1 Limits of Functions

Definition 1 An informal definition of limit

If f (x) is defined for all x near a, except possibly at a itself, and if we can
ensure that f (x) is as close as we want to L by taking x close enough to a,
but not equal to a, we say that the function f approaches the limit L as x
approaches a, and we write

lim f (x) = L.
x→a

The following alternative notation is sometimes used

f (x) → L as x → a;

(read ”f (x) approaches L as x approaches a” or ”f (x) goes to L as x goes to

a”.)

Example 2 substituting numbers to guess a limit. What (if anything) is

x2 − 2x
lim ?
x→2 x2 − 4

2
We first try to substitute x = 2, but this leads to f (2) = 222−2.2 0
−4 = 0 which does
not exist. Next we try to substitute values of x close but not equal to 2. Table 1
suggests that f (x) approaches 0.5.

x f (x) x f (x)
3.000000 0.600000 1.000000 0.333333
2.500000 0.555556 1.500000 0.428571
2.100000 0.512195 1.900000 0.487179
2.010000 0.501247 1.990000 0.498746
2.001000 0.500125 1.999000 0.499874

Table 1: Finding limits by substituting values of x close to a.

Example 3 If f (x) = x + 3 then

lim f (x) = 7,
x→4

is true, because if you substitute numbers x close to 4 in f (x) = x + 3 the result

will be close to 7.

Example 4 (a) If f is the identity function, f (x) = x, then for any value
of x0 ,
lim f (x) = lim x = x0 ,
x→x0 x→x0

1
 (b) If f is the constant function, f (x) = k (function with the constant value
k), then for any value of x0 ,

lim f (x) = lim k = k.

x→x0 x→x0

For instances of each of these rules we have

lim x = 3
x→3

and
lim 4 = lim 4 = 4.
x→−7 x→2

Example 5 Evaluate:

x2 + x − 2 1 1
(a) lim −
x→−2 x2 + 5x + 6 (b) lim x a
x→a x − a

Solution Each of these limits involves a fraction whose numerator and de-
nominator are both 0 at the point where the limit is taken.
(a)

x2 + x − 2 (x + 2)(x − 1) x−1 −2 − 1
lim 2
= lim = lim = = −3
x→−2 x + 5x + 6 x→−2 (x + 2)(x + 3) x→−2 x + 3 −2 + 3

(b)
1 1 a−x
− −1 1
lim x a = lim ax = lim = − 2.
x→a x − a x→a x − a x→a ax a
Remark 6 Always be aware that the existence of limx→a f (x) does not require
that f (a) exist and does not depend on f (a) even if f (a) does exist. It depends
only on the values of f (x) for x near but not equal to a.

1.1 One-Sided Limits

Definition 7 Informal definition of left and right limits
Let a ∈ R and let f be a function such that f (x) is defined for x suffciently
close to and greater than a. Suppose L is a real number satisfying f (x) is
arbitrarily close to L if x is suffciently close to and greater than a. Then we
say that L is the right-side limit of f at a and we write limx→a+ f (x) = L.
If a function f is defined on the left-side of a, we can consider its left-side
limit. The notation limx→a− f (x) = L means that f (x) is arbitrarily close to L
if x is suffciently close to and less than a.

2
 
x + 1, x≥1
Example 8 g(x) =
x − 1, x<1

lim g(x) = lim x − 1 = 0

x→1− x→1−

lim g(x) = lim x + 1 = 2

x→1+ x→1+

Theorem 9 A function f (x) has limit L at x = a if and only if it has both left
and right limits there and these one-sided limits are both equal to L:

lim f (x) = L ⇔ lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L.

x→a x→a x→a

Example 10 If f (x) = bxc, find: limx→4+ f (x), limx→4− f (x) and limx→4 f (x).

Solution
Observe that f (x) = bxc = 4 if x > 4 and f (x) = bxc = 3 if x < 4.

Therefore, limx→4+ bxc = 4 and limx→4− bxc = 3.

Since limx→4+ f (x) 6= limx→4− f (x), the limit limx→4 f (x) does not exist.

|x|
Example 11 Show that limx→0 does not exist.
x

Solution
|x| −x
limx→0− = limx→0− = limx→0− (−1) = −1
x x
and
|x| x
limx→0+ = limx→0+ = limx→0+ 1 = 1.
x x
|x| |x| |x|
Since limx→0− 6= limx→0+ , the limit limx→0 does not exist.
x x x
 2
y + 5, y < −2
Example 12 Given the function, g(y) =
1 − 3y, y ≥ −2

Compute the following limits.

(a) limy→6 g(y)

(b) limy→−2 g(y)

Solution

(a) In this case there really isnt a whole lot to do. In doing limits recall that
we must always look at whats happening on both sides of the point in question
as we move in towards it. In this case y = 6 is completely inside the second
interval for the function and so there are values of y on both sides of y = 6

3
that are also inside this interval. This means that we can just use the fact to
evaluate this limit.
lim g(y) = lim (1 − 3y) = −17.
y→6 y→6

(b) In this case the point that we want to take the limit for is the cutoff point
for the two intervals. In other words, we cant just plug y = −2 into the second
portion because this interval does not contain values of y to the left of y = −2
and we need to know what is happening on both sides of the point.

lim g(y) = lim (y 2 + 5) = 9

y→−2− y→−2−

and
lim g(y) = lim + (1 − 3y) = 7.
y→−2+ y→−2

So, in this case we can see that,

lim g(y) = 9 6= 7 = lim + g(y)

y→−2− y→−2

and so since the two one sided limits aren’t the same

lim g(y)
y→−2

doesnt exist.

