CASE STUDY: CRANKSHAFTS

A PROJECT REPORT
SUBMITTED IN COMPLETE FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE
MID-TERM EVALUATION
OF
WORKSHOP PRACTICE (ME-103)

Submitted by:
Adira Sunil Nair
2K20/A17/20
Akshat Jain
2K20/A17/14
Introduction
A crankshaft is a machine component driven by a crank mechanism, comprising a
series of cranks and crankpins attached to an engine's connecting rods. A
crankshaft with one shaft rotates inside the engine block using the main bearings.
The crankpins turn within the connecting rods using rod bearings. It is practically
the backbone of the internal combustion engine (ICE). The crankshaft is the reason
for the proper operation of the machine. It converts a linear motion to a rotational
motion. Crankshafts should ideally have very high fatigue strength and resistance
to wear and tear to ensure long service life. They are subjected to very high
dynamic loads during engine use. The crankshaft experiences significant levels of
cyclical loading. The selection of materials and manufacturing methods depends on
the type of engine and the crankshaft's design and geometry. It is crucial to use
high-strength materials to ensure a long operational life. Ductile iron, forged steel,
and titanium are commonly used as materials for manufacturing.
Functions of Crankshafts
This instrument is fundamental to give a smoother and more efficient drive to the
motors, which have multi-cylinders. They are in charge of converting the linear
movement of the piston into rotational motion. This component of the motor is
made from producing steel, a composite of iron ore. While outwardly looking at
the crankshaft, one can see that the rod bearings are almost balanced or erratic.
Here, the shaft's balance shifts the responding movement (all over) of the piston
into the crankshaft's rotating motion. From time to time, the shaft is bored with
small holes that supply the motor with the oil essential for smooth activities;
sometimes, this mechanical part consists of counterweights that can help adjust
the framework and the connecting rod's weight. It additionally ensures to adjust
the power while rotation of the moving parts. Each motor is structured explicitly,
as well as the crankshaft. Its design differs with the number and size of cylinders
in the motor. For example, in a four-stroke engine, the crankshaft has four crank
throws. These throws link the four pistons and are also associated with the
flywheel of the motor. Amidst the ignition cycle, the crank throw fills in as a lever
arm, which pulls and pushes the cylinder, making a rotational movement in the
motor. The crankshaft causes the cylinder to finish its rotation, and the throw
restores the piston at the highest point of the cylinder. This item requires
exceptionally smooth designing while production regarding its balancing and
weights. Such engineering is vital to mitigate the vibrations in the motor. Such
vibrations can be extremely harmful to the vehicle and can even prompt
significant accidents.
Types of Crankshafts
Typically crankshafts are differentiated based on their construction. The popular
type of crankshafts are:

1. Fully forged:
One piece of metal is forged to form the main shaft, crank web, and crankpin
using a lathe and machining process. Usually, smaller-sized engines will
have these types of crankshafts.
2. Full built:
Here, the individual component (i.e., the Main shaft, Crank Web, and
crankpin) are fabricated and machined separately, and then they drill holes
in the crank web to shrunk fit the rest of the components. These types of
crankshafts were commonly used in older engines and vehicles.
3. Semi built:
This type of crankshaft will have the crankpin and crank web forged
together as a single component then the main shaft is shrunk fit to the web.
This type if crankshafts are more prevalent in large engines for their
reliability.
4. Fully Welded
The crankshaft is built by constant feed submerged arc welding for joining
journal pins and webs. Because the crankpin and web are single forged, the
web can be minimised in thickness for lowering the total weight without
losing out on the strength.
Benefits of Forging
A cast crank is an iron casting in which the metallurgical structure comprises an
arbitrary pattern of molecules full of tiny holes and voids. In contrast, a forged
steel crank is made by compressing a very pure metal into the die under high heat
and pressure to create a very dense molecular structure and in turn, a much
stronger crank.

Forging has many benefits over casting, such as-

• Forgings are stronger –

Because of the hot and cold working lacking in a cast crankshaft, forged
crankshafts are more durable and have a higher strength of parts and
components.

