are carboxylic groups, the ion
hours in contact with an element at and Sr++ is > 99.5%, which usually exchange process stops when the
typical operating conditions without eliminates any risk of carbonate or pH reaches a value of 4.2, where
any negative effect on the membrane. sulfate scaling. the carboxylic groups are no longer
They can be considered compatible dissociated. Therefore, it is only a
with FILMTEC® membranes up to Softening with a strong acid cation partial softening. Only those scale
50 ppm concentration in the exchange resin is very effective and forming cations are removed which
concentrate (unless otherwise safe, provided the regeneration is are bound to bicarbonate. Therefore,
stated). The efficacy of these done properly. this process is ideal for waters with a
products has not been tested. high bicarbonate content. The
RO permeate should be used when It is used mainly in small or medium bicarbonate is converted into carbon
diluting the antiscalant. Calcium size brackish water plants, but not in dioxide:
present in untreated water may form sea water plants. HCO3– + H+ ↔ H2O + CO2 (4)
a precipitate with the antiscalant at
high antiscalant concentrations. A drawback of this process is its In most cases, carbon dioxide is not
Precautions must also be taken so relatively high sodium chloride desired in the permeate. It can be
that there is no microbiological consumption, which might cause an removed by degassing either in the
growth in the antiscalant dilution environmental or an economic permeate or in the feed stream.
tank. In order for the biocide present problem. With DOWEX*
in the antiscalant to be effective, the MONOSPHERE* ion exchange Degassing the permeate is favored
antiscalant must not be diluted more resins and a countercurrent where a potential for biofouling is
than indicated in Table 2. Cationic regeneration technique, for example suspected (surface waters, high
polymers (e.g. polyelectrolytes) may UPCORE*, it is possible to minimize TOC, high bacteria counts). A high
coprecipitate with negatively the sodium chloride consumption to CO2 concentration on the mem-
charged antiscalants and foul the 110% of the stoichiometrical value. branes helps to keep bacteria
membrane. Make certain that no growth low. Degassing the feed is
significant amounts of cationic 3.3.5 preferred when optimum salt
polymers are present when adding Dealkalization with a Weak Acid rejection is the priority. Removing
an anionic antiscalant. Cation Exchange Resin CO2 also leads to an increase in pH
(see equation (4)), and at pH > 6 the
3.3.4 Dealkalization with a weak acid rejection is better than at pH < 5.
Softening with a Strong Acid cation exchange resin is used
Cation Exchange Resin mainly in large brackish water plants
for partial softening in order to
The scale forming cations such as minimize the consumption of
Ca++, Ba++, Sr++ are removed and regeneration chemicals.
replaced by sodium cations. The
resin has to be regenerated with In this process, only Ca++, Ba++ and
NaCl at hardness breakthrough. The Sr++ linked to bicarbonate (temporary
pH of the feed water is not changed hardness) are removed and re-
by this treatment. Therefore, no placed by H+, thus lowering the pH
degassifier is needed. Only a little
CO2 from the raw water is present
that can pass into the permeate
creating a conductivity increase
there. One can even lower the
permeate con-ductivity by adding
some NaOH to the softened feed
water (up to pH 8.2) in order to
convert residual carbon dioxide into
bicarbonate which is then rejected
by the membrane. The rejection
perfor-mance of the FT30
membrane is optimal at the neutral
pH range.

The advantages of dealkalizing with cyclic pH variation makes it With lime softening, barium,
a weak acid cation exchange resin difficult to control the salt strontium and organic substances
are: rejection of the plant. At pH are also reduced significantly. The
• For regeneration, acid of not < 4.2, the passage of mineral process requires a reactor with a
more than 105% of the acid may increase the per- high concentration of precipitated
stoichiometrical value is meate TDS. It is therefore particles serving as crystallization
needed. This minimizes the recommended to use more nuclei. This is usually achieved by
operating costs and the than one filter in parallel and upflow solids-contact clarifiers. The
environmental impact. to regenerate them at diffe- effluent from this process needs
rent times in order to level out media filtration and pH adjustment
• The TDS value of the water is the pH. Other possibilities to prior to the RO elements. Iron
reduced by the removal of
avoid extremely low pH valu- coagulants with or without polymeric
bicarbonate salts. According- es are CO2 removal or pH flocculants (anionic and non-ionic)
ly, the permeate TDS value is adjustment by NaOH after- may be used to improve the solid-
also lower.
wards. liquid separation.
The disadvantages are: Lime softening should be

3.3.6 considered for brackish water plants
• Residual hardness.
Lime Softening larger than 200 m3/h (880 gpm).
If a complete softening is More details are described in the
required, a sodium exchange Lime softening can be used to literature 1) 2) 3).
process with a strong acid remove carbonate hardness by
cation exchange resin can be adding hydrated lime: 3.3.7
added, even in one vessel. Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2 Preventive Cleaning
The overall consumption of
regeneration chemicals is still CaCO3 + 2 H2O
In some applications, scaling is
lower than softening with a (5)
strong acid cation exchange controlled by preventive membrane
Mg(HCO3)2 + 2 Ca cleaning. This allows the system to
resin alone. Due to the higher
(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 + 2 run without softening or dosage of
investment costs however,
this combination will only be chemicals. Typically, those systems
CaCO3 + 2H2O operate at low recovery in the range
attractive for plants with high
(6) of 25%, and the membrane
capacity.
elements are replaced after 1-2
Another possibility to overco- The noncarbonate calcium hardness years. Accordingly, those systems
me this drawback of incom- can be further reduced by adding are mainly small single-element
plete sodium carbonate (soda ash): plants for potable water from tap
softening is to dose an antis- water or sea water. The simplest
calant into the dealkalized CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → 2 way of cleaning is a forward flush at
water. Al-though we have so NaCl + CaCO3 low pressure by opening the
far never encountered scaling (7) concentrate valve. Short cleaning
problems with waters dealka- intervals are more effective than
lized by weak acid cation The lime-soda ash process can also long cleaning times, e.g. 30 seconds
exchange alone, we strongly be used to reduce the silica every 30 minutes.
recommend to calculate the concentration. When sodium
solubilities of the residual aluminate and ferric chloride are Cleaning can also be carried out
sparingly soluble salts and to added, the precipitate will include with cleaning chemicals as
take the respective measu- calcium carbonate and a complex described in Section 8. In batch
res. with silicic acid, aluminium oxide processes like in waste water
and iron. treatment it is common practice to
• Variable pH of the treated clean the membranes after every
water. With the hot lime silicic acid removal batch.
process at 60-70°C, silica can be
The pH of the dealkalized
reduced to 1 mg/l by adding a
water ranges from 3.5 to 6.5
mixture of lime and porous
depending on the degree of
magnesium oxide.
exhaustion of the resin. This

The cleaning procedure, cleaning

chemicals and the frequency of
cleaning, has to be determined and
optimized case by case. Special
care has to be taken not to allow a
scaling layer to develop in the
course of time.
3.3.8
Adjustment of
Operating Variables
When other scale control methods

do not work, the operating variables
of the plant have to be adjusted in
such a way that scaling will not
occur. The precipitation of dissolved
salts can be avoided by keeping
their concentration below the
solubility limit, that means by
reducing the system recovery until
the concentrate concentration is low
enough.
Solubility depends also on

temperature and pH. In the case of
silica, increasing temperature and
pH increases its solubility (see
Section 3.4.7). Silica is usually the
only reason for considering
adjustment of operating variables as
a scale control method, because
these adjustments have economic
drawbacks (energy consumption) or
other scaling risks (CaCO3 at high
pH).
For small systems, a low recovery

combined with a preventive cleaning
program might be a convenient way
to control scaling.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 4 Scaling Calculations
3.4 Scaling Calculations The solubility product Ksp is Calculation example of the ionic
generally also expressed in molal strength of the concentrate (Ic):
3.4.1 concentrations and is dependent on
General ionic strength and temperature as
shown in the Figures of this section Feed Water Analysis
Scaling calculations have to be 3.4.
mg/l mol/l (mol/kg)
carried out in order to determine
whether a sparingly soluble salt The temperature in the concentrate
presents a potential scaling problem stream is about the same as in the Ca++ 200 5.0 x 10–3
in a reverse osmosis system. The feed stream. Mg++ 61 2.51 x 10–3
calculation procedures described in Na+ 388 16.9 x 10–3
Section 3.4, Scaling Calculations, The ionic strength of the feed water HCO3– 244 4.0 x 10–3
are adapted from the corresponding is:
SO4– – 480 5.0 x 10–3
ASTM Standards, cited in the Cl– 635 17.9 x 10–3
If = 1 ∑ (mi x
zi2) (3)
References. To determine the 2
scaling potential, one has to The ionic strength If of the feed
compare the ion product IPc of the where:
water is
considered salt in the concentrate If = 1 / 2 ([Ca++] + [Mg++] + [SO4– –])
stream, with the solubility product mi = molal concentration of
ion i (mol/kg) x 4 + ([Na+] + [HCO3–] + [Cl–])
Ksp of that salt under conditions in
the concentrate stream. Generally, if zi = ionic charge of ion i = 1 / 2 ((5.0 + 2.51 + 5.0) x 10–3
IPc < Ksp, no scale control measures x 4 + (16.9 + 4.0 + 17.9) x 10–3)
have to be taken. Where the water analysis is not
given in molal (or molar) If = 0.0444
The ion product IP of a salt AmBn is concentrations, the conversion is as
defined as follows: With a recovery of, for example,
IP = [A]m[B]n (1) ci 75% (Y=0.75), the ionic strength of
mi = ————— (4) the concentrate becomes
1,000 MWi 1
with [A] and [B] being the molal
concentrations of the corresponding where: 1 - 0.75
ions. For the concentration ranges ci = concentration of ion i,
in mg/l Ic = 0.178
present in RO applications, molal
concentrations (mol/kg) can be MWi = molecular weight of ion i
considered equivalent with molar
concentrations (mol/l). Having calculated the ionic strength
If of the feed stream with equation
The concentration of ion species in (3), the ionic strength Ic of the
the concentrate stream is usually concentrate stream is obtained from:
not known, but can easily be 1
Ic = If x —— (5)
estimated from the concentration in 1-Y
the feed stream by multiplication
with the concentration factor CF.
The concentration factor is derived With the ionic strength of the
concentrate stream, the solubility
from the recovery Y (expressed as a
decimal): product Ksp of scaling salt can be
CF = 1 / (1 - Y) (2) obtained (see the following
sections).

3.4.2 d. Calculate the free carbon dioxide LSIc > 1 is possible with
Calcium Carbonate content (C) in the concentrate approved polymeric
Scale Prevention stream by assuming that the CO2 organic scale
concentration in the concentrate inhibitors. For the
3.4.2.1 Brackish Water is equal to the CO2 concentration maximum LSIc and
For brackish waters with TDS < in the feed: Cc = Cf. The required dosages,
10,000 mg/l in the concentrate concentration of free carbon please refer to the
stream, the Langelier Saturation dioxide in the feed solution is scale inhibitor
Index (LSI) is used to express the obtained from Figure 1 as a manufacturer’s
scaling potential for calcium function of the alkalinity and the literature.
carbonate. pH of the feed solution. If the LSIc is not within above
conditions, adjustments can be
The following data are needed to e. Calculate the pH of the made by one of the following means.
calculate the LSI of the concentrate concentrate stream (pHc) using A new LSIc can then be calculated.
stream (LSIc): the ratio of alkalinity Alkc to free
a. The recovery (Y) can be lowered
CO2 in the concentrate, Figure 1.
and the LSIc can be calculated as
Caf = Calcium concentration in feed, above by substituting a new
as CaCO3, mg/l f. From Figure 2 obtain: pCa as a
value for the recovery.
function of Cac, pAlk as a
TDSf= Concentration of total dissolved function of Alkc, “C” as a function b. Decreasing the calcium
solids in the feed, mg/l of TDSc and temperature concentration in the feed solution
(temperature of concentrate is by means of sodium cycle ion
Alkf = Alkalinity in feed, as CaCO3, assumed equal to temperature of exchange. This will increase the
mg/l
feed solution). pCa and will therefore decrease
pHf = pH of the feed solution the LSIc. Softening will not
g. Calculate pH at which change the alkalinity or pH of the
T = Temperature of the feed solution concentrate stream is saturated feed solution and the slight
Y = Recovery of the reverse osmosis with CaCO3 (pHs) as follows: change in TDSf may be
system, expressed as a decimal
pHs = pCa + pAlk + “C” (9) considered negligible. After
softening, the LSIc can be
h. Calculate the Langelier calculated as above using the
Calculation Saturation Index of the lower value for calcium
a. Calculate the calcium concen- concentrate (LSIc) as follows: concentration.
tration in the concentrate stream, LSIc = pHc – pHs (10)
Cac , as CaCO3 in mg/l: c. Adding acid (HCl, CO2, H2SO4,
etc.) to the feed solution changes
1 Adjustments of LSIc
Cac = Caf x —— (6) In most natural waters, the LSIc the Alkf, Cf and pH. The slight
1-Y change in TDSf can usually be
would be positive without
neglected. Acid addition will
pretreatment. To control CaCO3
b. Calculate the total dissolved solids scaling, the LSIc has to be adjusted decrease the LSIc; however,
in the concentrate stream, TDSc in since many variables change
to a negative value, except if adding
mg/l: with acidification, trial and error
scale inhibitor (Section 3.3.3) or
preventive cleaning (Section 3.3.7) computations are required to
1 determine the amount of acid
TDSc = TDSf x —— (7) is applied.
1-Y needed to obtain the desired
The conditions for CaCO3 scale LSIc. The number of trial and
c. Calculate the alkalinity in the error computations required to
control are:
concentrate stream, Alkc , as determine the amount of acid
LSIc < 0 when no antiscalant is
CaCO3 in mg/l: added needed can be reduced greatly
by using the pHs calculated in Eq
1 LSIc ≤ 1.0 when 20 mg/l sodium
Alkc = Alkf x —— (8) 9. Since pHc will usually be 0.5
hexametaphosphate
1-Y is in the concentrate units higher than the pHf, the first
computation can be made with
stream
an acidified feed solution which
is 0.5 unit lower than the pHs.

c1. For an assumed pH (pHacid), Reverse Osmosis in Operation

obtained from addition of acid to Once a reverse osmosis system is
the feed solution, obtain the ratio operating, the Langelier Saturation
of Alkacid /Cacid from Fig. 1. From Index can be directly calculated
this ratio, Alk f , and Cf calculate from the analysis of Alkc , Cac , TDSc
the milligrams per liter of acid and pHc of the concentrate stream
used (x). For example, for H2SO4 and compared with the projected
addition (100%): LSIc.
Alkacid Alkf – 1.02x
Use of Computers
——— = —————— (11)
The LSIc and the acid dosage
Cacid Cf + 0.90x
required to adjust a certain LSIc can
be determined using a personal
c2. Calculate the total alkalinity of
computer and the FILMTEC®
the acidified feedwater (Alkacid)
Reverse Osmosis System Analysis
and the CO2 content in the
(ROSA) computer program. Please
acidified feedwater (Cacid ) as
refer to the Computer Program
follows:
Manual.
Alkacid = Alk f – 1.02x (12)
Cacid = Cf + 0.90x (13)
c3. Using Alkacid and Cacid for the

new pH, calculate the LSIc.
c4. If HCl (100%) is used for acidifi-
cation, the Eq 6 is:
Alkacid Alkf – 1.37y
——— = —————— (14)
Cacid Cf + 1.21y
where: y = HCl (100%), mg/l.

Figure 1: pH versus Methyl Orange Alkalinity / Free CO2

April 1995
Example:
Temperature = 30°
pH = 8.0
FILMTEC
Ca Hardness = 120 mg/l

M Alkalinity = 100 mg/l
Total Solids = 210 mg/l
pCa = 2.92
pAlk = 2.70
"C" at 30°C = 2.05
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
SUM = pHs = 7.67

Actual pH = 8.00
Difference = +0.33
\ LSI = +0.33
Technical Manual
4Scaling Calculations
Water Chemistry and Pretreatment
Figure 2: Langelier Saturation Index
Page 14
3.4.2.2 Sea Water f. Calculate the pH at which the a. The recovery can be lowered and
For high salinity brackish waters with concentrate stream is saturated the S&DSIc can be calculated as
TDS > 10,000 mg/l in the with CaCO3 (pHs) as follows: above by substituting a new value
concentrate stream and for sea pHs = pCa + pAlk + “K” for the recovery.
waters, the Stiff & Davis Stability b. Decreasing the calcium and
Index (S&DSI) is used to express g. Calculate the free carbon dioxide alkalinity concentrations in the
the scaling potential for calcium content (C) in the concentrate feed solution by means of lime or
carbonate. The data needed to stream by assuming that the CO2 lime-soda ash softening will
calculate the S&DSI of the concentration in the concentrate increase the pCa and pAlk and
concentrate stream are the same as is equal to the CO2 concentration will therefore decrease the pHs.
those needed to calculate the LSI in the feed: Cc = Cf. The c. Addition of acid (HCl, CO2, H2SO4,
(see previous section). Additionally, concentration of free carbon etc.) to the feed solution either
the molal concentrations of all ions dioxide in the feed solution is with or without lime or lime-soda
in the feed solution are required, at obtained from Fig. 1 as a function ash softening changes the Alkf, Cf
least of all major ions, that is, Ca++, of the alkalinity and the pH of the and pH. The slight change in If
Mg++, Na+, K+, HCO3–, SO4– – and Cl–. feed solution. can usually be ignored. Acid
addition will decrease the S&DSIc;
Calculation h. Calculate the pH of the however, since many variables
a. Calculate the calcium concentrate stream (pHc) using change with acidification, trial and
concentration in the concentrate the ratio of alkalinity (from Eq. 8) error computations are required to
stream, Cac, as CaCO3 in mg/l: to free CO2 in the concentrate determine the amount of acid
(from g), Fig. 1. needed to obtain the desired
1 S&DSIc.
Cac = Caf x —— (6)
1-Y i. Calculate the Stiff and Davis These computations have been
Stability Index of the concentrate described already in the previous
b. Calculate the alkalinity in the (S&DSIc) as follows: section (3.4.2.1 Brackish Water).
concentrate stream, Alkc, as S&DSIc = pHc – pHs For sea water systems, a dosage
CaCO3 in mg/l: of typically 10 mg/l sulfuric acid is
Adjustments of S&DSIc required to achieve a pHf of about
1 The S&DSIc in the concentrate 7 and a negative S&DSI in the
Alkc = Alk f x —— (8)
1-Y stream would be positive with most concentrate.
natural high salinity waters. In order
c. Calculate the ionic strength of the to prevent CaCO3 precipitation and Reverse Osmosis in Operation
feed stream (If): scaling, the S&DSIc has to be Once a reverse osmosis system is
adjusted to a negative value. The operating, the S&DSIc can be
1 S&DSIc may be positive however, if directly calculated from the analysis
CaCO3 precipitation is prevented by of Alkc, Cac, pHc and Ic of the
2 the dosage of an approved scale concentrate stream and compared
inhibitor (see Section 4.3.3). For the with the projected S&DSIc.
d. Calculate the ionic strength of the maximum allowed S&DSIc and the
concentrate stream (Ic): required dosage, please refer to the
1 scale inhibitor manufacturer’s
Ic = If x —— (5) literature.
1-Y
If the S&DSIc is unacceptable based
e. From Figure 3, obtain pCa as a on the above recommendation, ad-
function of Cac and pAlk as a justments can be made by one of
function of Alkc. From Figure 4, the following means. A new S&DSIc
obtain the constant “K” as a can then be calculated.
function of concentrate ionic
strength and feed temperature.

Figure 3: Conversion of Calcium and Alkalinity to pCa and pAlk

Figure 4: “K” versus Ionic Strength and Temperature

3.4.3 Adjustments for

Calcium Sulfate CaSO4 Scale Control
Scale Prevention a. If the IPc for CaSO4 is less than
0.8 Ksp, a higher recovery can be
For the determination of the calcium used with respect to CaSO4
sulfate scaling potential, a complete scaling. Reiteration of the
feed water analysis is required. calculations at higher recovery
can be used to determine the
Calculation maximum conversion with respect
a. Calculate the ionic strength of the to CaSO4 scaling.
concentrate stream (Ic) following b. If the IPc for CaSO4 is greater
the procedure described in than 0.8 Ksp, a lower recovery
Section 4.4.1: must be used to prevent scaling.
1 Reiteration of the calculations at
Ic = If x —— (5) lower recovery can be used to
1-Y determine the allowable recovery
with respect to CaSO4 scaling.
b. Calculate the ion product (IPc) for c. If the maximum allowable
CaSO4 in the concentrate stream: recovery is lower than desired,
1 1 strong acid cation exchange resin
––
IPc = [( mCa++)f x —– ] x [( mSO4 )f x —– ] softening (Section 3.3.4) or weak
1-Y 1-Y acid cation exchange resin
dealkalization (Section 3.3.5) can
where: be used to remove all or part of
(mCa++)f = M Ca++ in feed, mol/l the Ca++. This will permit higher
(mSO4– –)f = M SO4– – in feed, mol/l recovery of the reverse osmosis
system with respect to CaSO4
scaling.
c. Compare IPc for CaSO4 with the d. Lime softening with lime or lime
solubility product (Ksp) of CaSO4 plus soda ash (see Section 3.3.6)
at the ionic strength of the will decrease the Ca++
concentrate stream, Figure 5. If concentration and thus permit
IPc ≥ Ksp, CaSO4 scaling can higher recovery with respect to
occur, and adjustment is required. scaling by CaSO4.
For a safe and conservative e. Addition of a scale inhibitor to the
pretreatment design, adjustment feed stream permits operation of
should be made if IPc > 0.8 Ksp. the reverse osmosis system
above the Ksp value. When an
Calculation Example (continued approved and adequate scale
from page 4.4 page 1): inhibitor is added according to the
a. Ic = 0.178 scale inhibitor manufacturer’s
instructions, the IPc for CaSO4
b. IPc = (5 x 10–3 x 4) x (5 x 10–3 x 4) must be less than 2.0 Ksp.
= 4 x 10–4 When sodium hexameta-
c. K sp = 4.4 x 10–4 (from Figure 5) phosphate is used as a scale
inhibitor, the limitation is:
IPc ≤ 1.0 x 10–3 and
IPc = 0.9 Ksp , therefore adjustments IPc ≤ 1.5 Ksp.
are required.

Ionic S trength
Figure 5: Ksp for CaSO4 versus Ionic Strength 20)
Ksp for CaSO4 at 25°C (77°F)

3.4.4 Adjustments for When an adequate scale inhibitor is

Barium Sulfate Scale BaSO4 Scale Control used, the limitation is:
Prevention The adjustments discussed in IPc ≤ 50 Ksp
Section 3.4.3 for CaSO4 scale
Barium sulfate is the most insoluble control apply as well for BaSO4 3.4.6
of all alkaline-earth sulfates. When scale control. Calcium Fluoride
present in water, it may lead to When an adequate scale inhibitor is Scale Prevention
massive precipitations, possibly used, the limitation is:
acting as a catalyst for calcium IPc ≤ 50 Ksp Fluoride levels in the feed water of
sulfate and strontium sulfate scaling. as low as 0.1 mg/l can create a
3.4.5 scaling potential, if the calcium
In most natural waters, barium is Strontium Sulfate concentration is high. The
present at a level that would cause Scale Prevention calculation of the scaling potential is
barium sulfate precipitation in the analogous to the procedure
concentrate stream. The critical feed Calculation described in Section 3.4.3 for
concentration of barium may be as Prediction of SrSO4 scaling potential CaSO4.
low as < 15 µg/l in sea waters, is performed in the same way as the
< 5 µg/l in brackish waters or even previously described procedure for Calculation
< 2 µg/l if sulfuric acid is dosed to CaSO4: a. Calculate the ionic strength of the
brackish waters. a. Calculate the ionic strength of the concentrate stream (Ic) following
concentrate stream (Ic) following the procedure described in
Calculation the procedure described in Section 3.4.1:
Prediction of BaSO4 scaling potential Section 3.4.1: 1
is performed in the same way as the 1 Ic = If x —— (5)
previously described procedure for Ic = If x —— (5) 1-Y
CaSO4. 1-Y
a. Calculate the ionic strength of the b. Calculate the ion product (IPc) for
concentrate stream (Ic) following b. Calculate the ion product (IPc) for CaF2 in the concentrate stream:
the procedure described in SrSO4 in the concentrate stream: 1 1
–
Section 3.4.1: m ++
1 –– 1 IPc = [(mCa++)f x —– ] x [ (mF )f x —– ]2
IPc = [( Sr )f x —–] x [(mSO4 )f x —–]
1 1-Y 1-Y 1-Y 1-Y
Ic = If x —— (5)
1-Y where:
where:
(mCa++)f = M Ca++ in feed, mol/l
b. Calculate the ion product (IPc) for (mSr++)f = M Sr++ in feed, mol/l
(mF –)f = M F – in feed, mol/l
BaSO4 in the concentrate stream: (mSO4– –)f = M SO4– – in feed, mol/l
1 1 c. Compare IPc for CaF2 with the
IPc = [(mBa++)f x
––
—–] x [(mSO4 )f x —– ] c. Compare IPc for SrSO4 with the
solubility product (Ksp) of CaF2 at
1-Y 1-Y solubility product (Ksp) of SrSO4
the ionic strength of the
at the ionic strength of the
concentrate stream, Figure 8. If
where: concentrate stream, Figure 7.
IPc ≥ Ksp, CaF2 scaling can occur,
(mBa++)f = M Ba++ in feed, mol/l If IPc ≥ 0.8 Ksp, SrSO4 scaling can
and adjustment is required.
(mSO4– –)f = M SO4– – in feed, mol/l occur, and adjustment is required.
Adjustments for
c. Compare IPc for BaSO4 with the Adjustments for
CaF2 Scale Control
solubility product (Ksp) of BaSO4 SrSO4 Scale Control
The adjustments discussed in
at the ionic strength of the The adjustments discussed in
Section 3.4.3 for CaSO4 scale
concentrate stream, Figure 6. If Section 3.4.3 for CaSO4 scale
control apply for SrSO4 scale control control apply as well for CaF2 scale
IPc ≥ Ksp, BaSO4 scaling can control.
occur, and adjustment is required. as well.
When an adequate scale inhibitor is
used, the limitation is:

Figure 6: Ksp for BaSO4 versus Ionic Strength 21)
Ksp for BaSO4 at 25°C (77°F)

Figure 7: Ksp for SrSO4 versus Ionic Strength 21)
Ksp for SrSO4 at 25°C (77°F)

Figure 8: Ksp for CaF2 versus Ionic Strength
Ksp for CaF2 at 25°C (77°F)

IPc ≤ 100 Ksp from the SiO2 concentration in the required.

3.4.7 feed solution and the recovery of Adjustments for Scale
Silica Scale Prevention the reverse osmosis system: Control
1 a. If SiO2c is less than SiO2corr., a
Dissolved silica (SiO2) is naturally SiO2c = SiO2f x —— higher recovery can be used with
1-Y respect to scaling by silica.
present in most feedwaters in the
range of 1-100 mg/l. Super- where: Reiteration of the calculations at
saturated, SiO2 can polymerize to higher recovery can be used to
SiO2c = silica concentration in determine the maximum
form insoluble colloidal silica or concentrate as SiO2, mg/l
silica gel, which can cause conversion with respect to scaling
membrane scaling. The maximum SiO2f = silica concentration in by silica.
allowable SiO2 concentration in the feed as SiO2, mg/l
concentrate stream is based on the Y = recovery of the reverse b. If SiO2c is greater than SiO2corr., a
solubility of SiO2. osmosis system, lower recovery must be used to
expressed as a decimal prevent scaling. Reiteration of the
The scaling potential for the calculations can be used to
concentrate stream will be quite b. Calculate the pH of the concen- determine the allowable recovery
different from that of the feed trate stream from the pH of the with respect to scaling by silica.
solution, because of the increase in feed stream using the procedure
the concentration of SiO2, and the given in Section 3.4.2, Calcium c. If the maximum allowable
change in pH. It can be calculated Carbonate Scale Prevention. recovery is lower than desired,
from the feed water analysis and c. From Figure 9, obtain the lime plus soda ash softening
the reverse osmosis operating solubility of SiO2 as a function of employing either magnesium
parameters. temperature (SiO2 temp.). oxide or sodium aluminate can be
Note: Temperature of the used in the pretreatment system
The presence of certain metals, for concentrate is assumed equal to to decrease the SiO2
example, Al3+, may significantly alter temperature of feed solution. If concentration in the feed stream
the solubility of SiO2 via formation of the temperature of the water is (see Section 3.3.6) and thus
insoluble metal silicates. The known to vary, use the minimum permit higher conversion with
occurrence of silica scaling is mostly temperature for calculations. respect to scaling by silica. It is
correlated with the occurrence of important that the softening
aluminium or iron. Therefore, if a d. From Figure 10, obtain the pH process be performed properly in
silica scaling potential exists, the correction factor for the order to prevent formation of
absence of aluminium and iron must concentrate pH calculated in b. insoluble metal silicates in the
be ensured. We recommend 1 µm reverse osmosis system.
cartridge filtration and preventive e. Calculate the solubility of SiO2
acid cleanings in this case. corrected for pH (SiO2corr.) by d. Since the solubility of silica
multiplying the solubility of SiO2 increases below a pH of about
The calculation of the silica scaling obtained in c. by the pH 7.0 and above a pH of about 7.8,
potential requires the following data correction factor obtained in d. pH adjustment with either acid or
of the feed solution (after acid base can permit a higher
f. Compare the silica concentration recovery with respect to silica
addition, if acid is used for control of in the concentrate (SiO2c)
calcium carbonate): scaling. However, for the high
obtained in a. with the silica pH, CaCO3 scaling must be
solubility (SiO2corr.) obtained in e. prevented.
• SiO2 concentration Once a reverse osmosis system
• Temperature is operating, the scaling potential e. The maximum allowable recovery
of SiO2 can be directly calculated with respect to silica scaling can
• pH from the analysis of the con- be increased significantly by
• Total alkalinity centrate stream and compared increasing the water temperature
with the projected scaling poten- using a heat exchanger. The
Calculation tial calculated above. If SiO2c is
a. The SiO2 concentration in the maximum temperature permitted
greater than SiO2corr., silica scaling
concentrate stream is calculated can occur and adjustment is

Figure 9: Solubility of SiO2 versus Temperature 19)
SiO2temp. ,mg/l as SiO2

pH of RO Concentrate
SiO2 pH Correction Factor 22)

Figure 10:
pH Correction Factor

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 5 Colloidal Fouling Prevention
for continuous use is 45°C. foul the membrane. Figure 1 shows the equipment
3.5 Colloidal Fouling The best available technology for needed to measure SDI.
Prevention determining the colloidal fouling
potential of reverse osmosis feed Procedure
3.5.1 water is the measurement of the Silt a. Place the membrane filter on its
Introduction Density Index (SDI), sometimes support, bleed water pressure on
referred to as the Fouling Index (FI). carefully, tighten the O-ring seal
Colloidal fouling of reverse osmosis This is an important measurement and fix the support vertically.
elements can seriously impair to be carried out prior to designing
performance by lowering productivity an RO pretreatment system and on b. Adjust feed pressure to 2.1 bar
and sometimes salt rejection. An a regular basis during RO operation (30 PSI) and measure initial time,
early sign of colloidal fouling is often (three times a day is a recommended tO, necessary to filter 500 ml of
an increased pressure differential frequency for surface waters). sample water (feed pressure to
across the system. be kept constant by continuous
The Standard Test Method has been adjustment).
The source of silt or colloids in described in ASTM test D 4189-82.
reverse osmosis feed waters is c. Keep filter in operation for 15
varied and often includes bacteria, Equipment minutes under 2.1 bar (30 PSI)
clay, colloidal silica, and iron (Available from Millipore feed pressure.
corrosion products. Pretreatment Corporation)
chemicals used in a clarifier such as • 47 mm diameter membrane d. After 15 minutes measure again
alum, ferric chloride, or cationic filter support time, t1, necessary to filter 500 ml.
polyelectrolytes can also cause Membrane filter should be kept
• 47 mm diameter membrane
colloidal fouling if not removed in the for further analysis.
filters (0.45 µm pore size)
clarifier or through proper media
filtration. In addition, cationic • 1 to 5 bar (10-70 PSI) mano- e. Calculation:
polymers may coprecipitate with meter tO 100
negatively charged antiscalants and SDI = [ 1 – — ] x ——
• needle valve for pressure t1 15
adjustment
When t1 is four times as long as t0,
the resulting SDI is 5. A water
sample that totally blocks the
membrane filter has an SDI value
TOGGLE or BALL VALE of 6.7.
The guideline is to maintain SDI

at less than or equal to 5. A
number of pretreatment
PRESSURE REGULATOR technologies have proven
effective in SDI reduction
including media filtration (such as
sand/anthracite), ultrafiltration,
cross flow microfiltration.
PRESSURE Polyelectrolyte addition ahead of
filtration sometimes improves SDI
GAUGE reduction.
FILTER HOLDER Methods to prevent colloidal fouling

are outlined in the following
chapters.
Figure 1: Apparatus for Measuring the Silt Density Index

3.5.2 The available pressure is usually Iron fouling occurs more frequently
Media Filtration about 5 m of head for gravity filters, than manganese fouling, since the
and 2 bar (30 PSI) to more than 4 oxidation of iron occurs at a much
The removal of suspended and bar (60 PSI) for pressure filters. lower pH. Thus a fouling problem
colloidal particles by media filtration can be created even if the SDI is
During operation, influent water to below 5, and the level of iron in the
is based on their deposition on the
be filtered enters at the top of the RO feed water is below 0.1 mg/l.
surface of filter grains, while the
filter, percolates through the filter Waters with low alkalinity usually
water flows through a bed of these
bed, and is drawn off through the have higher iron concentrations than
grains (filter media). The quality of
collector system at the bottom. waters with high alkalinity, because
the filtrate depends on the size,
Periodically, when the differential the Fe2+ concentration is usually
surface charge and geometry of
pressure increase between the inlet limited by the solubility of FeCO3.
both suspended solids and filter
and outlet of the filter is 0.3 to 0.6
media, as well as on the water
bar (4 to 9 PSI) for the pressure One method of handling such waters
analysis and operational
filter, and about 1.4 m for the gravity is to prevent the exposure to air or to
parameters. With a well designed
filter, the filter is backwashed and any oxidizing agent, e.g. chlorine,
and operated filter, a SDI<5 can
rinsed to carry away the deposited through the whole RO process. A
usually be achieved.
matter. Backwash time is normally low pH is favorable to retard Fe2+
The most common filter media in about 10 min. oxidation. At pH < 6 and oxygen
water treatment are sand and < 0.5 mg/l, the maximum permissible
anthracite. The effective grain size Frequent shut-downs and start-ups Fe2+ concentration is 4 mg/l.
for fine sand filter is in the range of should be avoided, because each
0.35 to 0.5 mm, and 0.7 to 0.8 mm filter velocity increase will release The other way is to deliberately
for anthracite filter. In comparison to previously deposited particulate oxidize iron and manganese by air,
single sand filter media, dual filter matter. Cl2 or KMnO4. The formed
media with anthracite over sand hydroxides can then be removed by
Design and operational details of media filtration. Colloidal sulfur as
permit more penetration of the media filtration are available in the
suspended matter into the filter bed, formed from hydrogen sulfide
literature 1) 2). however, may be difficult to remove.
thus resulting in more efficient
filtration and longer runs between 3.5.3 Oxidation and filtration can be
cleaning. Oxidation – Filtration accomplished in one step by using a
filter media with the ability to oxidize
The design depth of the filter media Fe2+ by electron transfer.
is normally about 0.8 m (31 inches) Some well waters, usually brackish
minimum. In the dual filter media, waters, are in a reduced state. Greensand is such a granular
the filters are usually filled with 0.5 Typical for these waters is the medium, which is a green (when
m (20 inches) of sand covered with absence of oxygen and the dry) mineral glauconite. It can be
0.3 m (12 inches) of anthracite. presence of divalent iron and regenerated with KMnO4 when its
manganese, sometimes also of oxidizing capability is exhausted.
There are two types of filters hydrogen sulfide and ammonium.
employed, gravity and pressure After the regeneration, the residual
filters. As the filter vessel for If such a water has been chlorinated KMnO4 has to be thoroughly rinsed
pressure filtration is designed for and then dechlorinated, or has taken out in order to avoid an oxidation
pressurization, a higher pressure up more than 5 mg/l of oxygen, Fe2+ damage of the membranes. This
drop can be applied for higher filter is converted into Fe3+, which forms technique is used when < 2 mg/l
beds and/or smaller filter grains and/ insoluble colloidal hydroxide Fe2+ is present in the raw water. For
or higher filtration velocities. particles. The oxidation of iron and higher Fe2+ concentrations, KMnO4
manganese is given by: can be continuously dosed into the
The design filtration flow rates are inlet stream of the filter. In this case
usually 10-20 m/h, and the backwash however, measures have to be
4 Fe(HCO3)2 + O2 + 2H2O
rates are in the range of 40-50 m/h. taken to assure that no perman-
→ 4 Fe(OH)3 + 8 CO2 ganate can reach the membranes,
For feedwaters with a high fouling
potential, flow rates of less than for example by installation of a
4 Mn(HCO3)2 + O2 + 2H2O carbon filter (see Section 3.6.4,
10m/h and/or second pass media
filtration is preferred. → 4 Mn(OH)3 + 8 CO2 Dechlorination).