Theorem 13 Rules for Limits of Functions at a Point

If L, M , a and k are real numbers and limx→a f (x) = L and limx→a g(x) =
M, then
1. limx→a (f (x) + g(x)) = L + M

2. limx→a (f (x) − g(x)) = L − M

3. limx→a (k.f (x)) = k.L
4. limx→a (f (x).g(x)) = L.M
f (x) L
5. limx→a = , M 6= 0
g(x) M
n
6. limx→a [f (x)] = Ln , n is a positive integer
p √ 1
7. limx→a n f (x) = n L = L n , n is a positive integer. (If n is even, we
assume that limx→a f (x) = L > 0.)

8. If f (x) ≤ g(x) on an interval containing a in its interior, then L ≤ M.

4
Example 14 Evaluate
x3 − 2x2 − 5
lim .
x→3 8 − 4x

Solution
x3 − 2x2 − 5 limx→3 x3 − 2x2 − 5
lim =
x→3 8 − 4x limx→3 8 − 4x
limx→3 x3 − 2 limx→3 x2 − limx→3 5
=
limx→3 8 − 4 limx→3 x
limx→3 x. limx→3 x. limx→3 x − 2 limx→3 x. limx→3 x − limx→3 5
=
limx→3 8 − 4 limx→3 x
3.3.3 − 2.3.3 − 5
=
8 − 4.3
4
=
−4
= −1

Theorem 15 Limits of Polynomials and Rational Functions

1. If P (x) is a polynomial and a is any real number, then

lim P (x) = P (a).

x→a

2. If P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(a) 6= 0, then

P (x) P (a)
lim = .
x→a Q(x) Q(a)

x2 − 4
Example 16 Evaluate lim .
x→4 x + 2

Solution

x2 − 4 16 − 4
limx→4 = = 2.
x+2 4+2
Theorem 17 The Squeeze Theorem
Suppose that
f (x) ≤ h(x) ≤ g(x)
for all x in some open interval containing c and that

lim f (x) = lim g(x).

x→c x→c

Then
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = lim g(x).
x→c x→c x→c

5
 The theorem is useful when you want to know the limit of h, and when
you can sandwich it between two functions f and g whose limits are easier to
compute. There is an important difference: in the Squeeze Theorem you don’t
have to assume that the limit of h exists. The inequalities f ≤ h ≤ g combined
with the circumstance that f and g have the same limit are enough to guarantee
that the limit of h exists.
The following figure illustrates what is happening in this theorem.

Figure 1

The Squeeze theorem is also known as the Sandwich Theorem and the Pinch-
ing Theorem.

Example 18 Show that if limx→a | f (x) |= 0, then limx→a f (x) = 0.

Solution Since − | f (x) |≤ f (x) ≤| f (x) | and − | f (x) | and | f (x) | both
have limit 0 as x approaches a, so does f (x) by the Squeeze Theorem.

Example 19 An Important Limit

sinx
limx→0 =1
x

Proof.

6
 Figure 2

π
First we consider right-side limit. Let x be small, positive (0 < x < ).
2
Consider the triangles 4OAB and 4OAC and the sector OAB shown in Figure
2.
Note that
1 sinx
area of 4OAB = .1.1.sinx =
2 2
1√ x
area of sector OAB = . 1.x =
2 2
1 tanx
area of 4OAC = .1. | AC |=
2 2
Since 4OAB ⊆ sectorOAB ⊆ 4OAC, it follows that
sinx x tanx
< < .
2 2 2
sinx
Dividing each term by (which is positive), we get
2
x 1
1< < ,
sinx cosx
which, by taking reciprocal, yields
sinx
1> > cosx.
x
By the continuity of the cosine function (at 0), we have

lim cosx = cos0 = 1.

x→0

Letting x → 0+ with the Sandwich Theorem (which is also valid for limits at a
point and one-sided limits), we get
sinx
lim+ = 1.
x→0 x
sinx sin(−x) sinx
Since is an even function, that is, = for all x 6= 0 it follows
x −x x
sinx sinx
that limx→0− = 1. Therefore, we have limx→0 = 1.
x x

7
Remark 20 The result means that if x is small, then sinx is approximately
equal to x.

Example 21 Evaluate the following limits.

tan x
(a) limx→0 =?
x
tan x sin x 1
lim = lim . =1
x→0 x x→0 x cos x
1 x
(b) limx→0 2
. sin2 =?
x 2
1 2 x sin x2 2 1 2 1
lim . sin = lim ( x ) .( ) =
x→0 x2 2 x→0 2 4
2
√
sin 2x
(c) limx→0+ √ =?
sin 2x
√ √ √
sin 2x sin 2x 2x
lim+ √ = lim+ ( √ .√ )
x→0 sin 2x x→0 2x sin 2x
√ r
sin 2x 2x
= lim+ √ . lim+
x→0 2x x→0 sin 2x
= 1.1 = 1

sin(2x)
(d) limx→0 =?
sin(3x)
sin(2x) sin(2x) 2x 3x 2
lim = lim . . =
x→0 sin(3x) x→0 2x 3x sin(3x) 3

Definition 22 Let f be a given function. We say that f is bounded if there is

a positive number M such that | f (x) |≤ M for any x in domain.

