Design Wind and Flood Loads Syed M Ashraf

Structural Building Design:
Wind and Flood Loads

Structural Building Design:
Wind and Flood Loads
Syed Mehdi Ashraf, P.E.
CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Ashraf, Syed Mehdi, author.
Title: Structural building design : wind and flood loads / Syed Mehdi Ashraf.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, a CRC title, part of the Taylor &
Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic
division of T&F Informa, plc, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018021936 | ISBN 9781138036369 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Wind-pressure. | Flood damage.
Classification: LCC TH891 .A68 2018 | DDC 624.1/75—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018021936
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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Dedication
I dedicate this book to Ahsan Siddiqui, a young doctor who died an accidental
death two hours before his wedding. Ahsan was the son of my best friend, Suhail
Siddiqui, who helped me migrate to the United States and mentored me in life.
Suhail is an exemplary human being, and Ahsan was an exemplary son.
“A tragedy unheard of—May your soul rest in peace, Ahsan”
I also dedicate this book to my teachers with a deep sense of gratitude

Late Mr. C.R. Murthy (Little Flower High School, Hyderabad)
Late Mr. S. A. Subhan (Little Flower High School, Hyderabad)
Prof. N.K.A. Murthy (National Institute of Technology, Warangal)
Late Prof. R. B. Pool (University of South Carolina)
Prof. J.H. Bradburn (University of South Carolina)
Prof. Ali Paya (Middlesex University, London)
My love to my four children,

Zain, Naser, Masooma and Iman
BK-TandF-9781138036369_TEXT_ASHRAF-180602-FM.indd 5 24/09/18 9:59 AM

Table of Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................................................... xiii
About the Author...........................................................................................................................................xv
Abbreviations............................................................................................................................................. xvii
Part 1 Wind Loads
Chapter 1. Introduction�� 3
1.1 Major Causes of Wind Forces��3
1.2 Building Codes Addressing Wind and Flood Loads��5
1.3 Basic Wind-Engineering Concepts��6
1.4 Dispersal of Wind Loads in Building Structures��8
Chapter 2. Review of ASCE 7-16��11

2.1 Organization of ASCE 7-16 for Wind Load Calculations�� 11
2.2 General Requirements of Wind Load Calculations�� 11
2.2.1 Main Wind Force Resisting System and Components and Cladding�� 11
2.2.2 General Requirements............................................................................................................. 11
2.2.3 Wind Directionality Factor (Kd)..............................................................................................13
2.2.4 Exposure Category..................................................................................................................13
2.2.5 Topographic Factor (Kzt)......................................................................................................... 14
2.2.6 Ground Elevation Factor (Ke)..................................................................................................15
2.2.7 Gust Effects.............................................................................................................................15
2.2.8 Enclosure Classifications......................................................................................................... 16
2.2.9 Internal Pressure Coefficient (GCpi)........................................................................................ 17
2.2.10 Structural Damping................................................................................................................. 17
2.3 Wind Velocity Pressure�� 18
2.4 ASCE Chapter 27—Directional Procedure�� 18
2.4.1 Part (1): Enclosed, Partially Enclosed and Open Buildings of All Heights.............................19
2.4.2 Part (2): Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Buildings with H ≤ 160 ft...........................................20
2.5 ASCE Chapter 28—Envelope Procedure��22
2.5.1 Part (1): Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Low-Rise Buildings..............................................22
2.5.2 Part (2): Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Low-Rise Buildings....................................................24
2.6 ASCE Chapter 29—Other Structures and Building Appurtenances��25
vii
viii Table of Contents
2.7 ASCE Chapter 30—Components and Cladding��27

2.7.1 Part (1): ASCE Chapter 30— Low-Rise Buildings..................................................................28
2.7.2 Part (2) ASCE Chapter 30— Low-Rise Buildings...................................................................29
2.7.3 Part (3) ASCE Chapter 30— Buildings with H > 60 ft............................................................30
2.7.4 Part (4) ASCE Chapter 30— Buildings with H ≤ 160 ft..........................................................30
2.7.4.1 Parapet (Load Case A)............................................................................................... 31
2.7.4.2 Parapet (Load Case B)............................................................................................... 31
2.7.4.3 Roof Overhang........................................................................................................... 31
2.7.5 Part (5) ASCE Chapter 30— Open Buildings.......................................................................... 31
2.7.6 Part (6) ASCE Chapter 30— Building Appurtenances and Rooftop Structures
and Equipment........................................................................................................................ 31
2.7.6.1 Part (6)(a): Parapets.................................................................................................... 31
2.7.6.2 Part (6)(b): Roof Overhang.........................................................................................32
2.7.6.3 Part (6)(c): Rooftop Structures and Equipment for Buildings with h ≤ 60 ft.............32
2.7.6.4 Part (6)(d): Attached Canopies on Buildings with h ≤ 60 ft.......................................32
2.7.7 Part (7) ASCE Chapter 30— Non-Building Structures............................................................33
2.7.7.1 Circular Bins, Silos and Tanks with h ≤ 120 ft..........................................................33
2.7.7.2 Rooftop Solar Panels..................................................................................................34
Chapter 3. Significant Changes in ASCE Versions�� 35

3.1 History of ASCE 7��35
3.2 Evolution of ASCE 7��35
3.3 Significant Changes in ASCE 7-10 Compared to ASCE 7-05��36
3.4 Significant Changes in ASCE 7-16 Compared to ASCE 7-10��40
3.4.1 Chapter 26 Wind Loads: General Requirements....................................................................40
3.4.2 Chapter 27 Wind Loads on Buildings: Main Wind Force Resisting System
(Directional Procedure)........................................................................................................... 41
3.4.3 Chapter 28 Wind Loads on Buildings: Main Wind Force Resisting System
(Envelope Procedure).............................................................................................................. 41
3.4.4 Chapter 29 Wind Loads on Building Appurtenances and Other Structures:
Main Wind Force Resisting System (Directional Procedure)................................................. 41
3.4.5 Chapter 30 Wind Loads: Components and Cladding.............................................................. 41
Chapter 4. Testing and Inspections�� 43

4.1 Hurricane-Prone Regions��43
4.2 Wind-Borne Debris Regions��43
4.3 Building Envelope��43
4.4 Structural Inspections��44
4.5 Product Control��45
4.6 Fenestration and Roof��46
Chapter 5. Wind-Related Solved Examples��47

Problem 5.1 Determination of Effective Length (Leff)��47
Problem 5.2 Calculation of Approximate Natural Frequency of Steel, Concrete and Concrete/
Steel Buildings��48
Problem 5.3 Calculation of Approximate Natural Frequency of a Building with Shear Walls��49
Table of Contents ix
Problem 5.4 Approximate Natural Frequency—Gust Effect Factor��50

Problem 5.5 Approximate Natural Frequency—Topographic Factor��54
Problem 5.6 Calculation of Velocity Pressure��54
Problem 5.7 Calculation of Wind Pressure Using the Directional Procedure..��55
Problem 5.8 Calculation of Wind Pressure Using the Enclosed Simple
Diaphragm Building Method��58
Problem 5.9 Calculation of Wind Pressures of a Building with Transverse Frames��60
Problem 5.10 Calculation of Wind Pressures of an Enclosed Simple Diaphragm
Low-Rise Building��61
Problem 5.11 Calculation of Wind Pressures of a Water Tank with a Domed Roof��63
Problem 5.12 Calculation of Wind Pressures on a Solid Freestanding Sign��65
Problem 5.13 Calculation of Wind Pressures for Solar Panels��66
Problem 5.14 Calculation of Wind Pressures for Windows��68
Problem 5.15 Calculation of Hipped Roof Wind Pressures��70
Chapter 6. Miscellaneous Structures—Calculations of Wind Pressures�� 73

Problem 6.1 Solar Panels��73
Problem 6.2 Roof Diaphragm��75
Problem 6.3 Hurricane Straps��77
Problem 6.4 Fences��79
Problem 6.5 Signs��80
Problem 6.6 Rooftop Equipment��83
Problem 6.7 Skylights��85
Problem 6.8 Awnings��87
Problem 6.9 Parapets��88
Part 2 Flood Loads
Chapter 7. Introduction—Floods�� 93
7.1 Introduction��93
7.2 Benefits of Floods��93
7.3 Federal Emergency Management Agency��94
7.4 Examples��95
7.5 Title 44—Code of Federal Regulations��96
7.6 ASCE 7-16 and ASCE 24-14��99
Chapter 8. ASCE 7-16 for Flood Loads��101

8.1 Introduction�� 101
8.2 Breakaway Walls��102
8.3 Erosion and Scours��104
8.4 Flood Loads��104
8.4.1 Hydrostatic Loads.................................................................................................................104
8.4.2 Hydrodynamic Loads............................................................................................................106
8.4.3 Wave Loads...........................................................................................................................108
8.5 Impact Loads�� 110

x Table of Contents
8.6 Scours�� 111

8.7 ASCE Load Combinations Involving Flood Loads�� 111
8.8 Effects of Hydrostatic Forces on Swimming Pools�� 112
8.9 Design Examples�� 112
8.9.1 Calculations of Loads on Piles.............................................................................................. 112
8.9.2 Calculations of Loads on Walls............................................................................................. 113
8.9.3 Hydrodynamic and Breaking Wave Loads on Piles.............................................................. 115
8.9.4 Debris Impact........................................................................................................................ 116
8.9.5 Swimming Pools.................................................................................................................... 116
Chapter 9. ASCE 24-14 for Flood Loads�� 119

9.2 ASCE 24 Chapter 1.0—General�� 119
9.3 ASCE 24 Chapter 2.0—Basic Requirements for Flood Hazard Areas That Are Not
Identified as Coastal High Hazard Areas and Coastal A Zones��120
9.4 ASCE 24 Chapter 3.0—High Risk Flood Hazard Areas�� 121
Alluvial Fan Areas............................................................................................................................. 121
Flash Flood Areas..............................................................................................................................122
Mudslide Areas.................................................................................................................................123
Erosion-Prone Areas.........................................................................................................................123
High Velocity Flow Areas.................................................................................................................124
Ice Jams and Debris Areas................................................................................................................124
9.5 ASCE 24 Chapter 4.0—Coastal High Hazard Areas and Coastal A Zones��125
Design Loads.....................................................................................................................................125
Wave Forces on Piles........................................................................................................................126
Siting��126
Elevations..........................................................................................................................................126
Foundations.......................................................................................................................................127
Wood Piles........................................................................................................................................127
Steel Piles..........................................................................................................................................129
Pre-Stressed Concrete, Reinforced Concrete and Precast Concrete Piles........................................129
9.6 ASCE 24 Chapter 5.0—Materials��129
ASTM A123/A123M-15 Standard Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized)
Coatings on Iron and Steel Products..................................................................................... 132
ASTM A153/A153M-16a Standard Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron
and Steel Hardware............................................................................................................... 133
ASTM A653/A653M-15e1 Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated
(Galvanized) or Zinc-Iron Alloy-Coated (Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip Process...............134
ASTM A924/A924M-16ae1 Standard Specification for General Requirements for
Steel Sheet, Metallic-Coated by the Hot-Dip Process..........................................................134
ASTM A252-10 Standard Specification for Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe Piles........................134
ASTM A572/A572M-15 Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy
Columbium-Vanadium Structural Steel................................................................................134
ASTM A690/A690M-13a Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy Nickel,
Copper, Phosphorus Steel H-Piles and Sheet Piling with Atmospheric Corrosion
Resistance for Use in Marine Environments......................................................................... 135
ASTM A36/A36M-14 Standard Specification for Carbon Structural Steel...................................... 135

Table of Contents xi
ASTM A572/A572M-15 Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy

Columbium-Vanadium Structural Steel................................................................................ 135
ASTM A992/A992M-11 Standard Specification for Structural Steel Shapes.................................. 135
ASTM A148/A148M-15a Standard Specification for Steel Castings, High Strength,
for Structural Purposes.......................................................................................................... 135
9.7 ASCE 24 Chapter 6.0—Dry Floodproofing and Wet Floodproofing��136
9.8 ASCE 24 Chapter 7.0—Attendant Utilities and Equipment�� 137
9.9 ASCE 24 Chapter 8.0—Building Access�� 137
9.10 ASCE 24 Chapter 9.0—Miscellaneous Construction�� 138
9.11 Design Examples�� 138
9.11.1 Garage Openings................................................................................................................... 138
9.11.2 Decks..................................................................................................................................... 139
Chapter 10. Wind versus Storm Surge—Hurricane Irma Experience��143

10.2 Engineering Investigation Methodology�� 143
10.2.1 Roofs.....................................................................................................................................144
10.2.2 Roof Structure....................................................................................................................... 145
10.2.3 Attics..................................................................................................................................... 146
10.2.4 Interiors................................................................................................................................. 146
10.2.5 Walls...................................................................................................................................... 146
10.2.6 Doors and Windows.............................................................................................................. 147
10.2.7 Foundations........................................................................................................................... 147
10.2.8 Structural Framing................................................................................................................ 148
10.2.9 Flooring................................................................................................................................. 148
10.3 Hurricane Irma�� 148
Index�� 155

Preface
During the fall of 1994, I moved to Miami from South Carolina, where I had attended graduate school
and worked briefly with Kyzer & Timmerman. Prior to immigrating to the United States, I had worked in
Hyderabad, India, and in the United Arab Emirates. There was very little concept of designing buildings
for wind in these cities. During my first 5 years in Miami, I mostly worked at Miami International Airport,
with Sam Gilmore, a general contractor. There was a major expansion at the airport. At a terminal building,
on a Friday, we installed a concrete masonry unit wall and then left for the weekend. When we came back
on Monday, the wall had toppled. There was no hurricane. A breeze of 40–50 mph was sufficient to displace
the freshly laid wall.
Miami-Dade County has a very good Product Control Division, which certifies products used for build-
ing envelopes. While I worked for E. N. Bechamps and Associates and Pistorino and Alam, we had contracts
to review applications for the product approval submitted to the Miami-Dade Product Control Division. The
applicant’s engineer submits the documents based on material testing and wind load calculations to rate
products to be used in the envelope of the building. We reviewed these applications for compliance with the
protocols of the South Florida Building Code. The 1994 edition of the South Florida Building Code was
written during the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew, which was one of the most disastrous natural calamities
that had occurred in the United States. Hurricane Andrew changed the history of building codes in South
Florida. Codes are called “Before-Andrew” and “After-Andrew” in South Florida. If another Andrew were
to occur in South Florida, buildings would behave far better than how they behaved in 1992. The implemen-
tation of building codes and product control in Miami nationally commands respect.
This book is a result of my association with the design and construction of buildings, code implementa-
tion and teaching in South Florida for more than 20 years. Buildings in South Florida are designed for an
ultimate wind speed of 175 mph. My intention in writing this book was to share with my fellow engineers
my experience in wind engineering. I thought it would be a good idea to include a few chapters for the
design of buildings for flood loads, because flooding typically occurs after a hurricane. I divided the book
into two parts, the first dealing with wind, and the second with floods. There are six chapters in part 1 and
three chapters in part 2.
Hurricane Irma struck Florida on September 10, 2017. It caused disaster in the Florida Keys and on the
west coast of Florida. I was involved in the assessment of damages of several buildings. Chapter 10 was
introduced in the book to share with the readers my experiences of damage assessment of buildings after
Hurricane Irma. The chapter also discusses the techniques used to distinguish between the damages caused
by wind and storm surge.
xiii

About the Author
Syed Mehdi Ashraf, P.E., is a licensed engineer under the structural disciplines (I & II),
general contractor, building official, building plans examiner and special inspector.
He is also certified as a building official, building plans examiner, building inspec-
tor and structural plans examiner. He is the recipient of numerous awards, including
Florida ASCE Government Engineer of the Year, Miami-Dade ASCE Engineer of
the Year, Broward ASCE Engineer of the Year, South Florida Plans Examiner of the
Year and Distinguished Alumni of the National Institute of Technology, Warangal. He
has also been honored at the Florida International University, University of Miami,
City of Miami Beach and Temple Emanuel. He is a fellow of the American Society
of Civil Engineers and has been an adjunct professor with the Department of Civil Engineering, Florida
International University, offering graduate and undergraduate courses in Structural Steel, Pre-stressed
Concrete and Timber Design. He has also offered several seminars on engineering laws and rules and many
other engineering topics.
xv

Abbreviations
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers

BCCO Building Code Compliance Office
BFE Base Flood Elevation
C & C Components and Cladding
c/c center-to-center
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CMU Concrete Masonry Units
CRS Community Rating System
DFE Design Flood Elevation
EWA effective wind area
FBC Florida Building Code
FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency
FIRM Flood Insurance Rate Map
ft/h feet per hour
ft/sec feet per second
ft/sec2 foot per second squared
HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
Hz Hertz
IBC International Building Code
ICC International Code Council
ICC-ES International Code Council Evaluation Service
lb pounds
MEP Mechanical, Electrical, and Plumbing
mph miles per hour
MRI mean recurrence interval
MSW Mean Sea Level
MWFRS Main Wind Force Resisting System
NFIP National Flood Insurance Program
NGL Natural Ground Level
NGVD National Geodetic Vertical Datum
NOA Notice of Acceptance (Miami-Dade County)
o.c. on center
xvii
xviii Abbreviations
pcf pounds per cubic foot

psf pounds per square foot
SFHA Special Flood Hazard Area
sft square feet
sq.in square inch
V(asd) Wind Velocity allowable stress design
V(ult) ultimate wind velocity (3-second gust)
w.r.t/ with respect to
Part 1
Wind Loads
Introduction
Chapter
1
1.1 Major Causes of Wind Forces
Lateral forces caused by winds are a major factor in the design of tall buildings. Even in locations belong-
ing to low-wind zones, tall buildings are designed for the wind effects. The greatest wind effect is caused
by hurricanes and tornadoes. Hurricane is the highest wind storm on the earth, and few natural disasters
can pose as much calamity as a hurricane can.1 Hurricanes can make landfall with sustained winds greater
than 155 mph. During their lifetime they can expend as much energy as 10,000 nuclear bombs. They are
called by different names in different parts of the world. They are called typhoons in the western Pacific
and China Sea area. In Australia, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan, they are called cyclones. They are named
baguios in the Philippines. Their scientific name is “tropical storm.” They are storm systems consisting of a
large low-pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and heavy rain. The wind
rotates counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere during a hurricane. When saturated air rises, water
evaporated from the ocean is released and water vapor contained in the moist air condenses. At any height
in the atmosphere, the center of a tropical cyclone will be warmer than its surroundings. In general, it is a
large system of spinning air that rotates around a point of low pressure.
The first sign of hurricane formation is the appearance of a cluster of thunderstorms over the tropical
oceans. It is called a tropical disturbance. When winds converge, the collision forces the air to rise, initiat-
ing thunderstorms. These convergences take place either at the meeting point of the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres at the eastern side of the equator or along the boundary between masses of warm and cold water.
The thunderstorms created get organized into a more unified storm system that results in the fall of surface
air pressures in the area around them. Winds begin to spin. Water vapors condense in rising air and release
energy, which increases the buoyancy of air and makes it rise. To compensate for this rising air, the surround-
ing air sinks and is compressed by the air above it and warms. The pressure rises at the top of the layer of
warm air, pushing air at the top of the layer outward. Now there is less air in the layer, causing the pressure of
the ocean surface to drop. More air is drawn at the surface and converges near the center of the storm to form
more clouds. This becomes a chain reaction and the storm gets intensified. The lower the surface pressure, the
more rapidly the air flows into the storm at the surface, increasing the wind and causing more thunderstorms.
Stronger winds are triggered.
When the wind speed is about 25 mph, it is called a tropical depression; at about 40 mph, it is called a
tropical storm; and at 75 mph, it is a hurricane. However, if the atmospheric condition 3 to 6 miles above the
surface is not favorable, the storm withers away. Hurricanes can diminish in strength when the storm moves
over cooler water that cannot supply warm air, moves over land, or moves into an area where strong winds
high in the atmosphere disperse latent heat, reducing the warm temperatures aloft and raising the surface
pressure (Table 1.1 describes this process).
Tropical cyclones produce extremely powerful winds and torrential rain and are also able to produce
high waves and damaging storm surges as well as tornadoes. Once they make landfall, they lose their
3
4 Structural Building Design: Wind and Flood Loads
TABLE 1.1
How Is a Hurricane Formed?2
Number Description of Event
1 Warm, moist air moves over the ocean.
2 Water vapor rises into the atmosphere.
3 As the water vapor rises, it cools and condenses into liquid droplets.
4 Condensation releases heat into the atmosphere, making the air lighter.
5 The warmed air continues to rise, with moist air from the ocean taking
its place and creating more wind.
strength as a result of increased surface friction with the ground and the loss of the warm ocean as an energy
source. The coastal regions receive significant damage from a tropical cyclone, while inland regions experi-
ence winds with lesser velocity. Heavy rains produce significant flooding inland, and storm surges produce
flooding up to 25 miles from the coastline. A storm surge is the most destructive force accompanying hur-
ricanes, for it can produce a rise in ocean levels of up to about 33 ft.
A major hurricane is a Category 3, 4 or 5 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale,
capable of inflicting great damage and loss of life. The Saffir-Simpson scale provides specific wind values
for each hurricane category. The original Saffir-Simpson scale category assignment of U.S. hurricanes was
based on a combination of wind, central pressure and storm surge values.3 It consists of five categories
(1 being the weakest and 5 being the strongest).
Category 1 hurricanes have a wind velocity of 75–95 mph. The accompanying storm surge is generally
4–5 ft above normal. There is no real damage to building structures. The damage is primarily to unanchored
mobile homes, shrubbery and trees. There is some damage to poorly constructed signs. Also, some coastal
road flooding can occur, and minor piers can get damaged.
6–8 ft above normal. There is some roofing material, door and window damage of buildings. There is con-
siderable damage to shrubbery and trees, with some trees blown down. There is also considerable damage
to mobile homes, poorly constructed signs and piers. Coastal and low-lying escape routes flood 2–4 hours
before arrival of the hurricane center. Small craft in unprotected anchorages break their moorings.
9–12 ft above normal. There is some structural damage to small residences and utility buildings, with a
minor amount of curtain wall (non-load-bearing exterior wall) failures. Damage to shrubbery and trees is
experienced, with foliage blown off trees and large trees blown down. Mobile homes and poorly constructed
signs are destroyed. Low-lying escape routes are cut by rising water 3–5 hours before arrival of the center
of the hurricane. Flooding near the coast destroys smaller structures, with larger structures damaged by
battering from floating debris.
13–18 ft above normal. There are more extensive curtain wall failures, with some complete roof structure
failures on small residences. Shrubs, trees and all signs are blown down. Mobile homes are completely
destroyed. Extensive damage to doors and windows is experienced. Low-lying escape routes may be cut by
rising water 3–5 hours before arrival of the center of the hurricane. There is major damage to lower floors
of structures near the shore. Terrain lower than 10 ft above sea level may be flooded.
Category 5 hurricanes have a wind velocity greater than 155 mph. The accompanying storm surge
is generally greater than 18 ft above normal. Roofs could completely fail in single-family residences and
industrial buildings. Complete failure of one- or two-storied buildings has occurred. All shrubs, trees and signs
are blown down. There is severe and extensive window and door damage. Low-lying escape routes are cut by
Introduction 5
rising water 3–5 hours before arrival of the center of the hurricane. Major damage occurs to lower floors of
all structures located less than 15 ft above sea level and within 500 yd of the shoreline.
The National Hurricane Center has recorded historic information about hurricanes that made landfalls
in the United States. Florida, Texas, Louisiana, and North Carolina are the states with high frequencies of
hurricane landfalls. Katrina, Andrew, Ike, Wilma, Ivan, Charley, Hugo, Rita, Agnes and Betsy are among
the most destructive hurricanes in recent history.
When it comes to hurricanes, wind speeds do not tell the whole story. Hurricanes produce storm surges,
tornadoes and, often the most deadly of all, inland flooding. While storm surge is always a potential threat,
more people have died from inland flooding. Intense rainfall is not directly related to the wind speed of
tropical cyclones. In fact, some of the greatest rainfall amounts occur from weaker storms that drift slowly
or stall over an area. Inland flooding can be a major threat to communities hundreds of miles from the coast
as intense rain falls from these huge tropical air masses. Persistent high wind and changes in air pressure
push water toward the shore, causing a storm surge, which can be several feet high. Waves can be highly
destructive as they move inland, battering structures in their path. On open coasts, the magnitude varies
with the tides. An increase in the level of the ocean during high tide will flood larger areas than a storm
that strikes during low tide. Major coastal storms can significantly change the shape of shoreline landforms,
making sandy coastal floodplains unstable places for development. Wind and waves shape sand dunes,
bluffs and barrier islands. The preservation of landforms is important for internal development because they
form a protection from the effects of the storm.
1.2 Building Codes Addressing Wind and Flood Loads