Birm filtration has also been used To strengthen the hydroxide micro- membrane. If so, the result at
effectively for Fe2+ removal from RO flocs and thereby improving their brackish water conditions could be
feed water. Since with birm a pH filterability, and/or to bridge the col- different from that at sea water
increase and consequently a shift in loidal particles together, flocculants conditions. To minimise the risk of
the LSI value might occur, care can be used in combination with direct or indirect interference with
should be taken to avoid CaCO3 coagulants or alone. Flocculants the RO membrane, anionic or
precipitation in the filter and in the are soluble high molecular mass nonionic flocculants are preferred
RO system. organic compounds, e.g. linear rather than cationic ones.
polyacrylamides. Through different Overdosing must be avoided.
3.5.4 active groups, they may be posi-
In-Line Filtration tively charged (cationic), negatively 3.5.5
charged (anionic), or close to neutral Coagulation – Flocculation
The efficiency of media filtration to (non-ionic).
reduce the SDI value can be marked- For raw waters containing high
ly improved if the colloids in the raw Coagulants and flocculants may concentrations of suspended matter
water are coagulated and/or floc- interfere with an RO membrane resulting in a high SDI, the classic
culated prior to filtration. In-line directly or indirectly. Indirect coagulation – flocculation process is
filtration can be applied to raw interference occurs when the preferred. The hydroxide flocs are
waters with an SDI only slightly compound forms a precipitate which allowed to grow and to settle in
above 5. is deposited on the membrane. For specifically designed reaction
example, channelling of the media chambers. The hydroxide sludge is
The method, also named in-line filter may enable flocs to pass removed, and the supernatant water
coagulation or in-line coagulation- through and deposit on the is further treated by media filtration.
flocculation, is described in ASTM membrane. A precipitate can also be
Standard D 4188. A coagulant is formed when concentrating the For the coagulation – flocculation
injected into the raw water stream, treated feedwater, such as when process, either a solids-contact type
effectively mixed, and the formed aluminium or ferric coagulants are clarifier (see also Section 3.3.6) or a
microflocs are immediately removed added without subsequently compact coagulation – flocculation
by media filtration. lowering pH to avoid supersaturation reactor may be used. For details,
in the RO stage. Furthermore, please refer to the general water
Ferric sulfate and ferric chloride are reaction with a compound added treatment textbooks 1) 2).
used to destabilize the negative after the media filter can cause a
surface charge of the colloids and to precipitate to form. This is most
entrap them into the freshly formed noticeable with antiscalants. Nearly 3.5.6
ferric hydroxide microflocs. all antiscalants are negatively Crossflow
Aluminium coagulants are also charged and will react with cationic Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration
effective, but not recommended coagulants or flocculants present in
because of possible fouling the water. Several RO plants have Crossflow filtration through a
problems with residual aluminium. been heavily fouled by a gel formed microfiltration (MF) or ultrafiltration
by reaction between cationic (UF) membrane removes virtually all
Rapid dispersion and mixing of the polyelectrolytes and antiscalants. suspended matter and, in the case
coagulant is extremely important. An of ultrafiltration, also dissolved
in-line static mixer or injection on the Direct interference occurs when the organic compounds depending on
suction side of a booster pump is compound itself affects the their molecular mass and on the
recommended. The optimum membrane resulting in a flux loss. molecular mass cutoff of the
dosage is usually in the range of 10 The ionic strength of the water may membrane. Hence, an SDI < 1 can
to 30 mg/l, but should be have an effect on the interference of be achieved with a well-designed
determined case by case. the coagulant or flocculant with the and properly maintained

microfiltration or ultrafiltration The cartridge filter should be made aluminium that otherwise could foul
system. The fouling problem, now of a synthetic nondegradable the membranes. Softened water is
transferred from the RO membrane material; e.g. nylon or polypropylene also known to exhibit a lower fouling
to the MF or UF membrane, has to and equipped with a pressure gauge tendency than unsoftened water,
be handled by this system. At the to indicate the differential pressure because multivalent cations promote
same time, a high MF/UF system drop and thereby indicating the the adhesion of naturally occurring
recovery and a high specific per- extent of its fouling. Regular colloids, which are usually
meate flow is requested for inspections of used cartridges negatively charged.
economic reasons. These objectives provide useful information regarding
are usually achieved by periodic fouling risks and cleaning Backflushable fine filters may be
cleanings, either a forward flush or requirements. used upstream of the cartridge filters
preferably a backflush. If a chlorine If the differential pressure across the to protect these. They are however,
resistant membrane material is filter increases rapidly, it is an no substitute for disposable
used, e.g. polysulfone or a ceramic indication of possible problems in cartridges.
membrane, chlorine can be added to the raw water supply or in the
the wash water in order to prevent pretreatment process. The filter 3.5.9
biological fouling. provides some degree of short-term Design and
A review on microfiltration and ultrafil- protection for the membranes while Operational Considerations
tration processes is given by Porter 5). corrective action is taking place.
Replacing cartridge filters more The prevention of colloidal fouling is
3.5.7 often than every 1 to 3 months not only a matter of the proper
Cartridge Microfiltration usually indicates a problem with the pretreatment technique, but also of
A cartridge filter with a pore size of pretreatment. However, the cartridge the system design and operation. As
less than 10 µm is the minimum filter is not meant to be a major an extreme example, a surface
pretreatment required for every RO component for the removal of high water could be pretreated by
system. It is a safety device to amounts of filterable solids. This coagulation - flocculation and
protect the membranes and the high would not only be an inefficient use ultrafiltration. The RO system could
pressure pump from suspended of rather expensive filters, but would then operate with a high permeate
particles. Usually it is the last step of probably lead to premature failure of flux, and almost no cleaning would
a pretreatment sequence. We the membrane system due to the be required. If the same water
recommend to use a pore size of high probability that some of the however, would just be cartridge
5 µm or less. The better the unwanted material will break filtered, then the RO system would
prefiltration is, the less cleaning of through. It may be considered need much more membrane area,
the RO membranes is required. however, to use upstream a second and the membranes would require
When the silica concentration in the cartridge with larger pore size. frequent cleaning and maintenance.
concentrate stream exceeds the A poor pretreatment can be
theoretical solubility (see Section partially compensated by adding
3.5.8 more membrane area and modifying
3.4.7), cartridge filtration with 1 µm Other Methods
pore size is recommended in order the system (see Section 5), and by
to minimise the interaction with iron more frequent and/or harsh clean-
Other methods to prevent colloidal ing. On the other hand, improving
and aluminium colloids. fouling than those described in the
The filter should be sized on a flow the pretreatment means savings in
previous chapters also exist. membrane costs.
rate according to the manufacturer’s Lime softening has already been
recommendation, and replaced described as a method for silica
before the pressure drop has removal (Section 3.3.6). Removal of
increased to the permitted limit, but iron and colloidal matter are further
latest after 3 months. Backflushable benefits.
filters are not recommended
because of their lower efficiency and Strong acid cation exchange resin
higher biofouling risk. softening does not only remove
hardness, but also low
concentrations of iron and

In order to minimize the pretreat-

ment effort and/or improve the feed
water quality, the best available raw
water quality should be used. The
intake of surface water, including
sea water is of paramount impor-
tance. A contamination of the raw
water with waste water effluent may
cause serious problems in the RO
plant. A deep well close to the shore
or the river is preferred. If an open
intake is required, it should be
located well away from the shore
and some meters below the water
surface.
New wells often release suspended

matter in the first days of operation.
Care must be taken that wells are
properly rinsed out.
Fouling by iron oxide is also a

common problem. It can be avoided
by selecting non-corrosive materials
(see Section 4.13).

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 6 Biological Fouling Prevention
3.6 Biological Fouling

Prevention
3.6.1 biofouling are discussed in the 3.6.2.2 Direct Bacteria Count

Introduction following sections. Direct count techniques employ
filtration of the water sample
All raw waters contain microorga- and counting the retained micro-
nisms: bacteria, algae, fungi, viruses organisms on the filter plate directly
and higher organisms. The typical under a microscope. To make the
size of bacteria is 1 to 3 µm. 3.6.2 microorganisms visible, they are
Microorganisms can be regarded as Assessment of the Biological stained with acridine orange and
colloidal matter and removed by the Fouling Potential viewed with an epi-illuminated
pretreatment as discussed in fluorescent microscope,6).
Section 3.5. The difference from 3.6.2.1 Culture Techniques
dead particles however, is their The concentration of bacteria in Thus an accurate count of total
ability to reproduce and form a water is directly related to the microorganisms is obtained
biofilm under favorable water’s biological fouling potential. immediately. The types of micro-
living conditions. The Total Bacteria Count (TBC) is a organisms can be assessed and
quantitative expression of the total differentiated from debris particles.
Microorganisms entering an RO number of viable microorganisms in Living and dead cells, however,
system find a large membrane a water sample. It is determined cannot be differentiated. This can be
surface where the dissolved organic according to ASTM F60 by filtering a accomplished by the INT1 technique,
nutrients of the water are concen- measured quantity of water through where the INT stain is reduced and
trated (due to concentration polari- a membrane filter. Subsequently, accumulated only by living cells.
zation): an ideal environment for the the organisms thus retained on the Those can be readily distinguished
formation of a biofilm. Biological filter surface are cultured on the from dead cells with phase
fouling of the membranes may proper nutrient medium to develop microscopy,7).
seriously affect the performance of colonies, which are then observed
the RO system. The symptoms are and counted at low power Direct count methods should be
an increase of the differential magnification. preferred, because they are much
pressure from feed to concentrate, faster and more accurate than
finally leading to telescoping and The main advantage of this method culture techniques.
mechanical damage of the mem- is that it can be easily performed
brane elements (see Section 9.4.3, without expensive equipment. The 3.6.2.3 Biofilm Monitoring
High Differential Pressure), and a test results however, are only avail- The concentrations of micro-
membrane flux decline. Sometimes able after up to seven days, and the organisms in raw water, in the feed
biofouling develops even on the counted colonies may represent as stream and in the concentrate
permeate side, thus contaminating little as 1-10 % of the actual number stream are important numbers to
the product water. of living microorganisms. Neverthe- assess the biological fouling
less, culture techniques are still potential. However, other factors like
A biofilm is difficult to remove, be- valuable as indicators of the level the concentration and the kind of
cause it protects its microorganisms and the trend of the biological nutrients, and operating parameters
against the action of shear forces fouling potential. can also determine the development
and disinfection chemicals. In of a biofilm. The formation of
addition, incompletely removed They can be applied to monitor the biofilms is being studied by several
biofilms lead to a rapid regrowth. water quality from the intake through researchers, but not yet fully
the subsequent treatment steps up understood 8). The best method to
Biological fouling prevention is to the concentrate stream and the detect biofouling in its early stage is
therefore a major objective of the permeate. to observe a test surface in the feed
pretreatment process. The potential stream. The “Robbin sampler” is a
for biological fouling is higher with An increase of the TBC in the simple device to expose small test
surface water than with well water. concentrate stream is an indication surfaces to a water stream (details:
The assessment of this potential of a biofilm development on the see12)). These surface samples can
and the possible measures against membranes. be removed and examined for
attached bacteria on a regular basis.
1
INT = 2-(p-iodophenyl)-3-(p-nitrophenyl)-5-phenyl tetrazolium chloride

A careful and periodic inspection of Chlorination as RO pretreatment is The germicidal efficiency of free
the cartridge filters and the interior usually applied where biological residual chlorine is directly related
of the feed and brine piping is also fouling prevention is required, i.e. to the concentration of undis-
helpful. The presence of slime or typically for surface waters. Chlorine sociated HOCl. Hypochlorous acid
odor is an indication for biofouling. is added at the intake, and a is 100 times more effective than the
reaction time of 20-30 min. should hypochlorite ion OCl–. The fraction
be allowed. A free residual chlorine of undissociated HOCl increases
concentration of 0.5-1.0 mg/l should with decreasing pH.
3.6.2.4 Other Methods be maintained through the whole
The bacterial growth potential of a pretreatment line. Dechlorination At pH = 7.5 (25°C, TDS = 40 mg/l),
given water sample can be upstream of the membranes is only 50% of free residual chlorine
assessed with the Werner method 9). required however, to protect the is present as HOCl, but 90% at
The sample is filter-sterilized, and membranes from oxidation (see pH = 6.5. The fraction of HOCl also
an inorganic sterile nutrient salt Section 4.6.4, Dechlorination). increases with decreasing
solution is then added. Then, the temperature. At 5°C, the HOCl mole
sample is inoculated with a specific Chlorination chemistry fraction is 62% (pH = 7.5, TDS =
volume of a suspension of bacteria Chlorine is most commonly 40 mg/l). In high salinity waters, less
washed from the sterilizing filter. available as chlorine gas and the HOCl is present (30% at pH 7.5,
The growth rate of the bacteria can hypochlorites of sodium and 25°C, 40,000 mg/l TDS).
be quantified from a turbidity calcium. In water, they hydrolyze
increase as measured by forward instantaneously to hypochlorous Chlorine demand
light scattering. acid: A part of the chlorine dosage reacts
Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + HCl (1) with ammonia nitrogen to combined
Other techniques measure the NaOCl + H2O → HOCl + NaOH (2) available chlorine in a series of
assimilable organic carbon or the Ca(OCl)2 + 2 H2O → 2 HOCl + Ca(OH)2 (3) stepwise reactions:
biodegradable organic carbon. The HOCl + NH3 ↔
various methods have been Hypochlorous acid dissociates in NH2Cl (monochloramine) + H2O (6)
reviewed by Huck 10). water to hydrogen ions and HOCl + NH2Cl ↔
hypochlorite ions: NHCl2 (dichloramine) + H2O (7)
HOCl ↔ H+ + OCl– (4)
HOCl + NHCl2 ↔
3.6.3 Chlorination NCl3 (trichloramine) + H2O (8)
The sum of Cl2, NaOCl, Ca(OCl)2,
Chlorine (Cl2) has been used for HOCl and OCl– is referred to as free
many years to treat municipal and These reactions are governed
available chlorine (FAC) or free primarily by pH and chlorine-to-
industrial water and wastewaters as residual chlorine (FRC), given as
a disinfectant, because of its nitrogen weight ratio. Chloramine
mg/l Cl2. As discussed later, also has a germicidal effect, albeit
capacity to inactivate most chloramines are formed from the
pathogenic microorganisms quickly. lower than that of chlorine.
reaction of chlorine with ammonia Another part of the chlorine is con-
The effectiveness of chlorine is compounds present in the water.
dependent on the chlorine verted to nonavailable chlorine. This
These chlorine-ammonia com- chlorine demand is caused by the
concentration, time of exposure and pounds are referred to as combined
the pH of the water. Chlorine is used reaction with reducing agents such
available chlorine (CAC) or as nitrite, cyanide, sulfide, ferrous
for the disinfection of potable water combined residual chlorine (CRC).
where a residual chlorine iron and manganese. Chlorine is
The sum of free and combined also consumed by the oxidation of
concentration near 0.5 mg/l is available/residual chlorine is called
commonly used. In an industrial organic compounds present in the
the total residual chlorine (TRC). water.
water treatment scheme, fouling of
water intake lines, heat exchangers, TRC = FAC + CAC = FRC + CRC (5)
sand filters, etc., may be prevented
by maintaining a free residual
chlorine concentration of 0.5-1.0
mg/l or higher, dependent on the
organic content of the incoming
water.

To determine the optimum chlorine 3.6.4 Residual free chlorine can be reduced
dosage, best point of injection, pH Dechlorination to harmless chlorides by activated
and contact time to prevent bio- carbon or chemical reducing agents.
fouling, the ASTM method D 1291, When FILMTEC® FT30 membrane
“Standard Practice for Determining is used in the reverse osmosis An activated carbon bed is very
Chlorine Requirement of Water”, process, the RO feed must be effective in dechlorination of RO
should be applied on a represen- dechlorinated to prevent oxidation of feed water according to following
tative water sample. For further the membrane. FT30 membrane reaction:
details, the Handbook of Chlori- has some chlorine tolerance before C + 2 Cl2 + 2 H2O → 4 HCl + CO2 (11)
nation11) is recommended. noticeable loss of salt rejection is
observed. Eventual degradation Sodium Metabisulfite (SMBS) is
Sea water may occur after approximately 200- most common for removal of free
The major difference of sea water 1,000 hours of exposure to one mg/l chlorine and as a biostatic. Other
chlorination chemistry in contrast to of free chlorine (200-1,000 ppm-h chemical reducing agents exist, e.g.
brackish water is the presence of tolerance). The rate of chlorine sulfur dioxide, but have not yet been
bromide in sea water in concen- attack depends on various proven cost-competitive with SMBS.
trations of typically 65 mg/l. Bromide feedwater characteristics. Under
reacts rapidly with hypochlorous alkaline pH conditions, chlorine When dissolved in water, sodium
acid to hypobromous acid: attack is faster than at neutral or bisulfite (SBS) is formed from
Br – + HOCl → HOBr + Cl– (9) acidic pH. An acidic pH is anyhow SMBS:
preferred for a better biocidal effect Na2S2O5 + H2O → 2 NaHSO3 (12)
Thus, in chlorinated sea water the during chlorination. Chlorine attack
biocide is predominantly HOBr is also faster at higher SBS is then reducing hypochlorous
rather than HOCl. concentrations of heavy metals (e.g. acid according to:
iron), which catalyze membrane NaHSO3 + HOCl → HCl + NaHSO4 (13)
Hypobromous acid then dissociates degradation, and at higher
to hypobromite ions as follows: In theory, 1.34 mg of sodium
temperatures.
HOBr ↔ OBr – + H+ (10) metabisulfite will remove 1.0 mg of
By comparison, some other free chlorine. In practice however,
HOBr dissociation is less than HOCl polyamide RO membranes have 3.0 mg of sodium metabisulfite is
dissociation. At pH 8, where only essentially zero chlorine tolerance. normally used to remove 1.0 mg of
28% of HOCl is undissociated, about The superior chlorine tolerance of chlorine.
83% of HOBr is undissociated. In the FT30 membrane can be
other words, effective disinfection attributed to the thicker barrier layer Solid sodium metabisulfite has a
can be performed at a higher pH (about 2,000 Angstrom) and the fact usual shelf life of 4-6 months under
than in brackish water, where no that the polyamide is crosslinked. If cool, dry storage conditions.
bromide is present. dechlorination upsets occur in a However, in aqueous solutions,
FT30 RO system, and if corrected in sodium bisulfite can oxidize readily
Both hypobromous acid and a timely manner, membrane when exposed to air. A typical
hypobromite ions interfere with free damage can be minimized. solution life can vary with
residual chlorine measurements and concentration as follows:
are included in the free residual For chloramine the tolerance of the
chlorine value. FT30 membrane is 300,000 ppm-h, Solution Maximum
which implies that dechlorination is (wt.%) Solution Life
The reactions of HOBr with other not required. However, since 2 3 days
compounds of the water are ana- chloramines are formed by adding 10 1 week
logous to the reactions of HOCl. ammonia to chlorine, it is possible
20 1 month
Bromamines and brominated that free chlorine will be present.
Since this free chlorine can be 30 6 months
compounds are the reaction
products. damaging to the membrane,
dechlorination should still be
considered. The SMBS should be of food grade
quality and free of impurities. SMBS
should not be cobalt-activated.

Although the dechlorination itself is Bisulfite is more effective against from a chlorine-resistant material to
rapid, good mixing is required to en- aerobic bacteria than against an- withstand periodic sanitation.
sure completion; static mixers are aerobic microorganisms. Therefore,
recommended. The injection point is the efficiency of the shock treatment Copper sulfate can also be used to
preferably downstream of the cart- should be carefully assessed using control the biogrowth. Typically,
ridge filters in order to have these the techniques described in Section copper sulfate is fed continuously at
protected by chlorine. In this case, 3.6.2. 0.1 to 0.5 mg/l concentrations. The
the SMBS solution should be filtered generalized use of copper sulfate is
through a separate cartridge before however, not recommended due to
being injected into the RO feed. the following:
Dechlorinated water must not be 3.6.6 • Commercial CuSO4 may
stored in tanks. Sanitation contain some impurities
detrimental to the RO
The absence of chlorine should Instead of continuously adding a membranes.
be monitored using an oxidation- biocide to the raw water, biofouling
reduction potential (ORP) electrode • CuCO3 and Cu(OH)2 tend to
can be controlled by periodic sanita- precipitate outside of a given
downstream of the mixing line. The tions of the system. This is usually pH range of operation, cau-
electrode signal shuts down the high practiced in medium risk applica-
pressure pump when chlorine is sing fouling to RO devices,
tions. In high risk applications, and making CuSO4 inef-
detected. sanitations may be an additional fective.
measure to a continuous biocide
dosing. • Copper ions can have nega-
tive effects on the environ-
3.6.5 Preventive sanitations are much ment.
Shock Treatment more effective than corrective • CuSO4 only works properly
disinfections, because single
Shock treatment is the addition of a against a limited range of
attached bacteria are easier to kill microorganisms (e.g. some
biocide into the feed stream during and remove than a thick, aged
normal plant operation for a limited algae) but has only a margi-
biofilm.
time period. Sodium bisulfite is the nal effect on most bacteria.
most commonly used biocide for this Typical sanitation intervals are one • Environmental protection
purpose. In a typical application, per month, but they can be as short standards of several countries
500-1,000 mg/l NaHSO3 are dosed as one per day, depending on the limit the discharge amount of
for 30 minutes. feed water quality (e.g. waste water) Cu salts, making it difficult to
or the permeate quality required change dosage of this chemi-
The sodium metabisulfite should be (e.g. pharmaceutical grade water). cal if the biolife situation of a
food grade, free of impurities and The membrane life however, may be given plant requires it.
not cobalt-activated. The treatment shortened by extensive sanitations,
can be carried out on a periodic depending on the type of chemical Ozone is an even stronger oxidizing
basis, e.g. every 24 hours, or only (see Section 7.7, Disinfecting RO agent than chlorine. However, it
when biogrowth is suspected. The Systems). decomposes readily. A certain
efficiency of such treatment should ozone level must be maintained to
be studied. The permeate produced kill all microorganisms. The
during dosage will contain 1-4% of resistance of the materials of
the bisulfite feed concentration. 3.6.7 construction against ozone has to be
Depending on the permeate quality Other Methods considered. Usually, stainless steel
requirements, the permeate can be is employed. De-ozonation must be
used or discarded during shock Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration offers performed carefully to protect the
treatment. advantages in that it can remove membranes. Ultraviolet
microorganisms and especially algae, irradiation has been used success-
which are sometimes very difficult to fully for this purpose.
remove by standard techniques. The
MF/UF membranes should be made

Ultraviolet irradiation at 254 nm is The strategy of promoting biological

known to have a germicidal effect. growth in a restricted place where it
Its application has come into use is of no harm to the membranes,
especially for small-scale plants. No rather than trying to kill all micro-
chemicals are added, and the organisms, might be a good ap-
equipment needs little attention proach to control biofouling of the
other than periodic cleanings or membranes. However, there is little
replacement of the mercury vapor practical experience to date.
lamps. UV treatment is limited
however, to relatively clean waters, 3.6.8
because colloids and organic matter Pretreatment Design
reduce the penetration of the and Operation
radiation.
To prevent biological fouling of the
Sodium bisulfite concentrations in membranes, the entire system from
the range of up to 50 mg/l in the the raw water intake up to the
feed stream of sea water RO plants membranes has to be kept clean
have proven effective to control and in a sanitary state. Please refer
biological fouling. Colloidal fouling to section 6.8, Control of Micro-
has also been reduced by this biological Activity, for more details.
method. As a side benefit, no acid is
required for calcium carbonate
control because of the acidic
reaction of bisulfite:
HSO3– → H+ + SO3– – (14)
Granular activated carbon (GAC)

filtration as pretreatment method is
known to be a risk of releasing
bacteria which might cause
biofouling of the membranes. The
high inner surface of the carbon
pores together with adsorbed
organic nutrients promote biological
activity in the filter. However, when
such filters are operated at
sufficiently low filter velocities
(2-10 m/h) and with sufficiently high
beds (2-3 m), all the biolife activity
takes place in the upper region
of the filter bed, and the filtered
water is almost free of bacteria and
nutrients. This technique is widely
used in public water works, where
the biological activity of the carbon
filter is further enhanced by
ozonation of the feed, 1).

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 7&8

Prevention of Fouling by Organics
Prevention of Membrane Degradation
3.7 Prevention of 3.8 Prevention of

Fouling by Organics Membrane Degradation
Adsorption of organic substances on Apart from the fouling potential of

the membrane surface causes flux certain substances in the RO feed
loss, which is irreversible in serious water, the chemical resistance of
cases. The adsorption process is the FT30 membrane element
favored with high molecular mass against such substances has to be
compounds when these are taken into account. As a rule of
hydrophobic or positively charged. A thumb, all oxidizing agents can
high pH value helps to prevent harm the membrane and must be
fouling, because both the membrane removed by methods described in
and many organic substances Section 3.6.4. The membrane
assume a negative charge at pH element is stable against most other
> 9. Organics present as an chemicals in a pH range of 2-11 as
emulsion may form an organic film long as these chemicals are
on the membrane surface, and must dissolved and not occurring as an
therefore be removed in the organic phase.
pretreatment.
Organics occurring in natural waters

are usually humic substances in
concentrations between 0.5 and
20 mg/l TOC. Pretreatment should
be considered when TOC exceeds
3 mg/l. Humic substances can be
removed by a coagulation process
with hydroxide flocs (Sections 3.5.4
and 3.5.5), by ultrafiltration (Section
3.5.6), or adsorption on activated
carbon.
Coagulation or activated carbon must

also be applied when oils (hydro-
carbons or silicone-based) and
greases are contaminating the RO
feed water at levels above 0.1 mg/l.
These substances are readily
adsorbed onto the membrane
surface. They can be cleaned off
however, with alkaline cleaning
agents if the flux has not declined by
more than 15%.
In waste water applications, the

rejection and concentration of
organics is a major objective.
Depending on the kind of
substances, organics even in the
percent concentration range can be
handled. This has to be evaluated in
field tests on a case-by-case basis.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 9 Summary of Pretreatment Options
3.9 Summary of Pretreatment Options
Table 1 summarizes the pretreatment options when specific risks for scaling and fouling are present. It is a quick
reference for “possible” and “very effective” methods. The combination of “possible” methods may also be “very
effective”.
Table 1
Pretreatment CaCO 3 CaSO 4 BaSO 4 SrSO 4 CaF 2 SiO 2 SDI Fe Al Bacte- Oxid. Org.
ria Agents Matter
Acid Addition ● ❍
Scale Inhibitor ❍ ● ● ● ● ❍
Softening with IX ● ● ● ● ●
Dealkalization with IX ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍
Lime Softening ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍
Preventive Cleaning ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍
Adjustment of ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ●
Operation Parameter
Media Filtration ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍
Oxidation-Filtration ❍ ●
In-Line-Coagulation ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍
Coagulation-Flocculation ❍ ● ❍ ❍ ●
Micro-/ Ultrafiltration ● ● ❍ ❍ ❍ ●
Cartridge Filter ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍ ❍
Chlorination ●
Dechlorination ●
Shock Treatment ❍
Preventive Disinfection ❍
GAC Filtration ❍ ● ●
❍ Possible ● Very effective

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 10 References
3.10 References
1) Water Quality and Treatment, 4th Edition, Prepared by the American Water Works Association, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New
York, 1990.
2) Water Treatment Handbook, Degremont Company, 6th Ed 1991.
3) Water Manual, Deutsche Babcock Anlagen Aktiengesellschaft, Chapter 4.2.8, 1982.
4) Moller, J.K.: Development of a New Membrane Filtration System. Proceedings - Fifth World Filtration Congress, Societe
Francaise de Filtration, Nice, France, June 1990.
5) Handbook of Industrial Membrane Technology, Ed.: Porter, M.C., Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, New Jersey, U.S.A.
(1990).
6) Hobbie, J.E.; Daley, R.J.; Jasper, S.: Appl. Environ, Microbiol., 33 (1976), 1225.
7) Zimmermann, R.; Iturriaga, R.; Becker-Birk, J.: Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 36 (1978) 926.
8) Biofilms. Ed.: Characklis, W.G.; Marshall, K.C.; John Wiley & Sons Inc. (1990).
9) Werner, P.: Eine Methode zur Bestimmung der Verkeimungsneigung von Trinkwasser. Vom Wasser 65 (1985) 257.
10) Huck, P.M.: Measurement of Biodegradable Organic Matter and Bacterial Growth Potential in Drinking Water. J.
AWWA, July 1990, 78-86.
11) White, G.C.: Handbook of Chlorination. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York (2nd ed., 1986).
12) Mittelman, M.C.; Geesey, G.G. (eds): Biological Fouling of Industrial Water Systems - A Problem Solving Approach.
Water Micro Associates, San Diego, CA (1987).
13) ASTM D4188-82: Standard Practice for Performing Pressure In-Line Coagulation-Flocculation-Filtration Test.
14) ASTM D1291-81: Standard Practice for Determining Chlorine Requirement of Water.
15) ASTM D3739-88: Standard Practice for Calculation and Adjustment of the Langelier Saturation Index for Reverse
Osmosis.
16) ASTM D4582-86: Standard Practice for Calculation and Adjustment of the Stiff and Davis Stability Index for Reverse
Osmosis.
17) ASTM D4195-88: Standard Guide for Water Analysis for Reverse Osmosis Application.
18) ASTM D4692-87: Standard Practice for Calculation and Adjustment of Sulfate Scaling Salts (CaSO4, SrSO4, and
BaSO4) for Reverse Osmosis.
19) ASTM D4993-89: Standard Practice for Calculation and Adjustment of Silica (SiO2) Scaling for Reverse Osmosis.
20) Marshall, W.L. and Slusher, R., “Solubility to 200°C of Sulfate and its Hydrates in Sea Water and Saline Water
Concentrates and Temperature, Concentration Limits,” Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data, Vol 13, No. 1, 1968,
p. 83.
21) Davis, J.W. and Collins, A.G., “Solubility of Barium and Strontium Sulfates in Strong Electrolyte Solutions,”
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol 5, No. 10, 1971, p. 1039.
22) Alexander, G.B., Hester, W.M., Iler, R.K., “The Solubility of Amorphous Silica in Water”, Journal of Physical Chemistry,
58, 1954, p. 453.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS

4. System Design
4.1 Introduction sea water desalination, the limit of materials at the membrane surface
35-45% recovery is dictated by the increases with increasing permeate
An entire RO water desalination osmotic pressure of the concentrate flux and increasing element
system consists of the pretreatment stream, because the physical limit of recovery 2. A system designed with
section, the desalination section, and the FILMTEC® Sea Water Element is high permeate flux rates is therefore
the posttreatment section. reached at 69 bar (1,000 PSI). likely to experience higher fouling
Pretreatment techniques are Obtaining the requested salt rejec- rates and more frequent chemical
discussed in Section 3. tion is mainly a matter of membrane cleaning.
Posttreatment is employed to selection. The BW (Brackish Water), The Silt Density Index (SDI) value of
achieve the required product quality. SW (Sea Water), and SWHR (Sea the pretreated feed water correlates
In sea water desalination this is Water High Rejection) versions of the fairly well with the amount of fouling
usually pH adjustment, rehardening FT30 membrane have higher salt material present.
and disinfection. In ultrapure water rejections in this order, but they also Only experience can set the limits on
production, the permeate is usually need higher feed pressures under permeate flux and element recovery
posttreated by polishing ion same conditions. Therefore, the for different types of waters.
exchange demineralization. FT30 BW membrane is typically When designing a membrane system
In this section, the desalination applied to feed waters up to 5,000 for a specific feed water, it is
system is addressed. It includes a mg/l TDS, FT30 SW from 5,000 to advantageous to know the
set of membrane elements, housed 15,000 mg/l, and FT30 SWHR from performance of other membrane
in pressure vessels which are 15,000 to 45,000 mg/l. For given systems operating on the same
arranged in a certain manner. A high operating conditions, the permeate water. However, quite often there are
pressure pump is used to feed the quality can be calculated (see no other membrane systems to
pressure vessels. Instrumentation, Section 4.11, System Performance compare with; and then the system
spare parts and tools for services are Projection). design guidelines (Table 1) should be
added as required. A cleaning-in- The feed pressure needed to followed.
place (CIP) system facilitates the produce the required permeate flow These guidelines are based on the
cleaning of the membranes. This is depends, for a given membrane, on assumption of a continuous process
described in Section 7. The the designed permeate flux 1. The with a welldesigned and operated
desalination system is a complete higher the permeate flow per unit of pretreatment system, and about four
plant with an inlet for feed water and active membrane area, the higher the cleanings per year. Exceeding the
outlets for permeate and feed pressure. recommended limits will result in
concentrate. RO system perfor- While in sea water systems the more frequent cleanings and a
mance is typically characterized by permeate flux is relatively low even reduced membrane life.
two parameters, permeate (or at maximum allowed pressure, the
product) flow and salt rejection. permeate flux could be very high Further information required to
These should always be referenced in brackish water systems without design a system is best collected by
to a given feed water analysis, feed reaching the limit of 41 bar for using the forms of Table 2: “System
pressure and recovery. The goal of brackish water elements. Although it Design Information” and Table 3:
the designer of an RO system for a is tempting to increase the permeate “Water Analysis for Reverse
certain required permeate flow is to flux in order to minimize the costs for Osmosis”. The more complete this
minimize feed pressure and membrane elements, the flux has to information, the better the system
membrane costs while salt rejection be limited in order to avoid fouling design can be optimized towards the
and recovery should be maximized. and scaling. From experience, the customer's needs.
The optimum design depends on the flux limit to be used in system design
relative importance of these aspects. depends on the fouling tendency of
The recovery of brackish water sys- the feed water.
tems is limited by the solubility of The concentration of the fouling 1 Permeate flux: permeate flow rate per unit
sparingly soluble salts (see Section membrane area.
2 Element recovery: ratio of permeate flow rate
3.4): 85% is about the maximum. In
to feed flow rate for a single element.