Theorem 23 If f is a bounded function and limx→a g(x) = 0 then

lim f (x).g(x) = 0.
x→a
 
1
Example 24 limx→0 x. sin =?
x

1
Since sin is a bounded function and limx→0 x = 0 then we have
x
 
1
lim x. sin = 0.
x→0 x

8
 (2 + h)2 − 4
Example 25 limh→0 =?
h

(2 + h)2 − 4 4 + 4h + h2 − 4
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
2
4h + h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 4 + h
h→0
= 4
√
x2 − 6x + 9
Example 26 limx→3+ =?
x−3
√ p
x2 − 6x + 9 (x − 3)2
lim = lim+
x→3+ x−3 x→3 x−3
|x−3|
= lim
x→3+ x − 3
x−3
= lim
x→3 x − 3
+

= lim+ 1
x→3
= 1
sin x − tan x
Example 27 limx→0 =?
x3
1
sin x − tan x sin x(1 − )
lim = lim cos x
x→0 x3 x→0 x.x2
1
sin x 1 − cos x
= lim .
x→0 x x2
1
sin x 1−
= lim . lim cos x
x→0 x x→0 x2
1
1−
= lim cos x
x→0 x2
cos x − 1 cos x + 1
= lim .
x→0 cos x.x2 cos x + 1
sin x. sin x 1
= − lim .
x→0 x.x cos x(cos x + 1)
1
= −
2
cos(2x) − 1
Example 28 limx→2π =?
sin2 (2x)

9
 cos(2x) − 1 cos(2x) − 1
lim = lim
x→2π sin2 (2x) x→2π 1 − cos2 (2x)
cos(2x) − 1
= lim
x→2π (1 − cos(2x))(1 + cos(2x))
−1
= lim
x→2π 1 + cos(2x)
−1
=
1 + cos(4π)
1
= −
2
s
| 4 − x2 |
Example 29 limx→−2 =?
|2+x|
s s
| 4 − x2 | | 2 − x || 2 + x |
lim = lim
x→−2 |2+x| x→−2 |2+x|
p
= lim |2−x|
x→−2
= 2
1 6
Example 30 limx→3− ( − 2 ) =?
x−3 x −9
1 6 x+3−6
lim ( − 2 ) = lim
x→3− x−3 x −9 x→3− x2 − 9
x−3
= lim
x→3− x2 − 9
x−3
= lim
x→3− (x − 3)(x + 3)
1
= lim−
x→3 x + 3
1
=
6
√ √
5x − 5 x
Example 31 limx→5 =?
x−5

10
 √ √ √ √ √ √
5x − 5 x ( 5x − 5 x)( 5x + 5 x)
lim = lim √ √
x→5 x−5 x→5 (x − 5)( 5x + 5 x)
5x2 − 25x
= lim √ √
x→5 (x − 5)( 5x + 5 x)

5x(x − 5)
= lim √ √
x→5 (x − 5)( 5x + 5 x)

5x
= lim √ √
x→5 5x + 5 x
25
= √ √
5 5+5 5
√
5
=
2
√
x+4−2
Example 32 limx→0 =?
x
√ √ √
x+4−2 ( x + 4 − 2)( x + 4 + 2)
lim = lim √
x→0 x x→0 x( x + 4 + 2)
x+4−4
= lim √
x→0 x( x + 4 + 2)

1
=
4
x2 + 2x − 3
Example 33 limx→1 =?
2x3 + x2 − 2x + 1
x2 + 2x − 3 (x + 3)(x − 1)
lim = lim
x→1 2x3 + x2 − 2x + 1 x→1 (x − 1)(x + 1)(2x + 1)
4
=
6
x3 y − x2 y 2
Example 34 limx→y =?
x4 − y 4
x3 y − x2 y 2 x2 y(x − y)
lim = lim
x→y x4 − y 4 x→y (x2 − y 2 )(x2 + y 2 )

x2 y(x − y)
= lim
x→y (x − y)(x + y)(x2 + y 2 )

y2 y
=
(y + y)(y 2 + y 2 )
y3
=
4y 3
1
=
4

11
 1 − cos x
Example 35 limx→0 =?
sin x
1 − cos x 1 − (1 − 2 sin2 x2 )
lim = lim
x→0 sin x x→0 2 sin x2 cos x2
2 sin2 x2
= lim
x→0 2 sin x cos x
2 2
sin x2
= lim
x→0 cos x
2
0
=
1
= 0

Example 36 Evaluate the following limits.

(a) limx→4 (x − bxc) =?

lim (x − bxc) = lim (x − 3) = 1

x→4− x→4−

lim (x − bxc) = lim+ (x − 4) = 0

x→4+ x→4

Hence, the limit does not exist.

3x
(b) limx→0− bxc =?

