Canada Lynx

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A Review of the Canada Lynx, Lynx canadensis, in Canada*

KIM G. POOLE
Aurora Wildlife Research, 2305 Annable Rd., Nelson, British Columbia V1L 6K4 Canada
Poole, Kim G. 2003. A review of the Canada Lynx, Lynx canadensis, in Canada. Canadian Field-Naturalist
117(3): 360-376.
The Canada Lynx (Lynx canadensis) is the most common and widespread member of the cat family in Canada.
Lynx are distributed throughout forested regions of Canada and Alaska and into portions of the northern contigu-
ous United States, closely paralleling the range of its primary prey, the Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus).
They are most common in the boreal, sub-boreal and western montane forests, preferring older regenerating
forests (>20 years) and generally avoiding younger stands, and occupy roughly 95% of their former range in
Canada. Lynx population size fluctuates 3–17 fold over an 8–11 year cycle, tracking the abundance of
Snowshoe Hares with a 1–2 year lag. During increasing and high hare abundance, lynx have high reproductive
output and high kit and adult survival. The decline phase is characterized by reproductive failure, increased
natural mortality, and high rates of dispersal. Dispersal distances of over 1000 km have been recorded. During
the cyclic low, kit recruitment essentially fails for 2–3 years, and is followed by several years of modest
reproductive output. Reproductive parameters in southern lynx populations appear similar to those found dur-
ing the cyclic low and early increase phase in more northern populations. Trapping is a significant source of
mortality in some areas. Field studies have documented from 2–45 lynx/100 km2 at various times in the cycle
and in various habitats. Although the amplitude of the cyclic fluctuations in lynx numbers may have decreased
somewhat in recent decades, there is no evidence to suggest a significant decline in numbers in Canada. Lynx are
managed as a furbearer in Canada, with harvest regulated primarily by seasons, quotas, and closures. The harvest
over the past decade has declined concurrent with declining pelt prices, and is currently a fraction of historic
levels. Lynx are fully protected in less than 2–3% of their range in Canada. There is no evidence to suggest that
overall lynx numbers or distribution across Canada have declined significantly over the past two decades, although
loss of habitat through increased urbanization and development and forestry is likely affecting lynx populations
along the southern fringe of its range. Its high potential to increase in numbers and propensity to disperse long
distances suggest that the species is relatively resilient to localized perturbations and reductions, given time and
removal of the factors that cause the initial decrease. Lowered lynx harvests, coupled with a greater awareness
of the need for proactive lynx management, suggests that the overall future of lynx in Canada is secure.
Key Words: Canada Lynx, Lynx canadensis, COSEWIC, Canada, status, review, ecology.
The Canada Lynx (Lynx canadensis), the most com- Tumlison 1987); however, large differences in size and
mon wild felid in Canada, is an elusive inhabitant of marked adaptive differences in prey selection (Nowell
the forests across much of Canada. Its cyclic fluctua- and Jackson 1996) and mitochondrial DNA analysis
tions in numbers, tied closely to those of the Snowshoe of the Lynx taxa (Beltrán et al. 1996; O’Brien 1996)
Hare (Lepus americanus), have long fascinated trap- tend to support full species status for the Canada Lynx
pers and biologists alike. This report summarizes the (Hall 1981; Wozencraft 1993). The taxonomy of the
ecology and current status and management of the cat family is an area of much disagreement (Werdelin
Canada Lynx in Canadian jurisdictions. It is based on a 1996), and further debate will surely occur.
report requested by the Terrestrial Mammals Specialist Two subspecies have been recognized (Banfield
Group of the Committee on the Status of Endangered 1974; Tumlison 1987), L. c. canadensis (Kerr 1792)
Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) (Poole 2001*), and from mainland northern United States and Canada, and
updates information provided in the original COSEWIC L. c. subsolanus (Bangs 1897), a smaller brownish race
status report by Stardom (1989*). restricted to the island of Newfoundland. However, van
The Canada Lynx has been considered by some Zyll de Jong (1975) concluded that there was no sup-
authors as conspecific with Eurasian Lynx Lynx (Felis) port for treating the Newfoundland population as a
lynx (Linnaeus 1758) (Kurtén and Rausch 1959; distinct subspecies based on traditional morphological
McCord and Cardoza 1982; Quinn and Parker 1987; traits, suggesting that the species is monotypic in North
* This paper is condensed from the official COSEWIC status report submitted to COSEWIC by the author on which a Not at
Risk status was assigned by COSEWIC in May 2001. For access to the official report, contact the Committee on the Status
of Endangered Wildlife in Canada at the Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, Canada, or the author.
360
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2003 POOLE: A REVIEW OF CANADA LYNX IN CANADA 361
America. The evolutionary history of the Canada Lynx Distribution