Table 1: System Design Guidelines

Feed Source Typical RO/UF Well Water/ Softened Surface Filtered Sea Water
Membrane Permeate Softened Surface Supply Tertiary
Active Supply Supply Effluent
Area (ft2)
Feed Silt Density Index SDI < 1 SDI < 3 SDI 3 - 5 SDI 3 - 5 SDI < 5
Max. Element Recovery %

1m (40") Long Element 30 19 17 15 1) 10 10 1)
Max. Permeate Flow Rate

per Element m3/d (GPD)
2.5" Diameter 23 700 (2.7) 600 (2.7) 500 (1.9) 500 (1.9) 300 (1.3) 500 (1.9)
4" Diameter
BW30-4040 (obsolete) 70 2200 (8.3) 1800 (6.8) 1600 (6.1) 1500 (5.6) 1000 (3.8)
BW30/NF70-4040 82 2570 (9.7) 2110 (8.0) 1870 (7.1) 1755 (6.6) 1170 (4.4)
SW30/SW30HR-4040 68 2200 (8.3) 1800 (6.8) 1600 (6.1) 1500 (5.6) 1000 (3.8) 1500 (5.6)
8" Diameter
BW30-330 330 9000 (33) 7500 (28) 6500 (25) 5900 (22) 4000 (15)
BW30/NF70-345 345 9400 (36) 7840 (30) 6790 (27) 6160 (23) 4180 (16)
BW30/NF70/NF90-400 400 10970 (42) 9140 (24) 7920 (30) 7190 (27) 4870 (19)
SW30/SW30HR-8040 298 9000 (24) 7500 (28) 6500 (25) 5900 (22) 4000 (15) 6000 (22)
SG30-8040 320 8700 (33) 7270 (28) 6300 (24) 5720 (22) 3870 (15) 6000 (22)
Max. Feed Flow Rate

per Element, U.S. gpm (m3/h)
2.5" Diameter 6 (1.3) 6 (1.3) 6 (1.3) 6 (1.3) 6 (1.3) 6 (1.3)

4" Diameter 18 (4.1) 18 (4.1) 18 (4.1) 18 (4.1) 18 (4.1) 18 (4.1)
8" Diameter 70 (16) 62 (14) 60 (14) 55 (12) 50 (11) 60 (14)
(except as listed below)
BW30/NF70-345 73 (17) 65 (15) 63 (14) 58 (13) 52 (12) 63 (14)
BW30/NF70/NF90-400 85 (19) 75 (17) 73 (17) 67 (15) 61 (14) 73 (17)
Min. Concentrate Flow Rate

per Element U.S. gpm (m3/h)1)
2.5" Diameter 0,5 (0.11) 1 (0.22) 1 (0.22) 1 (0.22) 1 (0.22) 1 (0.22)

4" Diameter 2 (0.5) 4 (0.9) 4 (0.9) 4 (0.9) 4 (0.9) 4 (0.9)
8" Diameter 8 (1.8) 16 (3.6) 16 (3.6) 16 (3.6) 16 (3.6) 16 (3.6)
At permeate flow rates lower than shown in the column for Filtered Tertiary Effluent, maximum element recovery is 20% for surface water and 15% for sea water.
Note: The limiting values listed above have been incorporated into the ROSA (Reverse Osmosis System Analysis) software. Design of system in excess of the guidelines
results in a warning message on the ROSA printout.
1)
We recommend that minimum concentrate flow rates be increased at the discretion of the designer by 20 % for feedwaters known to be high in fouling tendency (SDI > 3).

Table 2: System Design Information
Quotation No.: ................................ Date Requested: ................................

Date Submitted: ............................. Requested by: ....................................
Customer/OEM: .......................................................................................................................................................................
Address: ...................................................................................................................................................................................
Proposed Location: .................................................................................................................................................................
Brief Description: .....................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................
Required Product Flow Rate (m3/h or GPD): .......................................................................................................................

Expected Recovery: ...............................................................................................................................................................
Water Temperature on Site - Summer °C: ..........................................................................................................................
- Winter °C: ..........................................................................................................................
- Design °C: ..........................................................................................................................
RO-Plant: ❒ Indoors ❒ Outdoors
Designed for Continuous Use: ❒ Yes ❒ No

If not, please state needed peak hourly capacity: ......................
Plant Will Be Operated by: • Enduser ❒ Yes ❒ No

• Trained Personnel ❒ Yes ❒ No
• Equipment Manufacturer ❒ Yes ❒ No
• Others ❒ Yes ❒ No
Water Source: • Well Water ❒ • Softened Water ❒

• Surface Water ❒ • Filtered Effluent Water ❒
• Sea Water ❒ • Others ❒
Existing Pretreatment: ❒ Yes ❒ No SDI .....................................................................
List of Pretreatment Steps: ...................................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................................................
Planned Pretreatment: ...........................................................................................................................................................
Bacterial Control: ❒ Yes ❒ No Dechlorination: • AC-Filter ❒

Chlorine Used: ❒ Yes ❒ No • Na-Bisulfite ❒
Chloramines Used: ❒ Yes ❒ No • Other ❒
☞ ☞ ☞

Table 2: System Design Information (continued)
Antiscalant Used: ❒ Yes Which One? ....................................................................................

❒ No
Desired Acidification: • HCl ❒

• H2SO4 ❒
• None ❒
Brief Description of Other Pretreatment Steps: .......................................................................................................................

(e.g. Clarification, Flocculation, Multimedia/Sand Filtration etc.) .......................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................
Application: ❒ Potable Water

❒ Industrial Supply for:
❒ Boiler Feed ❒ Pharma ❒ Electronics ❒ Other
Specify Water Quality Needed after RO Treatment::...............................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................................................................
State Other Desired Design Criteria: .......................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................

Table 3: Water Analysis for Reverse Osmosis
Sample identification: ...............................................................................................................................................................

Feed source: ............................................................................................................................................................................
Conductivity: ...................................................... pH: ................ Temperature (°C): ........................................
Feed water analysis 1: NH4+ : .................... CO2 : .....................

––
K+ : .................... CO3 : .....................
–
Na+ : .................... HCO3 : .....................
–
Mg++ : .................... NO3 : .....................
–
Ca++ : .................... Cl : .....................
++ –
Ba : .................... F : .....................
––
Sr++ : .................... SO4 : .....................
––
Fe++ : .................... PO4 : .....................
––
Fe (tot) : .................... S : .....................
Mn++ : .................... SiO2 (colloidal) : .....................
SiO2 (soluble) : .....................
Other ions: ...............................................................................................................................................................................
TDS (by method): .....................................................................................................................................................................

TOC: .........................................................................................................................................................................................
BOD: ........................................................................................................................................................................................
COD: ........................................................................................................................................................................................
Total alkalinity (m-value): .........................................................................................................................................................

Carbonate alkalinity (p-value): .................................................................................................................................................
Total hardness: ........................................................................................................................................................................
Turbidity (NTU): .......................................................................................................................................................................
Silt density index (SDI): ...........................................................................................................................................................
Bacteria (count/ml): ..................................................................................................................................................................
Free chlorine: ...........................................................................................................................................................................
Remarks: ..................................................................................................................................................................................
(odor, smell, color, biological activity, etc.:) ...................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................
Analysis by: ..............................................................................................................................................................................
Date: .........................................................................................................................................................................................
1
Please give units (mg/l as ion or ppm as CaCO3 or meq/l)

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2 Batch vs. Continuous Process
4.2 Batch vs.

Continuous Process
An RO system is usually designed for

continuous operation. The operating
conditions of every membrane
element in the plant are constant with
time. Figure 1 illustrates the
continuous process mode.
In certain applications, when

relatively small volumes (batches) of
special feed waters occur discon-
tinuously, e.g. waste water or
industrial process solutions, the
batch operation mode is preferred. Figure 1: Continuous RO Process
The feed water is collected in a tank
and treated subsequently. The
permeate is removed and the con-
centrate is recycled back to the tank.
At the end of the batch process, a
small volume of concentrate remains
in the feed tank. After this has been
drained, the membranes are typically
cleaned before the tank is filled again
with a new batch. Figure 2 shows the
batch operation mode.
A modification of the batch mode is

the semi-batch mode. The feed tank
is refilled with feed water already
during operation. The batch is ter-
minated with the feed tank full of Figure 2: Batch RO Process
concentrate. This allows a smaller
tank to be used.
Batch systems are usually designed

with a constant feed pressure and a
declining permeate flow while the
feed becomes more concentrated.
The guidelines given in Section 4.1
should be applied to batch systems
as well. The permeate flow limits
however, are conservative and may
be exceeded, if justified by preceding
test runs, and if an appropriate
cleaning frequency is taken into
account.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2 Batch vs. Continuous Process
The batch process has following

advantages versus the continuous
process:
• Flexibility when the feed
water quality changes
• System recovery can be
maximized batch by batch
• Cleaning is easily
implemented
• Simple automatic controls
• Permeate quality can be
controlled by termination of
the process
• Permeate quality can be
improved by total or partial
second pass treatment
• Favorable operating con-
ditions for single (or low num-
ber) element systems, becau-
se the membranes are only in
contact with the final concen-
trate for a short time
• Expansion is rather easy
• Less investment costs
The disadvantages are:

• No continuous permeate flow
• No constant permeate quality
• Large feed tank required
• Larger pump required
• Larger power consumption
• Longer residence time for
feed/concentrate
• Higher total running costs
The majority of RO systems are

designed for continuous operation
with constant permeate flow and
constant system recovery.
Variations in feed water temperature
and fouling effects are compensated
by adjusting the feed pressure. The
focus of this handbook is therefore
on the continuous process.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 3 Single - Module System
4.3 Single-Module System
A module consists of a pressure

vessel with up to seven membrane
elements, which are connected in
series. The concentrate of the first
element becomes the feed to the
second, and so on. The product
tubes of all elements are coupled
and connected to the module
permeate port. The permeate port
may be located on the feed end or
on the concentrate end of the Figure 1: Single-Module System
module.
Singlemodule systems are chosen more than 0.3 bar. The maximum • Larger (more expensive) high
when only one or few membrane permissible permeate pressure is a pressure pump.
elements are needed for the feature of the pressure vessel (see • Higher energy consumption.
specified permeate flow. Figure 1 Section 4.12.2, Pressure Vessel).
shows a system example with a • Permeate quality decreases with
module containing 2 FILMTEC® The concentrate leaves the more concentrate being added to
Tapwater Elements TW30-4040. concentrate outlet connection at the feed water.
essentially the feed pressure. • The rinse-out time at start-up after
Feed water enters the system Pressure drop will usually amount to preservation or cleaning can be
through the shut-off valve and flows 0.3 to 2 bar (5-30 PSI) from feed inlet long. Preferably, no concentrate
through the cartridge filter to the to concentrate outlet, depending on should be recycled during the
high pressure pump. Alternate the number of membrane elements, rinse-out period.
means of controlling pump the feed flow velocity and the
discharge pressure are described in temperature. The concentrate flow
Section 4.12.1, High Pressure rate is controlled by the concentrate
Pump. flow control valve.
The system recovery is controlled by
From the high pressure pump, the this valve and must never exceed the
feed water flows to the feed inlet design value.
connection of the module. The
product stream should leave the In singlemodule systems,
module at no more than 0.3 bar (5 concentrate recycling is usually
PSI) over atmospheric pressure. required to comply with the
Sometimes however, a higher guidelines for element recovery. To
permeate pressure is required, e.g. achieve system recoveries of more
to feed the post-treatment section or than 50%, a part of the concentrate
to distribute the product without leaving the module goes to drain,
further pumping. Then the feed while the other part is added to the
pressure has to be increased by the suction side of the high pressure
value of the permeate pressure, but pump, thus increasing the feed flow
the specified maximum feed to the module. A high fraction of the
pressure has to be observed. concentrate being recycled helps to
reduce the element recovery and
In this case, extreme care must be thus the risk of fouling. On the other
exercised so that at any time, hand, it has the following
especially also at emergency shut drawbacks:
downs, the permeate pressure does
not exceed the feed pressure by

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 4 Single - Array System
4.4 Single-Array System
In a single-array system, two or

more modules are arranged in
parallel. Feed, product and
concentrate are connected to
manifolds. Other aspects of the
system are the same as in a single-
module system. Single-array
systems are typically used where
the system recovery is less than
50%, e.g. in sea water desalination.
An example of a single-array system

is outlined in Figure 1: Each of the
three pressure vessels houses six
FILMTEC® elements SW30HR-8040.
Figure 1: Single-Array System

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 5 Multi - Array System
4.5 Multi-Array System three elements, for example, the A typical two-array system using a
number of arrays has to be doubled staging ratio of 2:1 is shown in
Systems with more than one array or for the same system recovery. Figure 1. The staging ratio is defined
stage are used for higher system Generally speaking, the higher the as the ratio of pressure vessels in
recoveries without exceeding the system recovery, the more mem- two adjacent arrays, upstream
single element recovery limits. brane elements have to be con- vessels: downstream vessels.
Usually two arrays will suffice for nected in series. In order to com-
recoveries up to 75%, and three must pensate for the permeate that is
be used for higher recoveries. These removed and to maintain a uniform
numbers are based on the feed flow to each array, the number
assumption that standard pressure of pressure vessels per array
vessels with six elements are used. decreases in the direction of feed
For shorter vessels housing only flow.
Figure 1: Two-Array System

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 6 Plug Flow vs. Concentrate Recirculation
5.6 Plug Flow vs. Con- Figure 1 of Section 4.4 and Figure 1 the feed side of the module (or
centrate Recirculation of Section 4.5. array) and mixed with the feed
stream. Figure 1 of Section 4.3
The standard reverse osmosis Concentrate recirculation is shows a system with internal
system design for water desalination employed when the number of concentrate recirculation.
applications is the plug flow concept. elements is too small to achieve a
sufficiently high system recovery Multi-array systems can also be
In a plug flow system, the feed with plug flow. Concentrate designed with internal concentrate
volume is passed once through the recirculation systems can also be recirculation for each array, using
system. A certain fraction Y of the found in special applications like a separate recirculation pump. For
feed passes across the membrane to process liquids and wastewaters. example, the system shown in
produce permeate. The feed is Figure 1 of Section 4.5 can be
gradually concentrated and leaves In systems with internal concentrate designed with concentrate
the system at a higher concentra- recirculation, a fraction of the recirculation instead of plug flow:
tion. Examples of plug flow systems concentrate stream out of the see Figure 1.
are shown in Figure 1 of Section 4.2, module (or array) is directed back to
Figure 1: Two-Array System with Internal Concentrate Recirculation

The main advantage of the where the membrane salt passage

recirculation concept is the defined is defined as the concentration of a
feed flow rate to the modules compound in the permeate (Cp )
regardless of the degree of fouling related to its average concentration
of preceding modules, and on the feed-concentrate side (Cfc ):
regardless of changes in the feed Cp
water composition. Further aspects SPM = (3)
of the recirculation concept are Cfc
mentioned in Sections 4.2 and 4.3. In systems with internal
A comparative summary is given in concentrate recirculation, however,
Table 1. there is an additional dependence
on the ß number, which is defined
The apparent salt passage SPs of as
the system, also called system salt
permeate flow leaving the module
passage, is defined as the ß= (4)
concentration of a compound (may concentrate flow leaving the module
be a certain ion, an organic For systems with the concentrate
compound, or TDS) in the being partly recycled to the feed
permeate (Cp ) related to its stream, the system salt passage is
concentration in the feed water
(Cf ): (1+ß)SPM – 1
SPs = (5)
Cp
SPs = (1) Y (1+ß)SPM – Y (1+ß) + ß
Cf
In plug flow systems, SPs is a
function of the system recovery Y
and the membrane salt passage
SPM:
1–(1-Y)SPM
SPs = (2)
Y
Table 1: Comparison of Plug Flow and Recirculation Systems

Plug Flow Recirculation
Feed Composition must be constant can vary

System Recovery must be constant can vary
Cleaning Circuit more complicated simple
Compensating Fouling more difficult easy
Membrane Pressure from Feed Inlet to Concentrate End decreasing uniform
Power Consumption lower higher (15-20%)
Number of Pumps (Investment, Maintenance) lower higher
Extension, Varying the Membrane Area more difficult easy
Taking Individual Arrays of Multi-Array Systems in/out of Service not possible possible
System Salt Passage lower higher

Especially for high system re-

coveries, the system salt passage
of a recirculation system is much
higher than of a plug flow system.
This is demonstrated by a sample
calculation, see Figure 2. The
difference is less, however, for
multi-array systems with recircu-
System Salt Passage ( Fraction )

lation loops for each array. The
system salt passage of such a
system (for an example see Figure
1) has to be calculated by appli-
cation of equation (5) to each
array.
When the recirculated concentrate
stream approaches zero, the ß
number approaches 1/((1/Y) –1),
and the recirculation system
becomes a plug flow system.
A compromise between plug flow
and recirculation systems is the
tapered recirculation system with a
declining number of parallel
modules per array when viewed in
feed flow direction (see Figure 3).
The recirculation pumps can be

tailored in such a way that only a
minor part of the concentrate
leaving the array is recycled while System Recovery Y ( Fraction )
the major part is flowing to the next
array (or to the concentrate outlet, Figure 2: System Salt Passage for a Plug Flow and a Concentrate
for the last array). Then, there are Recirculation System
almost plug flow conditions, but the
advantages of the recirculation
concept are still present.
Figure 3: Tapered Recirculation System

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 7 Permeate Staged System
4.7 Permeate Staged The concentrate of RO II is recycled protected against dust and
System back to the feed of RO I, because its microbiological contamination.
quality is usually better than the
A permeate staged system may be system feed water. The conductivity is in many cases
considered for the following reasons: the most important quality
• standard permeate quality is Since the feed water to RO II is of parameter of the product. Since
not sufficient high quality (RO permeate), RO II carbon dioxide is not rejected by the
can be designed for a higher membrane, it is present in the
• post-treatment with ion recovery than RO I, and with fewer product, where it reacts to carbonic
exchange technology is not membrane elements (see Design acid and causes the conductivity to
allowed (regeneration chemi- Guidelines, Section 4.1). increase. The passage of carbon
cals) dioxide can be prevented by
• rejection of bacteria, Instead of having a separate high alkalization of the feed water to pH
pyrogens and organic pressure pump for the second pass, 8.2. At this pH, all carbon dioxide is
matter is most important the whole system can also be converted into hydrogen carbonate,
operated with one single high which is well rejected by the
• high reliability pressure pump, provided the membrane. Caustic soda can be
The production of water for maximum permissible feed pressure injected either into the permeate of
pharmaceutical and medical use is a of the membrane element is not RO I or into the feed of RO I. In the
typical application of permeate exceeded (41 bar (600 PSI) for BW first case, very little caustic is
staged systems. elements). required, because there is almost no
buffer capacity. Care must be taken
A permeate staged system is the The second pass is then operated not to overdose NaOH. In the
combination of two conventional RO with the permeate backpressure from second case, the feedwater must be
systems where the permeate of the RO I. For the maximum permeate carefully pretreated in order to
first system (first pass) becomes the backpressure allowed, please refer to prevent calcium carbonate scaling,
feed for the second system (second Section 4.12.2. Care must be which might otherwise easily
pass). Both RO systems may be of exercised, that the permeate happen at pH 8.2.
the single-array or multi-array type, backpressure at no time exceeds the
either with plug flow or with feed pressure by more than 0.3 bar With this concept, a product
concentrate recirculation. (5 PSI). conductivity of typically < 1 µS/cm
can be achieved.
Figure 1 shows a schematic flow A surge tank can also be used to
diagram of a permeate staged collect the permeate from the first
system. pass. This tank must be carefully
Figure 1: Permeate Staged System

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 8 Special Design Possibilities
4.8 Special Design Possibilities • Produce different permeate

qualities:
There are a number of special design
possibilities for specific ➙ Separate the permeates
requirements: from the different arrays:
the permeate from the
• Improve product quality: first array has the best
➙ Use part or all sea water quality – especially when
elements for brackish the first array is equip-
feed water ped with sea water
➙ Use sea water elements elements
in one or both stages of
a permeate
staged system • Reduce the plant capacity
to obtain just the required
➙ Recycle permeate of last permeate quality:
array into feed
➙ Blend the permeate with
feed water
• Increase system recovery:
➙ Feed the concentrate to
• Make provisions for later
a second plant, after
system extension:
specific pretreatment
➙ Use free space in pres-
sure vessel (spacer tube
• Obtain high system to replace element)
recovery and uniform
➙ Design module support
permeate flow per element
racks to accommodate
with medium salinity
extra pressure vessels
feed water:
➙ Use booster pumps

between arrays to
compensate for osmotic
pressure increase
➙ Use declining permeate
back pressure from first
to last array
➙ Use SW or SWHR
elements in the first
array

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 9 Element Type Selection
4.9 Element Type

Selection
The FT30 membrane is available in Table 1: FT30 Membrane Element

three different grades, as SW30HR
(Sea Water High Rejection), SW30 Diameter Length Type
(Sea Water), and BW30 (Brackish (Inch) (Inch) SW30HR SW30 BW30 TW30
Water). These membranes are used
in spiral wound membrane 1.5 12 X
elements, which have the same
designation. In the tapwater element 1.8 12 X
TW30, the BW30 membrane is 2.0 13 X
used. Membrane elements are 2.0 26 X
available in various diameters and 2.5 14 X X X X
lengths. Standard diameters are 2.5,
2.5 21 X X X X
4.0 and 8.0 inch (64, 102 and
203 mm). The standard length is 40 2.5 40 X X X X
inch (1,016 mm). For example the 4.0 14 X X
nomenclature of an 8 inch diameter, 4.0 21 X X X X
40 inch long Brackish Water
4.0 40 X X X X
Element is BW30-8040. (Membrane
surface area is sometimes used in 4.6 11 X
place of diameter and length 4.6 19 X
(i.e. BW30-400) 4.6 41 X
8.0 40 X X X
Table 1 shows the sizes and types of
FT30 membrane elements.
To select the right element for a given purpose, there are several criteria to Some applications, e.g. in the food
be considered 1: and beverage industry, require a
• Feed water TDS sanitary membrane element design.
Many element sizes are available in
< 1,000 mg/l ➙ TW30 a "full fit" (FF) configuration: these
< 5,000 mg/l ➙ BW30 elements have a polypropylene net
5,000-15,000 mg/l ➙ SW30 instead of an adhesive tape or a
15,000-50,000 mg/l ➙ SW30HR
fiberglass wrapping and do not have
• System salt rejection a brine seal. Thus, there is no
> 92% ➙ TW30 stagnant water between the element
> 98% ➙ BW30 shell and the inner side of the
> 99% ➙ SW30 pressure vessel.
> 99% ➙ SW30HR
Please contact your local Dow Sales
• Required feed pressure Office for further information.
< 21 bar (300 PSI) ➙ TW30
< 41 bar (600 PSI) ➙ BW30
> 41 bar (600 PSI) ➙ SW30, SW30HR
• System dimensions restricted
yes ➙ element length < 40"
no ➙ element length = 40" 1
These recommendations are not binding, but suggestions
• Required permeate flow to select the element for a system that has to be designed.
The final choice depends also on specific requirements and
< 0.2 m3/h (0.9 GPM) ➙ element diameter ≤ 2.5" operating conditions of the system.
< 3m3/h (13 GPM) ➙ element diameter = 4"
> 3m3/h (13 GPM) ➙ element diameter = 8"

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 10 Number of Elements and Pressure Vessels
4.10 Number of Elements permeate flow QPimax according to the The number of pressure vessels, Nv is
and Pressure Vessels given feed water quality. The obtained from:
permeate flow of the other elements
RO systems are usually designed decreases in feed flow direction, NE
for a specified permeate flow QP. To because the feed pressure drops NV = (4)
due to the flow resistance, and the NEpV
achieve this flow, a number of
membrane elements NE is required. osmotic pressure increases due to
This section describes how the the concentration of rejected salts. where NEpV is the number of elements
number of elements and pressure In most standard applications, the per pressure vessel. Standard vessels
vessels required for a specified average permeate flow per element, for big plants contain six elements. NV
permeate flow and a specified feed QPi is about 75% of the maximum is rounded to the next highest whole
water source can be estimated. With permeate flow, QPimax: number.
these figures, a system can be
chosen. The chosen system must QPi = 0.75 x QPimax (2)
For six-element vessels, the staging
then be analyzed using the ratio is typically chosen as close to
FILMTEC® Reverse Osmosis Thus, the number of elements can be
2:1 as the whole number ratio of the
System Analysis (ROSA) computer estimated from the chosen QPimax
vessel numbers of two successive
program (see 4.11 page 7). This value with equations (1) and (2):
arrays will allow. For vessels with
program calculates the feed less than six elements, the staging
pressure and the permeate quality of QP
NE= (3) ratio will be less, for example 4:3:2
the system as well as the operating 0.75 x Q in a three-array system with four-
Pimax
data of all individual elements. It is element-vessels.
then easy to optimize the system
design by changing the number and
type of elements and their
Example:
arrangement. The average
permeate flow per membrane Given: Chosen:
element, QPi is:
• Feed source: Brackish well water, • BW30-8040 element
QP softened, SDI < 3 • QPimax = 28 m3/d (7500 GPD)
QPi = (1) • Required permeate flow: (System Design Guidelines)
NE QP = 30 m3/h = 720 m3/d (132 GPM)
• Six-element vessels to be used
The maximum allowed permeate
flow per individual element, QPimax
depends on the feed water quality Estimated: Chosen:
according to the System Design • NE = 34.3 (from equation 3) • System with 6 pressure vessels
Guidelines (see Section 4.1). For a • NV = 5.7 (from equation 4) in a 4:2 arrangement.
softened surface supply, for
example. QPimax is 25 m3/d (6,500
GPD) for an eight inch element. This
limit must not be exceeded by any
element of the system. The lead In sea water desalination systems where QPispec is the specified
elements are usually the critical the limiting parameter is usually not permeate flow per element under
ones with the higest permeate flows, the permeate flow per element, but Sea Water Test Conditions, as given
because these experience the higest the feed pressure, which must not in the Technical Bulletin. From the
feed pressure and the lowest exceed 69 bar (1,000 PSI). The number of elements, one can
osmotic pressure of the feed water. number of elements required for a determine the number of pressure
specific system permeate flow QP vessels as already described.
Brackish water systems are usually can roughly be estimated from:
designed with the lead element(s) One array is usually sufficient for
producing the maximum allowed QP sea water systems with maximum
NE = (5) 40% recovery.
0.75 x QPispec

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 11 System Performance Projection
4.11 System Performance Projection
4.11.1
System Operating Characteristics which places eighteen elements in easily correlated. When a large
series shifting the average element number of elements are combined
Before a system performance recovery rate to lower values. in a system with a complex series-
projection is run, you should be parallel- series configuration and
familiar with the operating If two-array systems are operated at only inlet operating variables are
characteristics of a system. These too low a recovery (e.g. < 60%), the known, system performance
will be explained using a typical feed flow rates to the first-array prediction becomes considerably
example. Figure 1 shows a two- vessels can be too high causing more complex. Feed pressures and
array system with three 6-element- excessive feed/concentrate-side salt concentrations for each element
pressure vessels using a staging pressure drops and potentially in series are changing. The rate and
ratio of 2:1. damaging the elements. For extent of these changes are
example, FILMTEC® 8040 elements dependent not only on the inlet
Two-array systems with 6-element have a maximum feed flow rate of conditions and overall recovery, but
vessels effectively employ twelve 11 to 16 m3/h (50-70 GPM) also on the array configuration, i.e.
spiral wound elements in series and depending on water source (see staging ratio(s).
are generally capable of operating System Design Guidelines, Section
at an overall recovery rate of 60 to 4.1). As a result, systems with lower Figure 2 illustrates the dynamic
75%. For such systems the average than 60% recovery will typically nature of predicting system
individual recovery rate per element utilize single-array configurations. performance based on the sum of
will vary from 7 to 12%. To operate Maximum flow considerations can individual element performances
a two-array system at an overall also limit the staging ratio. It is within the system. It shows how five
recovery much higher than 75% will unlikely to find systems with staging different element performance
cause an individual element to ratios greater than 3:1. parameters vary throughout the
exceed the maximum recovery limits twelve series positions in a 2:1 array
shown in the Design Guidelines of When a single RO element is run, of 6-element pressure vessels. The
Chapter 4.1. When this happens, a the operating variables are readily system is operating at 75% recovery
third array will have to be employed measured, and performance can be and 25°C with a feed osmotic
Figure 1: Typical Two-Array Staging Configuration for Spiral Wound RO Elements

pressure of 1.4 bar (20 PSI, which (12.5 m3/d) in the last element of figure. The upper curve shows how
roughly corresponds to a 2,000 mg/l the second array. The average the inlet feed pressure to each
feed TDS). The inlet feed pressure element permeate rate is 22m3/d element (Pfi ) decreases due to the
has been adjusted so that the lead (5,800 GPD) or 77% of the upstream concentrate-side
BW30-8040 element is producing maximum allowable limit. pressure losses within each
7500 gpd (28,4 m3/d) (7,500 GPD), element.
the maximum permeate flow Permeate flow decreases because
for a well water system with feed the net permeation driving force, ∆
SDI < 3. P - ∆ π, is uniformly declining. (∆ P
is the pressure difference between
The top third of Figure 2 shows the feed side and the permeate
individual element permeate flows side of the membrane; ∆ π is the
decreasing uniformly throughout the osmotic pressure difference
series configuration from 28.4 m3/d between both sides). This is
in the lead element of the first array evident by looking at the two
to approximately 3300 gpd curves in the bottom third of the
Permeate Flow ( GPD )
Permeate Flow ( m3 /d )
Relative A-Value
% Recovery
Pressure ( PSI )
Pressure ( bar )
Element Series Position ( Array No - Vessel Pos. )
Figure 2: Individual Element Performance in a System 2:1 Array of BW30-8040 Elements (Example)