3x 3x
lim− = lim =0
x→0 bxc x→0− −1
Example 37 Evaluate the following limits.
t3 − 6t2 + 25
1. limt→5 (answ. 15)
t−5
2(−3 + h)2 − 18
2. limh→0 (answ. −12)
h
√
t − 3t + 4 5
3. limt→4 (answ. − )
4−t 8
 
1
4. limx→0 x2 cos (answ. 0)
x
1 − cosx 1
5. limx→0 (answ. )
x2 2
6. limx→3 bsgn(x2 − 9) + sgn(x − 4)c (answ. limit doesn’t exist)
| x | + | −x |
7. limx→0 (answ. 0)
sgn(x)

12
 8. limx→3− bx − bxcc (answ. 0)
9. limx→3 bxc (answ. limit doesn’t exist)
|x−2|
10. limx→1 (answ. 1)
sgn(x − 1)2

2 Limits of Sequences
Definition 38 A sequence is a function whose domain is Z+ (the set of all
positive integers). A sequence of real numbers is a sequence whose codomain is
R.

Let f : Z+ → R be a sequence. For each positive integer n, the value f (n)

is called the nth term of the sequence and is usually denoted by a small letter
together with n in the subscript, for example an . The sequence is also denoted
by (an ).
Sometimes the numbers in a sequence approach
 a single value
 as the index
1 1 1 1
n increases. This happens in the sequence 1, , , , ..., , ... whose terms
2 3 4 n 
1 2 3 1
approach 0 as n gets large, and in the sequence 0, , , , ..., 1 − , ... whose
2 3 4√ √ √n
√

terms approach 1. On the other hand, sequences like 1, 2, 3, ..., n, ...
have terms that get larger than any number as n increases.

Definition 39 A sequence (an ) is said to be convergent if there exists a real

number L such that (an ) is arbitrarily close to L if n is suffciently large.

In the definition of convergent, it is clear that if L exists, then it is unique.

We say that L is the limit of (an ) and we write limn→∞ an = L.

Theorem 40 Rules for Limits of Sequences

If (an ) and (bn ) converge, then
1. limn→∞ k = k (where k is a constant),
2. limn→∞ (an + bn ) = limn→∞ an + limn→∞ bn ,
3. limn→∞ (an − bn ) = limn→∞ an − limn→∞ bn ,
4. limn→∞ (an .bn ) = (limn→∞ an ).(limn→∞ bn ),
5. limn→∞ (k.an ) = k. limn→∞ an (where k is a constant),
 
an limn→∞ an
6. limn→∞ = provided that limn→∞ bn 6= 0,
bn limn→∞ bn
7. If an ≤ bn , then limn→∞ an ≤ limn→∞ bn ,
8. If an ≤ bn ≤ cn and limn→∞ an = L = limn→∞ cn , then limn→∞ bn = L.

13
  
1
Example 41 Find limn→∞ 4 + n , if it exists.
2
Explanation
1
The sequence under consideration is given by an = 4 + n . The question
2
asks for the following:
1. Does the limit of (an ) exist or not (or equivalently, is the sequence con-
vergent)?
2. If the answer to (1) is affirmative, find the limit.
Solution
 
1 1
lim 4+ = lim 4 + lim =4+0=4
n→∞ 2n n→∞ n→∞ 2n

2n3 − 3n2 + n
Example 42 Find limn→∞ , if it exists.
6n3

Solution

2n3 − 3n2 + n
 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
lim = lim − + = lim − . lim + . lim
n→∞ 6n3 n→∞ 3 2n 6n2 n→∞3 2 n→∞ n 6 n→∞ n2
1 1 1 1
= − .0 + .0 = .
3 2 6 3
Example 43 Find limn→∞ (1 + 2n), if it exists.

Solution
Limit does not exist. This is because we cant find any real number L satis-
fying the condition that 2n + 1 is close to L if n is large.
Example 44 Calculate the limits of the sequences.
 2   cosn  √
2n − n − 1


(a) (b) (c) n2 + 2n − n
5n2 + n − 3 n

Solution

(a) We divide the numerator and denominator of the expression for an by

the highest power of n in the denominator, that is, by n2 :
2n2 − n − 1 2 − (1/n) − (1/n2 ) 2−0−0 2
lim 2
= lim 2
= = ,
n→∞ 5n + n − 3 n→∞ 5 + (1/n) − (3/n ) 5+0+0 5
1 1
since limn→∞ = 0 and limn→∞ 2 = 0. The sequence converges and its limit
n n
2
is .
5

14
 (b) Since | cosx |≤ 1 for every n, we have
1 cosn 1
− ≤ ≤
n n n
for n ≥ 1.
1 1
Now, limn→∞ − = 0 and limn→∞ = 0, Therefore, by the sequence
n n
version of the Squeeze Theorem, limn→∞ (cosn/n) = 0. The given sequence
converges to 0.

(c) For this sequence we multiply the numerator and the denominator (which
is 1) by the conjugate of the expression in the numerator:
√
√

p  n2 + 2n − n n2 + 2n + n
lim n2 + 2n − n = lim √

n→∞ n→∞ n2 + 2n + n
2n
= lim √
n→∞ 2
n + 2n + n
2
= lim p = 1.
n→∞ 1 + (2/n) + 1

The sequence converges to 1.

Example 45 For each of the following, find the limit if it exists.