In the 21st century, Hurricane Katrina has been the most devastating natural event in the United States with
a life loss of more than 1200 and a financial damage of $108 billion in Florida, Louisiana and Mississippi. In
1900, a Category 4 hurricane hit Galveston, Texas, at a sustained wind of more than 140 mph, killing more
than 8000 people. There were no preparations made to resist the impact of the hurricane. The hurricane
covered the buildings like an ocean and cost several million dollars in cleanup and recovery. The year 1992
experienced the most devastating hurricane in the 20th century when Hurricane Andrew hit South Florida
in August. People in Miami and Homestead were unprepared as Andrew changed its route. Building codes
were rewritten as a result of Andrew. There was a major change to both the Miami-Dade and Broward edi-
tion of the South Florida Building Code, which was later incorporated in the Florida Building Code as the
“High Velocity Hurricane Zone” (HVHZ) portion of the code.
The two standards published by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) – ASCE 7-16,
“Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures,” and ASCE 24-14, “Flood Resistant Design
and Construction” – address the loading requirements for wind and flood. Wind and flood along with earth-
quake, fire and snow are the main reasons for building fiascoes in the United States.
The first code related to wind loads was published as ANSI A58.1-1972 by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1972. A subsequent edition of ANSI A58.1 was published in 1982. Then the
American Society started publishing ASCE 7. Editions of the standard were published in 1988, 1993, 1995,
1998, 2002, 2005, 2010 and 2016. ASCE 7-10 was significantly reorganized in comparison with the previ-
ous codes. It had six chapters on wind as compared to the previous versions, which had only one chapter on
wind. ASCE 7-16 followed the reorganization of ASCE 7-10 with six chapters on wind. In the 1995 edition,
the wind speed was changed from the fastest-wind speed to the 3-second gust. Each revision made changes
to several different factors like the importance factor, terrain factor, directionality factor, gust effect factor
and the pressure/force coefficients.
“Flood Resistant Design and Construction,” ASCE 24, was published in 1998 and subsequently in
2005, 2010 and 2014. ASCE 24 deals with the minimum requirements and expected performance for
the design and construction of buildings and structures in flood hazard areas. It is not a restatement of
all the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) regulations, but offers additional specificity, some
additional requirements and some limitations. Parts 59, 60, 65 and 70 of Chapter 44 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (CFR) deal with the NFIP. These parts of the CFR 44 describe the program, flood-
plain management criteria, identification and mapping of special hazard areas and procedures of map
corrections.4
The International Building Code (2009) uses ASCE 7-05 for wind loads and ASCE 24-05 for flood
loads. The Florida Building Code (2007) uses ASCE 7-05 for the wind loads. However, the freeboard of
ASCE 24-05 was not adopted in the Florida Building Code (2007). The Florida Building Code (2011) has
adopted ASCE 7-10 for wind loads and ASCE 24-05 for flood loads. The International Building Code
(IBC), as of 2015, uses ASCE 7-10 for wind loads and ASCE 24-14 for flood loads.
In general, the “building envelope” is the physical separator between the interior and the exterior envi-
ronments of a building. Another emerging term is “building enclosure.” It serves as the outer shell to help
maintain the indoor environment (together with the mechanical conditioning systems) and facilitate its cli-
mate control. Building envelope design is a specialized area of architectural and engineering practice that
draws from all areas of building science and indoor climate control. The building envelope provides an air
barrier system in buildings, blast safety, seismic safety, wind safety, CBR safety and flood resistance. It also
maintains indoor air quality and mold prevention, sustainability and heating, ventilation and air-conditioning
(HVAC) integration. In terms of wind engineering, the building envelope provides protection against strong
wind actions to the interior environment and the occupants. The building envelope generally consists of
the cladding, roofing, exterior walls, glazing, door assemblies, window assemblies, skylight assemblies and
other components enclosing the building.
Various states and the International Code Council (ICC) have product evaluation agencies that
review and approve products for the building envelopes. In Florida, for example, Miami-Dade County
Product Control Division and the Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation are
the two agencies that approve products to be used in the envelope of a structure to resist wind. ICC
Evaluation Services (ICC-ES) is the agency that gives approvals of envelope products in accordance
with the IBC.
The state of Florida has its own code based on the IBC with local amendments. There are two portions
of the Florida code – the HVHZ and the rest of Florida. The HVHZ consists of the Miami-Dade area and
Broward County. Each section of the Florida Building Code has similar requirements for product approvals
that include approved testing laboratories, testing standards, evaluation criteria and quality assurance veri-
fication. There are several Roofing Application Standards (RAS) and several Testing Application Standards
(TAS) supplementing the Florida Building Code for envelope product approvals.
1.3 Basic Wind-Engineering Concepts

There are static, dynamic and aerodynamic effects of wind on structures. In general, an analysis of the
static effects of wind is sufficient in the design of low-rise buildings. In tall buildings, the dynamic and
aerodynamic effects along with the static effects are required to be analyzed. Flexible slender structures and
structural elements like tall buildings are subjected to wind induced along and across the direction of wind.
The along-wind effects are mainly due to buffeting effects caused by turbulence, and across-wind effects
are mainly due to alternate-side vortex shedding. Buffeting is a high-frequency instability caused by airflow
separation or shock wave oscillations from one object striking another. It is caused by a sudden impulse of
load increasing. It is a random forced vibration. Vortex shedding is an oscillating flow that takes place when
air flows past a bluff (as opposed to streamlined) body at certain velocities, depending on the size and shape
Introduction 7
of the body. The across-wind effect can sometimes become primary because it could exceed along-wind
accelerations if the building is slender around both axes.
Galloping and flutter are two important wind-induced motions. Galloping is a transverse oscillation
of a structure resulting from the development of aerodynamic forces that are in phase with the motion.
It is demonstrated by the progressively increasing amplitude of transverse vibration with an increase of
wind speed. The structural elements that are not circular are more prone to galloping. Flutter is unstable
oscillatory motion of a structure resulting from the coupling between aerodynamic force and elastic
deformation of the structure. Combined bending and torsion are among the most common forms of
oscillatory motion.
Gust, vortex shedding and buffeting are three major dynamic components of wind that cause the
oscillation of structures.
During a hurricane, the wind velocity is not constant. There is a steady component of wind and there
are effects of gusts which last for few seconds. The wind velocity in the American standards is based on
a 3-second gust (explained later). Gust gives a more realistic assessment of wind load. The intensity of
gusts is related to the duration of gusts that affects the structures. Larger structures are affected by larger-
duration gusts and are subjected to smaller pressure compared to smaller structure. The gust effect factor
accounts for additional dynamic amplification of loading in the along-wind direction from wind turbulence
and structure interaction. It does not include allowances for cross-wind loading effects, vortex shedding
and instability from galloping or flutter, or for dynamic torsional effects. Where cross-wind loading effects,
vortex shedding, galloping, flutter and dynamic torsion are anticipated, wind tunnels are used to determine
wind pressures on buildings. The wind tunnels take into consideration random wind gusts acting for short
durations over all or part of a structure, fluctuating pressures induced in the wake of a structure, including
vortex-shedding forces and fluctuating forces induced by the motion of a structure.
When wind acts on a building, forces and moments in three mutually perpendicular directions are
generated (three translations and three rotations). Because the weight of a building is high compared
to wind pressure in the upward direction, only the along-wind response and across-transverse-wind
responses are considered. Only on the roof elements is the uplift from wind considered. The across-
wind response causing motion in a plane perpendicular to the direction of wind typically dominates
the along-wind response for tall buildings. In a building subjected to a smooth wind flow, the originally
parallel upwind streamlines are displaced on either side of the building due to boundary layer separa-
tion. This results in spiral vortices being shed periodically from the sides into the downstream flow of
wind, creating a low-pressure zone due to shedding of eddies called the wake. When the vortices are
shed, cross-wind components are generated in the transverse direction. At low wind speeds, because the
shedding occurs at the same instant on either side of the building, there is no tendency for the building to
vibrate in the transverse direction. It is therefore subject to along-wind oscillations parallel to the wind
direction. At higher speeds, the vortices are shed alternately, first from one and then from the other side.
When this occurs, there is a force in the along-wind direction as before, but in addition there is a force
in the transverse direction. This type of shedding, which gives rise to structural vibrations in the flow
direction as well as in the transverse direction, is called vortex shedding. The frequency of shedding
depends mainly on the shape and size of the structure, on the velocity of flow and to a lesser degree on
the surface roughness and turbulence of the flow. Changing the cross-sectional shape of the building over
its height can ensure that vortices are broken up and cannot be shed coherently over the entire height of the
building, thus reducing across-wind loading. The Sears Tower in Chicago and the Burj Khalifa in Dubai
use this technique to great effect.5,6
Large buildings affect the wind loading of nearby low buildings. There are significant adverse effects
for particular building proximity configurations. These effects are called buffeting. A downwind structure
could oscillate due to vortex shedding of an adjacent large structure.
1.4 Dispersal of Wind Loads in Building Structures