The bottom curve shows how the Design Equations and pressure etc. of the concentrate,
inlet feed osmotic pressure to each Parameters which is the feed to the second
element (πfi ) is increasing as salt- element. After calculating the results
free (mostly) permeate is The performance of a specified RO for all the elements, one may
progressively removed by each system is defined by its feed discover that the original feed
upstream element, leaving behind a pressure (or permeate flow, if the pressure was too high or low, so the
steadily increasing concentrate feed pressure is specified) and its trial and error process starts with a
concentration. The difference salt passage. In its simplest terms, new pressure.
between these two pressure curves the permeate flow Q through an RO
is roughly equivalent to the net membrane is directly proportional to With the help of the FILMTEC
permeation driving force. the wetted surface area S times a Reverse Osmosis System Anlysis
net permeation driving force (∆P – computer program, accurate results
The middle portion of Figure 2 can be obtained very quickly, so that
exhibits two subtle but important ∆ π). The proportionality constant is
the membrane permeability this program can be used to modify
effects. The left-hand scale shows and optimize the design of a system.
how individual element recovery coefficient or A-value. The familiar
water permeation equation has the Accordingly, the entire system
varies within the twelve element calculation method will not be
(series) sequence. The break occurs form:
described here. It is also not
between the first and second arrays. intended to outline the process of
In general, the individual recovery Q = A x S x (∆ P – ∆ π) (1)
the element to element computer
profile will increase in both arrays calculation. However, the governing
but typically more strongly in the The salt passage is by diffusion,
equations and parameters are given
first. The system designer – utilizing hence the salt flux NA is proportional
in Table 1.
a computer program – must verify to the salt concentration difference
that the last element in the first array between both sides of the In order to enable the determination
does not exceed the appropriate membrane. The proportionality of values for the terms A, ∆ P, and
recovery limit. As element recovery constant is the salt diffusion ∆ π in equation (1) the water
increases, the effective osmotic coefficient or B-value. permeation equation is expanded to
pressure that the membrane “sees” equation (3). The permeate
will be higher due to concentration NA = B x (Cfc – Cp) (2) concentration can be derived from
polarization. This inefficiency equation (2) after conversion into
reduces permeate flows and can where Cfc = feed-concentrate equation (12). The design equations
lead to membrane scaling or fouling average concen- are listed in Table 1, the symbol
if allowed to go to excess. tration definitions in Table 3.
Cp = permeate
The other curve in the middle portion
concentration Entire System
of Figure 2 (right-hand scale)
illustrates an interesting This is a fairly easy method.
There are basically two ways Average values are used to
phenomenon exhibited by the
to calculate the performance of a calculate feed pressure and
FILMTEC® FT30 membrane. It
specified design: permeate quality if the feed quality,
shows that the membrane water
permeability coefficient, or A-value, temperature, permeate flow rate, and
Element-to-Element number of elements is known. If
is a reversible function of salt
This is the most rigorous calculation instead of number of elements the
concentration, decreasing at higher
method. It is too tedious for hand feed pressure is specified, the
salinities and increasing at lower
calculation, but it is suitable number of elements can be
salinities.
for computer calculations. All the calculated, with a few iterations.
The water permeability declines by
operating conditions of the first This method generally gives a result
almost 15% in this example through
element must be known, including within 5% of that from element to
the series of twelve elements, and
the feed pressure. element calculation. The design
this must be taken into consideration
if an accurate design for system Then one can calculate the flow, equations are listed in Table 2, the
permeate flow rate is to be obtained. symbol definitions in Table 3.
4.11.2 Table 1: Design Equations for

Projecting RO System Performance
Individual Element Performance

Item Equation Ref.No.
∆P
Permeate Flow Qi = Ai ( πi) x SE x TCF x FF x [Pfi – ——fci – Ppi – πi +πpi ] (3)
2
Cfc
Average Concentrate-Side πi = πfi x —— i
x pfi (4)
Osmotic Pressure Cf
i
Average Permeate-Side πpi = πfi x [1 – Ri] (5)

Osmotic Pressure
Cfc Cc
i i
Ratio: Arithmetic Average —— = [1 + —— ]/2 (6)
Cf Cf
Concentrate-Side to Feed i i
Concentration for Element i
Cc
i
Ratio: Concentrate to Feed —— = [1 – Yi (1 – Ri )] / [1 – Yi ] (7)
Concentration for Element i Cf
i
Feed Water Osmotic Pressure πf = 1.12 x [273 + T] x ∑mj (8)
Temperature Correction Factor TCF = EXP [2640 x {1 / 298 – 1 / (273 + T)}]; T ≥ 25°C (9a)
for FT30 Membrane = EXP [3480 x {1 / 298 – 1 / (273 + T)}]; T ≤ 25°C (9b)
Concentration Polarization pfi = EXP [0.7 x Yi ] (10)

Factor for FILMTEC® 8" elements
n
System Recovery Y = 1 – {(1 – Y1) x (1 – Y2) x ... (1 – Yn)} = 1 – ∏ (1 – Yi ) (11)
i=1
SE
Permeate Concentration Cp = B x Cfc x pfi x TCF x —— (12)
j j Qi

Table 2: Design Equations for Projecting RO System Performance
System Average Performance
Item Equation Ref.No.
∆P C
Total Permeate Flow Q = N E x SE x A(π) xTCF x FF x (Pf – ——fc – Pp – π f[——
fc
x pf – (1 – R)]} (13)
2 Cf
Cfc – R x ln[1 – Y / YL ]
Ratio: Average Concentrate-Side —— = + (1 – R) (14)
to Feed Concentration for System Cf Y – [1 – YL ] x ln[1 – Y / YL ]
π f x pf x R
Limiting System Recovery YL = 1 – —————— (15)
Pf – ∆ Pfc – Pp
Approximate Log-Mean Cfc

ln[1 – Y]
Concentrate-Side to Feed Cf = – ———— (16)
Concentration Ratio for System YL , R=1 Y
Average Element Recovery Yi = 1 – [1 – Y]1 / n (17)
Average Polarization Factor pf = EXP [0.7 x Yi] (18)
C
Average Concentrate-Side π = π f x ——
fc x pf (19)
Cf
Osmotic Pressure for System
Average Concentrate-Side ∆ Pfc = 0.04 qfc2 (20a)

System Pressure Drop for
FILMTEC® 8" elements; 2 Arrays ∆ Pfc [YN
= 0.1
x Q /1440
———————
x
x 1{—— + 1 – Y}
V2
NV R
] 2
(20b)
Individual FILMTEC 8" ∆ Pfc = 0.01 x n x qfc1.7 (20c)

Element, or Single-Array
Concentrate-Side Pressure Drop
FILMTEC Membrane Permeability A(π) = 0.125; π ≤ 25 (21a)

as a Function of Average A(π) = 0.125 – 0.011 x [π – 25] / 35; 25 ≤ π ≤ 200 (21b)
Concentrate-Side Osmotic Pressure A(π) = 0.070 – 0.0001 x [π – 200]; 200 ≤ π ≤ 400 (21c)
E
N xS
E
Permeate Concentration Cp = B x Cfc x pf x TCF x ———— (22)
Q

Table 3: Symbol Definitions
Qi = Element i Permeate Flow (gallons/day,GPD) Y = System Recovery (Expressed as a fraction)

(= Permeate Flow / Feed Flow)
A i( π i ) = Membrane Permeability @ 25°C for Element i - n
a function of the average concentrate-side ∏ = Multiplication of n terms in a series
osmotic pressure (gallons/ft2/day/PSI, GFD/PSI) i=1
n = Number of Elements in Series
SE = Membrane Surface Area per Element (ft2)
Q = System Permeate Flow (GPD)
TCF = Temperature Correction Factor for Membrane
Permeability NE = Number of Elements in System
FF = Membrane Fouling Factor Qi = Average Element Permeate Flow (GPD) = Q/NE
Pf = Element i Feed Pressure (PSI) A(π) = Average Membrane Permeability @ 25°C – a

i
function of the average concentrate-side osmotic
∆ Pf c = Concentrate-Side Pressure Drop for Element i (PSI) pressure (GFD/PSI)
i
Pp = Element i Permeate Pressure (PSI) Cfc = Average Concentrate-Side Concentration for System
i
(ppm)
πi = Element i Average Concentrate-Side Osmotic
Pressure (PSI) R = Average Fractional Salt Rejection for System
πf = Element i Feed Osmotic Pressure π = Average Concentrate-Side Osmotic Pressure for

i
System (PSI)
πp = Element i Permeate-Side Osmotic Pressure (PSI)
∆ Pf c = Average Concentrate-Side System Pressure Drop (PSI)
i
pfi = Concentration Polarization Factor for Element i

YL = Limiting (Maximum) System Recovery
Ri = Salt Rejection Fraction for Element i (expressed as a fraction)
(= [Feed Conc.–Perm Conc.] / [Feed Conc.])
Yi = Average Element Recovery (expressed as a fraction)
Cf c = Average Concentrate-Side Concentration for
i
Element i (ppm) pf =
Average Concentrations Polarization Factor
Cf = Feed Concentration for Element i (ppm)
i
qf c = Arithmetic Average Concentrate-Side Flow Rate (GPM)
Cc = Concentrate Concentration for Element i (ppm) (=[Feed Flow + Concentrate Flow] / 2)
i
Yi = Recovery Fraction for Element i NV = Number of Six-Element Pressure Vessels in System;

(= Permeate Flow / Feed Flow) ≈ NE / 6
πf = Treated Feed Water Osmotic Pressure (PSI) NV1 = Number of Pressure Vessels in First Array of 2-Array
System; ≈ 2 / 3 x N V
T = Feed Water Temperature (°C)
NV2 = Number of Pressure Vessels in Second Array of
mj = Molal Concentration of jth ion species 2-Array System; ≈ N V / 3
∑ = Summation of All Ionic Species N VR = Array Ratio = NV1 / NV2

j

The subscript i in the equations of 4.11.3

Table 1 indicates that they apply to System Evaluation Computer
the ith element in a sequence of n Program
elements in a series flow
configuration. To accurately A FILMTEC® Reverse Osmosis
determine system performance, System Analysis (ROSA) computer
Equation 3 is successively solved for program is available to project the
each of the n elements starting with performance of given systems, and
an inlet set of conditions. The to optimize the design of the system.
solutions depend on mass balances It can be further used for scaling
around each element for salt calculations and to evaluate the
(Equation 7) and water (Equation performance of an existing system
11), as well as correlations for from its operating data.
individual element parameters such
as concentrate-side flow resistance, .
∆ Pfc (Equation 20c); temperature
correction factor for water
permeability, TCF (Equation 9);
polarization factor, pfi (Equation 10)
and the membrane permeability
coefficient for water, Ai (πi) (Equation
21) which in the case of the FT30
membrane depends on the average
concentrate concentration or,
alternatively, osmotic pressure.
These solutions usually involve a
suitable average for the feed and
permeate side hydraulic and osmotic
pressures. For low recovery values
typical of single element operation,
an accurate solution can be
obtained using a simple arithmetic
average of the inlet and outlet
conditions. Even so, since the outlet
conditions are not known, iterative
trial and error solutions are involved.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 12 Testing
4.12 Testing It typically involves the evaluation of should be run for a minimum of
a 50–100 liter (15–30 gallons) 30 days. The objective is to confirm
For the desalination of standard sample of solution on a 2540-sized the system design and to fine-tune
waters with a defined origin and membrane element. The element is operating parameters as well as to
composition, the RO system mounted in a test machine with the minimise the risk in large projects.
performance can be projected with engineering features of production
sufficient accuracy by using the systems. The feed flow and feed
computer programme. In some pressure can be varied in the range
cases, however, testing is of the element's operation limits.
recommended to support the proper
system design. These include: In a first test series, both con-
centrate and permeate are recycled
back to the feed tank. Permeate flow
• Unknown feed water quality and permeate quality are the feed
• Unknown variation of feed pressure at which the desired
water quality permeate flow (typically 80 l/h per
2540-element) is obtained, is then
• Special or new applications, fixed for the second test series.
e.g. process effluents and
waste waters The second series is run in the
• Special permeate quality batch mode, leading the permeate
requirements into an extra containment and
returning the concentrate to the feed
• Extremely high system reco- tank. Both permeate flow and
veries permeate quality are monitored
• Very large plants during the factor. The concentration
factor CF is the ratio of the actual
feed volume to the original feed
Testing is typically carried out at volume. The test is stopped when
different subsequent levels: the permeate flow has declined to
an uneconomically low value, e.g.
4.12.1 Screening Test 20 l/h (0,09 gpm) for a 2540-sized
element.
The goal of a screening test is to
select the right membrane and to By repeating the batch tests, an
obtain a rough idea about flux and indication of membrane stability and
rejection properties of this mem- fouling effects can be provided.
brane. A small piece of flat sheet Long-term performance including
membrane is mounted in a "cell" and the assessment of cleaning
is exposed to the test solution using procedures, however, can only be
the cross-flow mechanism. The obtained by pilot tests.
method is fast, inexpensive, and
requires only small quantities of test
solution. However, it does not provide 4.12.3 Pilot Tests
engineering scale-up data, it cannot
indicate long-term chemical effects of A pilot test is run in the field,
the solution on the membrane, nor typically on a representative fraction
does it provide data on fouling effects of the feedstream, in a continous
of the test solution. operation mode. The pilot plant has
at least one production-size
4.12.2 Application Test element, preferably an arrangement
of elements similar to the
The application test provides scale- arrangement in a large-scale
up data such as permeate flow and system. The permeate flow of the
permeate quality as a function of pilot plant should be at least 1%
feed pressure and system recovery. of the large-scale plant flow, and

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 13 System Components
4.13 System Components The high pressure concentrate is fed

into the energy recovery device
4.13.1 where it produces a rotating power
High Pressure Pump output. This is used to assist the
main electric motor in driving the
The pump discharge pressure has to high pressure pump. Compared to
be controlled to maintain the traditional pump drives the energy
designed permeate flow and to not recovery system represents energy
exceed the maximum allowed feed savings up to 40%.
pressure, which is:
4.13.2
21 bar for TW30 Elements
41 bar for BW30 Elements Pressure Vessel
69 bar for SW30 and
SW30HR Elements Pressure vessels are available with
different diameters, lengths, and
A positive displacement pump pressure ratings. PV-1512/1812 is
cannot be throttled, so pressure is supplied by Payne, all other vessels
controlled by a back pressure valve by Advanced Structures Inc. (ASI).
installed in a bypass line from the Table 1 gives a summary of all
pump discharge to the pump vessels.
suction. A pulsation damper
(accumulator) on the pump
discharge line is used to minimize
pressure pulsations. A relief valve
ensures that the maximum allowed Table 1: Pressure Vessels
pressure cannot be exceeded.
Vessel Pressure Vessel Pressure
A centrifugal pump is controlled by Rating (PSI) Rating (PSI)
a throttling valve on the discharge
1 .5" and 2.5" diameter 8" diameter pressure vessels
line. A variable speed motor is an
pressure vessels PVE-8040-1 400
energy saving, but also more
expensive, alternative. PVE-8040-2 400
PV-1512-1 85 PVE-8040-3 400
PV-1812-1 85 PVE-8040-4 400
In sea water systems, typically, 55- PVS-2514-1 1,000
60% of the pressurized feed water PVE-8040-6 400
PVS-2521-1 1,000 PVE-8040-7 400
leaves the system with about 60 bar PVS-2521-2 1,000
pressure in the concentrate stream. PVE-8040-1 600
PVS-2540-1 1,000 PVE-8040-2 600
This energy can be recovered in PVS-2540-2 1,000 PVE-8040-3 600
order to decrease the specific Coupler Kit PVE-8040-4 600
energy demand of the system.
PVE-8040-6 600
Energy recovery methods are: 4" diameter pressure vessels PVE-8040-7 600
➙ Pelton wheel PVB-4014-1 600 PVE-8040-1 1,000
PVB-4021-1 600 PVE-8040-2 1,000
➙ Reverse turning turbine
PVB-4040-1 600 PVE-8040-3 1,000
➙ Piston type work exchanger PVB-4040-2 600 PVE-8040-4 1,000
PVB-4040-3 600 PVE-8040-6 1,000
PVB-4040-4 600 PVE-8040-7 1,000
PVB-4040-6 600
PVU-4021-1 1,000 Coupler Kit 400/600
PVU-4040-1 1,000 Coupler Kit 1,000
PVU-4040-2 1,000
PVU-4040-3 1,000
PVU-4040-4 1,000
PVU-4040-6 1,000
Coupler Kit

The chosen pressure rating must be Table 2: Maximum Dynamic Permeate Backpressure
high enough to allow some pressure for FILMTEC® Pressure Vessels
increase to compensate for irre-
versible fouling (typically 10% more Temperature Maximum Dynamic Permeate Back Pressure
than needed in a 3-year-design). (°C) (°F) (bar) (PSI)
When dynamic permeate 45 113 10.0 145

backpressure is employed during
plant operation, the limiting 40 104 12.4 180
component is the permeate port 35 95 15.1 219
which is made of PVC. The
30 86 17.7 257
permeate pressure rating is a strong
function of temperature, as shown in 25 77 20.6 299
Table 2. Note that at static 20 68 23.3 338
conditions, i.e. with the high
pressure pump shut down, the
permeate back pressure must never
exceed 0.3 bar (5 PSI).
Table 3: Provisions Against Undue Operating Conditions
For pressure vessel descriptions
and installation recommendations Undue Operating Condition Provision
refer to Section 6.
Too high feed pressure High pressure shutdown switch in
4.13.3 the feed line
Shutdown Switches
Insufficient feed pressure Low pressure shutdown switch in
The membrane elements have to be
the pump suction line
protected against undue operating
conditions.
Too high feed temperature High temperature switch in the
If ever there is a possibility that such feed line
conditions can occur, for example by
a pretreatment upset, provisions Permeate pressure exceeding feed Pressure relief mechanism in the
must be made so that the system is by more than 0.3 bar pressure permeate line
shut down in this case of emer-
gency. Too high concentration of Turbidity control in the feed line
colloidal matter in the feed
Some undue operating conditions
and the provisions to prevent these
Too high concentration of sparingly Dosing pumps for acid and
are listed in Table 3.
soluble salts in the feed antiscalant should be electrically
interlocked with the RO pump
drive
High pH shutdown switch
Oxidizing agents in the feed ORP control in feed line or chlorine

detection monitor with automatic
shutdown
Oil in the feed Oil detector in feed line

4.13.4 element(s), the pressure drop A feed tank is needed to provide the
Valves between feed and concentrate of reaction time (20-30 min.) when
each array, and eventually the chlorine is used. The free volume of
Following valves are typically pressure in the permeate line. media filters can be used for this
included in an RO system: Liquid-filled gauges should contain purpose as well. Feed tanks are also
membrane compatible fluids such frequently used as a buffer to allow
• Feed inlet valve to shut down the as water or glycerine in place of continous operation of the RO
plant for maintenance and preser- oils or other water immiscible section (e.g. during backwash of
vation. liquids. filters). Systems that are operated in
the batch or semi-batch mode re-
• Valve on the pump discharge line • Flow meters to measure concentra- quire a feed tank.
or pump bypass line to control feed te and total permeate flow rate,
pressure during operation and feed also permeate flow rate of each A permeate tank is typically
pressure increase rate during start- array. employed, when the permeate is the
up. • Water meters in the permeate and product. Plant start-ups and shut-
• Check valve on pump discharge feed line to log the total water downs are initiated by low-level and
line. volume treated and produced. high-level signals from the permeate
tank. The system capacity and the
• Check valve and atmospheric drain • Hour meter to log the total opera- tank size should be designed so that
valve on permeate line to prevent ting time. the RO plant is allowed to run for
the permeate pressure from ex- • pH meter in the feed line after some hours continuously. The less
ceeding the feed pressure. acidification to control carbonate frequently the plant is shut down, the
• Flow control valve on the concen- scaling potential. better is the system performance.
trate line to set the recovery. (Cau- • Conductivity meters in the feed
tion: back-pressure valve must not A draw-back tank is a small tank in
line, in the brine line, and in the the permeate line that provides
be used). permeate line to determine per- enough volume for natural osmosis
• Valve in the permeate line to provi- meate quality and salt rejection. backflow when the system shuts
de permeate drain during cleaning • Sample ports on the feed, concen- down. It is typically employed in sea
and start-up. trate and permeate line (total water systems, but not in brackish
• Valves in the feed and concentrate permeate and permeate of each water systems. A missing draw-back
line (and between arrays) to con- array) to be able to evaluate sy- tank can cause air to be sucked into
nect a cleaning circuit. stem performance. A sample port the FILMTEC® elements. This may
on each pressure vessel permeate create the following problems:
4.13.5 outlet is recommended to facilitate ➙ Contamination of the permeate
Control Instruments troubleshooting. side of the membrane by airborne
4.13.6 microbes and fungii.
To ensure proper operation of the RO
system, a number of control Tanks ➙ Hydraulic shocks and slugs of air
instruments are necessary. The upsetting meters and set point
accuracy of all instruments is critical. Storing water in tanks should be controllers when the air is expelled
They must be installed and calibrated generally kept at a minimum. When from the system on the next start-
according to manufacturers' tanks are used, the inlet and outlet
should be placed so that no up.
instructions.
stagnant zones are permitted. The ➙ Drying of the membrane (flux
• Pressure gauges to measure the tanks should be protected from dust loss).
pressure drop across the cartridge and microbiological contamination.
filter, the pressure on the pump In critical applications tanks are ➙ If the feedwater is in a reduced
inlet line and discharge line, the closed and vented through a HEMA- status and contains H2S, Fe2+,
feed pressure to the membrane filter. Mn2+, etc., the air intrusion may
cause fouling of the membrane by
oxidized and precipitated col-
loidal matter.

If the product water from an RO 4.13.7 • Control and motor starter panel
system is chlorinated, care must be Optional Equipment with automatics ensuring a safe
exercised to ensure that the chlorine plant operation. Automatics for
does not migrate back to the Various optional equipment and filter backwash, membrane
membrane. Air breaks should be features are useful in operating and cleanings and plant flush outs can
employed appropriately. monitoring the system: be incorporated.
If a draw-back tank is used, its water • A shut-down flush system flushes • Compressed air system including
the feed-concentrate line with compressor, air dryer, air control
level should be higher than the
highest pressure vessel, but not pretreated feed water or with per- stations and complete pipe
exceeding 3m from the lowest meate after shut-down. When systems.
vessel. To prevent contamination, antiscalants are used, a flush • Spare parts for 1 or 2 years of
the flow is in at the bottom and out system is mandatory. operation.
the top, and the tank must be • Alarms for
covered. Post-chlorination if • Tools for general and special
performed must be done • high permeate conductivity services.
downstream of this tank. • high concentrate conductivity • Options such as training,
• low feed pH supervision and maintenance.
The volume of the draw-back tank • high feed pH
can be sized as follows: • high feed hardness
• high feed temperature
VDBT = 25 NE - VPP • low level in dosing tank
• Continuous recorder for
VDBT:Volume of draw-back tank
(in liter) • feed temperature
NE: Number of installed element • feed pH
VPP: Volume of permeate piping • feed and permeate
between pressure vessels and conductivity
draw-back tank (in liter)
• feed SDI
Dosing tanks are required when • feed ORP
chemicals are added to the feed
water. They should be sized typically • feed, permeate and
for a daily refillment. concentrate pressure
• permeate and concentrate
A cleaning tank is part of the flow
cleaning equipment as described in
Section 7. Ideally, a monitoring system is
installed that allows on-line
recording and processing of all
important operating data of the
system (see also Section 6.4,
Record Keeping).

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 14 Materials of Construction, Corrosion Control
4.14 Materials of However, it is usually necessary to In order to avoid pitting and crevice
Construction, use metals for the high-pressure (10- corrosion in the RO water
Corrosion Control 70 bar/200-1,000 PSI) parts such as desalination plant the following
pumps, piping and valves. Carbon recommendations can be given:
From a corrosion point of view a very and low alloy steels do not have
harsh environment prevails in an RO sufficient corrosion resistance, and RO Plants with Concentrate
water desalination plant. their corrosion products can foul the Stream TDS below 7,000 ppm:
membranes.
Hence the materials of construction Stainless steel type AISI 316 L with
must possess a certain degree of Lined piping is usually not a realistic <0.03% C is the minimum demand
corrosion resistance. This counts for alternative because of the often for the pipe system, as lower grade
both the exterior parts exposed to compact piping design and relatively stainless steels with higher carbon
spillage and a humid and saline great amount of connections and content will suffer from pitting in the
atmosphere as well as for the interior fittings needed. welding zones (intergranular
of the system exposed to the wide corrosion).
variety of waters treated. Al-bronze can be an alternative for
pumps etc., but the risk of erosion For non-welded parts stainless steel
Although not to be underestimated, corrosion and chemical attacks must type AISI 316 is usually acceptable.
the control of the exterior corrosion be taken into account.
can usually be overcome by using a The most relevant material to be
surface coating (painting, used for the high-pressure parts is RO Plants with Concentrate Stream
galvanizing, etc.) on materials stainless steel. TDS higher than 7,000 ppm:
supposed to corrode (mild steel, cast
iron, etc.) and by establishing a The basic advantages with stainless Stainless steel type 904 L is
maintenance program involving steel are that they are very resistant recommended for pipes and bends
periodical flush down and cleaning, to general corrosion and erosion for welding and for similar parts
repair of leaks, etc. corrosion. Stainless steel is rarely without crevices.
attacked by galvanic corrosion, but it
Selecting materials of construction will influence the attack on the other Where crevices occur, such as at
for the interior wetted system is a far metal in a two-metal couple (e.g. flange connections, in valves, in
more complicated task. copper, brass, etc.). Stress corrosion pumps, etc. stainless steel type 254
cracking of stainless steels in media SMO or alike with ≥ 6% Mo is
Apart from being compatible with the containing chloride rarely occurs recommended.
pressures, vibrations, temperatures, below 70°C (158°F) so it does not
etc. existing in an RO system, the need to be considered in an RO These two higher alloy stainless
materials used must also be able to desalination plant. steels can be welded together
withstand the potential corrosion without risking galvanic corrosion.
attacks caused by the high chloride Unfortunately, some stainless steels
content of the feed water and the are prone to pitting and crevice Sensor element of instruments may
concentrate stream, the aggressive corrosion in the waters occurring in be coated or lined.
product water and the chemicals an RO plant.
used for applications such as
membrane cleaning. Pitting means localized attacks that
result in holes in the metal. Pitting
Application of non-metallic materials occurs where the passive film formed
such as plastics, fiberglass, etc. are by chromium oxides breaks and
widely used for preventing corrosion chlorides can attack the bare metal.
and chemical attacks as well in the Crevice corrosion is pitting
low-pressure (< 10 bar) part of the associated with small volumes of
RO system as in the RO elements stagnant water caused by holes,
and pressure vessels. gasket surfaces, deposits and
crevices under bolts, etc.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 14 Materials of Construction, Corrosion Control
Table 1: Composition of Stainless Steels:
Usual UNS No. C% Cr% Ni% Mo% Cu% N%

Designation
AISI 316 S 31600 < 0.08 16.0-18.0 10-14 2.0-3.0 - -

AISI 316L S 31603 < 0.03 16.0-18.0 10-14 2.0-3.0 - -
904 L N 08904 < 0.02 19.0-23.0 23.0-28.0 4.0-5.0 1.0-2.0 -
254 SMO S 31254 < 0.02 19.5-20.5 17.5-18.5 6.0-6.5 0.5-1.0 0.18-0.22
The composition of the named

stainless steels is given in Table 1.
Besides the above recommendations

general precautions must be taken
during design and construction, such
as:
• Design with a minimum of
crevices and dead ends.
• Design the piping so that the flow
velocity is above 1.5 m/s (5 ft/s).
It promotes the forming and
maintenance of the passive film.
• Use backing gas when welding
in order to avoid the weld oxide
film forming base for crevice corro-
sion.
• Pickle and passivate the pipe
system as this gives the optimum
safety against chloride attack.
• Flush the plant with low TDS
water before a shut-down period.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 1 Preparation
5. Assembly and Loading of Pressure Vessels
5.1 Preparation Following material is recommended to load pressure vessels

(for example, 8-inch-6-element PV’s):
Load FILMTEC® elements into the
pressure vessels just prior to start- • Clean cloth material • Work table (2 m x 1 m)
up. Before assembling all com- • PVC plastic pipe (5 m long, • 10 boxes of about 300 x 300 mm
ponents, check the parts list and 50-60 mm outer diameter) or larger (board material)
make sure all items are present in to sort parts
• Glycerine (2-3 liters)
the right quantities. Carefully remove
• Flashlight • 10 rolls of paper tissue
all dust, dirt and foreign matter.
Clean the pressure vessel on the • Rubber boots • Rubber hammer / cushioned
inside and check visually. If neces- mallet or hammer and wood
sary, provide scrubbing action with • Safety gloves or block
an improvised swab. If necessary, rubber/plastic gloves
• Snap ring pliers
flush or wash the feedwater piping • Cord (rope) 20 m
system and RO vessels with a • Adhesive tape
• 10 m tape measure (~ 30 feet)
chemical solution before installing • Allen wrench
membrane elements. This will • 3 pails of 20 l each
assure that all foreign matter has
been removed. Before installing the For conversion into U.S. units, see Section 10.7.
elements, let the feedwater run
through the vessels for at least
30 minutes and check feedwater
quality to be according to
specifications. Lubricate the inside
using a clean cloth soaked in
glycerine. Lubricate all O-rings prior
to assembly with glycerine. When
O-rings are installed, expand them
slightly – do not roll them into
position.
When pressure vessels are

reassembled, make sure that the
parts of one vessel are not mixed
with parts of other vessels.
Prepare a schematic diagram of the

RO system for recording pressure
vessel and element locations. It
should show the piping of the whole
rack. For location recording use the
FILMTEC element serial number
written on the label of each element.
Use this diagram to always keep
track of each individual element in
your system.
Check that the pressure vessel is

solidly secured to the racks.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2 PAYNE PV-1512/1812 Pressure Vessel
5.2 PAYNE PV-1512/1812 Pressure Vessel
This pressure vessel (P/N 81247) houses one FILMTEC® element TW30-1512 or TW30-1812. It consists of 3 parts:
vessel tube, endcap, and O-ring. Before inserting the element, inspect for binding threads.
Material: PVC
Pressure rating: 6 bar (85 PSI)
90.17 204.79
(3.55) (8.0625)
∅ 60.71
(2.390)
347.60
(13.685)
Notes: 1. All dimensions are reference dimensions in mm (inch).