1
1. limn→∞ √
n
 
5
2. limn→∞ 7 − 2
n
3n2 − 4000
3. limn→∞
2n2 + 10000
n2 − 12345
4. limn→∞
n+1
5n2 + 4
5. limn→∞
2n3 + 3
 
1
6. limn→∞ + (−1)n
n

3 Limits at Infinity and Infinite Limits

3.1 Limits at Infinity
Definition 46 Limits at Infinity If the function f is defined on an interval
(a, ∞) and if we can ensure that f (x) is as close as we want to the number L

15
by taking x large enough, then we say that f (x) approaches the limit L as x
approaches infinity, and we write

lim f (x) = L.
x→∞

If f is defined on an interval (−∞, b) and if we can ensure that f (x) is

as close as we want to the number M by taking x negative and large enough
in absolute value, then we say that f (x) approaches the limit as x approaches
negative infinity, and we write

lim f (x) = M.
x→−∞

x2 + 1
Example 47 limx→∞ √ =?
x2 + 2x4 − x
Solution
 
2 1
x 1+ 2
x2 + 1 x
lim √ = lim !
x→∞ x2 + 2x4 − x x→∞
r
1
x2 1+ 2− 3
x
1
= √
1+ 2
√ √
Example 48 limx→∞ ( x2 + x − x2 + 5) =?

Solution

√ √ √ √
p p ( x2 + x − x2 + 5)( x2 + x + x2 + 5)
lim ( x2 + x − x2 + 5) = lim √ √
x→∞ x→∞ x2 + x + x2 + 5
x2 + x − x2 − 5
= lim q q
x→∞
x( 1 + x1 + 1 + x52 )
x(1 − x5 )
= lim q q
x→∞
x( 1 + x1 + 1 + 5
x2 )
1 1
= √ √ =
1+ 1 2

Example 49 p
lim ( x2 − 4x − x) =?
x→∞

16
 Solution
√
p p ( x2 − 4x + x)
lim ( x2 − 4x − x) = lim ( x − 4x − x) √
2
x→∞ x→∞ ( x2 − 4x + x)
x2 − 4x − x2
= lim √
x→∞ x2 − 4x + x
−4x
= lim q 
x→∞
x 1 − x4 + 1
−4
=
2
= −2

Example 50 √ √
x + 1 + 2x + 1
lim =?
x→∞ x

Solution
r r !
√ 1 1
√ √ x 1+ + 2+
x + 1 + 2x + 1 x x
lim = lim
x→∞ x x→∞
r rx
1 1
1+ + 2+
x x
= lim √
x→∞ x
= 0
1
Example 51 limx→−∞ =0
x
Theorem 52 Let Pm (x) = am xm + am−1 xm−1 + ... + a0 and Qn (x) = bn xn +
bn−1 xn−1 +...+b0 be polynomials of degree m and n, respectively, so that am 6= 0
and bn 6= 0. Then
1.  
∞ am > 0
lim Pm (x) =
x→∞ −∞ am < 0

2.  a 
 m m=n 
Pm (x)  bn 
lim = ±∞ m > n
x→±∞ Qn (x)  
0 m<n
 

x2 + 1
Example 53 limx→∞ =0
3x3 − 4x + 5

17
3.2 Infinite Limits
A function whose values grow arbitrarily large can sometimes be said to have
an infinite limit. Since infinity is not a number, infinite limits are not really
limits at all, but they provide a way of describing the behaviour of functions
that grow arbitrarily large positive or negative.
1
Example 54 Find limx→0 if it exist.
x2

Solution As x approaches 0 from either side, the values of f (x) are positive
and grow larger and larger, so the limit of f (x) as x approaches 0 does not exist.
It is nevertheless convenient to describe the behaviour of f near 0 by saying that
1
f (x) approaches ∞ as x approaches 0. We write limx→0 f (x) = limx→0 2 = ∞.
x
2x
Example 55 Evaluate lim .
x→3+ x−3

Solution
2x
lim+ = +∞
x→3 x−3
Example 56 Evaluate lim+ ln x.
x→0

Solution
lim ln x = −∞
x→0+

bxc
Example 57 limx→0− =?
x

Solution

bxc −1
lim = lim = +∞
x→0− x x→0− x

Example 58 Evaluate the following limits.

1. limx→∞ (2x4 − x2 − 8x) (answ. ∞)
1
2. limt→−∞ ( t5 + 2t3 − t2 + 8) (answ. −∞)
3
2x4 − x2 + 8x 2
3. limx→∞ 4
(answ. − )
−5x + 7 5
√ √
3x2 + 6 3
4. limx→∞ (answ. − )
5 − 2x 2

18
 √ √
3x2 + 6 3
5. limx→−∞ (answ. )
5 − 2x 2
3
6. limx→4 (answ. limit doesn’t exist)
(4 − x)3
2
7. limx→∞ e2−4x−8x (answ. 0)
 
1
8. limt→−∞ ln 2 (answ. −∞)
t − 5t
π
9. limx→∞ arctanx (answ. )
2
 
1 π
10. limx→0− arctan (answ. − )
x 2

4 The Formal Definition of Limit

Definition 59 A formal definition of limit
We say that f (x) approaches the limit L as x approaches a, and we write
limx→a f (x) = L if the following condition is satisfied:
for every number  > 0 there exists a number δ > 0, possibly depending
on , such that if 0 <| x − a |< δ, then x belongs to the domain of f and
| f (x) − L |< .