“Load path” is the term used to describe the path by which loads are transmitted to the foundations. Different
structures have different load paths. Some structures have only one path while others have several (redun-
dancy). The load path is simply the direction in which each consecutive load will pass through connected
members. The sequence commences at the highest point of the structure and works all the way down to the
footing system, ultimately transferring the total load of the structure to the foundation. Ultimately, the lowest
structural member must be strong enough to support all members above it. This is why engineers often design
the uppermost members first and progressively work their way down the structure following the load path.
The components of a building receive the wind directly or from the cladding. Examples of components
provided in the commentary of Chapter 26 of ASCE 7-16 are fasteners, purlins, grits, studs, sheathing, roof
decking and certain trusses. Examples of cladding are wall coverings, curtain walls, roof coverings, sheath-
ing, roof decking and exterior doors and windows.
The Components and Cladding (C & C) receiving the wind loads transfer the loads to the Main Wind
Force Resisting System (MWFRS) at each level. The MWFRS may consist of structural frames or shear
walls or a combination of the two, complemented by the horizontal diaphragm. The loads are transferred
from the upper levels to the lower levels and to the foundations in the form of horizontal shear and moments.
The vertical component of the wind loads is the wind uplift, which is resisted by the connections of the roof
to the supporting beams or walls and by the weight of the roof.
There are various lateral load-resisting systems available for different types of buildings. In this book,
we will limit our discussion to three types of buildings: single-family homes and duplexes, industrial build-
ings and multi-storied buildings.
In single-family one- and two-storied homes or duplexes, lateral wind loads are received by the walls
and other envelope elements like exterior doors and windows. The walls could be wood-stud walls or con-
crete masonry unit (CMU) walls. The walls are designed for wind loads perpendicular to them or acting
as shear walls. The loads are transferred to the horizontal diaphragm, which is typically concrete slab or
plywood sheathing in the case of a wood structure. The diaphragms support the walls and brace them. If the
diaphragm consists of wood structure, comprising wood rafters or trusses and plywood sheathing, then the
thickness of the sheathing, its connection to the wood rafters or trusses and the connections of the rafters/
trusses to the supports are designed to resist the lateral load. The wind uplift is resisted by the roof. The con-
nections of the roof structural elements like the rafters or the trusses are designed to resist the wind uplift.
Industrial buildings typically consist of metal deck supported on steel joists. One of the criteria in
choosing the spacing of the steel joists is the capacity of the metal deck to resist the wind uplift. The
Figure 1.1
Two-storied single-family structure.
Introduction 9
Figure 1.2
Industrial building.
connections of the metal deck to the steel joists are designed to resist the uplift and lateral forces due to
wind. The connections of the steel joists to wall or beam supports are also designed to resist the uplift and
lateral forces due to wind.
Multi-storied buildings consist of concrete slabs supported on structural steel or concrete frames. The
steel or concrete frames may be designed to resist the lateral loads along with the gravity, or shear walls may
be used to complement them in the resistance of lateral forces. A designer may prefer not to use concrete
or steel frames to resist the lateral forces. In this case, shear walls are only structural elements used in the
resistance of lateral forces. The lateral forces are transferred from exterior walls to the concrete slab, which
acts as the horizontal diaphragm, which in turn transfers the lateral forces to the shear walls. In case of the
concrete or steel frames resisting the lateral forces, the exterior in-fill walls can be designed to transfer the
lateral forces to the beams, which in turn transfer the forces to the columns at the nodes or the joints.
Figure 1.3
Multi-storied framed structure resisting lateral loads.
Notes
1. Ferdinand Cap (2006), Tsunamis and Hurricanes: A Mathematical Approach, Springer Wein, New York.
2. Eric Larson (2000), Isaac’s Storm: A Man, a Time, and the Deadliest Hurricane in History, Vintage Books,
Random House, New York.
3. Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, published at the National Hurricane Center website, www.nhc.noaa.gov/
aboutsshws.php (accessed July 21, 2017).
4. Title 44 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Regulatory Entity, Federal Emergency Management Agency,
Department of Homeland Security.
5. “Fifty Years of Wind Engineering,” Prestige Lectures from the Sixth European and African Conference on
Wind Engineering, edited by C. J. Baker, D. M. Hargreaves, J. S. Owen, and M. Sterling (1963).
6. Henry Liu (1991), Wind Engineering: A Handbook for Structural Engineers, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Review of ASCE 7-16
Chapter
2
2.1 Organization of ASCE 7-16 for Wind Load Calculations
In ASCE 7-16 the wind load specifications are provided in Chapters 26 through 31. Table 2.1 of the book famil-
iarizes readers with ASCE 7-16 chapters related to wind loads. In Chapters 1 and 2 of the standard, definitions
of terminology, risk categories and load combinations for strength and allowable stress designs are provided.
2.2 General Requirements of Wind Load Calculations

The building codes in the United States have adopted ASCE 7-16, “Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
and Other Structures,” to design the Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS) and Components and
Cladding (C & C) of buildings and other structures to resist wind loads.
2.2.1 Main Wind Force Resisting System and Components and Cladding
The MWFRS, in accordance with Chapter 26 of the ASCE 7-16, is defined as an assemblage of structural
systems assigned to provide support and stability for the overall structure. The system generally receives
wind loading from more than one surface. MWFRS consists of an entire assembly that is used to trans-
fer wind loads to the ground. The elements of the building envelope that do not qualify as part of the
MWFRS are the C & C. They transfer the load to the MWFRS. Claddings receive wind loads directly,
and Components receive wind loads either directly or from cladding. Components can also be part of the
MWFRS when they act as a roof diaphragm or shear walls (see Table 2.2 of this book for examples of
C & C).
2.2.2 General Requirements
To calculate the wind loads for any case, Chapter 26 of the ASCE 7-16 is used to determine the basic
parameters for both MWFRS and C & C. The important change made to the 2010 version of ASCE 7 is the
elimination of the importance factor. For all occupancy categories, the importance factor is 1.0, but it is not
used in the calculations.
A risk category is assigned to a building occupancy in Table 1.5-1 of ASCE 7-16 to determine the
basic wind speed. The basic wind speed can be determined from the ASCE maps in Figures 26.5-1A
(Risk Category I), 26.5-1B (Risk Category II), 26.5-1C (Risk Category III) and 26.5-1D (Risk Category IV).
These are maps with isotachs (lines of equal pressure) representing a 3-second gust speed at 33 ft above
11
TABLE 2.1
Organization of ASCE 7-16 (in Relation to Wind Pressures Determination)
Content with the Section, Figure and Table Numbers
Chapter Title and Intent of ASCE 7-16
1 General Definitions (Section 1.2)
MWFRS/C & C Risk Categories (Table 1.5-1)
2 Combination of Loads Strength Design (Section 2.3)
MWFRS/C & C Allowable Stress Design (Section 2.4)
26 Wind Loads: General Definitions (Section 26.2), Wind Hazard Maps (Figure 26.5-1A, 1B,
Requirements 1C and 1D), Directionality Factor (Section 26.6), Exposure Category
MWFRS/C & C (Section 26.7), Topographic Factor (Section 26.8), Gust Effect Factor
(Section 26.9), Enclosure Classifications (Section 26.12), Internal
Pressure Coefficient (Section 26.13)
27 Wind Loads on Building Part (1): Enclosed, Partially Enclosed and Open Low-Rise Buildings of all
– Directional Procedure heights
MWFRS Part (2): Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Buildings
28 Wind Loads on Buildings Part (1): Enclosed, Partially Enclosed and Open Low-Rise Buildings
– Envelope Procedure Part (2): Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Low-Rise Buildings
MWFRS
29 Wind Loads on Other Solid Free Standing Walls & Attached Sign (Section 29.3)
Structures & Building Roof Top Structures & Equipment, Circular Bins, Silos and Tanks, and Solar
Appurtenances Panels (Section 29.4)
MWFRS Parapets (Section 29.5)
Roof Overhangs (Section 29.6)
30 Wind Loads Part (1): Low-Rise Buildings
C&C Part (2): Low-Rise Buildings (Simplified)
Part (3): Buildings with Height > 60 ft
Part (4): Buildings with Height ≤ 160 ft
Part (5): Open Buildings
Part (6): Building Appurtenances and Rooftop Structures and Equipment
31 Wind Tunnel Procedures Wind Tunnel Procedure
MWFRS/C & C
the ground. The maps are for Occupancy Category I, II, III and IV buildings and are standardized for
300, 700, 1700 and 3000-year recurrence intervals respectively for exposure C topography (flat, open
country and grasslands with open terrain and scattered obstructions generally less than 30 ft in height).
The minimum wind speed provided in the standard is 85 miles per hour (mph) for a Mean Recurrence
Interval (MRI) of 300 years. Increasing the minimum wind speed for special topographies such as
TABLE 2.2
Examples of Components and Claddings
Element Example
Components Fasteners, Purlins, Girts, Studs, Roof decking, Roof trusses
Claddings Wall coverings, Curtain walls, Roof coverings, Exterior doors and windows
Review of ASCE 7-16 13
TABLE 2.3
General Wind Load Parameters
Factor Notation ASCE 7-16 Reference
Wind Directionality Kd Section 26.6
Exposure Category Section 26.7
Topographic Factor Kzt Section 26.8
Ground Elevation Factor Ke Section 26.9
Gust Effect Factor G or GCp, GCp and GCpf Section 26.11
Exposure Classification Section 26.12
Internal Pressure Coefficient GCpi Section 26.13
mountain terrain, gorges and ocean fronts is recommended. The abandonment of the fastest-mile speed
in favor of a 3-second gust speed first took place in the ASCE 7-1995 edition primarily for the following
reasons:
1. Modern weather stations no longer measure wind speeds using the fastest-mile method.
2. The 3-second gust speed is closer to the sensational wind speeds often quoted by news media.
3. It closely matches the wind speeds experienced by small buildings and components of all buildings.
The references to ASCE 7-16 to determine the wind load parameters are provided in Table 2.3 of the
book. These factors are discussed in the subsequent subsections of this chapter.
2.2.3 Wind Directionality Factor (Kd )
Wind Directionality Factor (Kd) accounts for the reduced probability of maximum winds coming from any
given direction and for the reduced probability of maximum pressure coefficient occurring for any given
wind direction. The factor Kd accounts for the directionality of wind. Directionality refers to the fact that
wind rarely, if ever, strikes along the most critical direction of a building. Wind direction changes from one
instant to the next. Wind can be instantaneous only along the most critical direction because at the very
next instant it will not be from the same direction. It can be used only with load combinations of ASCE
Sections 2.3 and 2.4.
2.2.4 Exposure Category
There are three exposure categories—B, C and D—defined in accordance with three categories of sur-
face roughness (also B, C and D). There is an additional exposure category, A, which is used in wind
tunnel testing. The exposure category of a building or other structure should be very carefully selected
as the velocity pressure coefficient (K h or K z) depends on the exposure category. The velocity pressure
is directly proportional to the velocity pressure coefficient. There is a significant numerical differ-
ence between the velocity coefficients for different exposures. The exposure categories are explained
TABLE 2.4
Exposure Categories
Exposure Category Description
B Mean Roof Height ≤ 30 ft, if surface roughness B prevails > 1500 ft length in the upwind
direction
Mean Roof Height > 30 ft, if surface roughness B prevails > 2600 ft length in the upwind
direction
D If surface roughness D prevails > 5000 ft length or 20 times the height of building in the
upwind direction
If surface roughness D prevails > 600 ft or 20 times the height of building and surface
roughness is B or C is immediately upwind of the site
C Where exposure categories B and D do not apply
in Table 2.4 of the book, and the surface roughness categories are explained in Table 2.5 of the book in
accordance with ASCE 7-16.
The ground surface roughness is measured in terms of a roughness-length parameter called z0 (ranges
are shown in Table 2.6 of the book). The roughness can be estimated by the following equation.
Sob ASCE Equation C26.7-1