is unclear. The Canada Lynx and Bobcat (Lynx rufus) The lynx has a wide distribution covering most of
probably resulted from separate invasions of the Eura- northern North America, with the species currently
sian Lynx across the Bering Land Bridge during inter- occupying roughly 95% of its former Canadian range,
glacial periods of the Pleistocene; the first resulted in approximately 5 500 000 km2 (Figure 1). In contrast
speciation to the more southern Bobcat, and the second to the Canadian distribution, lynx distribution in the
invasion in speciation into the Canada Lynx (Werde- northern contiguous United States has been greatly re-
lin 1981, 1983). duced and fragmented, largely as a result of human-
induced mortality, human settlement and likely habitat
Description alteration during the past 2 centuries (McKelvey et al.
The Canada Lynx (hereafter lynx) is a medium-sized 2000). Due to cyclic pulses of dispersal, lynx occ-
cat with a flared facial ruff, black ear tufts, large pad- asionally occur to varying degrees in areas peripheral
ded feet, and a short, black-tipped tail (Banfield 1974; to its primary range.
Quinn and Parker 1987). Their pelage is reddish to The northern extent of lynx distribution in Canada
grey-brown, being lighter during winter; the hairs are appears to have changed little compared to historic
generally tipped in light grey or white. A rare colour distribution (Figure 1). Treeline defines the northern
phase, the “blue lynx”, has pallid, bluish grey fur that boundary throughout Alaska, Yukon, Northwest Terri-
suggests partial albinism. Lynx show mild sexual di- tories, Nunavut, Québec and Labrador. Lynx are absent
morphism in size, males (averaging 80–90 cm long and or uncommon in the wet coastal forests of the west
9–14 kg) being 15–25% larger than females (76–84 cm coast. Lynx are absent from the southern third of the
long and 8–11 kg; Quinn and Parker 1987; K. Poole, Prairie Provinces where their southern limit has likely
unpubl. data). Their long hair, especially during winter, been pushed slightly northward because of conversion
makes them appear much larger. Subtle differences in of land to agriculture. Lynx were extirpated from
size of lynx occur across Canada with the largest indi- Prince Edward Island during the latter half of the 1800s
viduals found in northern areas. and mainland Nova Scotia in the early 1950s, and occur
FIGURE 1. Historic (dotted lines) and 2001 (shaded areas) distribution of the Canada Lynx in North America. Historic distribution
in Canada from de Vos and Matel (1952) and van Zyll de Jong (1971) (see text). Current Canadian distribution from
jurisdiction biologists, and Alaska distribution from H. Golden (personal communication). Historic and current distri-
bution in the contiguous United States from Maj and Garton (1994) and McKelvey et al. (2000).
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362 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 117
in very low numbers throughout New Brunswick, with forest zone at elevations of 1200 to 3000 m, in spruce-
their greatest numbers in the northwest corner of the Subalpine Fir (Abies lasiocarpa), Douglas-fir (Pseu-
province. Their range on Cape Breton Island, Nova dotsuga menziesii) and fir-hemlock (Tsuga spp.) for-
Scotia, has been reduced to highland habitat. Settle- ests (Koehler and Aubry 1994; Aubry et al. 2000).
ment and conversion of forest to farmland has elimi- Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta) is found in these
nated lynx from much of the once extensive mixed montane forests as a seral species on drier sites.
deciduous and coniferous forests of the southern half Stand level preferences by lynx follow closely those
of southern Ontario and portions of Québec in the of its main prey, the Snowshoe Hare (Hodges 2000a,
Eastern Townships bordering the New England states. 2000b; Mowat et al. 2000). Lynx prefer older regen-
The map in de Vos and Matel (1952) as redrawn from erating forest stands, greater than about 20 years of
Seton (1929) may not have accurately depicted the his- age, and generally avoid younger stands (Parker
toric southern boundary of lynx distribution because 1981; Kesterson 1988; Thompson 1988; Major 1989;
large portions of the Prairie ecoregion were included Thompson et al. 1989; Perham 1995; Staples 1995;
(Bailey 1998); this was likely poor lynx habitat even Mowat and Slough 2003). Many authors have demon-
in historic times. Extensive surveys by Maj and Garton strated use (though not selection) of mature forest
(1994) and McKelvey et al. (2000) do not support this stands, especially those included within burns (Kes-
historic distribution in the Prairie biome in the con- terson 1988; Staples 1995; Poole et al. 1996). The
tiguous United States. use of habitat edges (Kesterson 1988; Major 1989;
Most lynx populations cycle dramatically on an Staples 1995) may be an important hunting strategy
8–11 year basis (see General Biology, below). Some for lynx, which may allow them to hunt hares that live
areas within the normal distribution of the species may in habitats that are normally too dense to hunt effec-
become devoid of lynx for several years during popu- tively (Mowat et al. 2000). Although lynx select against
lation lows. Lynx often undertake large dispersal use of openings such as meadows, farmland, and water
movements, primarily in response to region-wide cyc- bodies, they occasionally cross them (Murray et al.
lic reductions in Snowshoe Hare populations (see 1994; Fortin and Huot 1995; Poole et al. 1996; Mowat
Movements, below). These pulses of dispersal, with et al. 2000).
some individuals moving >500 km (Ward and Krebs Lynx den sites described in the literature have sim-
1985; Slough and Mowat 1996; O’Donoghue et al. ilar structural attributes regardless of stand type or age.
1997; Poole 1997), result in periodic shifts of distri- Denning habitat ranges from regenerating to mature
bution into the periphery of areas where they do not stands, but most sites are associated with relatively
normally occur (Banfield 1974; Mech 1973, 1977). dense vegetation in a tangle of wind-felled trees and
These populations may persist for only a few years or, deadfall or roots providing some form of overhead
given the right circumstances, may establish breeding protection (Berrie 1974; Stephenson 1986*; Kesterson
populations. The cyclic fluctuations in density and 1988; Koehler 1990; Slough 1999).
dispersal patterns result in a distribution pattern that Wildfire, which is the most important factor in the
is difficult to accurately depict. dynamics of the northern boreal forest ecosystem
(Kelsall et al. 1977; Viereck 1983), is a major habitat
Habitat modifier (Johnson et al. 1995; Paragi et al. 1997).
Lynx occupy the boreal, sub-boreal and western Logging, which is also an important factor in the dyna-
montane forests of North America (McCord and Car- mics of many boreal and montane forests, restarts the
doza 1982; Quinn and Parker 1987). Although they succession necessary to create optimum hare and lynx
occur in many forest types that are not truly boreal, habitat, but often removes the structure needed for
lynx reach their highest densities in boreal and mixed- denning by lynx and the dense understory resulting
wood forests dominated by spruce (Picea spp.), pine from wildfire (Mowat and Slough 2003). Suppression
(Pinus spp.) and Balsam Fir (Abies balsamifera) with of wildfire has likely reduced lynx habitat quality in
a variable deciduous component (Legendre et al. 1978; some areas, especially in the south, by reducing the
Quinn and Thompson 1987; Hatler 1988; Dwyer et amount of early successional stands (Mowat and
al. 1989; Mowat et al. 2000). Lynx also occur in sub- Slough 2003); however, at the landscape level the
arctic forests dominated by Balsam Fir and Paper degree of impact is unknown. However, vast areas of
Birch (Betula papyrifera) (Legendre et al. 1978). In Canadian forest burn each year despite suppression
the Maritimes and New England states, lynx are found efforts. In western montane and southern landscapes,
in Balsam Fir and Black Spruce (Picea mariana) for- lynx habitat is fragmented by low elevation valleys and
ests, and are often associated with spruce bogs (Parker interspersions of unsuitable habitat (i.e., urban areas,
1981; Litvaitis et al. 1991; Aubry et al. 2000). In parts transportation corridors, and agricultural lands). Habitat
of western Canada (i.e., central and northern Alberta) loss coupled with intensive settlement is probably the
lynx occur in upland aspen (Populus tremuloides) for- major cause of reduced lynx range in southern Ontario
ests. In the western mountains, they occur in a more and Québec.
patchy distribution predominantly within the subalpine
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General Biology tion is approximately 60–65 days (Quinn and Parker