Example 60 Show that limx→1 (5x − 3) = 2.

Solution Set a = 1, f (x) = 5x − 3 and L = 2 in the definition of limit.
Let  > 0 be given. We must find δ > 0 so that if 0 <| x − 1 |< δ then
| f (x) − L |< .
We find by working backward from the -inequality:

| (5x − 3) − 2 |=| 5x − 5 |=| x − 1 |< .
5
Thus, we can take δ = /5 and the implication above will be true. This
proves that limx→1 (5x − 3) = 2.

Definition 61 Right limits

We say that f (x) has right limit L at a and we write limx→a+ f (x) = L if
the following condition is satisfied:
for every number  > 0 there exists a number δ > 0, possibly depending on ,
such that if a < x < a+δ, then x belongs to the domain of f and | f (x)−L |< .

The definition for a left limit is formulated in a similar way.

Definition 62 Limit at infinity

We say that f (x) approaches the limit L as x approaches infinity and we
write limx→∞ f (x) = L if the following condition is satisfied:
for every number  > 0 there exists a number R, possibly depending on ,
such that if x > R, then x belongs to the domain of f and | f (x) − L |< .

19
 The definition for a limit at negative infinity is formulated in a similar way.

Definition 63 Infinite limits

We say that f (x) approaches infinity as x approaches a and we write limx→a f (x) =
∞ if for every positive number B we can find a positive number δ, then x belongs
to the domain of f and f (x) > B.

Try to formulate the corresponding definition for the concept limx→a f (x) =
−∞.

5 Continuity
Definition 64 Continuity
A function f (x) is said to be continuous at an interior point c of its domain
if
lim f (x) = f (c).
x→c

A function is said to be continuous on the interval [a, b] if it is continuous at

each point in the interval.

Note that this definition is also implicitly assuming that both f (c) and
limx→c f (x) exist. If either of these do not exist the function will not be con-
tinuous (discontinuous) at x = c .

Definition 65 Right and left continuity

We say that f is right continuous at c if limx→c+ f (x) = f (c).
We say that f is left continuous at c if limx→c− f (x) = f (c).
√
Example 66 Let f (x) = x. The domain of f is [0, ∞). We get
√
lim+ f (x) = lim+ x = 0 = f (0).
x→0 x→0

Therefore, f is right-continuous at 0.
In the above example, f is also continuous at every a > 0. Thus, it is
”continuous” at every a belonging to its domain, where ”continuous at 0” means
right-continuous at 0.

Theorem 67 Function f is continuous at c if and only if it is both right con-

tinuous and left continuous at c.

Definition 68 We say that f is continuous at a left endpoint c of its domain

if it is right continuous there.
We say that f is continuous at a right endpoint c of its domain if it is left
continuous there.

20
Example 69 Given the graph of f (x) , shown below, determine if f (x) is con-
tinuous at x = −2, x = 0 and x = 3.

Figure 3

Solution To answer the question for each point well need to get both the
limit at that point and the function value at that point. If they are equal the
function is continuous at that point and if they arent equal the function isnt
continuous at that point.
First x = −2. f (−2) = 2 and limx→−2 f (x) doesn’t exist. The function value
and the limit arent the same and so the function is not continuous at this point.
This kind of discontinuity in a graph is called a jump discontinuity. Jump
discontinuities occur where the graph has a break in it as this graph does and
the values of the function to either side of the break are finite (i.e. the function
doesnt go to infinity).
Now x = 0 . f (0) = 1 and limx→0 f (x) = 1. The function is continuous at
this point since the function and limit have the same value.
Finally x = 3. f (3) = −1 and limx→3 f (x) = 0. The function is not contin-
uous at this point. This kind of discontinuity is called a removable disconti-
nuity. Removable discontinuities are those where there is a hole in the graph
as there is in this case.

From this example we can get a quick working definition of continuity. A

function is continuous on an interval if we can draw the graph from start to
finish without ever once picking up our pencil. The graph in the last example
has only two discontinuities since there are only two places where we would have
to pick up our pencil in sketching it.
In other words, a function is continuous if its graph has no holes or breaks
in it.

21
 
0 if x<0
Example 70 f (x) = Determine whether f is continuous at
x if x≥0
x = 0 or not.

Solution Since limx→0+ f (x) = limx→0− f (x) = 0 = f (0) then f is contin-

uos at x = 0.
sin x
(
if x 6= 0
Example 71 f (x) = x Determine whether f is continuous
0 if x = 0
at x = 0 or not.

Solution f (0) = 0 and limx→0 f (x) = 1. Since limx→0 f (x) 6= f (0) then f
is not continuous at x = 0.

Theorem 72 If the functions f and g are both defined on an interval containing

and both are continuous at c, then the following functions are also continuous
at c:
1. the sum f + g and the difference f − g,
2. the product f.g,
3. the constant multiple kf , where k is any number,
4. the quotient f /g (provided g(c) 6= 0),
5. the nth root (f (x))1/n , provided f (c) > 0 if n is even.