Z 0 = 0.5H ob ,
A ob
where
Hob = Average height of roughness in the upwind stream
Sob = Average vertical frontal area per obstruction presented to the wind
Aob = Average area of ground occupied by each obstruction, including the surrounding open area
2.2.5 Topographic Factor (Kzt )
Topographic Factor (K zt) is used to include the wind speed-up effect in the calculations of the design
wind loads. Wind speed-up effects occur at isolated hills, ridges and escarpments with abrupt changes in
topography. Escarpment is defined as cliff or steep slope generally separating two levels or gently slop-
ing areas. Topographic effects are considered if all the following ASCE 7-16 conditions, listed in ASCE
Section 26.8.1, are met. It is not the intent of ASCE Section 26.8 to address the general case of wind flow
TABLE 2.5
Surface Roughness
Surface Roughness Description
B Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous closely spaced
obstruction having the size of single-family dwellings or larger
C Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally < 30 ft; includes flat open
country and grasslands
D Flat unobstructed areas and water surfaces; includes smooth mudflats, salt flats, and
unbroken ice
TABLE 2.6
Range of z0
Exposure Category Range of z0 (in feet)
A >2.3
B (0.5–2.3)
C (0.033–0.5)
D <0.033
over hilly or complex terrain for which engineering judgment, expert advice or the Wind Tunnel Procedure
may be required.
1. The hill, ridge or escarpment is isolated and unobstructed upwind by other similar topographic features of
comparable height for 100 times the height of the topographic feature (100H) or 2 miles, whichever is less. This
distance shall be measured horizontally from the point at which the height H of the hill, ridge or escarpment is
determined.
2. The hill, ridge or escarpment protrudes above the height of upwind terrain features within a 2-mile radius in
any quadrant by a factor of 2 or more.
3. The structure is located as shown in ASCE Figure 26.8-1 in the upper one-half of a hill or ridge or near the crest
of an escarpment.
4. H/Lh ≥ 0.2
5. H ≥ 15 ft for exposure C and D
6. H ≥ 60 ft for exposure B
Lh is the distance upwind of crest, ridge or escarpment to where the difference in ground elevation is half the
height of the hill, ridge or escarpment.
Factors K1, K2, and K3 are calculated from Figure 26.8-1, and the topographic factor Kzt is calculated using
the following equation. If the site conditions do not meet all of the above conditions, then Kzt is 1.0.
K zt = (1 + K1K 2 K 3 )
2
ASCE Equation 26.8-1
2.2.6 Ground Elevation Factor (Ke )
The ground elevation factor is used to adjust for air density and is obtained from ASCE Table 26.10-1.
Typically, Ke is taken as 1.0 and does not have a significant effect on the design pressure. This factor was
introduced in ASCE 7-16. For super-tall buildings, 100-storied or above, the ground elevation factor can be
taken as 0.96, but the analytical procedures of ASCE 7-16 are not used to calculate the wind pressures. The
wind tunnel method is deployed.
2.2.7 Gust Effects
Gust is a sudden, brief increase in the speed of the wind. According to U.S. weather-observing practice, gusts
are reported when the peak wind speed reaches at least 17.5 mph and the variation in wind speed between
the peaks and lulls is at least 10 mph. The duration of a gust is usually less than 20 seconds. ASCE 7-16
considers 3-second gust. Gust effect factor is an increasing function of speed. In addition, most structures
will experience yielding as pushover loading is increased, resulting in a reduced natural frequency and
therefore even higher load factor.
To determine whether a building is rigid or flexible, the approximate natural frequency, na shall be
established using the structural properties and deformational characteristics of the resisting elements in a
properly substantiated analysis. Low-rise buildings are permitted to be considered rigid.
Rigid structures are structures with the fundamental frequency ≥ 1 Hz. If the fundamental frequency
is < 1 Hz, then the structure is flexible. ASCE Section 26.11.3 can be used to determine the approximate
natural frequency (na) if:
Building Height ≤ 300 ft (and)

Building Height < 4 × Effective Length (Leff )
The effective length is determined using ASCE Equation 26.11-1, the approximate natural frequencies
for structural steel moment-resisting frame buildings, concrete moment-resisting frame buildings, structural
steel and concrete buildings with other lateral-force-resisting systems, and concrete or masonry shear wall
buildings are determined using ASCE Equations 26.11-2, 26.11-3, 26.11-4 and 26.11-5, respectively.
The gust effect factor of rigid buildings can be assumed as 0.85 or can be calculated using ASCE
Equations 26.11-6 through 26.11-9. The gust effect factor of flexible buildings can be calculated using
ASCE Equations 26.11-10 through 26.11-16.
As stated in the last paragraph, ASCE 7 contains a single gust effect factor of 0.85 for rigid buildings.
As an option, the designer can incorporate specific features of the wind environment and building size to
more accurately calculate a gust effect factor. One such procedure is provided in ASCE 7-16. A procedure is
also included in ASCE 7-16 for calculating the gust effect factor for flexible structures. The ridged structure
gust factor is 0% to 10% lower than the simple, but conservative, value of 0.85 permitted in the standard
without calculation. The procedures for both rigid and flexible structures (1) provide a superior model for
flexible structures that displays the peak factors gQ and gR and (2) cause the flexible structure value to match
the rigid structure as resonance is removed. A designer is free to use any other rational procedure in the
approved literature.
The gust effect factor accounts for the loading effects in the along-wind direction due to wind turbulence–
structure interaction and also along-wind loading effects due to dynamic amplification for flexible buildings.
It does not include allowances for cross-wind loading effects, vortex shedding and instability caused by
galloping or flutter, or for dynamic torsional effects. For structures susceptible to loading effects that are not
accounted for in the gust effect factor, information should be obtained from wind tunnel tests.
2.2.8 Enclosure Classifications
A building can be classified as “Open,” “Partially Open,” “Partially Enclosed” or “Enclosed” in accordance
with ASCE Section 26.2.
A building having each wall at least 80% open is an “Open Building.”
A “Partially Enclosed Building” is a building that complies with both of the following conditions:
1. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds the sum of the areas of open-
ings in the balance of the building envelope (walls and roof) by more than 10%.
2. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure exceeds 4 sft or 1% of the area of
that wall, whichever is smaller, and the percentage of openings in the balance of the building envelope does not
exceed 20%.
An “Enclosed Building” is a building in which the total area of openings in each wall receiving positive
external pressure is less than or equal to 4 sft or 1% of the area of that wall, whichever is smaller.
If a building is not an “Open” or “Partially Enclosed” or “Enclosed,” then it is an “Partially Open”
building.
Hurricane-prone regions are areas vulnerable to hurricanes defined in ASCE Section 26.2 as the U.S.
Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico coasts where the basic wind speed for Risk Category II buildings is
greater than 115 mph, and Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, Virgin Islands and American Samoa.
Glazed opening shall be protected with impact-resistant glass or shutters, tested in accordance with the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard ASTM E1886 to comply with ASTM E1996.
Glazing shall be protected to a height of 60 ft above the ground and to a height of 30 ft above an aggregate-
surface roof located within 1500 ft of the building. Refer to Chapter 4 of the book for further discussion on
product approvals of elements of building envelope.
2.2.9 Internal Pressure Coefficient (GCpi)
The magnitude and sense of internal pressure is dependent on the magnitude and location of openings
around the building envelope with respect to a given wind direction. In accordance with ASCE Table 26.13-1,
the internal pressure coefficients (GCpi) are as follows:
Open Buildings 0.0

Partially Open ±0.18
Partially Enclosed Buildings ±0.55
Enclosed Buildings ±0.18
(The value of GCpi shall be used with two cases of positive and negative with qz or qh to determine the design
wind pressures.)
2.2.10 Structural Damping
Structural damping is a measure of energy dissipation in a vibrating structure that results in bringing the
structure to a quiescent state, which is a period of inactivity. “Damping” is defined as the ratio of the energy
dissipated in one oscillation cycle to the maximum amount of energy in the structure in that cycle. There
are as many structural damping mechanisms as there are modes of converting mechanical energy into heat.
The most important mechanisms are material damping and interfacial damping.
In engineering practice, the damping mechanism is often approximated as viscous damping because
it leads to a linear equation of motion. This damping measure, in terms of the damping ratio, is usually
assigned based on the construction material. The calculation of dynamic load effects requires damping
ratio as an input. In wind applications, damping ratios of 1% to 2% are typically used in the United States
for steel and concrete buildings at serviceability levels, respectively. Damping values for steel support
structures for signs, chimneys and towers may be much lower than for buildings and may fall in the range
of 0.15% to 0.5%.
Damping values of special structures like steel stacks can be as low as 0.2% to 0.6% and 0.3% to 1.0%
for unlined and lined steel chimneys, respectively. These values may provide some guidance for design.
Damping levels used in wind load applications are smaller than the 5% of the damping ratios common
in seismic applications because buildings subjected to wind loads essentially respond elastically, whereas
buildings subjected to design level earthquakes respond elastically at higher damping levels. Because the
level of structural response in the serviceability and survivability states is different, the damping values
associated with these states may differ.
In addition to structural damping, aerodynamic damping may be experienced by a structure oscillating
in air. In general, the aerodynamic damping contribution is quite small compared to the structural damping,
and it has a positive value in low to moderate wind speeds. Depending on the structural shape the aerody-
namic damping may, at some wind velocities, become negative, which can lead to unstable oscillations. In
these cases, reference should be made to a wind tunnel study.
2.3 Wind Velocity Pressure

Wind velocity pressure can be calculated at a height “z” above the ground (qz) or at the mean roof height (qh).
The basic wind speed (V) in mph is converted to a velocity pressure in psf using the basic wind parameters
(velocity pressure coefficient, topographic factor, directionality factor and basic wind speed).
Q z = 0.00256K z K zt K d K e V 2 ASCE Equations 26.10-1
(For the notation of terms and a discussion of these wind load parameters, see Section 2.2 of the book.)
In the foot-pound system, the constant 0.00256 reflects the mass density of air for the standard atmo-
sphere, that is, temperature of 59°F and sea level pressure of 29.92 in. of mercury, and dimensions associated
with wind speed in mi/h. The constant is calculated as follows:
Constant = 1/2 ( 0.0765 lb/ft 3 )/( 32.2 ft/s 2 )  × [(mi/h)(5,280 ft/mi) × (1 h/3,600 s)]2 = 0.00256,
where
0.0765 lb/ft3 = Average Ambient Air Density
32.2 ft/s2 = Acceleration due to gravity
5280 = Used to convert miles to feet
3600 = Used to convert hours to seconds
The constant 0.00256 takes into account the equation Pressure (p) = ½ × ρ × V2 and the conversion of
mph to ft/s2, where ρ is mass density and V is velocity in mph. The basic wind velocity is multiplied by the
constant 0.00256, velocity pressure coefficient, topographic factor, and directionality factor to obtain the
wind velocity pressure.
2.4 ASCE Chapter 27—Directional Procedure

The ASCE 7-16 Directional Procedure is used to determine MWFRS wind pressures on enclosed, partially
enclosed, partially open and open buildings of all heights. There are two parts in Chapter 27 of ASCE 7-16.
The Directional Procedure is used for a regular-shaped building that does not have response characteristics
that make it subject to across-wind loading, vortex shedding or instability caused by galloping or flutter. The
site at which the building is located should not allow channeling or buffeting.
Part (1) deals with buildings of all heights where it is necessary to separate applied wind loads onto the
windward, leeward, and side walls, and Part (2) deals with special buildings designated as enclosed simple
diaphragm with h ≤ 160 ft. Both parts are explained in the following subsections.
2.4.1 Part (1): Enclosed, Partially Enclosed and Open Buildings of All Heights
The ASCE Directional Procedure prescribes minimum design load of 16 psf for the walls and 8 psf of the
roof for Enclosed and Partially Enclosed MWFRS buildings and 16 psf for Open buildings. The tables and
figures used in Part (1) of ASCE Chapter 27 are described here in Table 2.7 of the book. The conditions and
limitations of the Directional Procedure are listed below:
• For Regular-shaped buildings

• For buildings not subject to across-wind loading, vortex shedding or instability due to galloping or flutter
• Special consideration for buildings not located at a site for which channeling effects or buffeting in the wake of
upwind obstructions
• Load magnification effect caused by gusts in resonance with along-wind vibrations of flexible buildings considered
• No reductions in velocity pressure due to apparent shielding afforded by buildings and other structures or ter-
rain features
Procedure
1. Determine V, Kd, Exposure Category, Kzt, Ke, G, Enclosure Classification and GCpi.
2. Determine Velocity pressure coefficient (Kz or K h) from ASCE Table 26.10-1.
3. Determine CP from ASCE Figures 27.3-1 through 27.3-7 for the cases of wall and flat, gable, hip, monoslope
or mansard roof; domed roof, arched roof, monoslope roof/open building, pitched roof/open building, troughed
roof/open building and along-ridge/valley wind load for monoslope, pitched or troughed roof of open building
4. Calculate velocity pressure (qz)
q z = 0.00256K z K zt K d K e V 2 ASCE Equation 27.10-1
TABLE 2.7
Explanation of Tables and Figures of Part (1) of ASCE Chapter 27
Table/Figure Description
T27.2-1 Steps to determine the wind loads
T26.10-1 Velocity pressure exposure coefficients (Kz or Kh) for B, C and D to
height of 500 ft
F27.3-1 External pressure coefficient (Cp) for walls and gable/hip/monoslope/
mansard roof (Enclosed and partially enclosed structures)
F27.3-2 External pressure coefficient (Cp) for domed roof (Enclosed & Partially
Enclosed structures)
F27.3-3 External pressure coefficient (Cp) for arched roof (Enclosed & Partially
Enclosed structures)
F27.3-4 External pressure coefficient (Cp) for monoslope free roofs
(Open structures)
F27.3-5 External pressure coefficient (Cp) for pitched free roofs (Open structures)
F27.3-6 External pressure coefficient (Cp) for troughed free roofs
(Open structures)
F27.3-7 External pressure coefficient (Cp) for free roofs (Open structures)
F27.3-8 Design wind load cases 1, 2, 3 and 4 with equations for eccentricities and
moments due to torsion
5. Calculate wind force as shown below for each case

a. Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Rigid and Flexible Buildings
(
p = qGCp − q i GCpi ) ASCE Equation 27.3-1
b. Open Buildings with Monoslope, Pitched or Troughed-Free Roofs
p = q h GC N ASCE Equation 27.3-2
Note: qh is evaluated at mean roof height, and CN is net pressure coefficient determined from ASCE Figures
27.3-4 through 27.3-7.
c. Roof Overhangs
The positive external pressure on the bottom surface of the windward roof overhangs shall be determined
using Cp = 0.8 and combined with the top surface pressures determined using ASCE Figure 27.3-1.
d. Parapets
(
pp = q p GCpn ) ASCE Equation 27.3-4
Note: qp is evaluated at the top of the parapet, and GCpn is 1.5 for windward parapet and (–) 1.0 for leeward
parapet,
where
q = qz for windward walls at height z
q = qh for leeward walls, sidewalls and roof at mean roof height
qi = qh for windward walls, sidewalls, leeward walls and roofs of enclosed building and negative inter-
nal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings
qi = qz for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed building where height z is the
height of the highest opening in the building that could affect the positive internal pressure
There are four design load cases in the ASCE Directional Procedure for buildings of all heights where
it is necessary to separate applied wind loads onto the windward, leeward and side walls. Case 1 is the full
design wind pressure acting on the projected area perpendicular to each principal axis of the structure along
the principal plane. Case 2 is 75% of the design wind pressure acting on the projected area perpendicular
to each principal axis of the structure in conjunction with torsional moment along the principal plane. Case
3 is 75% of the design wind pressure acting on the projected area perpendicular to each principal axis of
the structure along the principal plane. Case 4 is 56.3% of the design wind pressure acting on the projected
area perpendicular to each principal axis of the structure in conjunction with torsional moment along the
principal plane. Forces obtained in each of the cases are shown in Table 2.8 of the book.
ASCE appendix D lists buildings exempted from torsional wind cases. They include one- and two-storied
buildings with flexible diaphragm or light-frame construction, seismic-controlled buildings, torsionally regular
buildings, flexible diaphragm buildings designed for increased wind loadings and class 1 and class 2 simple
diaphragm buildings. Certain criteria for the exemption are also listed in appendix D of the standard.
2.4.2 Part (2): Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Buildings with H ≤ 160 ft
In accordance with ASCE Chapter 26, a simple diaphragm building is a building in which both windward
and leeward wind loads are transmitted by roof and vertically spanning wall assemblies, through continuous
TABLE 2.8
Design Wind Load Cases
Case Description Action Value
1 Full design wind pressure acting on the Separately on each plane Direct Forces = PWX, PWY
projected area perpendicular to each principal
axis of the structure along the principal plane
2 75% of the design wind pressure acting on the Separately on each plane Direct Forces = 0.75 PWX,
projected area perpendicular to each principal 0.75PWY
axis of the structure in conjunction with TORSION
torsional moment along the principal plane MTX = 0.75(PWX + PLX)BXeX
eX = ± 0.15BX
MTY = 0.75(PWY + PLY)BYeY
eY = ± 0.15BY
3 75% of the design wind pressure acting on the Simultaneously on both Direct Forces − 0.75PWX + 0.75PWY
projected area perpendicular to each principal planes
axis of the structure along the principal plane
4 56.3% of the design wind pressure acting on the Simultaneously on both Direct Forces − 0.563PWX +
projected area perpendicular to each principal planes 0.563PWY
axis of the structure in conjunction with TORSION
torsional moment along the principal plane MTX = 0.75(PWX + PLX)BXeX +
0.75(PWY + PLY)BYeY
eX = ± 0.15BX, eY = ± 0.15BY
NOTATION
PWX, PWY: Windward face design pressure acting in the x, y principal axis, respectively.
PLX, PLY: Leeward face design pressure acting in the x, y principal axis, respectively.
e (eX, eY): Eccentricity for the x, y principal axis of the structure, respectively.
MT: Torsional moment per unit height acting about a vertical axis of the building.
For flexible structures, the eccentricities shall be modified using the following equation.
e=
(( ) + ( g Re ) ) ,
e Q + 1.7I z (SQRT q Q Qe Q
2
R R
2
1 + 1.7I (SQRT (( q Q ) + ( g R ) ) ,
2 2 ASCE Equation 27.3-5
z Q R
where
eQ = eccentricity e for rigid structure as defined in the above Table 2.8
eR = distance between the elastic shear center and center of mass of each floor
Iz, qQ, Q, gR, and R = determined from ASCE Section 26.11 dealing with the gust effect factor
floor and roof diaphragms, to the MWFRS. The tables and figures used in Part (2) of ASCE Chapter 27 are
described in Table 2.9 of the book.
Procedure
1. Determine V, Kd, Exposure Category, Kzt, Ke, G, Enclosure Classification and GCpi.
2. From ASCE Table 27.5-1, determine net pressures on walls at building top and base (ph, p0 respectively).
3. From ASCE Table 27.5-2, determine net roof pressures (pz).
4. Apply topographic factors to the wall and roof pressures (if applicable).
5. Apply loads to walls and roof simultaneously.
6. Where two load cases are shown in the table of roof pressures, the effects of each load case shall be dealt with
separately. The MWFRS shall be designed for the four wind load cases of ASCE Figure 27.3-8 with the excep-
tions of appendix D.
TABLE 2.9
T27.4-1 Steps to determine wind loads
F27.4-1 Geometry requirements of class 1 and class 2 enclosed simple diaphragm buildings
F27.5-1 Application of wind pressures for enclosed simple diaphragm buildings
F27.5-2 Application of parapet wind loads for enclosed simple diaphragm buildings
F27.5-3 Application of roof overhang wind loads for enclosed simple diaphragm buildings
T27.5-1 Application of wall pressures for enclosed simple diaphragm buildings
MWFRS Wind loads—Walls—Exposure B, C & D
T27.5-2 Application of roof pressures for enclosed simple diaphragm buildings
MWFRS Wind loads—Walls—Exposure C
Exposure adjustment factors for Exposures B & D
Description of flat/gable/hip/monoslope/mansard roofs
Building shall meet the class 1 or class 2 requirements of the code.
Class 1: Simple diaphragm building, h ≤ 60 ft, range of L/B (0.2 − 5.0), Kzt = 1.0
For L/B < 0.5, use tabulated wind pressure value for L/B = 0.5
For L/B > 2.0, use tabulated wind pressure value for L/B = 2.0
Class 2: Simple diaphragm building, 60 ft < h ≤ 160 ft, range of L/B (0.5 − 2.0)
Fundamental natural frequency (f) ≥ 75/h, Kzt = 1.0
Parapets: Wind pressure = 2.25 × wind pressure for the wall, with L/B = 1.0 applied simultaneously with wall
and roof pressures. The height of the building at the top of the parapet is used to determine the parapet wind
pressures.
Roof Overhangs: Positive wind pressure on the underside of the roof overhang is 75% of the roof edge pressure
for the applicable zone applied on the windward roof overhang.
2.5 ASCE Chapter 28—Envelope Procedure

The envelope procedure is used to determine the MWFRS wind loads on low-rise buildings. There are two
parts of this procedure. Part (1) deals with low-rise buildings where it is necessary to separate applied wind
loads onto the windward, leeward and side walls of the building to properly assess the internal forces in the
MWFRS members. Part (2) deals with the special class of low-rise buildings designated as enclosed simple
diaphragm building.
2.5.1 Part (1): Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Low-Rise Buildings
The tables and figures used in Part (1) of ASCE Chapter 28 are described here in Table 2.10 of the book. The
conditions and limitations of the envelope procedure are as follows:

BK-TandF-9781138036369_TEXT_ASHRAF-180602-Chp02.indd 22 26/09/18 5:05 PM

TABLE 2.10
T26.10-1 Velocity pressure exposure coefficients (Kz or Kh) for B, C and D to
height of 60’
F28.3-1 External pressure coefficient (GCpf) for low-rise walls and roof
(Enclosed and partially enclosed structures)
upwind obstructions
• Load magnification effect caused by gusts in resonance with along-wind vibrations of flexible buildings
considered
• No reduction in velocity pressure due to apparent shielding afforded by buildings and other structures or terrain
features
Procedure
1. Determine V, Kd, Exposure Category, Kzt, Ke, Enclosure Classification and GCpi.
3. Calculate velocity pressure (qz).
q z = 0.00256K z K zt K d V 2 ASCE Equation 26.10-1
4. Calculate wind pressure (p) for each case as shown below.

a. Low-Rise Buildings
( ) ( )
p = q h  GCpf − GCpi  ,where ASCE Equation 28.3-1
qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height

GCpf = external pressure coefficient (ASCE Figure 28.3-1)
b. Parapets
( )
Pp = q p GCpn , where ASCE Equation 28.3-2
qp = velocity pressure evaluated at top of the parapet

GCpn = 1.5 for windward parapet and (−) 1.0 for leeward parapet
c. Roof Overhangs
The positive external pressure on the bottom surface of the windward roof overhangs shall be determined
using Cp = 0.7 and combined with the top surface pressures determined using Figure 28.3-1. The mini-
mum design load in the design of MWFRS for an enclosed or partially enclosed building shall not be less
than 16 psf.
d. For horizontal wind loads on Open or Partially Enclosed buildings with transverse frames and pitched roof
(Θ < 45°),
(
p = q h  GCpf
 ) windward
(
− GCpf ) leeward
 K BK S ,

where
qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height
GCpf = external pressure coefficient (ASCE Figure 28.3-1)
K B = frame width factor = 1.8 − 0.01B for B < 100 ft
= 0.8 for B ≥ 100ʹ
KS = shielding factor = 0.60 + 0.073 (n − 3) + (1.25Ø1.8)
Ø = solidity ratio = AS/AE
B = width of building perpendicular to the ridge
n = number of frame but shall not be taken as less than 3
AS = effective solid area of the end wall
AE = total end wall area for an equivalent enclosed building
2.5.2 Part (2): Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Low-Rise Buildings
In accordance with ASCE Chapter 26, a Simple diaphragm building is a building in which both windward
and leeward wind loads are transmitted by roof and vertically spanning wall assemblies, through continuous
floor and roof diaphragms, to the MWFRS. The tables and figures used in Part (2) of ASCE Chapter 28 are
described here in Table 2.11 of the book.
The general conditions and limitations to use Part (2) of ASCE Chapter 28 are as follows:
• Simple diaphragm, Low-rise, Enclosed, Regular-shaped, Rigid building conforms to the wind-borne debris
provisions of ASCE Section 26.12.3.
• For buildings not subject to across-wind loading, vortex shedding or instability caused by galloping or flutter.
Buildings not located at a site for which channeling effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions war-
rant special consideration.
• The building has an approximately symmetrical cross-section in each direction with either a flat roof or a gable
or hip roof with θ ≤ 45°.
• The building is exempted from torsional load cases as indicated in Note 5 of Figure 28.3-1, or the torsional load
cases defined in Note 5 do not control the design of any of the building’s MWFRS.
TABLE 2.11
F28.5-1 Design wind pressures for walls and roof of enclosed buildings
Tables for wind pressures
Table for adjustment factor for height and exposure
Procedure
1. Determine V, Exposure Category, Kzt and Enclosure Classification.