The biology of the lynx is closely tied to the biolo- 1987; Koehler and Aubry 1994). Most births occur in
gy of the Snowshoe Hare. Lynx numbers fluctuate in the later third of May and into early June (Mowat et al.
synchrony over vast areas in response to population 1996b; Slough and Mowat 1996; K. Poole, unpubl.
levels of hares; the decline in lynx numbers generally data). Den sites are usually surface scrapes (Mowat
lags 1–2 years behind the decline in hare numbers 1993; Slough 1999).
(Elton and Nicholson 1942; Butler 1953; Keith 1963; Yearling females reproduce when hares are abun-
Brand and Keith 1979; Boutin et al. 1995). Lynx den- dant (Brand and Keith 1979; Quinn and Thompson
sities in most central and northern populations change 1987; Slough and Mowat 1996); parturition by year-
3 to 17-fold during a cyclic fluctuation (Keith et al. ling lynx may be delayed approximately 2–3 weeks
1977; Poole 1994; Slough and Mowat 1996; O’Don- compared to adults (Mowat et al. 1996b; Slough and
oghue et al. 1997). In the southern boreal and montane Mowat 1996). Few if any yearlings conceive during
forests Snowshoe Hare populations fluctuate, but at periods of low hare density (Parker et al. 1983). Male
much lower amplitudes (Hodges 2000b). Southern lynx are thought to be incapable of breeding in their
lynx populations are not believed to exhibit cyclic first year (McCord and Cardoza 1982; Quinn and
fluctuations in density (Koehler and Aubry 1994); Parker 1987). Breeding may continue into old age;
however, other than trapping records, which can be the oldest lynx recorded in the wild were 13–14 years
influenced by lynx dispersal from great distances and of age (Quinn and Thompson 1987; Chubbs and
trapper effort, little objective data are available Phillips 1993).
(Koehler 1990; Aubry et al. 2000). During the 1900s, Placental scar counts suggest that at high hare den-
lynx cycles appear to initiate and emanate from central sities pregnancy rates of lynx range from 73–93% for
Canada, following similar trends in the hare cycle adults and 33–100% for yearlings (Brand and Keith
(Smith 1983; Hodges 2000a), such that peak lynx 1979; Parker et al. 1983; O’Connor 1984; Quinn and
harvests in Saskatchewan and Manitoba from 1960 to Thompson 1987; Slough and Mowat 1996). Field
1980 occurred around the turn of the decade, and 2–4 observations suggest that birth rates range from 73 to
years later in Yukon, Alaska, and Québec. 100% for adults and 33 to 100% for yearlings during
The cycle in lynx numbers is often broken into this period (Poole 1994; Mowat et al. 1996b; and see
phases (Poole 1994; Slough and Mowat 1996; O’Don- Table 3 in Mowat et al. 1996a:438). During the in-
oghue et al. 1997). The low period typically lasts 3–5 crease and peak phase of the hare cycle, litters pro-
years and is denoted by low population density and a duced by adult females average 4–5 kittens, and juve-
mild decline and recovery in numbers through the per- nile survival is high (50–83%) (Brand et al. 1976;
iod. During the increase phase, about 3 years in dur- Poole 1994; Mowat et al. 1996a; Slough and Mowat
ation, lynx numbers increase quickly, a result of high 1996). Yearling lynx may contribute little to recruit-
fecundity, high kit survival, and low adult mortality. ment; even in high quality habitat when hares peaked
The peak phase is usually a 2-year period of high lynx in south-central Yukon survival of kittens of yearling
density with modest or no population growth. The mothers was low (<26%; Mowat et al. 1996b; Slough
decline or crash phase of the hare cycle is 1–2 years in and Mowat 1996). In southern populations few kittens
duration; after a 1–2-year lag in timing, lynx numbers are born or survive until winter and litter size is small;
also decline dramatically during this phase of the cycle in north-central Washington only four litters averaging
due to increased dispersal, high natural mortality, and two kittens each were observed among 12 resident fe-
a collapse in recruitment. males over four winters (Brittell et al. 1989). Similarly
low birth rates and litter sizes have been recorded in
Reproduction
other southern lynx populations, although sample sizes
When hares are abundant, lynx have high repro-
are small (Aubry et al. 2000).
ductive potential; adult fecundity is high, litter size
Adult and yearling lynx birth rate is reduced the
averages 4–5, kitten survival is high, and yearling lynx
spring following the hare decline (Poole 1994; Slough
reproduce. During the cyclic low, recruitment essen-
and Mowat 1996). Kitten survival also declines to
tially fails for about two years, and is followed by sev-
near zero the year after (Brand et al. 1976; Parker et
eral years of modest recovery. Reproductive para-
al. 1983; Poole 1994) or two years after (Slough and
meters in southern lynx populations appear similar to
Mowat 1996) hare numbers crash. Adult females con-
those observed during the later part of the cyclic low
tinue to conceive during the cyclic hare low in nor-
in more northern populations (Aubry et al. 2000).
thern lynx populations, but live births are few or none,
Lynx breed through March into early April (Quinn
a result of lower reproductive rates, preimplantation
and Parker 1987) and breeding pairs may remain
and intrauterine losses, and neonatal mortality (Nellis
together for several days (Poole 1994; Mowat and
et al. 1972; Parker et al. 1983; O’Connor 1984; Poole
Slough 1998). During periods of high hare density
1994; Slough and Mowat 1996). No studies have
essentially all adult female lynx ovulate each year, but
reported kittens present during the second winter fol-
this proportion declines during periods of hare scarcity
lowing the hare crash (Brand et al. 1976; Poole 1994;
(O’Connor 1984; Quinn and Thompson 1987). Gesta-
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Slough and Mowat 1996; O’Donoghue et al. 1997). southwestern Northwest Territories the annual death
However, there are anecdotal reports of kittens pre- rate from trapping (0.08) was higher than from natural
sent throughout the cycle in the north in pockets of causes (0.02) during peak and declining hare numbers;
optimum hare and lynx habitat (Mowat et al. 2000). however, during low hare numbers the death rate was
Recruitment essentially fails for 3–4 years (Brand and far higher from natural causes (primarily starvation;
Keith 1979; Parker et al. 1983; Poole 1994; Mowat et 0.48) than from trapping (0.20) (Poole 1994). All
al. 1996b), but female lynx may begin to give birth detected mortality of resident lynx was from natural
before an appreciable recovery in hare numbers, as causes during the first full year of low hare densities in
shown by observations of live litters or kittens in car- south-central Yukon, although 20 marked lynx (27%
cass collections conducted prior to the hare increase of all emigrants) were trapped after dispersal (Slough
(Brand et al. 1976; Slough and Mowat 1996). Thus, and Mowat 1996). These results suggest that during the
northern lynx populations do recruit some individuals first two winters of hare scarcity, trapping mortality
when hares are scarce and these individuals may be may be primarily compensatory to natural mortality, at
important in maintaining lynx populations through a least in lightly trapped areas.
hare low phase (Mowat et al. 2000). As hare numbers Causes of natural mortality of lynx are difficult to
increase, yearling females begin to breed and adult litter determine; a radiocollar and tufts of hair provide little
size increases (Brand and Keith 1979; O’Connor 1984; basis for inference. Ideally, mortality factors should
Slough and Mowat 1996). also be identified as proximate or ultimate causes. Star-
Survival vation (and related conditions) and cases of cannibal-
Survival of lynx varies greatly as Snowshoe Hare ism have been recorded, primarily during low prey
abundance changes throughout the cycle in northern abundance (Poole 1994; O’Donoghue et al. 1995;
populations, and is influenced by the level of trapping Slough and Mowat 1996). Predation on lynx by Wol-
in and around the population under study. In the Yukon verine (Gulo gulo), Wolf (Canis lupus) and Coyote
and NWT, annual survival rates of adults during the (C. latrans) has also been confirmed (Slough and
increase and peak phase of the hare cycle were >0.70 Mowat 1996; O’Donoghue et al. 1995, 1997; Buskirk
in a lightly trapped population and >0.89 in largely un- et al. 2000). Lynx harbour a diverse parasite fauna,
trapped populations (Poole 1994; Slough and Mowat including nematodes, cestodes, trematodes, lice and
1996; O’Donoghue et al. 1997). Annual survival rates fleas (van Zyll de Jong 1966a; McCord and Cardoza
of adult lynx remained high (0.78–0.95; Poole 1994; 1982; Smith et al. 1986; Quinn and Parker 1987), but
Slough and Mowat 1996) or declined moderately their influence on lynx health and survival is unknown.
(0.45–0.63; O’Donoghue et al. 1997) through the 1 or Movements
2-year hare decline. The first year of very low hare Recent studies have documented numerous exam-
numbers was characterized by low adult survival (0.09– ples of long distance (>100 km) movements (Ward
0.40), followed by higher survival in the subsequent and Krebs 1985; Brittell et al. 1989; Perham et al.
1–2 years of low hare densities (0.63–0.82; Poole 1994; 1993; O’Donoghue et al. 1995, 1997; Slough and
Slough and Mowat 1996; O’Donoghue et al. 1997). Mowat 1996; Poole 1997). Straight-line dispersal dis-
Survival rates in areas of high trapping pressure are tances range up to 1100 km, with 15 documented cases
generally lower; on the Kenai Peninsula in Alaska, from northern Canada of dispersal >500 km (Ward
Bailey et al. (1986) found that trapping removed 80% and Krebs 1985; Slough and Mowat 1996; O’Dono-
of individuals over one year. Kitten survival was high ghue et al. 1997; Poole 1997). Three dispersals of
(50–83%) during the increase and peak phase of the 100–616 km have been documented from southern
hare cycle but declined to near zero 1–2 years after populations, all in a northward direction (Mech 1977;
hare numbers crashed (Brand et al. 1976; Parker et al. Brainerd 1985; Brittell et al. 1989). Dispersing lynx
1983; Poole 1994; Slough and Mowat 1996). In south- have crossed roads, multilane highways, and large
ern lynx populations, kitten survival rates appear to be rivers and lakes, sometimes during the snow-free sea-
low (0.12; Koehler 1990), but data are limited. son (Aubry et al. 2000; Mowat et al. 2000). Steep
Survival tends to be lowest in winter; most mortal- terrain and multilane highways may affect dispersal
ity during low hare abundance occurred during mid- movements (Apps 2000). Note that all reported dis-
December to mid-February, and most natural mortality persal rates and distances must be considered poten-
(primarily starvation) appears to coincide with <-35°C tially biased. Trappers supply most information on
temperatures, when metabolic requirements increase long-distance movements by lynx. Trapping returns
(Poole 1994; O’Donoghue et al. 1995). are affected by the density and distribution of trapping
Earlier studies showed high trap-related mortality around study areas, and by behavioural differences in
and essentially no natural mortality in lynx populations trap vulnerability among age and sex classes of lynx