2. All ports are 1/8" NPT.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 3 A.S.I. PVS 2.5 - 1000 Pressure Vessel
5.3 A.S.I.
PVS-2.5-1000
Pressure Vessel

FILMTEC
Assembly Instructions Parts Description
Assembly
A.S.I. PVS-2.5-100 Pressure Vessel and Loading of Pressure Vessels
➧ Opening the Vessel Item Qty Required Description
MEMBRANE
Read precautions. ELEMENTS 1 1 Shell
Relieve pressure from vessel. 2 2 End Plug
A. Disconnect vessel from system at 3 2 Bearing Plate
nearest convenient location (other than 4 2 External O-Ring (2-227)
plumbing on vessel fittings). Be careful
not to remove anodise treatment from 5 2 Internal O-Ring (2-116)
aluminium. 6 2 Locking Ring Set
B. Cut lockwire 9 which secures sockethead 7 4 Sockethead Screw
screws 7. Remove and discard wire.
8 4 Alignment Washer
C. Remove two sockethead screws 7 and 9 2 Lockwire
washers 8.
10 One less than number of Elements Coupler
D. Using a wooden dowel and rubber 11 2 per Coupler Coupler O-Ring (2-210)
mallet, tap in end plug 2 far enough to
clear locking ring groove. Pressure Vessel Complete is available in sizes to house one or two FILMTEC® elements.
CAUTION: Do not tap on fittings; this 1
Not sold separately
could damage head ports.
E. Pry locking rings 6 out of groove and C. Install O-ring 4 on external O-ring groove K. Repeat step J to install opposite washer
remove. If necessary, use a pointed on end plug 2. Lubricate both O-rings 8. Tighten sockethead screws 7 until
object, such as an icepick, to pry rings lightly with glycerine. washers are snug against bearing plate 3.
out.
D. Place bearing plate 3 on end plug 2 at L. Secure assembly with lockwire 9 threa-
F. Pull out end plug 2. end of plug opposite O-rings 4, 5. Spot- ded through holes in sockethead screw 7
faced holes for washers 8 must face out. head and looped around fittings, (see
G. Remove fittings.
Align holes in bearing plate with threa- detail). This is reject end of vessel.
H. Remove and discard internal and exter- ded ports in end plug. CAUTION: Lockwire 9 must be installed
nal O-rings 5, 4. to insure integrity of critical interlock. If
E. Apply thread sealant on fittings (not stainless steel lockwire is not available,
I. Refurbish components as required, provided) and install fittings through any steel wire of .020 gauge may be
following the instructions below. bearing plate 3 into end plug 2. Turn used.
fitting 1/2 turn past hand tight. Do not
a. Use a wire brush or suitable abrasive overtighten; this could crack end plug. M. Lubricate element U-cup seal with
to remove all encrusted salts, corrosi- glycerine.
on by-products and other deposits F. Orient fittings in desired position and
from locking rings 6, washers 8 and insert end plug 2 into shell 1. Using both N. Insert element into open end of shell 1
locking ring groove in shell 1. thumbs, apply equal pressure on opposi- (feed end) with U-cup seal flaring toward
te sides of end plug to force it into shell feed end of shell.
b. Rinse parts in fresh water to remove until top of bearing plate 3 clears groove
any particles that might foul membra- for locking rings 6 inside diameter of O. Install feed end plug assembly using
ne element. shell. steps A through L. Product water
(center) tube of element will fit into hub
c. Replace parts that cannot be restored G. Adjust fitting orientation as desired. of end plug 2.
to as-new condition, including O-rings
4, 5. H. Insert locking rings 6 with stepped face
out. Position two locking rings so two
spot-faced holes are aligned in gap Double Element Assembly
➧ Remakingthe Piping Connections
between rings. When vessel is in hori-
A. Use a wire brush or suitable abrasive to zontal position, it may be easier to install A. Follow steps A through N. For a single
remove all encrusted salts, corrosion by- bottom locking ring first, then top locking Element Assembly.
products and other deposits from pipe ring, which must be held in place until
B. Install O-rings 11 into coupler 10.
threads. end plug 2 is pulled out (step 1).
Lubricate lightly with glycerine.
CAUTION: Stepped face of locking rings
B. Rinse parts in fresh water. 6 must be facing out (see detail) to C. Insert product water (center) tube of first
C. Apply sealant on male threads and insure element into one end of coupler 10.
assemble joint(s). a proper interlock when assembly is Coupler should touch white plastic end
completed. cap of element.
➧ Closing the Vessel I. Using fittings, pull out end plug 2 slightly D. Repeat step M for second element.
to retain locking rings 6 in place.
Single Element Assembly E. Insuring that U-cup seal flares toward
J. Install one washer 8. Slide edge of flat feed end of shell 1, insert product water
Installing the end plug. washer into locking ring groove until (center) tube of second element into
washer is fully seated in its spot-faced remaining end of coupler 10.
A. Apply glycerine to shell chamfer and hole. Verify that washer is correctly
walls about ½ inch from chamfer. Wear seated, then secure it with a sockethead F. Insert second element into shell 1 as far
protective gloves or finger cots to screw 7. as possible.
prevent cuts or penetration by glass fiber CAUTION: Washers 8 must be installed
particles. G. Follow step O.
exactly as described in step J to insure
B. Install O-ring 5 into internal O-ring safe interlock and retention of end plug 2.
groove on end plug 2.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 3 A.S.I. PVS 2.5-1000 Pressure Vessel
Precautions
Read and follow instructions. Failure

to take every precaution will void
manufacturer’s warranty and may
result in vessel failure. The A.S.I.
PVS-2.5-1000 pressure vessel must
be installed and maintained in
accordance with the precautions
listed and good industrial practice to
assure safe operation over a long
service life. The high performance
FRP shell must be allowed to
expand under pressure; undue
restraint at support points or piping
connections can cause leaks to Do not tolerate leaks or allow end closures to be routinely wetted in any way.
develop in the shell. The end
closure, incorporating close-fitting, Do not pressurize vessel until verifying the locking ring set is fully seated and
interlocking metal components, must secured by screws and safety wire.
be kept dry and free of corrosion;
deterioration can lead to Do not work on any component before verifying pressure is relieved from the
catastrophic mechanical failure of vessel.
the end plug.
Do not make rigid piping Length and Assembly Weight

connections to ports or clamp vessel
to restrict expansion of shell under Size L±.03 Empty Wt. (approx.)
pressure. mm (In) kg (Lb)
Do not hang piping manifolds from PVS-2514-1 444 (17.5) 2.3 (5)
ports or use vessel to support other PVS-2521-1 622 (24.5) 3.2 (7)
components.
PVS-2521-2 1,156 (45.5) 4.1 (9)
Do not operate vessel in excess of PVS-2540-1 1,105 (43.5) 4.1 (9)
its design pressure and operating
temperature range. PVS-2540-2 2,121 (83.5) 5.4 (12)
Do provide overpressure protection

for vessel, set at not more than 105
% of design pressure.

®
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 4 A.S.I. PVB-4-600 Pressure Vessel
5.4 A.S.I.
PVB-4-600
Pressure Vessel
Single Element Assembly 5. Insert element into other end of 9. Place one adaptor (F) on product
vessel (feed end) making sure u-cup water tube of first element opposite
1. Install O-rings (C, D1) on each end brine seal flares toward feed end of the end with the brine seal.
plug (B1). Lubricate lightly with vessel.
10. Insert O-rings (H) into coupler (G).
glycerine.
6. Install feed end plug assembly using Lubricate lightly with glycerine.
2. Insert end plug (B1) into one end of steps 1-3.
11. Follow steps 4-5 using coupler (G) to
the vessel (A) until it is slightly past
join elements as they are being
snap ring groove.
inserted into vessel.
Multiple Element Assembly
3. Install snap ring (E) making sure it is
12. Place second adaptor on product
fully seated in snap ring groove. This
7. Follow steps 1-3 using end plug B2 water tube on brine seal end of last
is reject end of vessel.
and D2. element.
4. Lubricate element u-cup brine seal
8. Insert O-ring (J) into adaptor (F). 13. Follow step 6 using end plug B2.
with glycerine.
Lubricate lightly with glycerine.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
Single Element Vessel Parts List

A.S.I. PVB-4-600
Item Quantity per Vessel Description
A 1 4021-1 Vessel Tube

4040-1 Vessel Tube
B1 2 4" End Plug
C 2 O-Ring
D1 2 O-Ring
E 2 4" Snap Ring
Multiple Element Vessel Parts List
A 1 4040-2 Vessel Tube

4040-3 Vessel Tube
4040-4 Vessel Tube
4040-6 Vessel Tube
B2 2 4" End Plug
C 2 O-Ring
D2 2 O-Ring
E 2 4" Snap Ring
F 2 Adaptor
G One less than number of Elements External Coupler
H 2 per Coupler O-Ring
J 2 O-Ring

®
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 5 A.S.I. PVU-4-1000 Pressure Vessel
5.5 A.S.I.
PVU-4-1000
Pressure Vessel

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
End Plug Assembly e. Connect the adaptor and the hub Vessel Assembly
(Picture 8) and mount these in the
The assembly of the complete 4" “End plug plate (Picture 9). 1. Insert assembled end plug into either
Plug Kit” (Picture 1) is carried out in the end of vessel (L) about ¼ inch past
f. Now the complete End plug kit can be
following way: shear ring groove inside vessel.
put together (Picture 9).
a. Place all items (Picture 2) in a clean 2. Insert segmented shear ring (E) into
place and ensure that all O-rings etc. g. To keep the parts together you mount
groove so spaces between segments
are in good condition. Otherwise the snap ring in the groove of the hub
are aligned with holes in bearing
change them. (Picture 1).
place. Install three end plug screws
b. Mount the pressure port (B) in the You are now ready to start the el- (H) and tighten completely. This is re-
bearing plate (D), push it forward until ement mounting in the pressure ves- ject end of vessel.
the segmented retaining ring (F) can sel.
3. Insert element into the other end of
be mounted (Picture 3) and pull the NB: Normally it is easier to grease the vessel.
pipe back again until the rings are O-rings before assembly, but for this
flush with the surface (Picture 4). 4. Install feed end plug assembly in the
purpose never use any kind of silicone
same manner as reject end plug and
c. Mount the O-rings in the hub (inside products as this will ruin the mem-
secure end plug screws.
and outside) (Picture 5) in the plug branes (extremely low fluxes).
plate (inside and outside) (Picture 6), 5. For multiple element vessels, follow
and in the adaptor, if more than 1 ele- same assembly procedure except a
ment (Picture 7). slightly different hub (A) is used with
adaptor (M) on both ends of vessel.
d. The adaptor (Picture 7) is only used in Element product water tubes are joi-
vessels with more than 1 element. ned with external coupler (N) as ele-
ments are inserted into vessel.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
Picture 1 Picture 2 Picture 3

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
Single Element Vessel Parts List

A.S.I. PVV-4-1000
Item Quantity per Vessel Description
A 2 Hub
B 2 Port
C 2 Plug Plate
D 2 Bearing Plate
E 2 Segmented Shear Ring
F 2 Segmented Retaining Ring
G 2 Snap Ring
H 6 End Plug Screw
I 2 Plug Seal
J 4 Port-Hub Seal
K 2 PWT Seal
Q 2 End Plug Kit contains A through K
Multiple Element Vessel Parts List
A 2 Hub
B-J Same as Single Element Vessel
K 2 Adaptor Seal
M 2 Adaptor
N One less than number of Elements Coupler
O 2 per Coupler O-Ring
P 2 PWT Seal
R 2 End Plug Kit contains A through K
S 2 Strap
T 2 Pad
1
not shown

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 6 A.S.I. PVE-8 Pressure Vessel
Picture 1: Disconnecting Ports Picture 2: Securing Screw 12 Removal Picture 3: Key Segment Removal
Picture 4: End Plug Removal Picture 5: Installing Thrust Ring 16 Picture 6: Tapping Securing Ring 11 into Position
Picture 7: Removing Port Nut 7 (left-hand threaded) Picture 8: Pressing out Permeate Port 6 Picture 9: Removing Port Retainer Set 5
Picture 10: Removing Port Seals 9 Picture 11: End Plug Disassembled Picture 12: Installing Seals
Picture 13: Installing Feed/Concentrate Port 4 Picture 14: Installing Port Retainer Set 5 Picture 15: Installing Permeate Port 6

FILMTEC
Assembly Instructions
Parts Description
A.S.I. PVE-8 Pressure Vessel Assembly and Loading of Pressure Vessels
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
➧ Installing the Vessel Item Quantity Required Description P/N
400 PSI
P/N
600 PSI
P/N
1,000 PSI
Mount pressure vessel with drain holes down 1 1 Shell not sold separately
on horizontal members. Support vessels
2 2 Bearing Plate 81114 81162 81161
using saddles 13 and strap assembly 14 at
distance S, recommended central span for 3 2 Sealing Plate 81115 81115 81115
two-point support. Tighten hold-down straps 4 2 Feed/Concentrate Port 81116 81116 81152
until snug. Provide overpressure protection 5 2 Port Retainer Set 81117 81117 81117
for vessel set at not more than 105 % of
6 2 Permeate Port 81118 81118 81153
design pressure.
7 2 Port Nut 81119 81119 81119
➧ Opening the Vessel 8 2 End Plug Seal 81120 81120 81120
9 4 Port Seal (2-225) 80476 80476 80476
Read Precautions. 10 2 Locking Ring Set 81121 81121 81154
11 2 Securing Ring 81122 81122 81122
Relieve pressure from vessel. Disconnect
vessel ports from piping manifolds (Picture 1). 12 6 Securing Screw 81123 81123 81123
13 2 Saddle 81124 81155 81074
A. Use an Allen wrench to remove securing
screws 12 from securing ring 11 (Picture 14 2 Strap Assembly 81125 81125 81125
2). As each screw is removed, thread it 15 2 Adaptor 81126 81126 81156
into the adjacent hole until it contacts 16 1 Thrust Ring 81127 81127 81127
bearing plate 2.
17 2 Adaptor O-Ring (2-221) 80477 80477 80477
B. After transferring securing screws 12, 18 4 PWT O-Ring (2-119) 80478 80478 80478
tap face of bearing plate 2 with a cushio- 19 One less than Coupler 81283 81283 81282
ned mallet or hammer and wood block to number of Elements
free locking ring set 10.
CAUTION: Do not strike ports 4, 6; this 20 4 per Coupler Coupler O-Rings (2-119) 80478 80478 80478
could cause severe damage. Pressure Vessel Complete is avaliable in sizes to house on to seven FILMTEC elements. ®
C. To remove securing ring 11, alternately

turn securing screws 12 clockwise one D. With vessel in a horizontal position, slide ➧ Closing the Vessel
and one-half to two turns. Do not cock element in, keeping open side of U-cup
securing ring; this could cause screws to seal facing feed end of vessel. Adaptor Installing the End Plug.
jack securing ring off bearing plate 2. 15 will seat into permeate port 6 (first
A. Apply glycerine to shell chamfer and
element only).
D. Remove key segment (long segment with walls about ½ inch from chamfer. Wear
two bevelled ends) first to free two other E. Lubricate four o-rings 20 lightly with protective gloves or finger cots to
mirror-image segments. Rotate each of glycerine and place in appropriate prevent cuts or penetration by glass fiber
these segments to top of end plug; they grooves on coupler 19. particles.
will drop from groove (Picture 3).
F. With a slight twisting motion, gently B. Install thrust ring 16 at down-stream end
E. Before removing end plug, clean pressu- insert one end of coupler 19 into product of vessel (Picture 5).
re tube entrance and apply a thin coat of water (center) tube of element. Element
C. Place adaptor o-ring 17 in groove on the
glycerine to segmented ring groove will accept approximately one-half of
permeate port 6. Lubricate lightly with
area. Grasp feed/ concentrate port 4 coupler.
glycerine.
and, if attached, fitting connected to
permeate 6. Pull end plug straight out G. Repeat steps B and D for next element.
D. Apply glycerine to 8" diameter quad ring
(Picture 4). It may be necessary to rock H. Insert exposed portion of coupler 19, 8 and install onto end plug assembly.
end plug slightly or give it a forceful tug also with a slight twisting motion, into
to remove it. E. Slide factory-assembled end plug into
product water tube on end opposite feed
the shell. It should be square to shell
F. Inspect pressure vessel inside diameter end of second element. Elements will
wall. End plug design ensures permeate
for dirt and foreign objects and clean as touch each other. Maintain element
port 6 will mate with adaptor 15.
required. alignment carefully during assembly
process. Do not allow element weight to F. Push end plug with both hands until it will
be supported by coupler. Misalignment go no further.
➧ Loading the Elements can result in damage to permeate tubes.
A. Follow instructions for closing vessel in Installing the Interlock.
I. Repeat steps F, G and H until all el-
the following section. First end assem- ements have been coupled and inserted. A. Install locking ring set 10 with stepped
bled will be opposite feed end. Thrust Final element will not have the coupler edge facing out, as follows:
ring 16 will be in place. inserted in feed end of product water
tube. a. Install one of mirror-image segments
B. Lubricate U-cup seal lightly with glyc- at bottom of shell in groove between
erine. Install U-cup seal with open end of J. Lubricate with glycerine two remaining o- shell reinforcing ring and end plug to
U-cup facing feed end of vessel onto RO rings 18 and install on adaptor into square end of segment facing right.
element. See illustration, U-cup Seal element product water tube on feed end.
Detail. b. Slide first segment counter-clockwi-
K. Remaining is feed end of vessel. Thrust se, making room to install second
C. Lubricate two o-rings 18 lightly with ring is not required on this end. Follow mirror-image segment at bottom until
glycerine and install onto adaptor 15. instructions for installing End Plug and its square end butts up against
Install seal end of the adaptor into Interlock. square end of first segment.
element opposite the feed end.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
c. Slide both segments counter- B. Remove permeate port 6 by pressing out

clockwise until bevelled edge of first from threaded end (Picture 8).
segment is about 11 o’clock and hold
those segments in position while C. Hold feed/concentrate port 4 and bearing
installing key segment at left side. plate 2 stationary and rotate sealing
plate 3 slightly to break seal. Remove
d. Rotate segments together until sealing plate.
butted square ends of mirror-image
pieces are at 12 o’clock. D. Press long, exposed end of feed/concen-
trate port further into bearing plate to
B. Orient securing ring 11 with its feed/ free the port retainer set 5.
concentrate port 4 cutout at 12 o’clock.
Hang ring on port and slide it in until E. First remove port retainer set (2 pieces),
securing screws 12 can be threaded into then feed/concentrate port from the
bearing plate 2. Do not push securing bearing plate (Picture 9).
ring into seated position against bearing F. Carefully remove two port seals 9
plate until securing screws are started or (Picture 10) and one end plug seal 8
cross-threading will result. from the sealing plate and one adaptor
CAUTION: Do not use securing screws O-ring 17 from the permeate port.
12 to draw securing ring 11 into place;
this may break screws. If holes in Clean and examine all components (Picture
securing ring do not align precisely with 11). Replace damaged parts. Replacement
tapped holes in bearing plate 2, rever- of all seals is recommended. The end plug
sing securing ring should improve must then be carefully reassembled:
alignment. A. Slightly lubricate each seal with gly-
C. Thread securing screws 12 into bearing cerine. Install port seals 9 in sealing
plate 2 one to one-half turns. plate 3 and adaptor O-ring 17 in permea-
te port 6 (Picture 12).
D. Once all three screws are started, use a
screw driver to tap all the way around on B. Hold the bearing plate 2 so that the
securing ring 11 until it is fully seated on stepped surface is facing toward you.
bearing plate 2 (Picture 6). From this side, insert the smaller,
machined end of the feed/concentrate
E. Tighten securing screws 12 until snug. port 4 through the off-center hole (Pic-
Do not overtighten; screws may break. ture 13).
F. Visually inspect locking ring set 10 to C. Install the port retainer set 5 into the
verify it is fully seated. Also verify groove in the machined end of the feed/
securing ring 11 is fully seated and held concentrate port (Picture 14). Pull port
in place by securing screws 12. back until retaining ring set bottoms in F. From sealing plate side, insert threaded
CAUTION: Integrity, reliability and safe bearing plate recess. end of permeate port through bearing/
operation of vessel depend on correct sealing plate combination (Picture 15).
installation of interlock components. D. Hold these components together so that
the retaining ring set remains firmly G. Thread port nut 7 (left-hand thread) onto
seated. With its larger diameter facing permeate port. Tighten until snug.
➧ End Plug Rebuilding the bearing plate, press the sealing plate CAUTION: With the port nut tightened
onto the machined end of the feed/ the sealing plate must sit flush against
To control the end plug for corrosion, it must
concentrate port. the bearing plate. If any gap is evident,
be disassembled:
the components have not been correctly
A. Remove permeate port nut 7 by uns- E. Rotate sealing plate until the two center assembled. Incorrect assembly can
crewing left-hand thread (Picture 7). holes are aligned. result in catastrophic failure!

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS
Precautions
Read and follow instructions. Failure to take

every precaution will void warranty and may
result in vessel failure. The A.S.I. PVE-8
pressure vessel must be installed and main-
tained in accordance with the precautions
listed and good industrial practice to assure
safe operation over a long service life. The
high performance FRP shell must be allowed
to expand under pressure; undue restraint at
support points or piping connections can
cause leaks to develop in the shell. The end
closure, incorporating close-fitting, interlocking
metal components, must be kept dry and free
of corrosion; deterioration can lead to cata-
strophic mechanical failure of the end plug.
Do not make rigid piping connections to ports Length and Assembly Weight
or clamp vessel to restrict expansion of shell
under pressure. At design pressure, expan- PVE-8 pressure vessels are available in 3
sion will be 0.5 mm (0.02 in) in diameter and pressure ratings: 28 bar (400 PSI), 41 bar
13 mm (0.5 in) in length for a six-element (600 PSI) and 69 bar (1,000 PSI), and in
vessel. sizes to house one to seven FILMTEC®
elements. The length L, the central span S
Do not hang piping manifolds from ports or for 2-part support and the empty weight of all
use vessel to support other components. 8-inch vessels is given in the following
Branch connection piping may be supported tables:
between the header and port. Maximum
weight of branch piping: feed/concentrate –
7 kg (16 lbs); permeate – 4 kg (8 lbs). Table
Do not operate vessel at pressures and No. of Elements L S Empty Wt

temperatures in excess of its rating. mm (In) mm (In) kg (Lb)
Provide overpressure protection for vessel, PVE-8-400

set at not more than 105 % of design 1 1,600 (63.0) 864 (34) 27 (60)
pressure. 2 2,616 (103.0) 1,422 (56) 36 (80)
3 3,632 (143.0) 2,032 (80) 45 (100)
Do not operate vessel with permeate port 4 4,648 (183.0) 2,642 (104) 54 (120)
pressure in excess of 9 bar (125 PSI) at 49°C. 5 5,664 (223.0) 3,251 (128) 63 (140)
6 6,680 (263.0) 3,810 (150) 73 (160)
Do not tighten permeate port connection 7 7,696 (303.0) (3 Pts.) 82 (180)
more than one turn past hand tight. PVE-8-600
1 1,600 (63.0) 864 (34) 36 (80)
Do not tolerate leaks or allow end closures to 2 2,616 (103.0) 1,422 (56) 48 (105)
be routinely wetted in any way. 3 3,632 (143.0) 2,032 (80) 61 (135)
4 4,648 (183.0) 2,642 (104) 73 (160)
Do not pressurize vessel until verifying the 5 5,664 (223.0) 3,251 (128) 86 (190)
locking ring set is in place and the securing 6 6,680 (263.0) 3,810 (150) 98 (215)
ring is fully seated and secured by securing
7 7,696 (303.0) (3 Pts.) 111 (245)
screws.
PVE-8-1000
Do not work on any component before 1 1,651 (65.0) 864 (34) 52 (115)
verifying pressure is relieved from the vessel. 2 2,667 (105.0) 1,422 (56) 70 (155)
3 3,683 (145.0) 2,032 (80) 91 (200)
4 4,699 (185.0) 2,642 (104) 109 (240)
5 5,715 (225.0) 3,251 (128) 129 (285)
6 6,731 (265.0) 3,810 (150) 147 (325)
7 7,747 (305.0) (3 Pts.) 166 (365)

6. System Operation
6.1 Introduction
Successful long-term performance

of the RO system depends on
proper operation and maintenance
of the system. This includes the
initial plant start-up and operational
start-ups and shut-downs.
Preventing fouling or scaling of the
membranes is not only a matter of
system design, but also a matter of
proper operation. Record keeping
and data normalization is required in
order to know the actual plant
performance and to enable correc-
tive measures when necessary.
Complete and accurate records are
also required in case of a system
performance warranty claim.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2 Initial Start-Up
6.2 Initial Start-Up The raw water intake must be stable

with respect to:
6.2.1 • Flow
Equipment
• SDI
The initial system start-up is typically • Turbidity
performed just after the element
loading. The material needed for • Temperature
element loading is listed in Section • pH
5.1. For start-up, the following is
also recommended: • Conductivity
• Safety glasses when working • Bacteria (standard plate count)
with chemicals
The following checks of the
• Thermometer pretreatment system and the RO
unit are recommended for the initial
• pH meter start-up (results to be included in the
• Conductivity meter (range: from start-up report):
permeate to brine conductivity)
• 3 or 4 clean 1 l plastic bottles
(with plugs) for each pressure
vessel for samples
• Analysis equipment for
· Total hardness
· Calcium
· Alkalinity
· Chloride
· Sulfate
· Iron
· Silica
· Free chlorine
· Redox potential
6.2.2
Pre-Start-Up Check
After having loaded the elements

into the pressure vessels and before
starting up the RO unit, make sure
that the whole pretreatment section
is working in accordance with the
specifications. If the pretreatment
involved changing of the chemical
characteristics of the raw water, then
a full analysis of the water entering
the RO unit must be made.
Furthermore, absence of chlorine,
turbidity and SDI must be
determined.

Pre-Start-Up Checklist
❒ Corrosion resistant materials of construction are used for all equipment including piping and wetted parts of pumps
❒ All piping and equipment is compatible with designed pressure
❒ All piping and equipment is compatible with designed pH range (cleaning)
❒ All piping and equipment is protected against galvanic corrosion
❒ Media filters are backwashed and rinsed
❒ New/clean cartridge filter is installed directly upstream of the high pressure pump
❒ Feed line, including RO feed manifold, is purged and flushed, before pressure vessels are connected
❒ Chemical addition points are properly located
❒ Check valves are properly installed in chemical addition lines
❒ Provisions exist for proper mixing of chemicals in the feed stream
❒ Provisions exist for preventing the RO system from operating when the dosage pumps are shut down
❒ Provisions exist for preventing the dosage pumps from operating when the RO system is shut down
❒ If chlorine is used, provisions exist to ensure complete chlorine removal prior to the membranes
❒ Planned instrumentation allows proper operation and monitoring of the pretreatment and RO system (see Section 4.12.5)
❒ Planned instrumentation is installed
❒ Instrumentation is calibrated
❒ Pressure relief protection is installed and correctly set
❒ Provisions exist for preventing the product pressure from exceeding the feed/brine pressure more than 0.3 bar (5 PSI) at any
time
❒ Interlocks, time delay relays and alarms are properly set
❒ Provisions exist for sampling permeate from individual modules
❒ Provisions exist for sampling feed, permeate and reject streams from each array and the total plant permeate stream
❒ Pressure vessels are properly piped both for operation and cleaning mode
❒ Pressure vessels are secured to the rack or frame
❒ Precautions as given in Section 5, Assembly and Loading of Pressure Vessels, are taken
❒ Membranes are protected from temperature extremes (freezing, direct sunlight, heater exhaust, etc.)
❒ Pumps are ready for operation (lubricated, proper rotation)
❒ Fittings are tight
❒ Permeate line is open
❒ Permeate flow is directed to drain
❒ Reject flow control valve is in open position
❒ Feed flow valve is throttled and/or pump bypass valve is partly open to limit feed flow to less than 50 % of operating feed flow

6.2.3 Typical Start-Up Sequence e. After the system has been flu-
Start-Up Sequence shed for a minimum of 30 minu-
a. Before initiating the start-up tes, close the feed pressure
Proper start-up of reverse osmosis sequence, thoroughly rinse the control valve.
(RO) water treatment systems is pretreatment section to flush out
essential to prepare the membranes debris and other contaminants f. Ensure that the concentrate
for operating service and to prevent without letting the feed enter the control valve is open.
membrane damage due to elements. Follow the Pre-Start- g. Slowly crack open the feed
overfeeding or hydraulic shock.
up check described in Section pressure control valve (feed
Following the proper start-up
sequence also helps ensure that 6.2.2. pressure should be less than
system operating parameters b. Check all valves to ensure that 0.4 MPa/60 psi).
conform to design specifications so settings are correct. The feed h. Start the high pressure pump.
that system water quality and pressure control and concentrate
productivity goals can be achieved. i. Slowly open the feed pressure
control valves should be fully
Measurement of initial system control valve, increasing the feed
performance is an important part of open.
pressure and feed flow rate to
the start-up process. Documented c. Use low pressure water at a low the membrane elements until the
results of this evaluation serve as flow rate to flush the air out of the design concentrate flow is
benchmarks against which ongoing elements and pressure vessels. reached. The feed pressure in-
system operating performance can
Flush at a gauge pressure of crease to the elements should be
be measured.
0.2 - 0.4 MPa (30 to 60 psi). All less than 0.07 MPa (10 psi) per
Before initiating system start up permeate and concentrate flows second. Continue to send all
procedures, membrane pretreat- should be directed to an appro- permeate and concentrate flows
ment, loading of the membrane ved waste collection drain during to an approved waste collection
elements, instrument calibration, flushing. drain.
and other system checks should be
completed. Following is the recom- d. During the flushing operation,
mended RO system start up check all pipe connections and
sequence: valves for leaks. Tighten con-
nections where necessary.
Typical RO System

j. Slowly close the concentrate s. Compare system performance to

control valve until the ratio of design values.
permeate flow to concentrate
t. Confirm proper operation of
flow approaches, but does not
mechanical and instrumental
exceed, the design ratio (reco-
safety devices.
very). Continue to check the
system pressure to ensure that it u. Switch the permeate flow from
does not exceed the upper design drain to the normal operating
limit. position.
k. Repeat steps "i" and "j" until the v. Lock the system into automatic
design permeate and concentrate operation.
flows are obtained.
w. Use the initial system perfor-
l. Calculate the system recovery mance information obtained in
and compare it to the system's steps "p" through "r" as a
design value. reference for evaluating future
system performance. Measure
m. Check chemical additions of
system performance regularly
acid, scale inhibitor, and sodium
during the first week of operation
metabisulfite (if used). Measure
to ensure proper performance
feedwater pH.
during this critical initial stage.
n. Check the Langelier Saturation
Index (LSI) or the Stiff & Davis
Stability Index (S & DSI) of the
concentrate by measuring pH,
conductivity, calcium hardness,
and alkalinity levels and then
making the necessary
calculations.
o. Allow the system to run for one
hour.
p. Take the first reading of all
operating parameters.
q. Read the permeate conductivity
from each pressure vessel and
identify any vessels that do not
conform to performance expecta-
tions (e.g., vessels with leaking
O-rings or other evidence of
malfunction).
r. After 24 to 48 hours of operation,
read all plant performance data
such as feed pressure, differential
pressure, temperature flows,
recovery and conductivity
readings (please refer to Section
6.4, Record Keeping). At the
same time draw samples of
feedwater, concentrate, and
combined system permeate and
analyze sample constituents.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 3+4 Operation Start-Up / Shutdown
6.3 Operation Start-Up 6.4 Shutdown • The elements do not dry out.
Dry elements will irreversibly
Once an RO membrane system has When the RO membrane system is lose flux.
been started up, ideally it should be shut down, the feed pressure control
kept running at constant conditions. valve is slowly closed, and the • The system is adequately
In reality, RO plants have to be shut concentrate control valve is slowly protected against micro-
down and restarted more or less opened, before the high pressure biological growth, or regular
frequently. Each start/stop cycle pump is switched off. Then the flushing is carried out every
means pressure and flow changes, system must be flushed with either 24 hours.
thus mechanical stress to the permeate water or high quality feed
membrane elements. Therefore, the water, to remove the high salt • When applicable, the system
start/stop frequency should be concentration from the modules until is protected against tempera-
minimized, and the regular concentrate conductivity matches ture extremes.
operation start-up sequence should feed water conductivity. Flushing is
be as smooth as possible. In done at low pressure (about 3 bar/
principle, the same sequence is 40 PSI). A high feed flow is The RO train can be stopped for
recommended as for the initial start- beneficial for a cleaning effect; 24 hours without preservation
up. Most important is a slow feed however a pressure drop of 1.4 bar and precautions for microbiological
pressure increase, especially for (20 PSI) per element or 4.1 bar (60 fouling.
sea water plants. PSI) per multi-element vessel must
not be exceeded. If feedwater for flushing every 24
hours is not available, preservation
The checks before and during start-
with chemicals is necessary for
up can be performed as a routine The water used for flushing shall
longer stops than 48 hours. Please
and partly be automated. The valves contain no chemicals used for the
refer to Section 8.3 for details.
can be operated by programmable pretreatment. Especially the scale
motors. The calibration of inhibitors must be absent. Therefore
instruments, the function of alarms the antiscalant dosing is stopped
and of safety devices, corrosion before flushing and also sulfuric acid
prevention and leak-free operation dosing.
have to be checked on a regular
basis. After flushing the system, the feed
valve(s) is (are) closed completely. If
the concentrate line ends into a
drain below the level of the pressure
vessels, then an air break has to be
employed in the concentrate line at
a position higher than the highest
pressure vessel. Otherwise the
vessels might be emptied by a
syphoning effect.
When the system has to be shut

down for extended periods of time
longer than 48 hours, take care that:

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 5 Adjustment of Operation Parameters
6.5 Adjustment of Operation tank may be used to allow a more permeate TDS is not exceeded.
Parameters constant operation. Alternatively, increasing
temperature can be compensated
6.5.1 Reducing the feed pressure is by taking a number of pressure
Introduction another way to reduce the permeate vessels out of service. By reducing
flow. Preferably, this is done by using the active membrane area, the feed
An RO membrane system is a speed controlled pump in order to pressure and the permeate TDS are
save energy. Normally, the system kept about constant. A system
designed on the basis of a defined
set of data such as the permeate recovery is kept constant when the analysis has to be run to make sure
flow, feedwater composition and permeate flow is reduced. It has to that maximum element permeate
be ensured by a system analysis flows are not exceeded. When some
temperature. In reality, the plant
operation has to be flexible to using the computer program, that vessels are taken out of service,
respond to changing needs or single element recoveries do not they have to be properly isolated
exceed their limits (see Section 4, and preserved.
changing conditions.
System Design). During low flow
operation, the system salt rejection is An increase in the feedwater salinity
6.5.2 lower than during design flow can be compensated by increasing
Brackish Water operation. Also, you must be certain the feed pressure up to the
that minimum concentrate flows are maximum. If further pressure
The normal way of operating maintained during low flow operation. increase is not possible, than a
brackish water RO plants is to keep lowered permeate flow and system
the flows and thus the recovery The net permeate flow can also be recovery has to be accepted. A
constant at the design values. Any reduced by recycling the excess lower feedwater salinity allows to
change in the membrane flux, e.g. permeate back to the feedwater. decrease the feed pressure and/or
by temperature or fouling, are This allows to keep the hydraulic to increase the system recovery
compensated by adjusting the feed and pressure conditions for the and/or to increase the permeate
pressure. However, the maximum membranes about constant. The flow.
specified feed pressure must not be permeate quality is improved during
exceeded, nor should too much this operation, and the recycled The adjustment of the permeate
fouling be tolerated (for cleaning, permeate has a cleaning effect on capacity to reduced needs is
please refer to Section 7). the membranes. normally accomplished by
sufficiently dimensional permeate
If the feedwater analysis changes 6.5.3 tanks.
such that the scaling potential Sea Water
increases, the system recovery has Big plants are split up into a number
to be decreased, or other measures In principle, the operation of identical trains. Then the number
have to be taken to cope with the parameters of sea water plants are of trains in service can be adjusted
new situation. Please refer to adjusted the same way as in to the needs.
Section 3, Water Chemistry and brackish water applications.
Pretreatment. However, the maximum allowed
feed pressure of 6.9 MPa (1000 PSI)
The most common situation is that and the permeate TDS are often the
the permeate capacity of the plant limiting factors.
has to be adjusted to the needs.
Normally, the capacity is designed Decreasing feedwater temperature
to meet the peak needs. Operating can be compensated by increasing
with overcapacity is generally not the feed pressure up to the
recommended. Thus, adjustment maximum. Once the maximum
means lowering the design pressure is reached, a further
permeate output. The easiest way is decreasing temperature causes the
to shut the plant down when no permeate flow to decrease.
permeate is needed. A high start/ Increasing temperature is
stop frequency, however, can lower compensated by lowering the feed
the performance and the lifetime of pressure. This is only possible,
the membranes. A permeate buffer however, as far as the tolerated