2. From Figure 28.5-1, determine wind pressure (ps30) for h = 30 ft and exposure B.
3. From Figure 28.5-1, determine the adjustment factor (λ) for height and exposure.
4. Determine adjusted wind pressure.
ps = λK zt ps30 ASCE Equation 28.5-1
2.6 ASCE Chapter 29—Other Structures and Building Appurtenances

Building appurtenances generally consist of rooftop structures and rooftop equipment. Other structures
generally consist of solid freestanding walls, freestanding sold signs, chimneys, tanks, open signs, lattice
frameworks and trussed towers. Equations for determining the wind forces for solid freestanding walls,
solid signs, other structures and lateral and vertical forces acting on rooftop structures are provided in
ASCE Chapter 29. The tables and figures used in ASCE Chapter 29 are described here in Table 2.12 of the
book. The conditions and limitations of ASCE Chapter 29 are as follows:

upwind obstructions
considered
features
TABLE 2.12
Explanation of Tables and Figures of ASCE Chapter 29
T26.10-1 Velocity pressure exposure coefficients (Kz or Kh) for B, C and D to height of 500 ft
F29.3-1 Force coefficients (Cf) for solid freestanding walls and signs
F29.4-1 Force coefficients (Cf) for chimneys, tanks, rooftop equipment and similar structure
F29.4-2 Force coefficients (Cf) for open signs and single-plane open frames
F29.4-3 Force coefficients (Cf) for trussed towers
F29.4-4 Design wind loads for MWFRS for Circular bins, Silos and tanks supported on columns
on ground
F29.4-5 Design wind loads for MWFRS, External Pressure Coefficient (Cp) for isolated roofs for
circular bins, silos and tanks
F29.4-6 Design wind loads for MWFRS, Drag Pressure Coefficient (Cf) and Roof Pressure
Coefficient (Cp) for grouped circular bins, silos and tanks on ground or supported on
columns
F29.4-7 Design wind load for rooftop solar panel for enclosed and partially enclosed buildings
F29.4-8 Pressure equalization factor for solar panel for enclosed and partially enclosed buildings
Procedure
1. Determine V, Kd, G, Exposure Category, Kzt and Enclosure Classification.
4. Calculate wind pressure (p) as shown below for each case.

a. Solid Freestanding Walls and Solid Signs
F = q h GCf A s. ASCE Equation 29.3-1
Cf is net force coefficient from ASCE Figure 29.3-1.

As is the gross area of the structure.
b. Other Structures (chimneys, tanks, open signs, single-plane open frames and towered trusses)
F = q z GCf A f ASCE Equation 29.4-1
Drag force coefficient Cf is obtained from the ASCE Figures 29.4–1 (for chimneys, tanks, rooftop equip-
ment and similar structures); 29.4-2 (for open signs and lattice-work), 29.4-3 (for trussed towers) and 29.4-4
(for circular bins, silos and tanks).
Af is the projected area normal to wind except where Cf is specified for actual surface area.
c. Rooftop Structures and Equipment (Lateral Force)
Fh = q h ( GCr ) A f ASCE Equation 29.4-2
(GCr) is 1.9 for rooftop structures and equipment with Af < (0.1Bh).
(GCr) reduced from 1.9 to 1.0 if Af is increased from (0.1Bh) to (Bh).
Af is the vertical projected area normal to the direction of wind.
d. Rooftop Structures and Equipment (Vertical Uplift Force)
Fv = q h ( GCr ) A f ASCE Equation 29.4-3
(GCr) is 1.5 for rooftop structures and equipment with Af < (0.1Bh).
(GCr) reduced from 1.5 to 1.0 if Af increased from (0.1Bh) to (Bh).
Af is the horizontal projected area normal to wind.
e. For circular bins, silos and tanks with h ≤ 120 ft, D ≤ 120 ft, and 0.25 ≤ H/D ≤ 4, ASCE Equation 29.4-1 is
used where Cf of 0.63 is used.
f. Net design pressure for roofs of isolated circular bins, silos and tanks
( ) (
p = q h  GCp − GCpi  , ) ASCE Equation 29.4-4
where Cp is obtained from ASCE Figure 29.4-5.

For underside of the roof with a clearance height above ground less than or equal to the solid cylinder height
(H), Cp is taken as 0.8 and −0.6. For structures with clearance height above ground less than or equal to one-
third of the solid cylinder height, interpolation between these values and Cp = 0.0 according to the ratio of
C/h is used, where C is the clearance height above ground and h is the mean roof height.
g. According to ASCE Section 29.4.2, if the center-to-center spacing of bins, silos or tanks is less than 1.25
times the diameter, then the structures will be treated as grouped. For three or more grouped circular bins,
silos and tanks, Cf and Cp are determined from ASCE Figure 29.4-6 to be used in ASCE Equations 29.4-1
and 29.4-4 for walls and roof respectively.
h. For rooftop solar panel installed on flat roofs or gable or hip roofs with slope less than 7°, according to
ASCE Section 29.4.3,
p = q h ( GCrn ) ASCE Equation 29.4-5
( )
GCrn = ϒ p ( ϒ c ) ( ϒ E )( GCrn )nom ASCE Equation 29.4-6
(GCrn)nom is determined from ASCE Figure 29.4-7

(ϒp) = min(1.2, 0.9 + hpt/h)
(ϒc) = max(0.6 + 0.06Lp, 0.8)
(ϒE) = 1.5 for uplift loads on panels that are exposed and within a distance 1.5(Lp) from the end of a row at
an exposed edge of array and (ϒE) = 1.0 elsewhere
i. For roof top solar panel installed on roofs of buildings of any heights and roof slopes°, according to ASCE
Section 29.4.4
( )
p = q h GCp ( ϒ E ) ( ϒ a ) ASCE Equation: 29.4-7
(GCp) is external pressure coefficient for C & C of roofs with respective roof zoning, determined from
ASCE Figures 30.3-2A-I through 30.3-7 or Figure 30.5-1.
(ϒE) is array edge factor = 1.5 for uplift loads on panels that are exposed and within a distance 1.5(Lp) from
the end of a row at an exposed edge of array and (ϒE) = 1.0 elsewhere.
(ϒa) is solar panel pressure equalization factor, defined in ASCE Figure 29.4-8.
The reader is encouraged to review ASCE Figure 29.4-7 for definitions of terms and ASCE Sections 29.4.3
and 29.4.4 for conditions for the equations.
Use the methods of Directional and Envelope procedures to calculate wind loads for parapets and roof over-
hangs. The minimum design wind force shall be not less than 16 psf multiplied by the area Af.
2.7 ASCE Chapter 30—Components and Cladding

The general conditions and limitations to use ASCE Chapter 30 are as follows:

• For buildings not subject to across-wind loading, vortex shedding or instability caused by galloping or flutter
upwind obstructions
considered
TABLE 2.13
Arrangement of ASCE Chapter 30
Part Height Applicability Description
1 ≤ 60 ft Enclosed or partially Walls, and flat, gable, multi-span gable, hip,
enclosed stepped, monoslope, sawtooth and domed roof
2 ≤ 60 ft Enclosed Walls, and flat, gable, multi-span gable, hip,
stepped, monoslope, sawtooth and domed roof
3 > 60 ft Enclosed or partially Flat, pitched, gable, hip, mansard, arched or
enclosed domed roof
4 ≤ 160 ft Enclosed Flat, gable, hip, monoslope or mansard roof
5 All Open Pitched-free, monoslope-free or trough-free
roof
6 All Building appurtenances such as roof overhangs
and parapets and rooftop equipment
features
• Used for air-permeable cladding unless lower loads are demonstrated by test or research
• Elements with tributary area greater than 700 sft can be designed as MWFRS
The arrangement of ASCE Chapter 30 is shown in Table 2.13 of the book.
General Requirements
Procedure
1. Determine V, Kd, Exposure Category, Kzt, G, Enclosure Classification and GCpi.

4. Determine design wind pressure (p) for each case as defined in Table 2.13 of the book.
2.7.1 Part (1): ASCE Chapter 30—Low-Rise Buildings
( ) (
p = q h  GCp − GCpi  ) ASCE Equation 30.4-1
(GCp) is the external pressure coefficients given in ASCE Figure 30.3-1 for walls; ASCE Figures 30.3-2A
to 30.3-2I for flat, gable and hip roofs; ASCE Figure 30.3-3 for stepped roofs; ASCE Figure 30.3-4 for
multi-span gable roofs; ASCE Figures 30.3-5A and 30.3-5B for monoslope roofs; ASCE Figure 30.3-6 for
sawtooth roofs; ASCE Figure 30.3-7 for domed roofs and ASCE Figure 27.3-3, footnote 4, for arched roofs.
qh is evaluated at mean roof height.
The tables and figures used in Part (1) of ASCE Chapter 30 are described in Table 2.14 of the book.

TABLE 2.14
F30.3-1 External pressure coefficient (GCp) for walls with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-2A External pressure coefficient (GCp) for gable roof (Θ≤7°) with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-2B External pressure coefficient (GCp) for gable roof (7°<Θ≤20°) with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-2C External pressure coefficient (GCp) for gable roof (20°<Θ≤27°) with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-2D External pressure coefficient (GCp) for gable roof (27°<Θ≤45°) with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-2E External pressure coefficient (GCp) for hip roof (7°<Θ≤20°) with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-2F External pressure coefficient (GCp) for overhang of hip roof (7°<Θ≤20°) with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-2G External pressure coefficient (GCp) for hip roof and overhang (20°<Θ≤27°) with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-2H External pressure coefficient (GCp) for hip roof (27°<Θ≤45°) with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-2I External pressure coefficient (GCp) for overhang of hip roof (27°<Θ≤45°) with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-3 External pressure coefficient (GCp) for stepped roof with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-4 External pressure coefficient (GCp) for multi-span gable roof with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-5A External pressure coefficient (GCp) for monoslope roof (3°<Θ≤10°) with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-5B External pressure coefficient (GCp) for monoslope roof (10°<Θ≤30°) with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-6 External pressure coefficient (GCp) for sawtooth with h ≤ 60 ft
F30.3-7 External pressure coefficient (GCp) for domed roof for all heights
(Enclosed and Partially Enclosed structures)
2.7.2 Part (2): ASCE Chapter 30—Low-Rise Buildings
pnet = λK zt pnet30, ASCE Equation 30.4-1
where λ is the adjustment factor for building height and exposure from ASCE Figure 30.4-1 and pnet30 is the
net design wind pressure for Exposure B, at h = 30 ft, from ASCE Figure 30.4-1.