(Brand et al. 1976; Ward and Krebs 1985). Recent (Bailey et al. 1986; Quinn and Thompson 1987; Slough
studies suggest a higher incidence of natural mortality. and Mowat 1996; Poole 1997).
All adult deaths recorded in Washington were from Emigration and immigration of lynx occurs through-
natural causes (Brittell et al. 1989; Koehler 1990). In out the hare cycle (Slough and Mowat 1996; O’Don-
03_01076_Lynx.qxd 6/23/04 12:30 PM Page 365
oghue et al. 1997). Immigration rates balance or exceed common prey items include Red Squirrels (Tamias-
losses to emigration during the rapid increase phase ciurus hudsonicus), mice and voles, flying squirrels
in lynx populations, while emigration rates increase (Glaucomys spp.), ground squirrels (Spermophilus
and exceed immigration during the decline in hare spp.), Beaver (Castor canadensis), Muskrat (Ondatra
abundance and the first full year of low hare densities zibethica), grouse and ptarmigan (Galliformes and
(Slough and Mowat 1996). In southwestern NWT the Lagopus spp.), and occasionally other birds and mam-
annual probability of dispersal for adult lynx was low mals. Ungulates, primarily young-of-the-year, are eaten
(<24%) at peak hare densities and during the hare as carrion and occasionally killed, most often during
decline, very high during the first 2 years of low hare winter and at cyclic low hare abundance (Saunders
numbers (78–100%), and then stabilized during the 1963a; Bergerud 1971; Parker et al. 1983; Stephen-
third and fourth years of low hare densities (<20%; son et al. 1991; Apps 2000; K. Poole, unpubl. data).
Poole 1997). In southwestern Yukon, all long-distance Predation by lynx on Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and
dispersals of resident adults occurred during or at the other lynx also occurs, again mostly during periods
end of the Snowshoe Hare decline (Ward and Krebs of low hare densities (Stephenson et al. 1991;
1985; O’Donoghue et al. 1995). O’Donoghue et al. 1995). Caching of food by lynx is
Lynx dispersal may be characterized as either juve- rare (O’Donoghue et al. 1998b).
niles dispersing from natal areas (“innate dispersal”), In lynx populations reliant on highly cyclic Snow-
or adults dispersing in response to an environmental shoe Hare populations, the proportion of hares in the
“catastrophy” (“environmental dispersal”; Howard diet of lynx generally declines and use of alternative
1960) such as the hare decline faced by northern pop- prey increases as hares become scarce (Brand et al.
ulations approximately every 10 years. Annual timing 1976; Parker 1981; Parker et al. 1983; Stephenson et
of dispersal varies. Juvenile lynx tend to disperse pri- al. 1991; O’Donoghue et al. 1998b; K. Poole, unpubl.
marily in the spring, soon after independence. Most data). Red Squirrels in particular appear to be an im-
environmental dispersal occurs during the period of portant alternative food source for lynx during peri-
greatest nutritional stress, generally mid-winter to ods of low hare abundance. Red Squirrels became in-
spring during or after a decline in hare density. The creasingly important (20–44% biomass) at the lowest
period of greatest dispersal in recent northern studies hare density compared to almost no use (0–4% bio-
was March–June during the winter hare decline and mass) during years of high hare densities in south-
during mid-winter of the subsequent 1–2 winters western Yukon (O’Donoghue et al. 1998b). Similarly,
(O’Donoghue et al. 1995; Slough and Mowat 1996; during years of hare scarcity, use of carrion, Red
Poole 1997). Dispersal rates or distances are gener- Squirrel, Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa umbellus), and
ally greater for males than females of most mamma- other birds increased in central Alberta (Brand et al.
lian species (Greenwood 1980; Wolff 1994); trapping 1976). Lynx generally take fewer Snowshoe Hare
returns are inherently biased towards males (Bailey and more alternative prey in summer than in winter
et al. 1986; Quinn and Thompson 1987). (Quinn and Parker 1987; Koehler and Aubry 1994).
Initiation of dispersal in northern populations ap- Most studies suggest that hares contribute about 25%
peared to coincide with temperatures <-35ºC (O’Don- less to lynx diet during summer compared to winter
oghue et al. 1995; Poole 1997). Some dispersing (van Zyll de Jong 1966b; Parker et al. 1983; Fortin
lynx survived the hare crash and re-established home and Huot 1995; Staples 1995). In southern lynx popu-
ranges some distance from their point of dispersal lations that contend with consistently low densities of
(verified at 65–85 km, potentially up to 1000 km; hare, Red Squirrels may form about one-third of the
Slough and Mowat 1996; O’Donoghue et al. 1997; diet (Koehler 1990; Apps 2000), and use of ground
Poole 1997). These successful re-establishments are squirrels has been observed (Aubry et al. 2000).
difficult to detect using conventional study methods, Where Coyote and lynx are sympatric and share a
and are likely under-reported. In southern lynx popu- limited resource base, dietary overlap during winter
lations, no cases of successful dispersal (defined as has been shown to be high; however, there is no evi-
breeding at the new location) have been reported, al- dence of interspecific or exploitation competition
though again sample sizes are small (Aubry et al. (Murray and Boutin 1991; Fortin and Huot 1995;
2000). Murray et al. 1995; Staples 1995; O’Donoghue et al.
Nutrition 1997, 1998a, 2001). Parker et al. (1983) postulated
Snowshoe Hares are the key component of the diet that Bobcats may exhibit competitive exclusion over
of lynx across North America, comprising from one- lynx on Cape Breton Island.
third to nearly all of prey items identified (for food Behaviour
habit summaries see Quinn and Parker 1987:686; Lynx have a social organization similar to that of
Koehler and Aubry 1994:75; O’Donoghue et al. 1998b; other North American felids, consisting of social intol-
Mowat et al. 2000). Estimated maximum kill rates erance and mutual avoidance (Seidensticker et al. 1973;
were about 0.8 hares (Keith et al. 1977) to 1.6 hares Bailey 1974; Brittell et al. 1989). This land tenure
per day (O’Donoghue et al. 1998b, 2001). Other system has been described as “intrasexual territori-
03_01076_Lynx.qxd 6/23/04 12:30 PM Page 366
ality” (Powell 1979; Kesterson 1988), where resident Mowat 1996), even when compared against hare abun-
individuals maintain exclusive territories within each dance the previous year (to accommodate the 1-year
sex and males often but not always have larger home lag in response; O’Donoghue et al. 1997; Mowat et
ranges than females. Lynx are passively territorial, and al. 2000).
use feces, sprayed urine, or anal secretions to mark Lynx home ranges vary seasonally, although the ob-
home ranges and provide both spatial and temporal served seasonal differences are inconsistent (Aubry
information that may reduce confrontations (Saunders et al. 2000). Females with kittens have smaller ranges
1963b; Mellen 1993; Staples 1995). Some sort of spac- and males during the breeding season have larger
ing mechanism may operate to keep same-sex animals ranges (Kesterson 1988; Mowat and Slough 1998).
separated in time and space, but little or no active Kittens remain with the mother throughout the win-
avoidance or overt defence of areas between overlap- ter; family groups begin to break-up in early March
ping or adjacent pairs has been detected, suggesting (Saunders 1963b; Brand et al. 1976; Parker et al.
that this spacing is upheld by relatively passive means 1983; Poole 1995; Mowat et al. 1996b). Natal disper-
(Poole 1995). Male and female home ranges overlap sal begins in late April to early May; some juveniles
completely while within-sex overlap is usually modest disperse immediately, while others remain in the natal
or may be confined to pairs of possibly related indi- area for up to one year after their first winter (Kes-
viduals per study (e.g., Poole 1995). Home range terson 1988; Poole 1994, 1995; Mowat et al. 1996b;
exclusiveness may be a function of degree; some over- Slough and Mowat 1996).
lap may occur at the 90 or 95% home range contour There is evidence to suggest that female pair bonds,
level, but little may occur among the 50% contour either mother-daughter or sibling pairs, persist in lynx,
core areas (Poole 1995). Conflict among individuals is and provide for a social system based on matrilineal
rare in lynx, but aggressive intra-species encounters do descent (reviewed in Mowat et al. 2000). Female kittens
occur, primarily during years of food shortage (Poole sometimes establish home ranges within those of their
1994, 1995; O’Donoghue et al. 1995; Mowat and mothers (Kesterson 1988; Slough and Mowat 1996),
Slough 1998). and adult females may retain contact with their female
Lynx home range sizes vary among areas, sexes, offspring throughout their life (Carbyn and Patriquin
seasons, and cyclical phases, although different meth- 1983; Staples 1995; Mowat and Slough 1998). Obser-
ods of data collection, sample sizes and analysis tech- vations of some female home ranges with large over-
niques make it difficult to compare home range sizes lap, possibly signifying related individuals, have been
among studies. Dramatic variation in home range size reported (Poole 1995; O’Donoghue et al. 1997). The
has been reported for lynx across their North Ameri- persistence of female kin bonds in lynx populations
can range (8–738 km2; summarized in Quinn and may reduce investment in territorial defence (Mowat
Parker 1987; Koehler and Aubry 1994; Aubry et al. et al. 2000). Territoriality may be relaxed among rela-
2000; Mowat et al. 2000). During high hare density in tives so that populations with related individuals may
northern lynx populations, annual home ranges of attain higher density (Mowat et al. 2000).
males often cover 20–45 km2, and female 13–21 km2; Other than direct influence through trapping activi-
these increase 2–10 fold during low hare densities. ties, humans may exert potentially negative influences
Relatively large home ranges appear to be character- on lynx by building residences and roads in and through
istic of southern lynx populations, similar to those lynx habitat, by altering and modifying existing habi-
found in the North during periods of low hare abun- tats, and by direct disturbance through recreation or
dance. Male home range sizes are usually larger than travel in areas inhabited by lynx. Although much of
female ranges (Kesterson 1988; Koehler and Aubry the data are anecdotal, evidence suggests that lynx can
1994; Fortin and Huot 1995; Perham 1995; Slough tolerate at least some human disturbance and even con-
and Mowat 1996; O’Donoghue et al. 2001), but not tinued presence of humans, including moderate levels
always (Ward and Krebs 1985; Poole 1994). Both of road and snowmobile traffic (Staples 1995; Mowat
sexes show strong range fidelity, often over many years et al. 2000). Lynx occur at moderate densities in areas
(Poole 1995; O’Donoghue et al. 2001), but home range with dispersed agricultural areas and reasonably dense
shifts and abandonment are also common (Parker et rural human populations (Brand and Keith 1979; Fortin