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 6 Record Keeping
6.6 Record Keeping • Date, time and hours of operation. • Any unusual incidents, for ex-
ample, upsets in SDI, pH and
• Pressure drop per cartridge and
6.6.1 pressure and shutdowns.
per array.
Introduction
• Complete water analysis of the
• Feed, permeate and concentrate
In order to be able to follow the feed, permeate and concentrate
pressure of each array.
performance of the RO unit, it is streams and the raw water at
necessary that all relevant data are • Permeate and concentrate flows start-up and every week there-
collected, recorded and kept on file. of each array. after.
Apart from keeping track of the
performance, the logsheets are also • Conductivity of the feed, per- The water analysis shall include:
valuable tools for troubleshooting, meate and concentrate streams
and are needed in the cases of for each array. Permeate con- · Calcium
warranty claims. ductivity of each pressure vessel · Magnesium
weekly.
This chapter is for general guidance · Sodium
• TDS of feed, permeate and
only and must not be used in place · Potassium
of the operating manual for a concentrate streams for each
particular plant. Site-dependent array. The TDS is calculated · Strontium
factors prevent specific recom- from the water analysis. It can
mendations for all record keeping. also be calculated from the · Barium
Thus, only the more general record conductivity (at 25°C) EC25 and · Iron (total, dissolved and
keeping is covered here. an appropriate K factor: ferrous)
TDS = K EC25 · Aluminium (total and dis
6.6.2
Start-Up Report The K factor has to be determi- solved)
ned for each specific stream. · Bicarbonate
• Provide a complete description of Typical K factors are shown in
the RO plant. This can be Table 2 5). · Sulfate
done using a flow diagram and · Chloride
• pH of the feed, permeate and
equipment, instrumentation, and
concentrate streams. · Nitrate
material list to show water
source, pretreatment system, RO • Silt Density Index (SDI) or turbi- · Fluoride
configuration and posttreatment dity of the RO feed stream, or
system. both. · Phosphate (total)
• Give results of checking accor- • Water temperature of the feed · Silica (dissolved)
ding to check list (Section 6.2.2). stream. · Total dissolved solids
• Provide calibration curves of all • Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) · Conductivity
gauges and meters based on of the concentrate stream from
manufacturers' recommendations. the last array (for concentrate · pH
streams < 10,000 mg/l TDS). · TOC
• Record initial performance of
RO and pretreatment system as • Stiff and Davis Stability Index
provided below. (S&DSI) of the concentrate Table 1: Factors for Estimating
stream from the last array TDS from Conductivity
(for concentrate streams >10,000
6.6.3 Water EC251 (mS/m) K
mg/l).
RO Operating Data
Permeate 0.1-1 0.50
• Calibration of all gauges and
The following data must be recorded meters based on manufacturer’s 30-80 0.55
and logged into an appropriate recommendations as to method Sea water 4,500-6,000 0.70
logsheet at least once per shift, and frequency but no less fre-
unless otherwise stated (see Table 2 Concentrate 6,500-8,500 0.75
quent than once every three
for an example). 1 EC25 does not include the conductivity caused by
months. dissolved CO2 (see 10.4 page3)

Table 2: Reverse Osmosis Operating Log (Example)
Per Shift
Train #
Design
Date
Time
Operating hours
Feed Array 1
Pressure
(psig)
Feed Array 2
Permeate
Concentrate
Cartridge
(psid)
∆p
Array 1
Array 2
Feed
(gpm)
Flow
Permeate
Concentrate
Recovery (%)
Feed
Conduc-
(mS/m)
tivity
Permeate
Concentrate
Feed
(mg/l)
TDS
Permeate
Concentrate
Salt Passage (%)
Raw Water
Feed
pH
Concentrate
Permeate
Cl2 (mg/l)
SDI
Feed
Turbidity (NTU)
Temperature (°C)
Level
Acid
Refill (l)
Consumption (g/m3)
Level
Normal- Inhibitor
Refill (l)
Consumption (g/m3)
Permeate flow (gpm)
ised
Salt Passage (%)

Remarks

6.6.4 • Record replacements or

Pretreatment Operating Data additions of RO devices.
Since the RO system performance • Record calibration of all

depends largely on the proper gauges and meters.
operation of the pretreatment, the • Record replacement or additi-
operating characteristics of the ons of pretreatment equip-
pretreatment equipment should be
ment, for example cartridge
recorded. Specific recommendations
for all record keeping cannot be filters and include date, brand
given, because pretreatment is site name and nominal rating.
dependent. Typically, the following • Record all cleanings of RO
items must be recorded: membranes. Include date,
duration of cleaning, cleaning
• Total residual chlorine
agent(s) and concentration,
concentration in the RO feed
solution pH, temperature
(daily - unless known to be
during cleaning, flow rate and
completely absent).
pressure (for cleaning proce-
• Discharge pressure of any dures see Section 7).
well or booster pumps (twice
a day).
• Pressure drop of all filters
(twice a day).
• Consumption of acid and any
other chemicals (daily - if
used).
• Calibration of all gauges and
meters based on manu-
facturers' recommendations
as to method and frequency
but no less frequent than
once every 3 months.
• Any unusual incidents, for
example, upsets and
shutdowns as they occur.
6.6.5
Maintenance Log
• Record routine maintenance.

• Record mechanical failures
and replacements.
• Record any change of mem-
brane element locations with
element serial numbers.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 7 Plant Performance Normalization
6.7 Plant Performance A. Normalized Permeate Flow

Normalization
∆ Ps
The performance of an RO system Pf – —— – Pp – πfc
s 2 s s TCFs
is influenced by the feed water Qs = ——————————— x —— x Qo (1)
composition, feed pressure, ∆ Po TCFo
temperature and recovery. For Pf – —— – Pp – πfc
example, a feed temperature drop of o 2 o o
4°C will cause a permeate flow

decrease of about 10 %. This,
however, is a normal phenomenon. with Pf = feed pressure
∆P
In order to distinguish between such —— = one half device pressure drop
normal phenomena and real 2
performance changes, the measured Pp = product pressure
permeate flow and salt passage
have to be normalized, that means πfc = osmotic pressure of the feed-concentrate mixture
compared to a given reference TCF = temperature correction factor
performance while the influences of
operating parameters are taken into Q = product flow
account. The reference performance subscript s = standard condition
may be the designed performance
or the measured initial performance. subscript o = operating condition
Normalization with reference to the The temperature correction factor follows the formula:
designed (or warranted) system TCF = EXP [2640 x {1 / 298 – 1 / (273 + T)}]; T ≥ 25°C
performance is useful to verify that
the plant gives the specified (or = EXP [3480 x {1 / 298 – 1 / (273 + T)}]; T ≤ 25°C
warranted) performance.
where T = temperature as °C.
Normalization with reference to the
initial system performance is useful
to show up any performance As standard conditions, we take either the design values or the conditions at
changes between day one and the initial performance as given in the start-up report, so that a fixed reference
actual date. point is available.
This procedure is strongly For the osmotic pressure, different formulas are available in the literature. A
recommended, because it allows an valid and practical short approximation is:
early identification of potential
problems (e.g. scaling or fouling) Cfc x (T + 320)
when the normalized data are πfc = ———————— bar for Cfc < 20000 mg/l
491000
recorded daily. Corrective measures
are much more promising when and
taken early. (0.0117 x Cfc ) – 34 T + 320
π fc = ————————— x ——— bar for Cfc > 20000 mg/l
A computer program called 14.23 345
FTNORM is available for normalizing
operating data and graphing Reg with Cfc = concentration of the feed-concentrate
parameters including normalized
permeate flow and salt passage as
well as pressure drop. This program
is available from Dow field sellers as
Form No. 60900163 and requires
Excel® software. Alternatively, the
measured plant performance at
operating conditions can be trans-
ferred to standard (reference) condi-
tions by the following calculations:
Cfc can be calculated from following approximation:
1
ln ——
(1-Y)
Cfc = Cf x ————
Y
product flow
where Y = recovery ratio = ——————
feed flow
Cf = TDS feed mg/l
B. The Normalized Permeate TDS is calculated from
∆ Po
Pf – —— – Pp – πfc + πp
o 2 o o o Cfc
Cp = Cp —————————————— x ——— s (2)
s o
∆P Cfc
Pf – ——s – Pp – πfc + πp o
s 2 s s s
Terms not yet defined under A are:
Cp = product concentration as ion in mg/l
πp = osmotic pressure of the permeate in bar
Example
➧ Values of Start-Up:
Feed water analysis in mg/l
Ca: 200 HCO3: 152

Mg: 61 SO4: 552
Na: 388 Cl: 633
Temp.: 15 °C (59 °F)

Pressure: 363 bar Pressure drop: 3 bar (43.5 psi)
Flow: 150 m3/h (660 gpm) Permeate pressure: 1 bar (14.5 psi)
Recovery: 75 % Permeate TDS: 83 mg/l

➧ Values after 3 months:
Feed water analysis in mg/l:

Ca: 200 HCO3: 152
Mg: 80 SO4: 530
Na: 480 Cl: 850
Temp.: 10 °C (50 °F)

Pressure: 28 bar (406 psi) Pressure drop: 4 bar (58 psi)
Flow: 127 m3/h (600 gpm) Permeate pressure: 2 bar (29 psi)
Recovery: 72 % Permeate TDS: 80 mg/l
For the standard conditions we have

Pf = 25 bar (363 psi)
s
∆ Ps
—— = 1.5 bar (181.5 psi)
2
Cf = 1986 mg/l
s
1
ln ———
1 - 0.75
Cfc = 1986 x ————— = 3671 mg/l
s
0.75
π fc = 2.5 bar (36.3 psi)

s
TCFs = EXP [3480 x {1 / 298 – 1 / (273 + 15)}] = 0.67
For the operating conditions we have

Pf = 28 bar (406 psi)
o
∆ Po
—— = 2 bar (29 psi)
2
Cf = 2292 mg/l
o
1
ln ———
1 - 0.72
Cfc = 2292 x ————— = 4052 mg/l
o
0.72
π fc = 2.72 bar (39.4 psi)

o
TCFo = EXP [3480 x {1 / 298 – 1 / (273 + 10)}] = 0.54

Substituting these values in equations (1) gives:
25 - 1.5 - 1 - 2.5 0.67

Qs = ———————— x —— x 127
28 - 2 - 2 - 2.7 0.54
= 148 m3/h normalized flow (652 gpm)
Compared to the start-up conditions, the plant has lost 1.6 % capacity. This is
very good for a period of 3 months. Cleaning is not yet necessary.
The normalized permeate TDS is given by
28 - 2 - 2 - 2.72 + 0.06 3670

Cp = ——————————— x ——— x 80
s
25 - 1.5 - 1 - 2.5 - 0.05 4052
= 77 mg/l
Compared to the initial 83 mg/l, the salt rejection has slightly improved. Such
behavior is typical for the initial phase.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 8 Control of Microbiological Activity
6.8 Control of Micro- 2. After a clarifier, settling pond, done according to the biological
biological Activity sludge contact unit or similar loading of the raw water, the
sedimentation process. efficiency of the continuous
Biofouling is one of the most breakpoint chlorination, and the
common and most severe problems 3. After filtration units (sand, multi-
specific characteristics of each
in the operation of RO systems. media, activated carbon or
individual plant design.
Especially for plants using surface other).
water or bacteriologically In this sense, it is also recom-
contaminated water as feed source, 4. After dechlorination (normally
mended that the backwash of the
it is of paramount importance to after cartridge filtration).
media filters be done with suf-
control the microbiological activity. A 5. Concentrate stream. ficiently chlorinated water.
properly designed and operated
pretreatment is a prerequisite (see 6. Permeate stream. In general terms, the water used
Section 3.6: Biological Fouling for disinfection, flushing and to
The frequency of sampling and
Prevention). prepare cleaning solutions
analysis depends on the risk of
biofouling. For surface water plants, should be of good quality and
A complete procedure for sampling
a daily check of the feed water (point free of biological life.
and analysis should be part of the
operating discipline, so that any 4) and a weekly check of all points is • The components of the pretreat-
increase of the microbiological recommended.
ment system such as pipes,
activity can be responded to at an manifolds, filters and retention
early stage. The methods to assess System Checking
tanks should be opaque to sun-
the biological fouling potential are Before start-up and whenever
problems related to microbiological light to avoid enhancing the
described in Section 3.6.2.
activity are suspected, the following biological growth.
The sampling of microbiological checks should be carried out: • All piping, tanks, manifolds as
activity can be done using pre-
• In case intermediate open basins well as the retention tanks, filters
sterilized sampling containers, or
coupons, such as Millipore or or tanks are used, provisions etc.; i.e. the whole pretreatment
Robbin biofilm samplers or other should be made to ensure proper system shall be disinfected
dynamic simulations of disinfection at that open source previous to each start-up,
microbiological activity and its and the part of the system down- following shutdown times as well
distribution in the real system. stream from it. as periodically when the RO plant
is being operated continuously. A
If the lab equipment needed for • If intermediate sealed tanks are good way to do it is by dynamic
analysis of the microbiological used, their air breathing or venti- breakpoint chlorination of the
samples is not available at the RO- lation systems should be equip- system with the exception of the
plant site, an adequate lab should ped with bacteria retaining de-
be found to perform the needed RO section. In this case RO
vices (e.g. HEMA filters). section and in particular the
analysis.
• Blind long pieces of piping FT30 membranes shall be pro-
If the analysis cannot be done at the should be avoided by design, tected from chlorine. The best
site, the samples should be put in and when unavoidable, should way to protect them, is to physi-
the refrigerator and the analysis be periodically disinfected. cally isolate the RO section from
performed within 8 hours of the rest by using a flange. For
sampling. • Stand-by devices with large these cases, a drain should be
surfaces, like sand or cartridge installed at a low point close to
Sampling Points filters should be avoided. If they the flange.
Adequate sampling points should be are not avoidable, drains should
provided to make a microbiological be installed to discharge the • Adequate chemicals for storage,
balance and control in the plant disinfection chemicals after the cleaning and disinfection should
possible. The minimum number of devices have been disinfected, always be available at the RO
sampling points required are listed plant site.
below: and before connecting them to
1. Intake (surface) or well, before the active system.
chlorination if any. The periodic disinfection of the
pretreatment system should be

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 9 Reference
6.9 References
1) Youngberg, D.A.: Start-up of an RO/DI Pure Water System. Ultrapure Water, March/April 1986, 46-50.
2) ASTM D4472-89: Standard Guide for Record Keeping for Reverse Osmosis Systems.
3) ASTM D4516-85 (Reapproved 1989): Standard Practice for Standardizing Reverse Osmosis Performance Data.
4) ASTM D4195-88: Standard Guide for Water Analysis for Reverse Osmosis Application.
5) Walton, V.R.G.: Electrical Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids – What is Their Precise Relationship?
Desalination, 72 (1989) 275-292.

7. Cleaning and Disinfection
7.1 Introduction decline, lower permeate flow rate

and/or higher solute passage.
The surface of RO membrane is Increased pressure drop between
subject to fouling by foreign the feed and concentrate side can
materials which may be present in be a side effect of fouling.
the feed water such as hydrates of Cleaning can be accomplished very
metal oxides, calcium precipitates, effectively because of the FT30
organics and biological matter. (The membrane’s combination of pH
term “fouling” here includes the stability and temperature resistance.
build-up of all kinds of layers on the
membrane surface, including If the time of cleaning is delayed too
scaling). long however, it is difficult to remove
the foulants completely from the
The pretreatment of the feedwater membrane surface. The cleaning will
prior to the RO process is basically be more effective the better it is
designed to reduce contamination of tailored to the specific fouling
the membrane surfaces as much as problem. Sometimes, a wrong
possible. This is accomplished by choice of cleaning chemicals can
installing an adequate pretreatment even worsen the situation.
system and selecting optimum Therefore, the type of foulants on
operating conditions such as the membrane surface should be
permeate flow rate, pressure and determined prior to cleaning. There
permeate water recovery ratio. are different possibilities:
• Analyze the plant performance
Occasionally, fouling of the
data. Details are given in Sec-
membrane surfaces is caused by
tion 10: “Troubleshooting”.
• inadequate pretreatment system
• Analyze the feed water. A poten-
• pretreatment upset conditions tial fouling problem may already
• improper materials selection be visible there.
(pumps, piping, etc.) • Check the results of previous
• failure of chemical dosing cleanings.
systems • Analyze the foulants collected
• inadequate flushing following with a membrane filter used for
shutdown SDI value determination.
• improper operation control • Analyze the deposits on the

cartridge filter.
• slow build-up of precipitates over
extended periods (barium, silica) • Inspect the inner surface of the
feed line tubing and the feed end
• change in feed water composition scroll of the FILMTEC® element.
• biological contamination of feed If it is reddish-brown, fouling by
water iron materials may be conside-
red. Biological fouling or organic
The fouling of membrane surfaces material is often slimy or gela-
manifests itself in a performance tinous.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2+3 Cleaning Requirements / Safety Preautions
7.2 Cleaning 7.3 Safety Precautions

Requirements
In using any chemicals mentioned in
Elements should be cleaned this section, follow accepted safety
whenever: practices. Always wear eye
• the normalized permeate flow protection as a minimum. In the
case of handling corrosive
drops by 10 percent,
chemicals (e.g. sulfuric acid) wear
• the normalized salt content of the full face cover and protective
product water increases by 10%, clothing. Consult the relevant
Material Safety Data Sheets as
• the differential pressure (feed supplied by the manufacturer of the
pressure - concentrate pressure) chemicals.
∆ P increases by 15% from the
reference conditions (initial Check the materials of construction
performance established during used in the cleaning system is
the first 24 to 48 hours of adequate and compatible with the
operation). cleaning chemicals to be used.
Never use aluminium as material in
It should be noted that it is important contact with the cleaning solution.
to normalize flow and salt content of
the permeate according to the
normalization procedure described
in Section 6.7.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 4 Cleaning Equipment
7.4 Cleaning Equipment B. Volume in Pipes, Assume 50 ft for the flows and pressures given in
Length Total, SCH 80 Pipe Table 1, making allowances for
The equipment for cleaning is shown pressure drops in the piping and
in the cleaning system flow diagram Vp = π r2 x L across the cartridge filter. The pump
(Figure 1). The pH of cleaning should be constructed of 316 SS or
solutions used with FILMTEC® 3.14 (50 mm)2 x (30 m) non-metallic composite polyesters.
elements can be in the range of 1 to = 236 l
12, and therefore non-corrosive Appropriate valves, flow meters, and
materials should be used in the pressure gauge should be installed
cleaning system. Vct = V8 + Vp = 1600 l + 236 l to adequately control the flow.
Service lines may be either hard
The mixing tank should be = 1836 l piped or portable hoses. In either
constructed of polypropylene or case, the flow rate should be less
fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP). Therefore, the cleaning tank should than 10 ft/sec.
The tank should be provided with a be about 450 gal.
removable cover and a temperature The cleaning pump should be sized
gauge.
The cleaning procedure is more
effective when performed at an
elevated temperature. It is not
recommended to use a cleaning
temperature below 15°C (59°F)
because of the very slow cleaning
rate at low temperatures. In addition,
chemicals such as sodium lauryl
sulfate might precipitate at low
temperatures. Cooling may also be
required to avoid overheating, so
heating/cooling requirements must
be considered during the design.
A rough rule of thumb in sizing a
cleaning tank is to use
approximately the empty pressure
vessel volume and then add the
volume of the feed and return hoses
or pipes.
For example, to clean eight 8-inch
diameter pressure vessels with six
elements per vessel, the following
calculations would apply (for TANK Chemical Mixing Tank.
polypropylene or FRP
DP
FI
Differential Pressure Gauge
Flow Indicator
conversion of U.S. units into metric IH Immersion Heater (may be replaced FT Flow Transmitter (optional)
by cooling coil for some site locations PI Pressure Indicator
units see Section 10.7). TI Temperature Indicator V1 Pump Recirculation Valve, CPVC
TC Temperature Control V2 Flow Control Valve. CPVC
LLS Lower Level Switch to shut off pump V3 Concentrate Valve, CPVC 3 way valve
SS Security Screen – 100 mesh V4 Permeate Velve, CPVC 3 way valve
A. Volume in Vessels PUMP Low Pressure Pump, 316 SS or V5 Permeate Inlet Valve, CPVC
non-metallic composite V6 Tank Drain Valve, PVC or CPVC
CF Cartridge Filter, 5–10 micron V7 Purge Valve, SS, PVC or CPVC
V1 = π r2 x L polypropylene with PVC, FRP
or SS housing.
= 3.14 (4 in)2 x (6 x 40 in)
V1 = 200 l/vessel Figure 1: Cleaning System Flow Diagram

V8 = 200 x 8 = 1600 l

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 5 Cleaning Procedure
7.5 Cleaning Procedure difficult fouling an extended soak 7. Flush out. RO permeate or good
period is beneficial; soak the quality water (filtered, SDI < 3,
There are eight steps in the cleaning elements overnight for 10-15 free of bacteria and chlorine,
of reverse osmosis modules: hours. To maintain a high tempe- conductivity < 10,000 µS/cm) is
1. Prepare and mix the appropriate rature during an extended soak used for flushing out the residual
cleaning solution, and check pH period, use a slow recirculation cleaning solution. To prevent
of the solution. Ensure that all rate (about 10% of that shown in precipitation, the minimum flush
chemicals are dissolved and Table 1). out temperature is 20°C. Before
well-mixed before circulating the starting up the plant with normal
5. High flow pumping. Feed the
solution to the elements. Any operating pressures and flows,
cleaning solution at the rates
cleaning solution must be clear. the bulk of the cleaning solution
shown in Table 1 for 30-60 minu-
must be flushed from the ele-
2. Low flow pumping. Pump tes. The high flow rate flushes
ments.
mixed, preheated cleaning solu- out the foulants removed from
tion to the vessel at conditions of the membrane surface by the 8. Rinse out. The RO plant is
low flow rate (about half of that cleaning. If the elements are started up again resuming nor-
shown in Table 1) and low pres- heavily fouled, which should mal operating conditions. As
sure to displace the process never happen, a flow rate which cleaning chemicals will be pre-
water. Adjust flow rate and pres- is 50% higher than shown in sent on the permeate side after
sure by valves V1 and V2. Use Table 1 may aid cleaning. At cleaning, the permeate must be
only enough pressure to com- higher flow rates excessive discharged to drain for at least
pensate for the pressure drop pressure drop may be a problem. 10 minutes (or until the required
from feed to concentrate. The The maximum recommended permeate quality is obtained)
pressure should be low enough drops are 1.4 bar (20 PSI) per when starting up after cleaning.
that essentially no permeate is element or 4.1 bar (60 PSI) per When another cleaning cycle
produced. A low pressure mini- multi-element vessel, whichever with another cleaning chemical is
mizes redeposition of dirt on the value is more limiting. For 8" to follow, make sure that the
membrane. Dump the concen- elements, the direction of flow permeate side of the module is
trate, as necessary to prevent during cleaning must be the rinsed out as well. Otherwise a
dilution of the cleaning solution. same as during normal operation chemical reaction with the fol-
to avoid telescoping of the ele- lowing cleaning chemical may
3. Recycle. After the process water ments. happen.
is displaced, cleaning solution
will be present in the concentrate
stream. Then recycle the concen- Table 1: Recommended Feed Flow Rate per Pressure Vessel
trate to the cleaning solution tank during High Flow Rate Recirculation
and allow the temperature to
stabilize. Observe the turbidity of Element Diameter Feed Flow Rate per PV
(in) (GPM) (m3/h)
alkaline or detergent solutions to
judge efficiency. If the cleaning 2.5 3-5 0.7 - 1.1
solution colors or becomes 4 8 - 10 1.8 - 2.3
turbid, restart with a freshly pre-
pared cleaning solution. Check 8 30 - 40 7-9
the pH during acid cleaning. The
acid is consumed when it 6. Drain the spent cleaning solution During the rinse out step, the
dissolves inorganic precipitates. out of the system. Recommenda- operating parameters should be
So if the pH increases more than tion: Take a sample of the spent noted to judge the cleaning
0.5 pH units, add more acid. and of the fresh cleaning soluti- efficiency and to decide if ano-
on. From the results of a chemi- ther cleaning is required.
4. Soak. Turn the pump off and cal analysis, you can determine
allow the elements to soak. the amount of substances remo-
Sometimes a soak period of ved from the membrane ele-
about 1 hour is sufficient. For ments.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 5 Cleaning Procedure
If the system has to be shut down

after cleaning for longer than 24
hours, the elements should be
stored in a preservation solution
(see Section 8: Handling and
Preservation).
For multi-array (tapered) systems,

cleaning should be carried out
separately for each array (except
rinse out), so the flow rate is not too
low in the first array or too high in
the last. Also, any deposits removed
from the first array will not be carried
all the way through the following
arrays where they might clog the
feed channels.
This can be accomplished either by

using one cleaning pump and
operating one array at a time, or
using a separate cleaning pump for
each array.
A multi-array system can also be

cleaned successively in groups of
about equal numbers of parallel
vessels. For example, a 8:4 staged
system can be cleaned in 3 groups
each with 4 vessels in parallel. This
allows an optimum selection of the
cleaning pump.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 6 Cleaning Chemicals
7.6 Cleaning Chemicals Some cleaning chemicals, however,

worsen the performance of the clean
The FT30 membrane’s chemical membrane, e.g. by fouling and
stability allows a wide range of subsequent flux loss. Before brand
cleaning chemicals to be used. name cleaning chemicals are used,
However, there is no sharp their compatibility with FILMTEC®
borderline between cleaning FT30 elements has to be secu-
chemicals not affecting the red.The procedure for compatibility
membrane performance, and testing is a long-term cleaning test
cleaning chemicals affecting the on a new FILMTEC element under
membrane performance. The the harshest recommended cleaning
cleaning chemicals and cleaning conditions. A soak test with FT30
conditions recommended here are membrane coupons can be used as
such, that the specified element a screening test. A chemical
performance is not affected after compatability testing procedure is
three years of operation when the described in section 10.11 of this
cleaning chemicals or cleaning manual.
conditions are applied for 2 hours
once a week. The cleaning chemicals listed in
Table 4 have shown FT30
Harsh and frequent cleaning will compatibility in short-term tests
shorten the membrane life (typically (cleaning efficacy has not been
by increased salt passage), while tested!).They can be used, provided
mild and seldom cleaning will extend the membrane plant performance is
the membrane life (anticipated that carefully monitored to detect any
no fouling occurs). long term effects at an early stage.
When cleaning, follow the cleaning
Table 2 lists suitable cleaning chemical manufacturer’s instructions
chemicals. Acid cleaners and and observe the pH limits of the
alkaline cleaners are the standard membrane (Table 3).
cleaning chemicals. The acid
cleaners are to remove inorganic
precipitates including iron, while the
alkaline cleaners are to remove
organic fouling including biological
matter. Sulfuric acid should not be
used for cleaning because of the risk
of calcium sulfate precipitation.
Preferably, reverse osmosis

permeate should be used for the
cleaning solutions but prefiltered raw
water will also work in most cases.
The raw water can be highly
buffered, so more acid or hydroxide
may be needed with raw water to
reach the desired pH level, which is
about 2 for acid cleaning and about
12 for alkaline cleaning.
During cleaning, the pH range and

maximum temperatures as given in
Table 3 must not be exceeded.
Brand name cleaning chemicals
are frequently used in the field
rather than self-made formulations.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 6 Cleaning Chemicals
Table 2: Simple Cleaning Solutions for FT30 Membrane
Cleaner 0.1% (W) 0.1% (W) 0.1% STP 0.2% (W) 0.5% (W) 2.0% (W) 0.2% (W) 1.0% (W)
NaOh and NaOH and and 1.0% HCI H2PO4 Citric Acid NH2SO3H Na2S2O4
pH 12,30°C pH 12,30°C Na4EDTA or
max. or 1.0% (W) max. or 0.025%& 0.1% TSP and
Na4EDTA and Na-DDS and 1.0% Na4EDTA
Foulant pH 12,30°C max pH 12,30°C max
Inorganic Salts
(for example, Cac3,
CaS4, BaSO4) best OK OK OK
Metal Oxides (for example iron) good OK good
Inorganic Colloids (silt) good
Silica OK
Biofilms best good good
Organic OK good good
1. (W) denotes weight percent of active 2. Cleaning chemical symbols, in order used: phosphate (Na 3PO 4 X 12H2 O); HCl is
ingredient. NaOH is sodium hydroxide; Na-EDTA hydrochloric acid; H3PO4 is phosphoric
is the sodium salt of ethylene diamine acid; citric acid is C 3H 4(OH)(CO2H 3);
tetraacetic acid; Na-DDS is sodium salt of NH2SO3H is sulfamic acid; Na2S2O4 is
dodecylsulfate; STP is sodium sodium hydrosulfite.
triphosphate (Na5P3O10); TSP is trisodium
Table 3: pH Range and Temperature Limits During Cleaning

Max Temp Max Temp Max Temp
50°C 35°C 30°C Continuous
pH Range pH Range pH Range Operation
SW30, SW30 HR 3-10 2-11 2-12 2-11

BW30, TW30 2-10 1-11 1-12 2-11
NF45, SR90 3-10 2-11 1-11 3-9
Table 4: Short Term Compatible Brand Name Cleaning Chemicals
ARGO-Bioclean 511, Argo Scientific Filtrapure, Acid Monarch 972-0-1 (5% soak test)
ARGO-Bioclean 882, Argo Scientific Filtrapure TF Monarch 972-0-2 (5% s.t.)
ARGO-IPA 403, Argo Scientific Floclean 403, FMC Monarch 972-0-3 (5% s.t.)
ARGO-IPA 411, Argo Scientific Floclean 411, FMC Monarch 2024-11-7 (0.5%)
ARGO-AES 510, Argo Scientific Gambro WRO Monarch Enzyme Cleaner 96
ARROW-TREAT 2100 Henkel P3-ultrasil 10 (1% soak test)
Henkel P3-ultrasil 70 MT 1000 F, BF Goodrich
ARROW-TREAT 2200 Henkel P3-ultrasil 75 (1% soak test) MT 2000 F, BF Goodrich
ARROW-TREAT 2300 Jal/Nas 30 0.1% + 0.1NaOH MT 2100, BF Goodrich
KL 2000, King-Lee MT 3000 F, BF Goodrich
Dia 707, Argo Scientific KL 3000, King-Lee MT 4000, BF Goodrich
Diamite-FT, King-Lee Klenzade KX-6713B
Diamite-FT, Antimicrobial, King Lee Mic Chem Cleaner (4% soak test) Scaleclean 87, Grace
Divos 115, Diversey Wyandotte
Feedmate 151, Grace
Test concentration was double the recommended strength unless otherwise stated.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 7 Disinfecting RO Systems
7.7 Disinfecting If an alkaline cleaning has preceded 3. Circulate a solution of 0.2%