• Forgings are cheap and reliable –

Several possible casting defects can seep into your crankshaft. Since hot
working departs product qualities like resistance, ductility, and strength,
crankshafts that forged crankshaft manufacturers build are reliable and
cheap as they need lesser controlled processes and inspection.

• Uniform heat treatment response –

Castings need control over the melting and cooling processes to prevent
alloy segregation. Subsequently, this leads to a non-uniform response to
the heat treatment that can harm finished parts. Forged crankshafts react
predictably to heat treatment and thus ensure better dimensional stability
than cast crankshafts.
Crankshaft Design
There are competing criteria in the world of component design, which urge the
engineers to achieve a perceived optimal compromise to satisfy the needs of their
particular efforts. Discussions with several recognized experts in the crankshaft
field make it abundantly clear that there is no correct answer, and opinions about
design criterias' priorities vary significantly. In contemporary racing crankshaft
design, the needs for bending and torsional stiffness.

High strength is a benefit in terms of enabling the crankshaft to survive the various
stresses which result from

• The loads on the piston/conrod components by the vector resolutions of

the constantly varying cylinder pressures and reaction loads that occur
during the four (or two) strokes per cycle.
• Inertial loads resulting from the ever-varying accelerations and
decelerations exerted on the piston/conrod assemblies.

High stiffness is a benefit because it:

• Minimises bending deflection of the bearing journals and webs
• Maximises the torsional resonant frequency of the crankshaft.

Journal deflection can cause high amounts friction by disturbing the hydrodynamic
film at some critical points and can cause loss in lubrication because of leakage
through the greater radial clearances that can happen when a journal's axis is not
parallel to the bearing axis. In severe cases, it can result in metal-to-metal contact
between the journal and the bearing. Increasing the crankshaft torsional resonant
frequency might or might not benefit, depending on several factors, including engine
operating range, crankshaft excitation orders, rotating masses, and others.

Material Selection
The steel alloys typically used in high-strength crankshafts have been selected for
what each designer perceives as the most desirable combination of properties. The
figure below shows the chemistries of crankshaft alloys.
Medium-carbon steel alloys are composed of predominantly the element iron. They
contain a small percentage of carbon (0.25% to 0.45%, described as "25 to 45 points"
of carbon), along with several combinations of several alloying elements, the mix of
which has been carefully designed to produce specific qualities in the target alloy,
including hardenability, nitridability, surface and core hardness, ultimate tensile
strength, yield strength, endurance limit (fatigue strength), ductility, impact
resistance, corrosion resistance, and temper-embrittlement resistance. The alloying
elements typically used in these carbon steels are manganese, chromium,
molybdenum, nickel, silicon, cobalt, vanadium, and sometimes aluminium and
titanium. Each of those elements adds specific properties to a given material. The
carbon content is the primary determinant of the ultimate strength and hardness to
which such an alloy can be heat treated.
In addition to alloying elements, high-strength steels are carefully refined to remove
as many undesirable impurities as possible (sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, etc.) and
more tightly constrain the tolerances defined the allowable variations in the ratios of
alloying elements. The highest quality steels are typicaly specified and ordered by
reference to their AMS number (Aerospace Material Specification). These
specifications rigidly constrain the chemistry, and the required purity can often only
be achieved by melting in a vacuum, then remelting in a vacuum to refine the metal
further. Typical vacuum-processing methods are VIM and VAR.
• Vacuum Induction Melting (VIM) produces very high purity steel by
melting the materials by induction heating inside a high-vacuum chamber.
• Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR) is a refining process in which steels are
remelted within a vacuum chamber to minimise the metal's amount of
dissolved gasses. Heating is through an electric arc between a consumable
electrode and the ingot.