al. 1983; Brittell et al. 1989; Koehler 1990; Poole and Huot 1995), and are observed crossing and along-
1994; Perham 1995; Slough and Mowat 1996; side roads and residential areas in both Yukon and
O’Donoghue et al. 2001). NWT (Mowat et al. 2000). Although lynx will generally
Lynx home range size changes little before the hare flee when closely approached, they appear to become
crash but increases dramatically after the crash in bolder and less wary of people during periods of low
northern Canada (Brand et al. 1976; Ward and Krebs prey abundance. They are relatively easy to attract and
1985; Poole 1994; Slough and Mowat 1996; O’Don- capture, having little fear of human scent. Lynx may
oghue et al. 2001). However, a linear relationship tend to avoid areas with higher levels of disturbance
between lynx home range size and hare abundance has or greater fragmentation of habitat from development,
not been demonstrated (Brand et al. 1976; Slough and although this hypothesis has not been rigorously tested.
03_01076_Lynx.qxd 6/23/04 12:30 PM Page 367
Population Size and Trends Peak densities of 30–45 lynx/100 km2 have been
An accurate estimate of lynx population size is observed in regenerating stands in the north (Poole
impossible over large areas. However, considering the 1994; Slough and Mowat 1996), and 8–20/100 km2 in
extent of lynx habitat in Canada (roughly 5 500 000 mature forests in the north and more southern ranges
km2), densities during the low of 2 lynx/100 km2, and (Parker et al. 1983; Banville 1986; Noiseux and Doucet
a safety factor of 50%, there may be roughly 50 000 1987; Kesterson 1988; Fortin and Huot 1995; O’Don-
lynx in Canada during the cyclic low and over 500 000 oghue et al. 1997). Population densities during the
during some cyclic peaks. The few intensive radio low in all populations are typically 2–3 lynx/100 km2.
telemetry studies conducted in North America provide The few published studies in southern boreal forests
the data for most density estimates. Considering that suggest relatively static lynx densities of 2–3/100 km2
many of these studies were conducted over relatively (Koehler 1990; Aubry et al. 2000), typical of north-
short time frames, with small sample sizes within poor- ern populations during the low in the hare cycle.
ly bounded study areas, and often for reasons other Fur harvest returns have provided records of lynx
than density estimation, even these density estimates harvests for two centuries, and show dramatic changes
must be considered imprecise. Regional estimates are in the amplitude in the cycle (Figure 2). Harvest returns,
generally conservative extrapolations from intensive however, do not directly represent real population
radio telemetry studies within different broad biophy- change. Harvest returns are affected by the host of fac-
sical areas. Relative changes in lynx populations may tors influencing trapper effort and success, including
be indexed using a variety of methods, such as snow changes in socio-economic conditions, season length,
track counts for Snowshoe Hares and/or lynx (Poole quota and trap type restrictions, fur prices, subsidies,
1994; Labonté et al. 1999*; K. Poole, unpublished mode of transportation, and access. Fur prices likely
data), tracking changes in kits in the harvest using pelt affect harvest effort over the short term (Brand and
length measurement (Quinn and Gardner 1984; Slough Keith 1979), but it may not be valid to compare infla-
1996) or carcass collections (Slough and Mowat 1996), tion-adjusted prices and harvests that occurred decades
and trapper questionnaires (Slough et al. 1987). apart.
FIGURE 2. Canada Lynx harvest in Canada from 1825 to 2002, from Mowat et al. (2000:Figure 9.4) and Statistics Canada,
updated to August 2003.
03_01076_Lynx.qxd 6/23/04 12:30 PM Page 368
Citing declining harvest returns and anecdotal infor- half of the 1980s, and hence lower trapper effort. In
mation, de Vos and Matel (1952) noted a decrease in addition, subsequent to the late 1980s most Canadian
lynx numbers and distribution in Canada between 1920 jurisdictions enacted more restrictive trapping regula-
and 1950. They cited overtrapping and ecological tions in reaction to perceived overharvest, which also
changes in habitat, primarily as a result of forest har- restricted harvest levels.
vesting, as the main factors responsible for the decrease. Provincial and territorial management agencies were
Several authors have suggested local populations questioned in late 1999 about the status and trend of
also were overexploited during the cyclic low of the lynx populations in their jurisdiction over the past two
1980s (Todd 1985; Bailey et al. 1986; Hatler 1988; decades (Tables 1 and 2). Half of the 12 jurisdictions
Nowell and Jackson 1996). This period came after with lynx populations reported a stable population
three cycles from 1960 to 1980 characterized by rela- trend, one reported an unknown but likely stable trend,
tively high peak harvests, and, possibly more impor- and three reported an unknown trend. On Cape Breton
tantly, relatively high harvest levels during the cyclic Island, Nova Scotia, a decreasing population trend and
lows (Figure 2). Peak harvests (summing the five-year distribution was noted during the 1960s and 1970s
harvest around each peak) from 1960 to 1980 were concurrent with the invasion of Bobcats (Parker et al.
similar to peak harvests during the classic cycles of the 1983). Over the past two decades, lynx numbers in
late 1800s, but the five-year harvest during the lows of the highlands of the Island appear to have changed
1960 to 1980 were about 25% higher than the lows of little, fluctuating with changes in the availability of
the late 1800s. Snowmobiles became readily available Snowshoe Hare (G. Parker, personal communication).
in the late 1950s and early 1960s, likely influencing In Alberta, lynx numbers may be depressed in portions
trapper access and coverage. Whether or not these in- of their range, attributed to overharvest during the prev-
creased harvest levels during the cyclic lows cumula- ious two decades (A. Todd, personal communication).
tively had a significant impact on subsequent popu- Despite the dramatic decrease in harvest through the
lation levels is unknown. Harvest levels during the 1990 cyclic peak, there is evidence that lynx popula-
1990 peak were about one quarter of peaks observed tions in much of the northern range were cycling nor-
during the 1960s and 1970s, perhaps not unexpected mally. The highest lynx densities recorded to date were
given the 10-fold decrease in pelt prices over the last obtained during the 1990–1992 peak in the southwest-
TABLE 1. Provincial and territorial Conservation Data Centre rankingsa and jurisdiction status for Canada Lynx, as provided
by agency biologists in fall 1999 and updated in 2003 from government websites.
Province/territory Conservation Data Wild species 2000 Additional Provincial/territorial
Centre rankinga general statusb status
Newfoundland Nfld island: S3S4 Secure –
Labrador: S4
Prince Edward Island Extirpated Extirpated –
Nova Scotia S1 May be at risk Red (species at-risk)
New Brunswick S1 At risk Regionally endangered (threatened with
imminent extirpation)
Québec S5 May be at risk On list of species likely to be designated
threatened or vulnerable
Ontario S5 Secure –
Manitoba S5 Secure –
Saskatchewan S5 Sensitive –
Alberta – Sensitive –
British Columbia S4 Secure Yellow (species that are apparently secure and
not at risk of extinction)
Yukon – Secure –
Northwest Territories – Secure –
Nunavut – Sensitive –
a S1: Extremely rare throughout its range in the province. May be especially vulnerable to extirpation.
S2: Rare throughout its range in the province. May be vulnerable to extirpation due to rarity or other factors.
S3: Uncommon throughout its range in the province, or found in a restricted range, even if abundant in some locations.
S4: Frequent to common; apparently secure but may have a restricted distribution or there may be perceived future threats.
S5: Common to very common; demonstrably secure and essentially ineradicable under present conditions.
b
Canadian Endangered Species Conservation Council (CESCC) 2001.
At risk: at risk of extirpation or extinction (i.e., endangered or threatened).
May be at risk: may be at risk of extirpation or extinction.
Sensitive: a species is not believed to be at risk of immediate extirpation or extinction but may require special attention
or protection to prevent it from becoming at risk.
Secure: a species that is not at risk or sensitive.
03_01076_Lynx.qxd 6/23/04 12:30 PM Page 369
ern Northwest Territories and southern Yukon (Poole incidental or illegal trapping may be substantial.
1994; Slough and Mowat 1996). Although the ampli- However for most of Canada where relatively liberal
tude of lynx abundance may have decreased in some trapping seasons and open quotas are the norm, inci-
regions through the 1980s and 1990s, there is little dental and illegal harvests are likely a very small pro-
evidence to conclude that harvest during the low of the portion of the overall harvest.
1980s had a long-term impact on contiguous northern Fire suppression in much of North America over the
lynx populations. past century may have reduced the amount and quality
Temporal trends in the distribution and abundance of early to mid-successional hare and lynx habitat, and
of lynx are difficult to identify given the wide natural may place forests at risk of large, intensive burns that
fluctuations in population size driven primarily by the fail to mimic natural fire history (Mowat and Slough
8–11 year Snowshoe Hare cycle and the difficulty in 2003). A trend in government is surfacing towards a
estimating population size. Areas occupied during the “let it burn” policy in some areas, which may ultimate-
peak in lynx abundance may be abandoned during the ly rebalance fire-driven succession in parts of the coun-
cyclic low, only to be re-occupied in the subsequent try. Logging restarts the succession necessary to create
increase. The amplitude of lynx abundance may be optimum hare and lynx habitat, but often removes the
closely linked to the amplitude of peak densities of structure needed for denning by lynx. The logging,
hares. No studies have monitored lynx densities over site preparation and silviculture techniques used for
more than one complete cycle. However, hare densities and after harvest influence the quality of lynx and hare
may differ 2–3 fold among peaks (Hodges 2000b: habitat that results (Mowat and Slough 2003). Changes
Table 6.1) and lynx densities may also be expected to to forestry practices in recent years to provide habitats
differ among peaks under natural situations. Anecdotal and structure post-logging more conducive to wildlife
information based on community fur returns and local may reduce the impact of logging on lynx habitat.
knowledge suggests that there has been no decrease in While threats to habitat may affect lynx populations
range detected in the Northwest Territories, Yukon, to varying degrees throughout its range, especially in
or Alaska through the 1980s and 1990s (K. Poole, B. more southern populations, the isolated Cape Breton
Slough, H. Golden, unpublished data). Island lynx were the only animals identified in this
Over the past two decades lynx distribution may review that may be negatively and directly influenced