Theorem 73 If f (x) is continuous at x = b and limx→c g(x) = b then,

lim f (g(x)) = f ( lim g(x)).

x→c x→c

In particular, if g is continuous at c (so b = g(c)), then the composition f ◦ g

is continuous at c:
lim f (g(x)) = f (g(c)).
x→c

Example 74 Evaluate the following limit.

lim esinx
x→0

Solution Since we know that exponentials are continuous everywhere we can

use the theorem above.

lim esinx = elimx→0 sinx = e0 = 1.

x→0
 √
x−1 if x≥1
Example 75 f (x) = Determine whether f is continu-
x−1 if x<1
ous at x = 1 or not.

22
 Solution

√
f (1) = 1−1=0
√
lim+ f (x) = lim+ x−1=0
x→1 x→1
lim f (x) = lim (x − 1) = 0
x→1− x→1−

f is continious at x = 1.

Example 76 Let f be the function given by


sin(nπx), 0 < x < 1
f (x) =
ln x, 1≤x<2
Discuss whether f is continuous on (0, 2).

Solution

f (1) = ln 1 = 0
lim f (x) = lim sin(nπx) = 0
x→1− x→1−
lim f (x) = lim lnx = 0
x→1+ x→1+

Since
lim f (x) = 0 = f (1)
x→1
then f is continuous on (0, 2).
Example 77 For what value of b is
1
 3
x , x< 2
f (x) = 1
bx2 , x≥ 2

continuous at every x?

Solution

 
1 b
f =
2 4
b
lim+ f (x) = lim+ bx2 =
1
x→ 2 x→ 21 4
1
lim− f (x) = lim− x3 =
x→ 12 x→ 12 8
b 1 1
= ⇒b= .
4 8 2

23
Example 78 For what values of a and b is

 3 sin x, x<0
π
f (x) = a cos x + b, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
− sin x, x > π2


continuous at every x?

Solution

lim f (x) = lim (acosx + b) = a + b

x→0+ x→0+
lim f (x) = lim 3sinx = 0
x→0− x→0−
a+b=0

lim f (x) = lim (−sinx) = −1

x→ π
2
+ π+
x→ 2

lim f (x) = lim (acosx + b) = b

x→ π
2
− π−
x→ 2

b = −1
a=1

Example 79 For what values of a and b is


 2 cos x, x<0
f (x) = a cos x + b, 0 ≤ x ≤ π
− sin x, x>π


continuous at every x?

Solution

lim f (x) = lim 2 cos x = 2

x→0− x→0−
lim f (x) = lim a cos x + b = a + b
x→0+ x→0+

lim f (x) = lim a cos x + b = −a + b

x→π − x→π −
lim f (x) = lim sin x = 0
x→π + x→π +

24
 a+b = 2
−a + b = 0
a = 1
b = 1

Example 80 For what value of m is


 sgn( x + 1 ), x < −1
f (x) = |x+1|
 x2 + mx − 1, x ≥ −1

continuous at every x?

Solution
x+1
lim sgn( ) = −1
x→−1− |x+1|
lim (x2 + mx − 1) = 1 − m − 1 = −m
x→−1+
m = 1

Example 81 For what values of a and b is


 (x − 1)3 x≤0
f (x) = ax√+ b 0 < x < 1
x x≥1


continuous at every x?

Solution

lim (x − 1)3 = −1
x→0−
lim ax + b = b
x→0+
b = −1

√
lim− ax + b = lim+ x=1
x→1 x→1
a = 2

Example 82 Determine the continuity of given functions.

25
(a)
1

x sin 2x , x 6= 0
f (x) =
0, x=0
Solution

f (0) = 0

1
lim f (x) = lim x sin =0
x→0 x→0 2x
f is continuous at x = 0.

(b)
f (x) = x2 + sgn(x2 − 1)

Solution

lim f (x) = lim x2 + 1 = 2

x→1+ x→1+
lim f (x) = lim x2 − 1 = 0
x→1− x→1−

It follows that limx→1 f (x) does not exist and so f is not continuous at 1.

lim f (x) = lim x2 − 1 = 0

x→−1+ x→−1+

lim f (x) = lim x2 + 1 = 2

x→−1− x→−1−

It follows that limx→−1 f (x) does not exist and so f is not continuous at
−1.
Thus, f is not continuous at x = ±1 and f has jump discontinuities at
these points.
(c)
x2 −1

x−1 , x 6= 1
f (x) =
2, x=1
Solution

f (1) = 2

26
 x2 − 1
lim f (x) = lim
x→1 x→1 x − 1
(x − 1)(x + 1)
= lim
x→1 x−1
= lim (x + 1)
x→1
= 2

f is continuous at x = 1.

(d) 
 x2 , x<1
f (x) = 2 − x, x>1
0, x=1


Solution

lim f (x) = lim 2 − x = 1

x→1+ x→1+
lim f (x) = lim x2 = 1
x→1− x→1−

limx→1 f (x) = 1 6= 0 = f (0). f has a removable discontinuity.

Theorem 83 Intermediate Value Theorem

Suppose that f (x) is continuous on [a, b] and let M be any number between
f (a) and f (b) . Then there exists a number c such that,
1. a < c < b,
2. f (c) = M.

All the Intermediate Value Theorem is really saying is that a continuous function
will take on all values between f (a) and f (b) . Below is a graph of a continuous
function that illustrates the Intermediate Value Theorem.