Manufacturing Process
Many high-performance crankshafts are created by the forging process, in which a
billet of suitable size is heated to the required forging temperature, typically in the
range of 1950 - 2250°F, and then successively pounded or pressed into the desired
shape by squeezing the billet between pairs of dies under very high pressure. These
die sets have the concave negative form of the desired external shape. Complex
shapes and/or extreme deformations often require more than one set of dies to shape.
Originally, two-plane V8 cranks are forged in a single plane, then the number two
and four main journals are reheated and twisted 90° to move crankpins number two
and three into a perpendicular plane. Modern developments in forging technology
allowed the forging of a 2-plane "non-twist" crank directly.
Crankshafts at the higher end of the motorsport spectrum are manufactured from
billets of high-grade alloy steel. Billet crankshafts are completely machined from a
round bar or "billet" of the chosen material. This manufacturing method provides
extreme design flexibility and allows alterations to a design in search of optimal
performance characteristics. In addition to the completely machined surfaces, the
billet process makes it much simpler to locate the counterweights and journal webs
precisely where the designer wants them to be. This process involves demanding
and intricate machining operations, especially concerning counterweight shaping
and undercutting, rifle-drilling main and rod journals, and drilling lubrication
passages. The availability of multi-axis, high-speed, high precision machining
equipment has made the carved-from-billet method quite cost-effective. Together
with exacting design methodologies, it has enabled the manufacture of highly
precise crankshafts which often don’t require much in the way of subsequent
massaging for balance purposes.

Inspection

Crankshafts should be regularly inspected to make sure that no cracks have been
developed. It should never be secured or lifted without sufficient support along its
length as its rigidity is mainly due to the help of the main bearings in the engine's
bedplates.
Crankshafts should be checked for cracks giving special attention to the points
mentioned below:

• The working surface of journals and pins should be examined for signs of
corrosion, pitting caused by water or acid contamination of the lubricating
oil.
• Shrink-fit reference marks should be checked.
• Crank web deflection to be taken.
• The tightness of coupling bolts should be checked.
• Locking of coupling bolts to be examined.
• The tightness of oil pipes and bearing locking devices should be checked.
• Oil holes must be cleaned.
• Balance weights securing arrangement to be checked and inspection for
cracks to be carried out.
• Oil holes should be plugged in and oil tightness should be checked.
• Crankpin bearing and main bearing clearances should be checked.

Reasons for failure of Crankshafts

• Fatigue Failure: This is the most common reason for failure of steel
crankshafts. It may originate at the change of cross-section area, such as
at the lip of oil-hole bored in the crankpin.

• Failure Due to Vibration: If the engine runs with heavy vibration

especially torsional vibration, it may lead to a crack in the crankpin and
journal.
 • Insufficient lubrication: If the lubrication of bearing in the crankshaft is
starved, it may lead to wiping out of the bearing and hence, failure of the
crankshaft.

• Over-Pressurized Cylinder: If there is a hydraulic lock (water leakage)

inside the liner, and due to high pressure, the crankshaft may slip or even
bent (if the safety valve of the unit is not functioning).

• Cracks: Cracks can develop at the fillet between the journal and the web.

Conclusion
A crankshaft is the backbone of the internal combustion engine. It is responsible
for the smooth and efficient functioning of the machine. Thus, it is essential to
choose the suitable materials to lend the required properties to a crankshaft, like
strength, resistance to wear and tear, and durability. It is also necessary to select
the correct manufacturing method, which is both economical and gives the best
results. Regular inspections are also required to ensure the smooth functioning of
the component.

References
1. Crankshaft - Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankshaft
2. Crankshaft - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/crankshaft
3. Crankshaft: Types, Stress, and Deflections | marinersgalaxy.
https://marinersgalaxy.com/crankshaft-types-stress-and-deflections/
4. Functions of Crankshaft in an Engine – Motionics Blog.
https://motionicsllcblog.wordpress.com/2018/12/13/functions-of-crankshaft-
in-an-engine/
5. Crankshaft Design, Materials, Loads and Manufacturing,
http://www.epi-
eng.com/piston_engine_technology/crankshaft_design_issues.htm