have been reduced along the southern edge of its range by threats to habitat. These perceived threats include
in Canada. Some areas may still be recovering from habitat fragmentation and loss of mature softwood
excessive harvest of the 1970s and 1980s, but these stands suitable for denning through forest pathogens,
appear to be showing signs of recovery and are few in fire and forest harvesting (M. Elderkin, personal com-
number. Over the vast majority of the country there is munication). As noted by Parker et al. (1983), large-
no evidence to suggest that lynx distribution or num- scale forest harvesting operations, although initially
bers have changed substantially. reducing densities in specific areas, should ultimately
benefit the population by producing productive mid-
Limiting Factors and Threats successional habitats.
Removal of lynx by trapping is a major cause of Clearing of forested lands for agriculture and urban
mortality in some lynx populations in Canada. Trap- development should have a minor influence on lynx
ping may be primarily compensatory to natural mor- distribution since these primarily influence the south-
tality only during the dramatic decline in populations ern fringe of lynx range in Canada. However, little
in lightly trapped areas (Poole 1994; Slough and data are available on changes in lynx distribution in
Mowat 1996). Lynx are relatively easily trapped, and more southern ranges in Canada. Development and
with extensive access and pressure, trapping can re- human activity may render some habitat as unsuitable
move a large proportion of a population (Todd 1985; for lynx.
Bailey et al. 1986). On the other hand, lynx are rela- Interspecific competition, primarily with Bobcats
tively fecund and populations can increase rapidly dur- and Coyotes, may influence the distribution and abun-
ing periods of increasing or abundant prey (Mowat et dance of lynx, although direct evidence is lacking. The
al. 1996b; Slough and Mowat 1996). Lynx also have reduction in lynx distribution on Cape Breton Island
been shown to disperse great distances, and therefore occurred concurrent with the invasion of the island by
have the ability to re-colonize vacant habitats. Bobcats, and although a direct causal link has not been
Incidental or illegal harvest of lynx may occur established, the circumstantial evidence for interspe-
throughout its range, and have been raised as potential cific competition is compelling. Both Bobcats and
threats to Cape Breton Island animals, exacerbated Coyotes are poorly adapted to deep snow. Buskirk et
by the increase in use of snares for sympatric species al. (2000) suggested that man-made trails facilitate
(M. Elderkin, personal communication; D. Banks, access by Coyotes and Bobcats into areas usually in-
personal communication). No data are available on the habited by lynx, and may be the cause of reductions
extent of illegal harvest of lynx in Canada. In areas in lynx distribution through its southern range in North
with short trapping seasons or quotas, the degree of America, but again evidence to support this statement
03_01076_Lynx.qxd 6/23/04 12:30 PM Page 370
is lacking. The recent invasion of Cape Breton Island regulation techniques included quotas and temporary
by Coyotes and their access on packed roads and trails closures, either regional or jurisdiction-wide. All jur-
into high elevation winter habitats have been suggest- isdictions also reported monitoring the harvest by
ed as an additional potential threat to the island’s lynx tracking harvest levels from trapper returns. Addition-
(M. Elderkin, personal communication; D. Banks, per- al harvest monitoring techniques included compulsory
sonal communication). However, field studies conduct- inspections (the pelt has to be brought to wildlife offi-
ed where lynx and Coyote are sympatric have not iden- cial and is sealed or tagged), and compulsory reporting
tified exploitation competition between the two species (the trapper has to file a report of harvest at season
(Murray and Boutin 1991; Murray et al. 1995; Staples end). Population monitoring techniques include track-
1995; Slough and Mowat 1996; O’Donoghue et al. ing the hare cycle (through track counts [Labonté et
1997, 1998a). al. 1999*] or pellet plots [Krebs et al. 1987, 2001]),
Although purely speculative, global warming may monitoring the proportion of kits in the harvest through
cause reduced habitat quality for lynx by reducing pelt measurements (Quinn and Gardner 1984; Slough
snow depths, primarily at the southern edge of its 1996) or carcass collections, and trapper questionnaires
range. Reduced snow depth may favour Bobcats and (Slough et al. 1987) which provide catch per unit effort
Coyotes over lynx in these areas. and index population trends. Nova Scotia has been ex-
perimenting with track counts at bait sites and using
Lynx Status and Management in Canada aircraft to monitor lynx numbers on Cape Breton Island
Canada Lynx are listed under Appendix II of Con- (M. Elderkin, personal communication).
vention on International Trade in Endangered Species The number of lynx taken by licensed trappers has
of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), primarily because declined since the early 1980s (Figures 2 and 3). Pelt
it is a “look-alike” species that could be confused with prices peaked in the mid to late 1980s, concurrent with
other endangered felids. Global ranking assigned by the low in the cycle, and declined by 80–90% through
The Nature Conservancy is G5 (common to very com- to the early 1990s. Alberta has generally produced
mon; demonstrably secure and essentially ineradicable the largest number of lynx pelts, up to one quarter to
under present conditions). Lynx are classified as en- one third of the Canadian total (Table 3). Excluding
dangered or threatened in most states in the U.S., with the Maritime Provinces, the remaining provinces and
the exception of Alaska where lynx are classified as a territories each produce 8–14% of the annual harvest,
furbearer and trapping is permitted. Lynx south of the with British Columbia and the Northwest Territories
49th parallel were listed as threatened in 2000 under generally producing higher numbers than most. Har-
the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Legal harvest in the vest data are derived primarily from compulsory
contiguous states is allowed only in Montana, which inspection and pelt marking or through auction house
has a state-wide quota of two. records, and can be considered to be a relatively accu-
The COSEWIC status assigned to lynx in 1989 was rate indication of actual harvest level. Game hunters
“Not At Risk” (Stardom 1989*), which was reaffirmed in British Columbia have harvested an average of 16
in 2001 (Poole 2001*). Subnational Conservation Data lynx annually over the past 15 years (M. Badry, per-
Centre (CDC) rankings and status designations vary sonal communication). The number of lynx harvest-
(Table 1), with the greatest concern a result of reduced ed illegally is unknown but may be insignificant on a
range, low population levels and threats to the popu- national scale, given current low fur prices and declin-
lation discussed above. Lynx harvest is regulated in ing interest in trapping. Almost all lynx trapped in
each jurisdiction by provincial/territorial laws. Lynx Canada are exported (Stardom 1989*). The trade in
are fully protected (including from First Nations har- live specimens is insignificant, totalling less than
vesters) in only a small proportion of their range in 0.05% of the total harvest (Stardom 1989*).
Canada. These areas include most, but not all, national Concern for lynx populations in most jurisdictions
and provincial parks, and some federal lands such as in Canada peaked during the 1980s when record high
military testing areas and bases, and are estimated to pelt prices coincided with the low of the cycle, trap-
be less than 2–3% of lynx range in Canada. per effort was high and overharvest was suspected in
The lynx is classified as a furbearer in all Canadian many areas (Todd 1985). Many jurisdictions enacted
jurisdictions with the exception of British Columbia, more restrictive legislation to curb the harvest through
where it is now also classified as a big game species the late 1980s and into the low of the mid-1990s. Some
to facilitate licensing (M. Badry, personal communi- jurisdictions (e.g., Québec and Manitoba) only lifted
cation; Table 2). All jurisdictions in Canada allow season closures in 1998 after lynx populations were
harvesting of lynx, except in the Maritime Provinces. into the increase phase of the cycle and the “health”
Season length varies up to five months, with the long- of the population was perceived to be recovering. The
er seasons generally occurring in the more northern experience of concern and reaction to perceived over-
jurisdictions. Most provinces vary season length dur- harvest may result in more careful monitoring and
ing the lynx cycle, and all jurisdictions reported regu- management of lynx populations in the foreseeable
lating the harvest using seasons (Table 2). Additional future. However, given the intensity and accuracy of
2003
TABLE 2. Legislative status, regulations, monitoring and population trend of Canada lynx by management jurisdiction in Canada based on information and opinions provided by
agency biologists in fall 1999, and updated in 2003 from government websites. All jurisdictions regulated the harvest using seasons and reported monitoring harvest levels from
trapper returns. Most provinces vary season length during the lynx cycle.
Legislative Maximum Harvest regulation Population Population trend
Province/territory status season and monitoring monitoring (over past two decades)
Newfoundland Furbearer Labrador: 15 October – 31 March Compulsory inspection Carcass collections, hare Stable
(Newfoundland Island) cycle monitoring
Newfoundland Island:
20 October – 1 February
Nova Scotia Furbearer Closed Closure Aerial track transects, Stable, possibly decreasing
tracking at bait sites
New Brunswick Furbearer Closed Closure; inspection of Regional study Unknown
03_01076_Lynx.qxd 6/23/04 12:30 PM Page 371
incidental captures
Québec Furbearer Mostly 25 October – 1 February Quota; closure (1995–98) Questionnaire, hare cycle Stable
monitoring
Ontario Furbearer 25 October – 28 February Quota; compulsory Questionnaire Unknown
registration
Manitoba Furbearer 1 December – 28 February Closure (1995–98), Pelt measurement Stable
compulsory inspection
Saskatchewan Furbearer 1 November – 28 February – – Stable
Alberta Furbearer 1 December – 15 February Quota, compulsory – Unknown, possibly still
registration depressed in some stable areas
POOLE: A REVIEW OF CANADA LYNX IN CANADA
British Columbia Furbearer, 15 November – 15 February BG quota of 1, compulsory Pelt measurement Stable
big game inspection in south
Yukon Furbearer 1 November – 10 March Compulsory inspection – Stable
Northwest Territories Furbearer 1 November – 15 March – Pelt measurement, carcass Unknown, likely stable
collection, hare cycle
monitoring
Nunavut Furbearer 1 November – 15 March – – Unknown
371
03_01076_Lynx.qxd 6/23/04 12:30 PM Page 372
45,000 $700
40,000
$600
35,000
Canadian Harvest of Lynx
Average Pelt Value (CDN)