RO Systems disinfection, the alkalinity has to be hydrogen peroxide (preferably
carefully rinsed out also from the containing peracetic acid) diluted
7.7.1 permeate side (check pH!) before with RO permeate and pH adjus-
Introduction peroxide/peracetic acid is applied. ted to 3-4 with HCl at a tem-
Otherwise the membrane might
perature below 25°C for 20
If the plant has been infected by become oxidized.
minutes.
bacteria or mold, a disinfection must Two other factors greatly influence
be carried out after the cleaning. the rate of hydrogen peroxide attack 4. Allow the elements to soak in the
The procedure is the same as for on the membrane: temperature and disinfecting solution for 2 hours.
cleaning, except that the high flow iron.
pumping step can be skipped. 5. Flush out the disinfecting soluti-
The disinfecting solution must not on. Rinse the system.
exceed 25°C. FT30 membrane
7.7.2 samples tested with 0.5% hydrogen
Formaldehyde peroxide at 34°C showed a very 7.7.4.
high salt passage after several Chlorinated Disinfectants
Formaldehyde can be used as a hours. At 24°C however, membrane
disinfectant with 0.5 to 3.0% samples demonstrated compatibility FILMTEC® FT30 membrane can
concentrations. Care should be with 0.5% hydrogen peroxide after withstand short-term exposure to
taken in handling this chemical and 96 hours. free chlorine (hypochlorite);
in flushing the system after use. Iron or other transition metals however, its resistance is limited.
must not be present, because they The membrane can be used
7.7.3 catalyze membrane degradation in successfully in installations where
Hydrogen Peroxide and the presence of hydrogen peroxide system upsets result in temporary
Peracetic Acid solutions. FT30 samples were tested exposure to free chlorine. Eventual
using a 0.15% solution of hydrogen degradation may occur after
Hydrogen peroxide or hydrogen peroxide and tapwater containing approximately 200-1,000 hours of
peroxide/peracetic acid solutions iron. After 150 hours, the salt exposure to one ppm concentrations
can be used at concentrations up to passage of the membrane began to of free chlorine. The rate of chlorine
0.2%. The biocidal efficacy of increase dramatically. attack depends on various
peracetic acid is much higher than feedwater characteristics. Under
that of hydrogen peroxide, but as For RO systems using the FT30 alkaline pH conditions, chlorine
most peracetic acid solutions also membrane, Dow recommends the attack is faster than at neutral or
following procedure for disinfection acidic pH. Chlorine attack is also
contain hydrogen peroxide, care
must be exercised not to exceed the with hydrogen peroxide solutions: faster at higher concentrations of
0.2% concentration as a sum of both 1. Any type of deposit on the mem- heavy metals (e.g. iron), which
compounds. Continuous exposure at brane or other parts of the catalyze membrane degradation. As
this concentration may eventually system should be removed with in many cases there will be some
damage the membrane. Instead, an alkaline cleaner before dis- iron fouling on the membrane, the
periodic use is recommended. infecting. Removal of these intended use of chlorinated
deposits, which harbor micro- disinfectants should not be
When hydrogen peroxide is applied, organisms, will maximize the considered.
the pH of the solution must be degree of disinfection. After
lower than 4. A pH of 3 is alkaline cleaning, flush the Disinfection with agents containing
recommended. This will ensure system with RO permeate. combined chlorine is generally
optimal biocidal results and longer not recommended. This includes
membrane lifetime. If no acid is 2. Clean the RO system with acid, such compounds as chloramine,
added to the hydrogen peroxide e.g. 0.1% by volume hydrochloric chloramine-T, and N-chloroiso-
solution, the chemical attack on the acid or 0.4% by volume phos- cyanurate. FT30 is resistant to mild
membrane will be much faster. phoric acid, to remove any iron chlorinating agents such as these at
When a mixture with peracetic acid from the membrane surface. low concentration (< 3 mg/l).
is used, pH adjustment is usually not
Flush the unit with RO permeate.
required.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 7 Disinfecting RO Systems
However, their effectiveness as Table 1: Brand Name Biocides with limited FT30 Compatiblity
disinfectants at low concentrations is (for intermittent use)
limited. These compounds can also
slowly damage the membrane, since Biocide Max. Concentration Supplier
they are in equilibrium with small (20-25°C)
amounts of free chlorine. When
used, the pH must be <8. Rogun 881 200 ppm Argo Scientific
Bactipal SN 1%, pH < 4 Seppic
7.7.5 Dow Antimicrobial 7287 200 ppm Dow Chemical
Other Disinfectants Minncare 1%, pH < 4 Minntech
Renalin 1%, pH < 4 Minntech
Iodine, quaternary germicides,
and phenolic compounds cause
flux losses and are not
recommended for use as
disinfectants. Table 2: FT30 Compatible Brand Name Biocides
70% ethanol can be used for Biocide Max. Concentration Supplier

disinfection. Brand name biocides (20-25°C)
have also been tested for effects on
the membrane performance.1 There Bioclean 882 0.2 % Argo Scientific
are fully compatible and limited C-68 0.09 % Betz
compatible biocides. Kathon GC/ICP 0.15 % Rohm and Haas
Nalco 2593 0.15 % Nalco
Those biocides which have limited Monarch Soak 40 5 % Monarch Chemical
compatibility can be in contact with Filtrapure Membrane Preservative 1 % Monarch Chemical
the membrane for two hours a week
for at least 3 years without any
significant effect on the membrane
performance. However, in
continuous contact, a change in
membrane performance might be
detectable after a few weeks. The
biocides with limited compatibility
are listed in Table 1.
Biocides with full compatibility can
be in contact with the membrane
continuously for at least one year
without significant loss of salt
rejection and permeate flux
(cleaning may be required, however,
after long term disinfection). Those
biocides can also be used for
preservation (see also Section 8).
Table 2 lists the fully compatible
biocides:
1 For the biocidal efficacy, contact the supplier.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 8 Cleaning and Disinfection Programs
7.8 Cleaning and Dis- Examples of cleaning processes tailored to specific situations are given
infection Programs below. The list is not meant to be complete.
➧ A. Situation: Organic Fouling, no Biofouling
Different degrees of cleaning Cleaning: Soft Alkaline
processes can be applied to FT30
membrane depending on the a. Follow instructions in Section 7.3 and 7.4. Clean each array separately.
foulants. These cleaning processes b. Flush with permeate or good quality water 1 for 5 minutes.
range from a simple flushing with c. Prepare cleaning solution: Na-EDTA (0.2%)
prefiltered water up to a complicated NaOH (< 0.1%, pH 11)
cleaning program including different Na-Laurylsulfate (0.1-0.2%) 2
harsh cleaning chemicals and d. Circulate about 1 hour.
disinfectants. Cleaning processes e. Soak 2-6 hours 3.
may be ranked in the following f. Drain the cleaning solution out of the system.
order:
g. Flush with permeate or good quality water for 5 min.
1. Forward flush with pretreated
raw water (high feed flow, low
Notes: · Measure temperature and pH before and during each of the indicated
feed pressure). steps.
2. Cleaning with permeate. · Limit temperature to 30°C (86°F).
· Prepare cleaning solution with permeate or good quality water 1.
3a.Cleaning with sodium hydrosulfite,
· Restart the RO plant within 10 hours after finishing the cleaning, or, in
acid or alkaline at pH well within
cases of prolonged shutdown, preserve the membranes.
the limits.
3b.Disinfection with formaldehyde or
➧ B. Situation: Organic Fouling, Biofouling Expected
fully approved biocide. Cleaning: Soft Alkaline and Disinfection
4a.Cleaning with acid or alkaline at a. Follow instructions in Section 7.3 and 7.4. Clean each array separately.
pH limits. b. Flush with permeate or good quality water 1 for 5 minutes.
4b.Disinfection with hydrogen perox- c. Prepare cleaning solution: Na-EDTA (0.2%)
ide. NaOH (< 0.1%, pH 11)
Na-Laurylsulfate (0.1-0.2%) 2
5. Cleaning with formulations con- d. Circulate about 1 hour.
taining EDTA. e. Soak 2-6 hours 3.
6. Cleaning program with different f. Drain the cleaning solution out of the system.
cleaning chemicals and/or dis- g. Flush with permeate or good quality water for 5 min.
infectants. A cleaning/disinfection h. Prepare a 0.5-1% formaldehyde 4 solution.
program may include soft or i. Circulate about 45-60 minutes.
harsh chemicals. j. Drain formaldehyde solution out of system.
When the optimum cleaning process k. Flush the plant with permeate or good quality water 1 for about 10 to 15 minutes.
is to be selected, the following has
to be considered: Notes: · Measure temperature and pH before and during each of the indicated
steps.
• Minimize impact on the environ-
· Limit temperature to 30°C (86°F).
ment by spent cleaning solutions
(e.g. EDTA, biocides).
• Optimize foulants removing cases of prolonged shutdown, preserve the membranes.
efficacy.
• Minimize impact on membranes 1 Filtered water, SDI < 3, free of bacteria and chlorine, conductivity < 10,000 µs/cm.
2 Na-Laurylsulfate improves cleaning, but it can be omitted in case it is not available.
(prefer mild chemicals).
3 The soaking time can be reduced to about 2 hours if the cleaning solution is recirculated every
• Minimize cleaning costs. 30 minutes for about 10-30 minutes.
4
Refer to Section 7.7.2 for cautions when using formaldehyde with FT30 membrane.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 8 Cleaning and Disinfection Programs
➧ C. Situation: Carbonate Scaling, Metal Oxides, Hydrolyzed SHMP =

Cleaning:
a. Follow instructions in Section 7.3 and 7.4. Clean each array separately.
b. Flush with permeate or good quality water 1 for 5 minutes.
c. Prepare cleaning solution: 0.7% Henkel P3-ultrasil 70.
d. Circulate about 20 min at 30-35°C (86-95°F) or 30 min at 20-30°C
(68-86°F).
e. Drain the cleaning solution out of the system.
f. Flush with permeate or good quality water 1 for 5 min.
g. Restart the RO plant, and after stabilization of the operation (about 1
hour after steady operation) measure operating parameters to control
efficiency of the cleaning.
Notes: · Measure and record temperature and pH before and during each of the
indicated steps.
· In case the pH of the freshly prepared cleaning solution increases by more
than 1 pH unit during recirculation (e.g. from pH 2.5 to pH 3.8 after 5
minutes recycle), please adjust the pH to the original one by carefully
adding concentrated cleaning chemical.
=
Sodium hexa meta phosphate can precipitate as calcium phosphate, when hydrolyzed.
1 Filtered water, SDI < 3, free of bacteria, conductivity < 10,000 µS/cm.
➧ D. Situation: Type of Foulants not Known

Cleaning: Soft Alkaline / Disinfection / Acid
a. Follow instructions in Section 8.3 and 8.4. Clean each array separately.
b. Flush with permeate or good quality water 1 for 5 minutes.
c. Prepare cleaning solution: Na-EDTA (0.2%)
NaOH (< 0.1%, pH 11)
Na-Laurylsulfate (0.1-0.2%) 2
d. Circulate about 1 hour.
e. Soak 2-6 hours 3.
f. Drain the cleaning solution out of the system.
g. Flush with permeate or good quality water 1 for 5 min.
h. Prepare a 0.5-1% formaldehyde 4 solution.
i. Circulate about 45-60 minutes.
j. Drain formaldehyde solution out of system.
k. Flush the plant with permeate or good quality water 1 for about 10 to 15 minutes.
l. Prepare a 0.1% HCl solution (pH » 2).
m. Circulate about 1 hour.
n. Flush the plant with permeate or good quality water 1 for about 10 to 15 minutes.
Notes: · Measure temperature and pH before and during each of the indicated
steps.
· Limit temperature to 30°C (86°F).
cases of prolonged shutdown, preserve the membranes.
1
Filtered water, SDI < 3, free of bacteria and chlorine, conductivity < 10,000 µs/cm.
2 Na-Laurylsulfate improves cleaning, but it can be omitted in case it is not available.
3 The soaking time can be reduced to about 2 hours if the cleaning solution is recirculated every
30 minutes for about 10-30 minutes.
4
Refer to Section 7.7.2 for cautions when using formaldehyde with FT30 membrane.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 9 Emergency Cleaning
7.9 Emergency Cleaning
When cleaning has not been carried

out in time, e.g. the differential
pressure ∆ P has already doubled,
or the normalized product flow has
dropped by 50%, the success of
previously described cleaning
processes may be limited. If those
standard cleaning techniques fail to
remove the foulants, more harsh
cleaning methods can be tried.
Please contact your Dow

representative for recommendations.
It has to be stressed however, that
no warranty can be given on the
efficiency of any cleaning, nor on the
membrane performance after such
cleaning attempts.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 1 General
8. Handling and Preservation
8.1 General
FILMTEC® membrane elements

should be handled in such a way
that biogrowth and change in
membrane performance during long-
term storage, shipping, or system
shut-downs is prevented. The ele-
ments should preferably be stored
and shipped outside the pressure
vessels and loaded into the pressure
vessels just prior to start-up.
In using biocide solutions as

membrane preservations, follow
accepted safety practices. Always
wear eye protection. Consult the
relevant Material Safety Data Sheets
as supplied by the manufacturer of
the chemicals.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2 FILMTEC Element
8.2 FILMTEC Element Instead of sodium bisulfite, 8.2.2

formaldehyde can be used as Storage
8.2.1 preservation solution at 0.5 to 3.0%
Preservation (by weight) concentration. 0.5% is Please follow these guidelines for
sufficient when no biofilm is on the storage of FILMTEC elements:
New FILMTEC® elements are membrane. Formaldehyde is a more
effective biocide than bisulfite and is • Store cool inside a building or
shipped in a standard preservation warehouse and not in direct
solution containing 1% sodium not decomposed by oxygen. On the
other hand, formaldehyde handling sunlight.
bisulfite and 20% propylene glycol.
All these elements have been tested requires more precautions due to its • Temperature limits: -4°C to
by quality control, soaked in the suspected carcinogenicity. Please
+45°C (22° to 113°F). New dry
mentioned solution for one hour, follow the relevant safety regulations.
Refer to Section 7.7.2 when using elements will not be affected by
drained, and bagged into a double temperatures below -4°C (22°F).
plastic bag. The inner bag is made formaldehyde.
out of an oxygen barrier material. Elements must be in use for at least Elements stored in 1% sodium
six hours before formaldehyde is bisulfite/20% propylene glycol
Bisulfite provides protection from
used as a biocide. If the elements will freeze below -4°C, but as the
biological growth, propylene glycol
provides protection from freeze are exposed to formaldehyde before ice crystals are soft, the membra-
damage and has additional being in use for this period of time, a ne will not be damaged.
preserving properties. loss in flux may result.
• Keep new elements in their
Some types of FILMTEC elements Aldehydes other than formaldehyde original packaging.
are also available as dry elements. do not affect the membrane
rejection, but the water permeability • Storage time of dry elements is
Those elements have not been unlimited.
individually tested. They are bagged may be markedly decreased.
into a single plastic bag. They do not Therefore, no other aldehydes are • Elements preserved in bisulfite/
require any preservation solution, recommended as preservation glycol should be visually inspec-
but they shoud be kept in their solution components.
ted for biological growth every
sealed bag until they are used. The fully approved biocides listed in three months. When the preser-
Any FILMTEC element that has Table 2 of chapter 7.7 can also be vation solution appears to be not
been used and removed from the used as membrane preservatives. clear, or after six months, the
pressure vessel for storage or They do not affect the membrane element should be removed from
shipping, must be preserved in a performance, but their biocidal the bag, soaked in a fresh pre-
preservation solution. Use a mixture efficiency cannot be guaranteed. servation solution and repacked.
of 1% (by weight) of sodium Elements that have dried out after
bisulfite – food grade, not cobalt In case no equipment for re-
use may irreversibly lose water preservation (fresh solution,
activated – and 20% (by weight) permeability. Re-wetting might be
propylene glycol. Glycol can be clean environment, bag sealing
successful with one of the following
omitted when freezing temperatures device) is available, the elements
methods:
can be excluded. Soak the element can be left in their original
for one hour in the solution, allow to • Soak in 50/50% ethanol/water or packaging for up to 12 months.
drip out, and seal it into an oxygen propanol/water for 15 min. When the elements are then
barrier plastic bag. We recommend loaded into the pressure vessels,
re-using the original bag or original • Pressurize the element at 10 bar
(150 PSI) and close the permea- they should be cleaned with an
spare bags available from Dow. Do
te port for 30 min. Take care that alkaline cleaner before the plant
not fill the plastic bag with the
preservation solution – the moisture the permeate port is reopened is started up.
in the element is sufficient, and before the feed pressure is re- • The pH of the preservation soluti-
leaking bags might create a problem leased. on must never drop below pH 3.
during transport. Identify the element A pH decrease can occur when
and the preservation solution on the • Soak the element in 1% HCl or
4% HNO3 for 1-100 hours. bisulfite is oxidized to sulfuric
outside of the bag.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2 FILMTEC Element
acid. This precaution is especial- 8.2.4

ly important for sea water mem- Disposal
branes (SW30 and SW30HR),
because the salt rejection of Used FILMTEC elements can be
those membranes will be affec- disposed of as municipal waste,
ted at low pH storage. Therefore, provided:
the pH of the bisulfite preservati- • no preservation solution or other
on solution should be spot hazardous liquid is contained in
checked at least every 3 months. the element,
Represervation is mandatory
• no depositions of hazardous
when the pH is 3 or lower.
substances are on the membra-
• Elements stored in formaldehyde nes (e.g. elements used in waste
do not need frequent observati- water treatment).
on. The preservation solution
should be renewed after 12
months.
8.2.3
Shipping
When FILMTEC elements have to

be shipped, they must be preserved
with a preservation solution
according to Section 8.2.1.
Make sure that:
• the plastic bag does not leak,
• the element is properly identified,
• the preservation solution is cor-
rectly labeled.
We recommend using the original
packaging with the polystyrene foam
cushions to protect the element from
mechanical damage. The product
tube ends of elements of size < 8"
are especially endangered.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 3 RO System
8.3 RO system closing all valves. Any contact

with oxygen will oxidize the
The procedure of shutting down an SMBS.
RO system has been described in
Section 6.4. FILMTEC elements c. Check the pH once a week.
have to be preserved any time the When the pH becomes 3 or
plant is shut down for more than a lower, change the preservation
maximum of 48 hours in order to solution.
prevent biological growth.
Depending on the previous d. Change the preservation solution
operational history of the plant, it will at least once a month.
be necessary in almost all cases to During the shutdown period, the
perform a cleaning of the RO plant must be kept frost-free, and
membranes prior to shutdown and the temperature must not exceed
preservation. This applies to cases 45°C (113°F). A low temperature is
when the membranes are known or desireable.
assumed to have a certain fouling.
A typical sequence for the cleaning

can be as follows:
Perform a soft alkaline cleaning at
pH=11 for 2 hours, disinfect and
perform a short acid cleaning. In
case the plant has been operated
with a feed free of scalants and
metal hydroxides, the acid cleaning
can be omitted. For more details,
please refer to Section 7 (Cleaning
and Disinfection).
After cleaning and disinfection, the

preservation should follow within the
next 10 hours as follows:
a. Preservation of the plant using
“total immersion” of elements into
a solution of 1 to 1.5% of sodium
metabisulfite, venting the air
outside of the pressure vessels.
Use the overflow technique:
circulate the SMBS solution in
such a way that the remaining air
in the system is minimized after
the recirculation is completed. At
the end of the pressure vessel’s
filling, the SMBS solution shall be
allowed to overflow through an
opening located higher than the
upper end of the highest
pressure vessel being filled.
b. Separate the preservation
solution from the air outside by

9. Troubleshooting
9.1 Introduction If these data are not sufficient to

determine the cause(s) and to
Loss of salt rejection and loss of recommend corrective action, one or
permeate flow are the most common more membrane elements must be
problems encountered in reverse taken from the plant and analyzed.
osmosis. If the salt rejection and/or Element performance analysis
the permeate flow decreases slowly, includes nondestructive and
this may indicate a normal fouling/ destructive analysis.
scaling which can be handled by
proper and regular cleaning (see The contents of this section have
Section 7: Cleaning and partly been adapted from a series of
Disinfection). A rather fast or an articles published in “Ultrapure
immediate performance decline Water” 1).
indicates a defect or misoperation of
the plant. In any case, it is essential
that the proper corrective measure is
taken as early as possible, because
any delay decreases the chance of
restoring the plant performance –
apart from other problems that might
be created by an excessively low
permeate flow and/or too high
permeate TDS.
A prerequisite for early detection of

potential problems is proper record
keeping (see Section 6.6) and plant
performance normalization (see
Section 6.7). This includes proper
calibration of all instruments.
Without accurate readings it might
be too late before a problem can be
detected and corrected.
Once a performance decline has

been identified, the first step in
solving the problem is to localize
the problem and to identify the
cause(s) of the problem. This can be
done using the data of the record
keeping logsheet or of some addi-
tional on-line measurements.
April 1995 Technical Manual Page1

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2 Localization of High Salt Passage
9.2 Localization of range. Notice that from one array to Figure 1). This can be accomplished
High Salt Passage the next the average permeate TDS by removing the vessel’s product
usually increases, because for manifolds or by removing the
A loss in salt rejection may be example the second array is fed with opposite end cap’s product plug.
uniform throughout the system or it the concentrate from the first array. When the product manifolds remain
could be limited to the front or to the To determine the salt passage of all in place, it must be ensured that no
tail end of the system. It could be a modules from their permeate TDS, permeate from other vessels can
general plant failure or it could be the TDS of the feed stream to each influence the probing.
limited to one or few individual array must also be measured. The
vessels. Therefore, all individual salt passage is the ratio of the While the RO system is operating at
vessel TDS values have to be permeate TDS to the feed TDS. normal operating conditions, water is
checked. A well-designed system Then the high salt passage of the diverted from the permeate stream
contains a sample port located in the system can be assigned to the first of the vessel in question. A few
permeate stream from each vessel. or the last array, or to individual minutes should be allowed to rinse
Care must be taken during sampling vessels. out the tubing and allow the RO
to avoid mixing of the permeate system to equilibrate. The TDS of
sample with permeate from other If one pressure vessel shows a the permeate sample from the
vessels. All permeate samples are significantly higher permeate TDS tubing can then be measured with a
then tested for their concentration of than the other vessels of the same hand-held meter and the data be
dissolved solids with a TDS meter. array, then this vessel should be recorded. This measurement should
probed. Probing involves the reflect the TDS of the permeate
The permeate samples of all insertion of a plastic tube (approx. being produced by the FILMTEC®
pressure vessels in the same array 1/4" for 8" module) into the full element at that position.
should give readings in the same length of the permeate tube (see
Conductivity
Position
Figure 1: Conductivity Profile

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2 Localization of High Salt Passage
The tubing is then pulled out to the eliminates water leakage at the
next element and another sample is point of entry (see Figure 2). In
taken. This sample represents a addition a short piece (2 inches) of
blend of the permeates of the first very supple thin wall gum rubber
and of the second element. The tubing which fits snugly over the end
tubing is then withdrawn in further of the nylon probe tubing and
increments to obtain a conductivity protrudes approximately 1/2 inch will
profile (see Figure 1). The sampling prevent hangups at the product tube
locations should be at the middle of adaptors and the product tube inter-
the element and at the ends of the connectors.
element (to check coupler/adaptor
O-rings). The tube can be marked
so that the desired sampling
locations can easily be accessed.
The conductivity of a probe sample

is the average of product water
produced upstream. Better results in
the sense of measuring the
permeate TDS being actually
produced at the location of sampling
can be obtained when the permeate
exits both ends of the vessel.
A normal conductivity profile shows

a steady increase of the permeate
produced at the feed side of the
pressure vessel towards the
concentrate end of the vessel. An
unusually large deviation from this
profile locates the source of the high
salt passage problem. O-ring
problems are generally indicated by
a step change in the conductivity
profile at coupler/adaptor locations,
while a marked increase outside this
region points to an element problem.
9.2.1
Product Tube Probing
apparatus for spiral wound * NOTE:
TUBE FITTING MODIFIED BY EXTENDING THE
membrane elements 1/ INCH BORE THROUGH THE BODY AND
4
DISCARDING THE GRIPPER RING.

Multi-element pressure vessels can
be permeate probed with the use of
a 1/2 inch ball valve connected to the Figure 2: Permeate probing apparatus for spiral wound membrane
opposite end of the pressure vessel
from the product header piping. The
ball valve is fitted with a 1/4 inch
plastic Parker tube fitting which has
been modified by drilling the body to
allow a 1/4 inch nylon probe tubing to
pass completely through the fitting.
Use of the modified tube fitting

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 3 Element Analysis
9.3 Element Analysis This test, also called a vacuum test, exchanger system to maintain the
is useful as a screening procedure feed solution at 25±1°C, a booster
9.3.1 and is not intended as a means of pump, a high pressure pump, and a
Sample Selection absolute verification of leaks. Only reverse osmosis device. A detailed
leaks which are significant enough description is given in ASTM D4194-
When the causes of a plant to prevent the element from holding 89 3). A sodium chloride solution is
performance loss are not known, or a vacuum are detected. used as feed water. Permeate and
when they have to be confirmed, a. Drain the element. concentrate are recycled back to the
one or more elements of the system feed tank.
have to be analyzed individually. b. Seal one end of the permeate
The element(s) which should be tube with a suitable leak-tight cap The NaCl concentration and the
analyzed are those with a step (not necessary for TW30-1512, feed pressure are given in the
increase in the conductivity profile. TW30-1812, and TW30-4611 Standard Test Conditions in the
elements). Connect the other end Technical Bulletin of the relevant
When there is a general plant FILMTEC element. The feed flow
of the permeate tube to a vacu-
failure, a front-end element or a tail- rate should be adjusted to obtain the
um gauge and a valved vacuum element recovery as indicated in the
end element should be selected, source.
depending on where the problem is mentioned Standard Test
located. Typical front-end problems c. Evacuate the element to 100 to Conditions. The feed water pH
are fouling problems; typical tail-end 300 mbar absolute pressure. should be adjusted to a pH of 8 by
problems are scaling problems. adding HCl or NaOH.
Close the isolation valve and
When the problem cannot be observe the reading on the vacu-
localized, an element from both The following data are recorded one
um gauge. Note the rate at which hour after start-up, and repeated 2
ends of the system should be taken.
the vacuum decays. A rapid to 3 hours after start-up, and hourly
Sampling a second element from a decay (greater than 200 mbar thereafter until three successive
neighbor position is advisable when per minute) will indicate the permeate flow rates (corrected to
cleaning tests are planned. Then presence of a leak. 25°C) and salt passages agree
one of the elements can be used to within 5% (relative):
d. Slowly release the vacuum and
analyze the fouling layer and to • Feed, concentrate, and permeate
allow the element to reach
perform lab scale cleaning tests, the pressures
results of which can then be applied atmospheric pressure before
to the other element. disconnecting. • Permeate and concentrate flows
(use calibrated flow meters or a
9.3.2 9.3.3 calibrated volume container and
Leak Test Standard Test stopwatch)
A FILMTEC® element with a high • Permeate temperature

The standard element test is used to
salt passage should first be checked determine the desalinating ability • Conductivity of feed, permeate
if leaks are present in which there is and permeate flow rate of a and concentrate, or chloride
a direct communication between the FILMTEC element under FILMTEC content of the three streams.
feed/concentrate side and the per- Standard Test Conditions. The test
meate side. Leaks may occur results can then be compared with The permeate flow rate should be
through damage of the membrane the specification of the element in corrected to 25°C using the formulas
surface itself by punctures or question. The element performance given in Section 6.7, Plant
scratches or by glue-line failure. The is determined before and after any Performance Normalization. The salt
following method may be used to cleaning trial in order to assess the rejection is calculated from the
detect leaks or to confirm the efficacy of the treatment. permeate conductivity Kp and the
mechanical integrity of a FILMTEC feed conductivity Kf:
element 2). The apparatus for the standard test Kp
Rejection, % = (1 – — ) x 100
consists of a feed holding tank Kf
equipped with a thermostated heat

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 3 Element Analysis
9.3.4 Ashing of a membrane sample with

Cleaning Test known surface area and subsequent
analysis of the residual oxides
When the permeate flow rate of the provides quantitative data of the
tested element is too low compared composition of a fouling/scaling
with the specified value, a cleaning layer.
can be tried. Cleaning cannot be
successful however, when the The morphology of deposits is
membrane itself is damaged, or determined with a stereo and
when the membrane is heavily standard light microscope or a
fouled/scaled (typically when the scanning electron microscope
permeate flow is < 50% of (SEM).
specification).
A semi-quantitative analysis of the
Cleaning is carried out according to chemical elements contained in the
the cleaning procedure described in membrane or its fouling/scaling layer
Section 7 (Cleaning and is obtained from an X-ray analysis.
Disinfection). This method can also furnish
evidence of halogen damage to the
When the cleaning test has proven membrane.
effective, the treatment can be
applied to the whole RO system. Oxidation damage can be made
visible by cutting coupons out of the
9.3.5 membrane leaves and operating
Destructive Analysis them in a plate and frame test unit
(Lab 20) with a methylene blue dye
The ultimate method to determine solution. The membranes treated in
the cause(s) of a performance loss this manner show a more or less
is the destructive analysis (autopsy) equally colored back side, while the
of the FILMTEC® element. The back side of an undamaged
Technical Service and Development membrane remains white.
Department of Dow must be
involved if destructive analysis is
required in warranty cases.
When the endcaps and the wrapping

of the element have been removed,
the membrane leave(s) can be
unrolled. A visual inspection of the
membrane surface and the glue
lines can provide valuable informa-
tion. A massive fouling layer, if
present, can be sampled for
chemical analysis.

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 4 Causes and Corrective Measures
9.4 Causes and Possible causes are discussed in detailed in Section 9.4.3, High
Corrective Measures the next section. Differential Pressure.
Telescoping damage can be
9.4.1 9.4.1.2 Normal Permeate Flow identified by probing and confirmed
High Salt Passage High salt passage at normal permeate by a leak test (Section 9.3.2).
flow may have different causes. Replace the damaged element(s)
9.4.1.1 High Permeate Flow and correct the causes.
a. Membrane Oxidation a. Leaking O-Ring
A high salt passage in combination c. Membrane Surface Abrasion
Leaking O-rings can be detected by This is not an individual element
with a higher than normal permeate the probing technique (Section 9.2).
flow is mostly due to oxidation failure, but the front-end elements
Inspect O-rings of couplers, are typically most affected by
damage. When free chlorine, adaptors, and end plugs for correct
bromine, ozone, or other oxidizing crystalline or sharp-edged metallic
installation and as-new condition. suspended solids in the feed water.
chemicals are present in the Replace old and damaged O-rings.
incoming water, the front end Check the incoming water for such
O-rings may leak after exposure to particles. Microscopic inspection of
elements are typically more affected certain chemicals, or to mechanical
than the others. A neutral to alkaline the membrane surface will also
stress, e.g. element movement reveal the damage. No corrective
pH favors the attack to the caused by water hammer.
membrane. action is possible. The pretreatment
Sometimes, O-rings have simply not must be changed to cope with this
been installed, or they have been problem. Ensure that no particles
Oxidation damage may also occur improperly installed or moved out of
by disinfecting with oxidizing agents, are released from the high pressure
their proper location during element piping. Afterwards all damaged
when pH and temperature limits are loading.
not observed (see Section 7.7). In membranes must be replaced.
this case, a uniform damage is
likely. b. Telescoping d. Permeate Backpressure
FILMTEC elements can be When the permeate pressure
A FILMTEC® element with oxidation mechanically damaged by an effect exceeds the feed/concentrate
damaged membrane is still mecha- called telescoping, where the outer pressure by more than 0.3 bar (5 PSI)
nically intact when tested with the membrane layers of the element at any time, the membrane may
vacuum test (see Section 9.3.2). unravel and extend downstream tear. The damage can be identified
The chemical membrane damage past the remaining layers. A modest by probing. It is confirmed by the
can be made visible by a dye test on telescoping does not necessarily leak test (Section 9.3.2) and a visual
the element or on membrane damage the membrane, but in more inspection.
coupons (see Section 9.3.5). severe cases the glue line and/or
Autopsy of one element and the membrane can be ruptured. When a leaf of a backpressure
analysis of the membrane can be damaged element is unrolled, the
used to confirm oxidation damage. Telescoping is caused by excessive outer membrane typically shows
No corrective action is possible. All creases parallel to the permeate
pressure drop from feed to
damaged elements must be tube, usually close to the outer glue
concentrate. Eight inch elements are
replaced. more critical because of their greater line. The rupture of the membrane
occurs mostly in the edges between
feed side area. Make sure that a
b. Leak the feed-sided glue line, the outer
thrust ring is used with eight inch
Severe mechanical damage of the elements to support the elements’ glue line, and the concentrate-sided
element or of the permeate tubing glue line.
outer diameters. Elements with
can allow feed or concentrate to smaller diameter are supported by
penetrate into the permeate, their permeate tubing.
especially when working at high
pressures. The vacuum test will The operating conditions that lead to
show a distinct positive response. excessive pressure drop are

e. Centerfold Cracking b. Metal Oxide Fouling the membranes with a suitable

The FILMTEC® element designer Metal oxide fouling occurs pre- chemical.
includes one or more centerfolds of dominantly in the first array. Check
the membrane. These membrane feedwater for levels of iron and 9.4.2
creases run parallel to and close to aluminium. Check the materials of Low Permeate Flow
the central product water tube. construction upstream of the
Although the folds are specially membranes (see Section 4.13). 9.4.2.1 Normal Salt Passage
protected, the creased membrane Inspect SDI filters and cartridge
can break under certain conditions. filters for deposits. Clean the a. Biofouling
Then the salt passage increases, membranes (see cleaning instruc- Biofouling of the membranes is
and the element shows a positive tions, Section 7) and analyze the indicated by the following changes
vacuum test result. spent cleaning solution for metals to in the operating parameters,
identify cause. Correct the pre- predominantly at the front end of the
Centerfold cracking may have treatment and/or material selection.
various causes: system:
• Hydraulic shock during start-up, c. Scaling Permeate Flow:
e.g. by air in the system and/or Scaling will involve deposits starting decreases when operated at
too fast pressure increase. For on the last array, and then gradually constant feed pressure and
the correct start-up procedure, moving to the upstream arrays. recovery.
see Section 6.2. Analyze the concentrate for levels of
calcium, barium, strontium, sulfate, Feed Flow:
• Increased shear stress and/or fluoride, silicate, pH and LSI (S&DSI decreases when operated at
abrasion by scaling and/or for sea water). Try to calculate the constant feed pressure and
fouling. mass balance for those salts, recovery, in cases where biofouling
analyzing also feed water and is advanced to large biomasses.
• Permeate backpressure. permeate.
Centerfold cracking typically occurs Feed Pressure:
only after one year or more of Scaling occurs typically very slowly has to be increased if the permeate
improper operation, and only at because of the low concentrations flow is to be maintained at constant
plants with a high start/stop involved (CaCO3 and CaSO4 scaling recovery. Increasing the feed
frequency (see Section 6.3). can also develop rapidly). The pressure is however self-defeating
crystalline structure of the deposits when done for a long time, since it
can be observed under the micro- increases the fouling, making it
9.4.1.3 Low Permeate Flow
scope. The type of scaling is identi- more difficult to clean later.
High salt passage combined with
low permeate flow is the most fied by a chemical analysis or X-ray
analysis. Cleaning with acid and/or
commonly occurring condition for
an alkaline EDTA solution with sub- Differential Pressure:
plant failure. Possible causes are:
sequent analysis of the spent solution increases sharply when the bacterial
a. Colloidal Fouling may also help to identify the type of fouling is massive or when it is
Colloidal fouling occurs scalant. combined with silt fouling.
predominantly in the first array. The
problem can more easily be In the case of carbonate scaling, Since pressure drop across the
localized when permeate flow adjust the pH of the pretreatment. pressure vessels can be such a
meters have been installed in each For the other salts, either use an sensitive indicator of fouling, it is
array separately. Check SDI on a appropriate scale inhibitor or other strongly recommended that
more regular basis to identify upset. suitable pretreatment techniques provisions for installing pressure
Inspect SDI filters and cartridge (see Section 3.3), or lower the monitoring devices be included for
filters for deposits. Clean the recovery. Make sure that the design each array in a system.
membranes (see cleaning recovery is not exceeded, and the
instructions, Section 7) and correct worst case feed water composition
the pretreatment accordingly. has been taken into account. Clean