27
 Figure 4

As we can see from this image if we pick any value, M , that is between the
value of f (a) and the value of f (b) and draw a line straight out from this point
the line will hit the graph in at least one point. In other words, somewhere
between a and b the function will take on the value of M . Also, as the figure
shows the function may take on the value at more than one place. Its also
important to note that the Intermediate Value Theorem only says that the
function will take on the value of M somewhere between a and b. It doesnt say
just what that value will be. It only says that it exists. These are important
ideas to remember about the Intermediate Value Theorem.
A nice use of the Intermediate Value Theorem is to prove the existence of
roots of equations as the following example shows.

Example 84 Show that p(x) = 2x3 − 5x2 − 10x + 5 has a root somewhere in
the interval [−1, 2].

Solution
What were really asking here is whether or not the function will take on the
value p(x) = 0 somewhere between −1 and 2. In other words, we want to show
that there is a number c such that −1 < c < 2 and p(c) = 0 . However if we
define M = 0 and acknowledge that a = −1 and b = 2 we can see that these two
condition on c are exactly the conclusions of the Intermediate Value Theorem.
So, this problem is set up to use the Intermediate Value Theorem and in fact,
all we need to do is to show that the function is continuous and that M = 0 is
between p(−1) and p(2) (i.e. p(−1) < 0 < p(2) or p(2) < 0 < p(−1) and well
be done.
To do this all we need to do is compute, p(−1) = 8, p(2) = −19. So, we
have, −19 = p(2) < 0 < p(−1) = 8. Therefore M = 0 is between p(−1) and p(2)

28
and since p(x) is a polynomial its continuous everywhere and so in particular
its continuous on the interval [−1, 2]. So by the Intermediate Value Theorem
there must be a number −1 < c < 2 so that, p(c) = 0. Therefore, the polynomial
does have a root between −1 and 2. For the sake of completeness here is a graph
showing the root that we just proved existed. Note that we used a computer
program to actually find the root and that the Intermediate Value Theorem did
not tell us what this value was.

Figure 5

x2
 
Example 85 If possible, determine if f (x) = 20sin(x + 3)cos takes the
2
following values in the interval [0, 5].
(a) Does f (x) = 10 ?
(b) Does f (x) = −10 ?
Solution
So as with the previous example, were being asked to determine, if possible,
if the functio takes on either of the two values above in the interval [0, 5]. First,
lets notice that this is a continuous function and so we know that we can use
the Intermediate Value Theorem to do this problem.
Now, for each part we will let M be the given value for that part and then
well need to show that M lives between f (0) and f (5). If it does, then we can use
the Intermediate Value Theorem to prove that the function will take the given
value. So, since well need the two function evaluations for each part lets give
them here, f (0) = 2.8224 and f (5) = 19.7436.
Now, lets take a look at each part.

29
 (a) In this case we’ll define M = 10 and we can see that, f (0) = 2.8224 <
10 < 19.7436 = f (5). So, by the Intermediate Value Theorem there must be a
number 0 ≤ c ≤ 5 such that f (c) = 10.
(b) In this part we’ll define M = −10. We now have a problem. In this
part M does not live between f (0) and f (5). So, what does this mean for us?
Does this mean that f (x) 6= −10 in [0, 5]? Unfortunately for us, this doesn’t
mean anything. It is possible that f (x) 6= 10 in [0, 5], but is it also possible that
f (x) = −10 in [0, 5]. The Intermediate Value Theorem will only tell us that c’s
will exist. The theorem will NOT tell us that c’s dont exist. In this case it is
not possible to determine if f (x) = −10 in [0, 5] using the Intermediate Value
Theorem.

Theorem 86 Extreme Value Theorem

Let f be a function that is defined and continuous on a closed and bounded
interval [a, b]. Then f attains its maximum and minimum in [a, b], that is, there
exist x1 , x2 such that f (x1 ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (x2 ) for all x ∈ [a, b].

Remark 87 In the Extreme Value Theorem,

1. Closed intervals cannot be replaced by open intervals,
2. The assumption that f is continuous cannot be omitted.
 2
x , x 6= 0
Example 88 1. Let f (x) = For each real number a, deter-
1, x = 0
mine whether f is continuous or discontinuous at a.

| x |, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
2. Let f : R −→ R be the function given by f (x) =
−1, otherwise
Discuss whether f is continuous on [−1, 1].
 2
 x ,
 x<1
3. Let f (x) = 1, 1 ≤ x<2
 1,

x≥2
x
Sketch the graph of f for x ∈ [0, 5] and find all the point(s) in R at which
f is discontinuous.
x2 + x − 2
4. Let f (x) = √ .
1− x
(a) What is the domain of f ?
(b) Find limx→1 f (x).
(c) Can we define f (1) to make f continuous at 1? If yes, what is the
value?
5. Let p(x) = x5 − 6x4 − 3x3 + 5x2 + 7. Show that the equation p(x) = 0 has
a solution between 1 and 2.

30
References
[1] Robert A. Adams, Christopher Essex. Calculus: A Complete Course, Pear-
son, Canada, 2018.
[2] S.K. Chung, Understanding Basic Calculus, lecture notes, Department of
Mathematics, University of Hong Kong.
[3] Paul Dawkins, Calculus I, Paul’s Online Notes. Retrieved from
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/

31