Average pelt value
$500
30,000
25,000 $400
20,000 $300
15,000
$200
10,000
$100
5,000 Lynx harvest
0 $0
77/78 79/80 81/82 83/84 85/86 87/88 89/90 91/92 93/94 95/96 97/98 99/00 01/02
FIGURE 3. Canada Lynx harvest in Canada and average pelt value from 1977 to 2002. Data from Statistics Canada, updated
to August 2003.
the current monitoring and research programs on lynx seral stage forests with adequate structure for denning
in Canada, most jurisdictions would be unable to iden- and cover.
tify anything but a dramatic decline in lynx numbers
or distribution beyond the normal cyclic fluctuations. Acknowledgments
The public generally perceives lynx as an elusive I thank COSEWIC, Canadian Wildlife Service for
denizen of the Canadian forests. Long important to funding the preparation the full status report submit-
the trapping industry, the recent attention to biolog- ted to them and M. Festa-Bianchet for administrating
ical diversity and conservation biology has meant that the work and fielding countless questions. Page charges
the lynx has been recognized as an important compo- for this review were covered by Resources, Wildlife
nent of the ecosystem. The cyclic fluctuations in num- and Economic Development, Government of the North-
bers and its close ties to the cyclic abundance of Snow- west Territories. Numerous people provided informa-
shoe Hares have fascinated many over the years, in- tion and advice from all jurisdictions. G. Mowat kindly
cluding scientists keen on determining the driving reviewed an earlier draft, and I received additional
mechanisms behind the hare and lynx cycles. comments from members of the COSEWIC Terrestrial
While direct assessment of lynx populations is Mammals Specialist Group (M. Festa-Bianchet, J.
exceedingly difficult, there is no evidence to suggest Murie, D. Nagorsen, M. Crête, T. Herman, and M.
that lynx numbers across most of Canada are declining. Brigham) and an anonymous reviewer. I benefited
Harvest effort and numbers have declined dramati- greatly from involvement in the preparation of Mowat
cally over the past decade, and there is little to suggest et al. (2000), and I thank my co-authors G. Mowat and
a reversal in trend. There is no evidence that illegal M. O’Donoghue. The opinions presented here are
harvest is a serious concern. High reproductive poten- solely mine, and do not necessarily represent those of
tial and the propensity to disperse long distances sug- COSEWIC.
gest that lynx numbers in affected areas can be re-
populated given time and removal of the factors that Documents Cited (marked * in the text)
cause the initial decrease. Lynx habitat should be main- Labonté, J., F. Potvin, J. P. Ouellet, and J. Ferron. 1999.
tained given continuing availability of early to mid- Analyse d’inventaires de pistes de lynx du Canada dans
cinq secteurs du Québec et proposition de deux approches
03_01076_Lynx.qxd 6/23/04 12:30 PM Page 373
applicables à un programme de suivi. Direction de la faune