Salt Passage: 9.4.2.2 Low Salt Passage trolytes, which are sometimes used
normal or even low at the beginning, a. Compaction in the pretreatment.
increasing when fouling becomes Membrane compaction is typically
massive. associated with low permeate flow Analyse the incoming water for oil
and improved salt rejection. and organic matter, and check the
High counts of microorganisms in Although the FT30 membrane SDI filter and the cartridge filter for
water samples taken from the feed, shows little compaction when organic deposits. Conduct SDI and
concentrate, or permeate stream operated properly, significant TOC measurements on a more
indicate the beginning or the compaction might occur under frequent basis. Improve the
presence of biofouling. For proper following conditions: pretreatment accordingly (see
microbiological monitoring see Section 3.7, Prevention of Fouling
• high feed pressure
Section 6.8 (Control of by Organics).
Microbiological Activity). When • high temperature
biofouling is suspected, the system An oil fouling can be removed with
should be checked according to the • water hammer an alkaline cleaning agent, for
items described in Section 6.8. Water hammer can occur when the example NaOH (pH 12) or Henkel
high pressure pump is started with P3-ultrasil 10.
Corrective measures include the air in the system.
installation or optimization of the Cationic polyelectrolytes may be
pretreatment system to cope with Membrane compaction can be cleaned off at an acidic pH, if it is
the fouling potential of the raw water evidenced by a special membrane not a precipitation product with other
(see Section 3.6, Biological Fouling thickness measurement. Often, compounds, e.g. antiscalants.
Prevention). In order to clean the intrusions of the membrane into the
membranes effectively it is important permeate channel spacer fabric are Cleaning with alcohol has also
that the whole plant, including visible. Thus, the permeate flow is proven effective in removing
pretreatment, is disinfected. Chlorine not only restricted by the compaction adsorbed organic films.
can be used to disinfect the of the polyamide or the polysulfone
pretreatment line. Cleaning and layer, but also by the reduced cross- 9.4.2.3 High Salt Passage
disinfection of the membranes is section of the permeate spacer that Low permeate flow in combination
described in Section 7. An is available for permeate flow. with high salt passage has already
incomplete cleaning and disinfection been discussed in Section 9.4.1.3.
will result in rapid re-contamination. Damaged elements must be Whether the loss of permeate flow
replaced, or additional elements or the loss of salt rejection occurs
b. Aged Preservation Solution must be added at the tail-end of the first depends on the specific type of
Elements or RO systems preserved system. fouling/scaling layer and cannot be
in a bisulfite solution can also categorized.
become biologically fouled, if the
preservation solution is too old, too b. Organic Fouling
9.4.3
warm, or oxidized by oxygen. An The adsorption of organic matter
present in the feed water on the High Differential Pressure
alkaline cleaning usually helps to
restore the permeate flow. membrane surface causes flux loss,
especially in the first array. In many High differential pressure, also
cases, the adsorption layer acts as called pressure drop or ∆p from feed
c. Incomplete Wetting to concentrate, causes a high force
FILMTEC® elements that have been an additional barrier for dissolved
salts, or plugs pinholes of the in flow direction on the feed side of
allowed to dry out, may have a too the element. This force has to be
membrane, resulting in a lower salt
low permeate flow, because the fine taken by the permeate tubes and, in
pores of the polysulfone layer are passage. Organics with a high
molecular mass and with hydro- the case of 8" elements, by the
not wetted. The techniques to re-wet fiberglass shells of adjacent
phobic or cationic groups can
dry membranes are described in elements in the same vessel. The
Section 8.2.1. produce such an effect. Examples
are oil traces or cationic polyelec- stress on the last element in the

vessel is the highest: it has to bear exceeded. It can also occur when a. Bypass in Cartridge Filters
the sum of the forces created by the the feed pressure builds up too fast Cartridge filters have to protect the
pressure drops of upstream during start-up (water hammer). The RO system from large debris that
elements. effect is dramatically increased with can physically block the flow
a foulant being present, especially a channels in the lead-end elements.
The upper limit of the differential biofilm causes a high pressure drop. Such blocking can happen when
pressure per multi-element vessel is cartridge filters are loosely installed
4.1 bar (60 PSI), per single element Water hammer, a hydraulic shock to in their housing, connected without
1.4 bar (20 PSI). When these limits the membrane element, can also using interconnectors, or completely
are exceeded, even for a very short happen when the system is started forgotten.
time, the FILMTEC® elements might up before all air has been flushed
be mechanically damaged. out. This could be the case at initial Sometimes cartridge filters will
Elements smaller than 8" will start-up or at operational start-ups, deteriorate while in operation due to
become telescoped, and even the when the system has been allowed hydraulic shock or the presence of
endcaps can be forced out of the to drain. Ensure that the pressure incompatible materials. Cellulose-
wrapping. vessels are not under vacuum when based filters should be avoided,
the plant is shut down (e.g. by because they may deteriorate and
installation of a vacuum breaker). In plug the FILMTEC elements.
Eight-inch elements will break at the starting up a partially empty RO
weakest point of their fiberglass system, the pump may behave as if b. Pretreatment Media Filter
shell, which is where the endcap is it had little or no backpressure. It will Breakthrough
connected to the roll. Luckily, the suck water at great velocities, thus Occasionally, some of the finer
damage to the fiberglass shell does hammering the elements. Also the media from sand, multimedia,
not normally affect the membrane high pressure pump can be carbon, weak acid cation exchange
performance. Even elements with damaged by cavitation. resin, or diatomaceous earth
membrane and feedspacer pretreatment filters may break
protruding out of the cracked shell The feed-to-concentrate differential through into the RO feedwater.
have kept their good performance. pressure is a measure of the Cartridge filters should catch most of
resistance to the hydraulic flow of the larger particles; but certain types
Although fiberglass cracking is, up to water through the system. It is very of fine media, such as carbon fines
a certain degree, not more than a dependent on the flowrates through and diatomaceous earth, can pass
cosmetic problem, it does indicate the element flow channels and on right through a five micron nominally
that the differential pressure has the water temperature. It is therefore rated cartridge filter and physically
been too high. This might have suggested that the permeate and plug the lead elements.
further implications such as flux loss concentrate flowrates be maintained
or salt passage increase. as constant as possible in order to Chemical cleaning is difficult, it can
notice and monitor any element be tried to rinse out the deposits
An increase in differential pressure plugging that is causing an increase with detergents. Separate single-
at constant flow rates is usually due in differential pressure. element cleaning is recommended
to the presence of debris, foulants, to avoid the transport of removed
or scale within the element flow The knowledge of the extent and the particles into other elements.
channels (feed spacer). It usually location of the differential pressure Diatomaceous earth filters should be
comes together with a decreasing increase provides a valuable tool to taken off-line when such problems
permeate flow, and the causes for identify the cause(s) of a problem. are encountered. Soft carbons made
that have been discussed in Section Therefore it is useful to monitor the from coal should be replaced by
9.4.2. differential pressure across each coconut-shell-based carbons with a
array as well as the overall feed-to- hardness rating of 95 or better. New
concentrate differential pressure. media should be sufficiently
An excessive pressure drop occurs Some of the common causes and backwashed to remove fines before
when the recommended feed flow prevention of high differential the bed is put into service.
rates (Table 1 ot Section 4.1) are pressure are discussed below.

c. Pump Impeller Deterioration e. Brine Seal Damage g. Precipitated Antiscalants

Most of the multistage centrifugal Brine seal damage can cause a When polymeric organic anti-
pumps employ at least one plastic random increase in differential scalants come into contact with
impeller. When a pump problem pressure. Brine seals can be multivalent cations like aluminium;
such as misalignment of the pump damaged or “turned over” during or with residual cationic polymeric
shaft develops, the impellers have installation or due to hydraulic flocculants, they will form gumlike
been known to deteriorate and surges. This results in a certain precipitants which can heavily foul
throw off small plastic shavings. The amount of feedwater bypass around the lead elements. Cleaning will be
shavings can enter and physically the element and less flow and difficult; repeated application of an
plug the lead-end RO elements. velocity through the element, thus alkaline EDTA solution may help.
exceeding the limit for maximum
It is suggested that the discharge element recovery. When this occurs, 9.4.4
pressure of RO pumps be monitored the element is more prone to fouling Overview
before any control valves as part of and scaling. As a fouled element in
a routine maintenance schedule to one of several multi-element Changes of the permeate flow, the
see if the pump is maintaining its pressure vessels becomes more salt passage, and the differential
output pressure. If not, it may be plugged, there is a greater tendency pressure are symptoms which can
deteriorating. for the downstream elements to be attached to specific causes in
become fouled due to insufficient many cases. Although, the symp-
d. Scaling concentrate flow rates within that toms of different causes may over-
Scaling can cause the tail-end vessel. lap in reality, and the symptoms
differential pressure to increase. are more or less pronounced in
f. Biological Fouling
Make sure that scale control is specific cases. An overview of
properly taken into account (see Biological fouling is typically
associated with a marked increase symptoms, their possible causes
Section 3.3), and clean the and corrective measures are given
of the differential pressure at the
membranes with the appropriate in Table 1.
chemicals (see Section 7.6). Ensure lead end of the RO system. Biofilms
that the designed system recovery are gelatinous and quite thick, thus
creating a high flow resistance.
will not be exceeded.
Corrective measures have been
described in Section 9.4.2.1.
Table 1: Symptoms, Causes and Corrective Measures
Permeate Salt Different. Direct Cause Indirect Cause Corrective Measure

Flow Passage Pressure
↑ ⇑ → Oxidation Damage Free Chlorine, Ozone, KMnO4 Replace Element

↑ ⇑ → Membrane Leak Permeate Backpressure; Replace Element;
Abrasion Improve Cartridge Filtration
↑ ⇑ → O-Ring Leak Improper Installation Replace O-Ring
↑ ⇑ → Leaking Product Tube Damaged During Element Loading Replace Element
⇓ ↑ ↑ Scaling Insufficient Scale Control Cleaning; Scale Control
⇓ ↑ ↑ Colloidal Fouling Insufficient Pretreatment Cleaning, Improve Pretreatment
↓ → ⇑ Biofouling Contaminated Raw Water, Cleaning, Disinfection
Insufficient Pretreatment Improve Pretreatment
⇓ → → Organic Fouling Oil; Cationic Polyelectrolytes Cleaning, Improve Pretreatment
⇓ ↓ → Compaction Water Hammer Replace Element or Add Elements
↑ increasing ↓ decreasing → not changing ⇑ main symptom

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 5 References
9.5 References
(1) Bukay, M.; Byrne, W.: RO Troubleshooting

Pt. 1: Ultrapure Water, March/April 1986, 58-62
Pt. 2: Ultrapure Water, May/June 1986, 59-62
Pt. 3: Ultrapure Water, July/August 1986, 59-62
Pt. 4: Ultrapure Water, Sept./Oct. 1986, 58-62
Pt. 5: Ultrapure Water, Nov./Dec. 1986, 56-60
(2) ASTM D3923-80 (Reapproved 1989):

Standard Practices for Detecting Leaks in Reverse Osmosis Devices
(3) ASTM D4194-89:

Standard Test Methods for Operating Characteristics of Reverse Osmosis Devices

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 1 Terminology
10. Addendum
10.1 Terminology
A-value: Membrane water permeability coefficient.

Array: Series of parallel installed pressure vessels with common feed, product and reject lines.
B-value: Salt diffusion coefficient.
Bank: See RO train.
Boundary layer: Layer adhering to the membrane facing the feed/concentrate water.
Brine: See Concentrate.
CAC: Combined Available Chlorine.
CIP: Cleaning-in-place.
CRC: Combined Residual Chlorine.
Composite membrane: Membrane obtained precipitating a thin desalinating layer on a porous carrier membrane.
Concentrate: The remaining solution with the retained salts (also called retentate, or brine, or reject).
Concentration Factor: CF is the ratio of the feed quantity (or feed stream) over the concentrate quantity (or
concentrate stream).
Concentration polarization: Increase of solute concentration in Boundary layer.
Double pass RO system: RO system in which the permeate is further desalinated by a subsequent RO system.
FAC: Free Available Chlorine.
FRC: Free Residual Chlorine.
Feed: The liquid entering the module.
Fouling: The deposition of foreign matter on the membrane surface, resulting in changed element
performance.
GAC: Granular Activated Carbon.
LSI: Langelier Saturation Index.
Membrane configuration: The arrangement of individual elements in the RO plant.
Membrane salt passage: SPM is the concentration of a compound in the permeate related to its average concentration
on the feed/concentrate side.
Module: Pressure vessel containing membrane element(s).
Molality: The number of gram-molecules weight of a solute per kg of solvent.
Molarity: The number of gram-molecules weight of a solute per l of solution.
OEM: Original equipment manufacturer.

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 1 Terminology
Permeate: The portion of the feed which passes through the membrane, also called product.
Permeate channel spacer: Fabric that mechanically supports the membrane and drains the permeate to the permeate
tube.
Permeate collector fabric: See Permeate channel spacer.
Permeate flux: Permeate flow rate per unit membrane area, expressed communly as l/m2 h (or GFD)
Plant capacity: Production of permeate per unit time, expressed as m3/day or m3/h (GPD, MGD).
Pressure vessel: The vessel containing the individual elements.
Product water: See Permeate.
Raw water: Untreated water from wells, surface sources or the sea.
Recovery: Y is the ratio of product quantity (or product stream) over the feed quantity (or feed stream),
given as fraction or in percent.
Reject: See Concentrate.
Rejection: The ability of the membrane to hinder certain elements from passing through. Expressed
as 1 minus the ratio between the concentration in the product and the feed.
Reverse Osmosis: A pressure driven membrane operation in which the solvent is transferred through the
membrane and the dissolved solutes are retained by the same membrane.
Retentate: See Concentrate.
RO train: One of two or more complete RO installations operating in parallel.
SBS: Sodium bisulfite.
SDI: Silt Density Index.
S&DSI: Stiff and Davis Saturation Index.
SHMP: Sodium hexametaphosphate.
SMBS: Sodium meta bisulfite.
Scaling: Deposition of solids on the membrane surface, due to exceeding the solubility product of
the salt in question.
System salt passage: SPs is the concentration of a compound in the permeate related to its concentration in the
feed water, also called apparent salt passage.
TBC: Total Bacteria Count.
TDS: Total dissolved solids, usually expressed as mg/l or ppm (parts per million).
TOC: Total organic carbon.
TRC: Total Residual Chlorine.
TSS: Total suspended solids.
Telescoping: Lengthwise displacement of the membrane inside the RO element.

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2 Specific Conductance of Sodium Chloride
µmhos/cm ppm µmhos/cm ppm µmhos/cm ppm µmhos/cm ppm µmhos/cm ppm µmhos/cm ppm
10 5 500 247 990 495 2075 1047 4100 2136 8800 4767
20 9 510 252 1000 500 2125 1073 4200 2191 8900 4823
30 14 520 257 1020 510 2150 1085 4300 2245 9000 4879
40 19 530 262 1040 520 2175 1098 4400 2300 9100 4935
60 28 550 272 1080 540 2200 1111 4500 2356 9200 4991
70 33 560 277 1100 550 2225 1124 4600 2412 9216 5000
80 38 570 282 1120 561 2250 1137 4700 2468 9300 5047
90 42 580 287 1140 571 2275 1140 4800 2524 9400 5103
100 47 590 292 1160 581 2300 1162 4900 2580 9500 5159
110 52 600 297 1180 591 2325 1175 5000 2636 9600 5215
120 57 610 302 1200 601 2350 1188 5100 2692 9700 5271
130 61 620 307 1220 611 2375 1200 5200 2748 9800 5327
140 66 630 312 1240 621 2400 1213 5300 2805 9900 5383
150 71 640 317 1260 632 2425 1226 5400 2861 10000 5439
160 75 650 323 1280 642 2450 1239 5500 2917 10200 5551
170 80 660 328 1300 652 2475 1251 5600 2973 10400 5664
180 85 670 333 1320 662 2500 1264 5700 3029 10600 5776
190 90 680 338 1340 672 2550 1290 5800 3085 10800 5888
200 95 690 343 1360 682 2600 1315 5900 3141 11000 6000
210 100 700 348 1380 692 2650 1344 6000 3197 11200 6122
220 105 710 353 1400 702 2700 1371 6100 3253 11400 6243
230 110 720 358 1420 713 2750 1398 6200 3309 11600 6364
240 115 730 363 1440 723 2800 1426 6300 3365 11800 6485
250 120 740 368 1460 733 2850 1453 6400 3421 12000 6607
260 125 750 373 1480 743 2900 1480 6500 3477 12200 6728
270 130 760 378 1500 754 2950 1508 6600 3533 12400 6843
280 135 770 383 1525 766 3000 1535 6700 3589 12600 6970
290 140 780 388 1550 770 3050 1562 6800 3645 12800 7091
300 145 790 393 1575 792 3100 1589 6900 3701 13000 7213
310 150 800 399 1600 805 3150 1617 7000 3758 13200 7334
320 155 810 404 1625 817 3200 1644 7100 3814 13400 7455
330 160 820 409 1650 830 3250 1671 7200 3870 13600 7576
340 165 830 414 1675 843 3300 1699 7300 3926 13800 7898
350 171 840 419 1700 856 3350 1726 7400 3982 14000 7819
360 176 850 424 1725 868 3400 1753 7500 4038 14200 7940
370 181 860 429 1750 881 3450 1781 7600 4094 14400 8061
380 186 870 434 1775 894 3500 1808 7700 4150 14600 8182
390 191 880 439 1800 907 3550 1835 7800 4206 14800 8304
400 196 890 444 1825 920 3600 1863 7900 4262 15000 8425
410 201 900 449 1850 932 3650 1899 8000 4318 15250 8576
420 206 910 454 1875 945 3700 1917 8100 4374 15500 8728
430 211 920 459 1900 958 3750 1945 8200 4430 15750 8879
440 216 930 464 1925 971 3800 1972 8300 4486 16000 9031
450 221 940 469 1950 983 3850 1999 8400 4542 16250 9182
460 226 950 474 1975 996 3900 2027 8500 4598 16500 9334
470 231 960 480 2000 1000 3950 2054 8600 4654 16750 9486
480 236 970 485 2025 1022 4000 2081 8700 4710 17000 9637
490 241 980 490 2050 1034

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 2 Specific Conductance of Sodium Chloride
µmhos/cm ppm µmhos/cm ppm µmhos/cm ppm
17500 9940 34000 20084 76000 48053

17750 10092 34500 20391 77000 48731
18000 10247 35000 20698 78000 49409
18250 10400 35500 21006 79000 50087
18500 10554 36000 21313 80000 50765
18750 10708 36500 21621 81000 51443
19000 10852 37000 21928 82000 52121
19250 11015 37500 22235 83000 52799
19500 11169 38000 22543 84000 53477
19750 11323 38500 22850 85000 54155
20000 11476 39000 23158 86000 54833
20250 11630 39500 23465 87000 55511
20500 11784 40000 23773 88000 56130
20750 11937 41000 24387 89000 56867
21000 12091 42000 25002 90000 57545
21250 12245 43000 25679 91000 58223
21500 12399 44000 26357 92000 58901
21750 12552 45000 27035 93000 59579
22000 12705 46000 27713 94000 60257
22250 12860 47000 28391 95000 60935
22500 13013 48000 29069 96000 61613
22750 13167 49000 29747 97000 62291
23000 13321 50000 30425 98000 62969
23250 13474 51000 31103 99000 63647
23500 13628 52000 31781 100000 64325
23750 13782 53000 32459
24000 13936 54000 33137
24250 14089 55000 33815
24500 14243 56000 34493
24750 14397 57000 35171
25000 14550 58000 35849
25500 14858 59000 36527
26000 15165 60000 37205
26500 15473 61000 37883
27000 15780 62000 38561
27500 16087 63000 39239
28000 16395 64000 39917
28500 16702 65000 40595
29000 17010 66000 41273
29500 17317 67000 41961
30000 17624 68000 42629
30500 17932 69000 43307
31000 18239 70000 43985
31500 18547 71000 44663
32000 18854 72000 45341
32500 19161 73000 46091
33000 19469 74000 46697

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 3 Conductivity of Ions
10.3 Conductivity of Ions Expressed as µS/cm per meq/l, Infinitely Diluted
Ion 20°C (68°F) 25°C (77°F) 100°C (212°F)
H+ 328 350 646
Na+ 45 50.1 155

K+ 67 73.5 200
NH4+ 67 73.5 200

Mg++ 47 53.1 170
Ca++ 53.7 59.5 191

OH– 179 197 446
Cl– 69.0 76.3 207

HCO3 36.5 44.5 -
NO3– 65.2 71.4 178

H2PO4– 30.1 36.0 -
CO3– – 63.0 72.0 -

HPO4– – - 53.4 -
SO4– – 71.8 79.8 234

PO4– – – - 69.0 -
Source: Landolf-Börnstein 6° edition Band II/7

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 4 Conductivity of Solutions
10.4 Conductivity of Solutions, Acids, Alkalies and Salts 25°C Expressed as µS/cm per meq/l
Component Concentration in meq/l
Infin. 0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0 10.0 50.0 100.0

Diluted
HCl 426 425 423 421 415 412 399 392
HNO3 421 420 417 416 410 407 394 386
H2SO4 430 424 412 407 390 380 346 317
H3PO4 419 394 359 336 264 223 133 104
NaOH 248 247 246 245 241 238 227 221
KOH 271 270 269 268 264 261 251 246
NH4OH 271 109 49 36 17 12 5.6 3.9
NaCl 126 126 124 124 121 118 111 107
Na2SO4 130 128 126 124 117 113 97.7 90.0
Na2CO3 124 122 120 119 112 108 93.2 86.3
NaHCO3 96.0 95.2 94.2 93.5 90.5 88.4 80.6 76.0
KCl 150 149 148 141 144 141 133 129
Source: Landolt Börnstein 6° edition Band II/7

FILMTEC Addendum
The graph below and the graph on the following page Table 1: Conductivity correction factors
relate the conductivity of a solution containing one
given chemical to the concentration of this chemical. 0°C 18 25 50°C
(32°F) (64°F) (77°F) (122°F)
The conductivity of solutions at other temperatures can HCl 0.66 0.89 1.00 1.37
be calculated by multiplying conductivities at 25°C
H2SO4 0.66 0.87 1.00 1.38
(77°F) with the correction factors in the following table.
These factors are only valid for diluted solutions as they NaCl 0.53 0.86 1.00 1.57
presuppose total ionic dissociation of the chemical. NaOH 0.54 0.89 1.00 1.51
KOH 0.55 0.89 1.00 1.50
Figure 1: Conductivity of Ionic Solutions at 25°C (77°F)
22
HCl H2SO4
20
NaOH
18
KOH
16 NH3
14
Conductivity, µS/cm
NaCl
12
10
8
6
CO2
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3
Concentration, g/m (mg/l)

FILMTEC Addendum
Figure 2: Conductivity of Ionic Solutions at 25°C (77°F)

Conductivity, µS/cm
Concentration, g/m3 (mg/l)

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 5 Conversion of Concentration Units of Ionic Species
10.5 Conversion of Concentration Units of Ionic Species
The following table gives conversion factors for the conversion of concentration units of ionic species given as gram of
the ion per liter (g/l) into equivalent per liter (eq/l) or of gram of CaCO3 equivalents per liter (g CaCO3/l).
Compound Formula Ionic Equiv. Conversion to

Weight Weight g CaCO3/l eq/l
Positive Ions
Aluminium Al+++ 27.0 9.0 5.56 0.111
Ammonium NH4+ 18.0 18.0 2.78 0.0556
Barium Ba++ 137.4 68.7 0.73 0.0146
Calcium Ca++ 40.1 20.0 2.50 0.0500
Copper Cu++ 63.6 31.8 1.57 0.0314
Hydrogen H+ 1.0 1.0 50.0 1.0000
Ferrous Iron Fe++ 55.8 27.9 1.79 0.0358
Ferric Iron Fe+++ 55.8 18.6 2.69 0.0538
Magnesium Mg++ 24.3 12.2 4.10 0.0820
Manganese Mn++ 54.9 27.5 1.82 0.0364
Potassium K+ 39.1 39.1 1.28 0.0256
Sodium Na+ 23.0 23.0 2.18 0.0435
Negative Ions
–
Bicarbonate HCO3 61.0 61.0 0.82 0.0164
––
Carbonate CO3 60.0 30.0 1.67 0.0333
–
Chloride Cl 35.5 35.5 1.41 0.0282
–
Fluoride F 19.0 19.0 2.63 0.0526
–
Iodide I 126.9 126.9 0.39 0.0079
–
Hydroxide OH 17.0 17.0 2.94 0.0588
–
Nitrate NO3 62.0 62.0 0.81 0.0161
– ––
Phosphate (tri-basic) PO4 95.0 31.7 1.58 0.0315
––
Phosphate (di-basic) HPO4 96.0 48.0 1.04 0.0208
–
Phosphate (mono-basic) H2PO4 97.0 97.0 0.52 0.0103
––
Sulfate SO4 96.1 48.0 1.04 0.0208
–
Bisulfate HSO4 97.1 97.1 0.52 0.0103
––
Sulfite SO3 80.1 40.0 1.25 0.0250
–
Bisulfite HSO3 81.1 81.1 0.62 0.0123
––
Sulfide S 32.1 16.0 3.13 0.0625
Neutral 1
Carbondioxide CO2 44.0 44.0 1.14 0.0227
Silica SiO2 60.0 60.0 0.83 0.0167
Ammonia NH3 17.0 17.0 2.94 0.0588
1
Calculations based on conversion to monovalent species

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 6 Conversion of Temperature Units
10.6 Conversion of Temperature Units

Degrees Celsius (°C)
Degrees Fahrenheit (°F)

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 7 Conversion of U.S. Units into Metric Units
10.7 Conversion of U.S. Units into Metric Units
1 Inch (in.) = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m
1 Foot (ft.) = 0.3048 m
1 Square Foot (sq. ft.) = 0.0929 m2
1 Gallon (US) = 3.785 l
1 Pound per sq. in. (PSI) = 0.069 bar
1 Gallon per minute (GPM) = 0.227 m3/h

= 0.063 l/s
1 Gallon per day (GPD) = 0.003785 m3/d

= 0.158 l/h
1 Million Gallons per day (MGD) = 157.73 m3/h

= 3785 m3/d
1 Gallon per sq. ft. and day (GPD) = 1.70 l/m2h

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 8 Ionization of Carbon Dioxide Solutions
10.8 Ionization of Carbon Dioxide Solutions as Function of the pH at 25°C (77°F)

Mol Fraction x 100
pH-Value

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 9 Osmotic Pressure of Sodium Chloride
10.9 Osmotic Pressure of Sodium Chloride

Osmotic Pressure ( kg/cm2 )
mg/l NaCl ( Thousands )

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 10 Osmotic Pressure of Solutions
10.10 Osmotic Pressure of Solutions
Magnesium sulfate
Sodium chloride
Lithium chloride
Ethyl alcohol
Zinc sulfate
Sea water
Fructose
Sucrose
4
3
Osmotic pressure (MPa)
Increasing molecular
weight
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Concentration in water (% by weight)

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 11 Chemical Compatibilty Process
10.11 Chemical Compatibility Process for Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration Membranes Used in Water
Treatment Technical Service and ensure that the antiscalant will

Develompment (TS&D) personnel remain microbiologically inactive
Introduction can answer any questions about during long term storage conditions.
Inorganic and organic chemicals are these protocols.
used in the operation of reverse For an antiscalant or biocide to be
osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration Compatibility Testing Process considered compatible for use with
(NF) systems to control water The process for judging if a FILMTEC membranes, a 1000 hour
chemistry prior to, and at, the chemical is compatible with our test must be carried out. The test
membranes. Chemicals are also membrane products is as follows: can be conducted at the chemical
used for cleaning, sanitizing, and 1. Contact field sales or technical manufacturer's laboratory, a special
storage of elements and systems service and development test facility or at an existing RO unit
on a periodic basis. It is important (TS&D) representative with in operation with FILMTEC®
that chemicals used in these information about the chemical. membranes.
operations are compatible with the This should include material
membranes so that their In order to establish the baseline,
safety data sheets (MSDS),
performance and effective operating the system shall be in operation for
life can be optimized. literature detailing use and at least 12 hours without chemical
operation of the product, and injection. The test will not be
The types of chemicals covered by safety concerns (if any) when considered valid if the permeate
the chemical compatibility process using the product. flow rate is more than 15 percent
are scale inhibitors (antiscalants/ below the expected value for clean
2. The chemical manufacturer or
dispersants), cleaning chemicals, membrane.
biocides, and membrane supplier will perform compatibili-
preservatives (storage solutions). ty testing per the test protocol. After the baseline is established,
The Dow Chemical Company and 3. Data from the compatibiltiy tests the chemical is then added
FilmTec Corporation do not judge are submitted to TS&D for continuously for at least 1000
products on their efficacy. hours. The normalized permeate
review and analysis. The results
flow and salt passage should
Coagulants, polyelectrolytes, and of the test will be compared with remain relatively constant during
other pretreatment polymers are not the evaluation criteria in determi- this time for the chemical to be
covered by this process. These ning compatibility. deemed compatible. The upper
products react with suspended and 4. If the chemical is judged as concentration limit for compatiblity
colloidal matter in water to form an will be the maximum concentration
compatible, then a letter will be
end-product which cannot be of the chemical in the concentrate
provided to the chemical ma- stream.
judged by chemical compatibility
testing. nufacturer or supplier which
states that the chemical has Compatibility Testing of Cleaning
The Dow Chemical Company and successfully passed the chemi- Chemicals
FilmTec Corporation do not perform cal compatibility test. If the A cleaning chemical is considered
compatibility tests on products formulation of the chemical compatile with a FILMTEC
seeking recognition as "compatible" changes, then compatibility membrane if a two hour cleaning
chemicals for use with our testing will need to be repeated. does not lower the membrane flux
membrane. This is the responsibility or salt rejection, and a two week
of the manufacturer or supplier of soak test does not lower the salt
the product. We have developed Compatibilty Testing of rejection.
detailed test protocols and criteria Antiscalants and Biocides
for evaluating test results which An antiscalant can negatively The salt used for performance test
should be used to detemine the interfere with the membrane in two of the membrane is sodium chloride
compatibility of a product with our ways, either directly or by promoting for the FT30 membrane and
RO and NF membrane elements. microbiological growth. In addition
to the compatibility test outlined
below tests should be conducted to

FILMTEC Addendum
MEMBRANE ELEMENTS 11 Chemical Compatibilty Process
magnesium sulfate for NF Solution

membranes. The tests can be 1. Test the membrane at standard
carried out at the cleaning chemical
BW test conditions. [225 psig
manufacturer's laboratory or any
other reputable laboratory. (1.6 MPa), 77°F (25°C) and
2000 ppm sodium chloride]
Two Hour Cleaning Test 2. Soak the membrane in normal
1. Test the membrane at standard strength cleaning solution at
BW test conditions. [225 psig normal cleaning temperature for
(1.6 MPa), 77°F (25°C) and two weeks.
2000 ppm sodium chloride]
3. Rinse out cleaning solution. Use
2. Clean with double the normal low conductivity water for this to
strength of the cleaning solution be able to check that both per-
by circulating the solution over meate side and brine side of the
the membrane at recommended membrane have been rinsed out
cleaning temperature and 50 effectively.
psig for two hours.
4. Retest at BW test conditions
3. Rinse out cleaning solution. Use according to point 1 above.
low conductivity water for this to There shall be no increase in
be able to check that both per- salt passage compared to the
meate side and brine side of the initial test in point 1 above.
membrane have been rinsed out
effectively.
4. Retest at BW test conditions
according to point 1 above. Flux
loss shall be less than five
percent and there shall be no
increase in salt passage compa-
red to the initial test in point 1
above.
Two Week Soak in Cleaning

Manual DOW FilmTech Membrane

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Manual DOW FilmTech Membrane

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Manual DOW FilmTech Membrane

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FILMTEC

Key Word Index

Introduction to Reverse Osmosis

Water Chemistry and Pretreatment

Assembly and Loading of Pressure Vessels

Cleaning and Disinfection

Handling and Preservation

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS Table of Contents

2.0 Introduction to Reverse Osmosis

2.1 General Information

2.2 Desalination Technologies and Filtration Processes

2.3 Principle of Reverse Osmosis

2.4 FT30 Membrane Description

2.5 Membrane Specifications

2.6 FT30 - Spiral Wound Element

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS Table of Contents

3.0 Water Chemistry and Pretreatment

3.2 Feed Water Analysis

3.3 Scale Control

3.4 Scaling Calculations

3.5 Colloidal Fouling Prevention

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS Table of Contents

3.6 Biological Fouling Prevention

3.7 Prevention of Fouling by Organics

3.8 Prevention of Membrane Degradation

3.9 Summary of Pretreatment Options

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS Table of Contents

4.0 System Design

4.2 Batch Versus Continuous Process

4.3 Single-Module System

4.4 Single-Array System

4.5 Multi-Array System

4.6 Plug Flow Versus Concentrate Recirculation

4.7 Permeate Staged System

4.8 Special Design Possibilities

4.9 Element Type Selection

4.10 Number of Elements

4.11 System Performance Projection

4.13 System Components

4.14 Materials of Construction, Corrosion Control

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS Table of Contents

5.0 Assembly and Loading of Pressure Vessels

5.2 PAYNE PV-1512/1812 Pressure Vessel

5.3 A.S.I. PVS-2.5-1000 Pressure Vessel

5.4 A.S.I. PVB-4-600 Pressure Vessel

5.5 A.S.I. PVU-4-1000 Pressure Vessel

5.6 A.S.I. PVE-8 Pressure Vessel

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS Table of Contents

6.0 System Operation

6.2 Initial Start-Up

6.3 Operation Start-Up

6.5 Adjustment of Operation Parameters

6.6 Record Keeping

6.7 Plant Performance Normalization

6.8 Control of Microbiological Activity

MEMBRANE ELEMENTS Table of Contents

7.0 Cleaning and Disinfection

7.2 Cleaning Requirements

7.3 Safety Precautions

7.4 Cleaning Equipment