01/02
633
3588
1343
575
1763
1667
864
214
579
6148 8573 9361 11226

$72.70 $55.10 $78.68 $104.33
et des habitats, Ministère de l’Environnement et de la
Faune, Québec, Canada.
Poole, K. G. 2001. COSEWIC status report on Canada lynx
99/00 00/01
191
1884
1004
454
1661
2028
701
603
835
(Lynx canadensis). Committee on the Status of Endangered
Wildlife in Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
121
11
1482
635
275
1229
1456
602
459
2303
Stardom, R. 1989. Status report on the lynx Lynx canadensis
in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wild-
life in Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
98/99
91
1105
655
246
812
1438
500
592
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A Review of the Canada Lynx, Lynx canadensis, in Canada*

2003 POOLE: A REVIEW OF CANADA LYNX IN CANADA 361

America. The evolutionary history of the Canada Lynx Distribution

362 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 117

2003 POOLE: A REVIEW OF CANADA LYNX IN CANADA 363

General Biology tion is approximately 60–65 days (Quinn and Parker

364 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 117

2003 POOLE: A REVIEW OF CANADA LYNX IN CANADA 365

366 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 117

2003 POOLE: A REVIEW OF CANADA LYNX IN CANADA 367

368 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 117

2003 POOLE: A REVIEW OF CANADA LYNX IN CANADA 369

370 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 117

372 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 117

Average Pelt Value (CDN)

2003 POOLE: A REVIEW OF CANADA LYNX IN CANADA 373

applicables à un programme de suivi. Direction de la faune

6148 8573 9361 11226

L. F. Ruggiero, K. B. Aubry, S. W. Buskirk, G. M. Koehler,

Aubry, K. B., G. M. Koehler, and J. R. Squires. 2000.

United States. Edited by L. F. Ruggiero K. B. Aubry, S.

Bailey, R. G. 1998. Ecoregions map of North America:

Bailey, T. N. 1974. Social organization in a bobcat popula-

population in the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Journal of

Banville, D. 1986. Étude écologique du lynx du Canada sur

Beltrán, J. F., J. E. Rice, and R. L. Honeycutt. 1996. Taxo-

rior Alaska. Pages 4–41 in The world’s cats. Volume 1.

Bergerud, A. T. 1971. The population dynamics of the

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