TABLE 2.15
F30.4-1 Design wind pressures of walls and roof of enclosed structures with h ≤ 60 ft
Tables include for
Net design wind pressures for walls and roofs
Flat roof
Hip roof (7°<Θ≤27°)
Gable roof (Θ≤7°)
Gable roof (7°<Θ≤45°)
Net design wind pressures for roof overhang
Adjustment factor for building height and exposure
2.7.3 Part (3): ASCE Chapter 30—Buildings with H > 60 ft
( ) (
p = q h  GCp − GCpi  ) ASCE Equation 30.5-1
q = qz for windward walls at height z

q = qh for leeward walls, sidewalls and roof at mean roof height
qi = qh for windward walls, sidewalls and leeward walls of enclosed building and negative internal pres-
sure evaluation in partially enclosed buildings
qi = qz for positive internal pressure evaluation in partially enclosed building where height z is the height
of the highest opening in the building that could affect the positive internal pressure
(GCp) is the external pressure coefficients given in ASCE Figure 30.5-1 for walls and flat roofs; 27.3-3, foot-
note 4, for arched roofs; 30.3-7 for domed roofs; see note 6 of 30.5-1 for other roof angles and geometries.
2.7.4 Part (4): ASCE Chapter 30—Buildings with H ≤ 160 ft
p = p table (EAF)(RF)K zt ASCE Equation 30.6-1
RF is the effective area reduction factor from ASCE Table 30.6-2, and EAF is the exposure adjustment fac-
tor from ASCE Table 30.6-2.
TABLE 2.16
F30.5-1 External pressure coefficient (GCp) for walls and roof with h > 60 ft
(Enclosed and Partially Enclosed structures)

TABLE 2.17
T30.6-2 Wall and roof pressures for enclosed buildings with h ≤ 160 ft for flat, gable, monoslope, hip and mansard roofs
Tables include for
C & C exposure adjustment factor
Effective wind area for reduction factors
C & C wind pressures for different heights and velocities
F30.6-1 Parapet wind loads for enclosed simple diaphragm buildings with h ≤ 160 ft
F30.6-2 Roof overhang wind loads for enclosed simple diaphragm buildings with h ≤ 160 ft
2.7.4.1 Parapet (Load Case A)

Design wind pressures are determined by applying the positive wall pressure from ASCE Table 30.6-2 to the
front surface and applying negative edge or corner zone roof pressure to the back surface.
2.7.4.2 Parapet (Load Case B)

Design wind pressures are determined by applying the positive wall pressure from ASCE Table 30.6-2 to the
back surface and applying negative edge or corner zone roof pressure to the front surface.
Height shall be height of the top of the parapet. A wind effective area of 10 sft is used in the calculations
of wind pressures of ASCE Table 30.6-2 and the reduction factor (RF) can be used to calculate the wind
pressure for higher tributary area.
2.7.4.3 Roof Overhang

The net outward pressure of the roof overhang is the edge zone pressure of Zones 1 and 2 read from ASCE
Table 30.6-2. For Zone 3, the wind pressure read from ASCE Table 30.6-2 shall be increased by 15%.
2.7.5 Part (5): ASCE Chapter 30—Open Buildings
p = q h GC N , ASCE Equation 30.7-1
where CN is evaluated from ASCE Figure 30.7-1 for monosloped roof, ASCE Figure 30.7-2 for pitched roof
and ASCE Figure 30.7-3 for troughed roof.
2.7.6 Part (6): ASCE Chapter 30—Building Appurtenances

and Rooftop Structures and Equipment
2.7.6.1 Part (6)(a): Parapets
( ) (
p = q p  GCp − GCpi  , ) ASCE Equation 30.8-1

TABLE 2.18
F30.7-1 Net pressure coefficient CN for Open buildings mono-slope-free roof (Θ≤45°)
(0.25 ≤ h/L ≤ 1.0)
F30.7-2 Net pressure coefficient CN for Open buildings pitched-free roof (Θ≤45°)
(0.25 ≤ h/L ≤ 1.0)
F30.7-3 Net pressure coefficient CN for Open buildings troughed-free roof (Θ≤45°)
(0.25 ≤ h/L ≤ 1.0)
where qP is velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the parapet and (GCp) is the external pressure coeffi-
cients given in ASCE Figure 30.3-1 for walls with h ≤ 60 ft; 30.3-2A to 30.3-2C for flat, gable roof and hip
roofs; 30.3-3 for stepped roofs; 30.3-4 for multi-span gable roofs; 30.3-5A and 30.3-5B for monoslope roofs;
30.3-6 for sawtooth roofs; 30.3-7 for domed roofs of all heights; 30.5-1 for walls and flat roofs with h > 60 ft;
and 27.3-3, footnote 4, for arched roofs.
Load cases of ASCE Figure 30.8-1 apply.
Load Case (A): Apply positive wall pressure from ASCE Figure 30.3-1 (h ≤ 60 ft) or from ASCE Figure 30.5-1
(h > 60 ft) to the windward surface of the parapet. Apply to the leeward surface of the parapet the negative edge
or corner zone roof pressure from ASCE Figure 30.3-2 (A, B or C), 30.3-3, 30.3-4, 30.3-5 (A or B), 30.3-6 or
30.3-7; ASCE Figure 27.3-3, footnote 4; or Figure 30.5-1 (h > 60 ft).
Load Case (B): Apply positive wall pressure from ASCE Figure 30.3-1 (h ≤ 60 ft) or from ASCE Figure 30.5-1
(h > 60 ft) to the windward surface of the parapet. Apply to the leeward surface the negative wall pressure from
ASCE Figure 30.3-1 (h ≤ 60 ft) or ASCE Figure 30.5-1 (h > 60 f).
2.7.6.2 Part (6)(b): Roof Overhang
( ) (
where GCp is the external pressure coefficient for overhangs from ASCE Figure 30.3-2A to 30.3-2C (flat
roofs, gable roofs and hip roofs), including contributions from top and bottom surfaces of overhang. The
external pressure coefficient for the covering on the underside of the roof overhang is the same as the exter-
nal pressure coefficient on the adjacent wall surface, adjusted for effective wind area, determined from
ASCE Figure 30.3-1 or 30.5-1.
2.7.6.3 Part (6)(c): Rooftop Structures and Equipment for Buildings with h ≤ 60 ft
Wall pressures of the rooftop structures are calculated in accordance with ASCE Section 29.4.1 and divided
by respective wall surface area. They shall be considered to act inward or outward.
Roof pressures of the rooftop structures are calculated in accordance with ASCE Section 29.4.1 and
divided by the horizontal projected area of the roof. They shall be considered to act upward.
2.7.6.4 Part (6)(d): Attached Canopies on Buildings with h ≤ 60 ft
p = q h ( GCp ) , ASCE Equation 30.9-1

TABLE 2.19
T30.8-1 Steps to determine the wind loads for parapets
T30.9-1 Steps to determine the wind loads for roof overhangs
T30.11-1 Steps to determine the wind loads for attached canopies
F30.8-1 Parapet wind loads for all building types
F30.9-1 Roof overhang wind loads for all building types
F30.11-1A/B Pressure coefficients on separate surfaces of attached canopies
where GCp is the net pressure coefficient for attached canopies obtained from ASCE Figures 30.11-1A and
30.11-1B.
2.7.7 Part (7): ASCE Chapter 30—Non-Building Structures
Part (7) of ASCE Chapter 30 deals with non-building structures like circular bins, silos and tanks with
height less than or equal to 120 ft. It also deals with rooftop solar panels for buildings of heights with flat,
gable or hip roof with slope less than 7°. In this section, circular bins, silos and tanks are hereinafter referred
to as “elements.”
2.7.7.1 Circular Bins, Silos and Tanks with h ≤ 120 ft

The elements can either be grouped together or isolated. If the center-to-center distance between them is
greater than twice the diameter of the elements, they are treated as isolated; otherwise they are grouped.
( ) (
where
qh is the velocity pressure for all surfaces evaluated at the mean roof height.
GCp is the external pressure coefficient.
GCp for exterior walls of isolated elements is
GCp(∝) = k b C( ∝) ASCE Equation 30.12-2
D is the diameter of the element, H is the height of the element and C is the clearance above the ground.
The ratio H/D ranges between 0.25 and 4.0. ∝ is the angle from wind direction to a point on the wall of the
circular element.
For C( ∝) ≥ −0.15, k b = 1.0

( )
For C( ∝) < −0.15, k b = 1.0 − 0.55 C( ∝) + 0.15 log10 ( H/D )

TABLE 2.20
T30.12-1 Steps to determine the C & C wind loads for the elements (bins, silos and tanks)
F30.12-1 GCp for walls of isolated elements (bins, silos and tanks)
F30.12-2 GCp for roof of isolated elements (bins, silos and tanks)
F30.12-3 GCp for roofs of grouped elements (bins, silos and tanks)
F30.12-4 GCp for walls of grouped elements (bins, silos and tanks)
The value of GCp(∝) can be determined from ASCE Figure 30.12-1.
C( ∝) = −0.5 + 0.4 Cos (α) + 0.8 Cos (2α) + 0.3 Cos (3α) ASCE Equation 30.12-4
GCp for undersides of isolated elements: The value of GCp is taken as 1.2 and −0.9 for Zone 3 and 0.8
and −0.6 for Zones 1 and 2 from ASCE Figure 30.12-2.
GCp for roofs of isolated elements: The value of GCp is taken from ASCE Figure 30.12-2. Zones 1, 2, 3
and 4 are shown in the figure.
GCp for grouped elements: The value of GCp for roofs is taken from ASCE Figure 30.12-3. The value of
GCp for walls is taken from ASCE Figure 30.12-4. Zones 1, 2, 3a, 3b and 4 are defined for roofs, and Zones
5a, 5b, 8 and 9 are defined for walls.
GCpi is the internal pressure coefficient, whose values are obtained from ASCE Table 26.13-1. However,
for elements with no roof,
GCpi = −0.9 − 0.35 log10 (H/D) ASCE Equation 30.12-5
2.7.7.2 Rooftop Solar Panels

Design wind pressures for rooftop solar panels for buildings of heights with a flat, gable, or hip roof with a
slope less than 7° is determined from ASCE Section 29.4.3.
Significant Changes in ASCE Versions
Chapter
3
3.1 History of ASCE 7
The first standard for loading published in the United States was ANSI A58.1. It was published by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Subsequently, in 1985, the American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE) took up the task of publishing the standard for loading. ASCE published the first edition
of ASCE 7, “Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures,” in 1988. Since then, the standard
was revised in 1993, 1995, 1998, 2002, 2005, 2010 and 2016. The standard for all types of loadings has
greatly evolved in these 28 years and eight editions.1
3.2 Evolution of ASCE 7

Over almost three decades after ASCE took over the task of publishing a standard for design loads, in the
eight editions of ASCE 7 there has been a tremendous evolution of the procedures to determine wind loads.
There was no change in the wind load calculations procedures from ASCE 7-88 to ASCE 7-93, however.
The design procedure in ASCE 7-88 consisted of
1. Determination of exposure category, building occupancy and basic wind speed (fastest-mile speed) (Fastest-
mile wind speed is the average speed of any 1 mile of air passing through the anemometer during the considered
period of time.)
2. Determination of velocity pressure: qz = 0.00256 Kz (IV)2
3. Determination of wind pressure for Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS) or Components and Cladding
(C & C); p = qGCp − q(GCpi) (in general form)
ASCE 7-88 and ASCE 7-93 did not address irregular-shaped buildings, special wind areas, and wind-
borne debris. Because these issues were beyond the scope of the standard, designers had to resort to wind
tunnel testing, foreign codes, other wind experts and the experiences of local building officials. For small
irregular buildings, wind tunnels were very expensive and hence a conservative approach was given in
the calculations of wind pressures. Geographical regions subject to downslope winds require special
attention. During a hurricane, there is a high probability of loose objects turning into wind-borne debris,
capable of breaking window glass and causing devastation to buildings not only with wind but also with
the rain that follows a hurricane.
These issues were addressed in ASCE 7-95. The basic wind speed was changed from the fastest-mile
wind speed to 3-second gust (which has a probability of 5%). The topographic factor was added to the
35
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velocity pressure equation to account for hills. A change was made to the internal pressure coefficient to
account for impact caused by wind-borne debris.
In ASCE 7-98, a provision for wind-borne debris was made (addressed in Chapter 2 of this book).
Directionality factor (Kd) was introduced in the velocity pressure equation for load combinations speci-
fied in Chapter 2 of ASCE 7. Three methods for the determination of wind pressures were defined. In
wind-borne debris regions, use of impact-resistant glazing was introduced. In Miami-Dade County, there
is a requirement of glazing to be tested for small and large missile impact for heights up to 30 ft and small
missile impact for heights above 60 ft. The directionality factor weighs the probability of critical wind
orientation for sites with significant directional wind amplitude variation within a hurricane hazard region.
It accounts for the probability that the maximum wind may not impact the structural component or sys-
tem in its weakest orientation. The three methods of determination of wind pressures specified were the
(a) Simplified Method, (b) Analytical Method and (c) Wind Tunnel test. The simplified method had limita-
tions but provided ready-made easy tables to read the value of wind pressures. The analytical method was
based on the velocity pressure and wind pressure equations.
In ASCE 7-02, exposure A was removed from the provisions and discussed only in the commentary.
In ASCE 7-05, the use of impact glazing in wind-borne debris region was made mandatory. Procedures
for rooftop equipment, parapet walls and freestanding signs were added. Changes made to ASCE 7-10 are
discussed in detail in Section 3.3 of the book.
3.3 Significant Changes in ASCE 7-10 Compared to ASCE 7-05

There are significant differences between the 2005 and 2010 versions of ASCE 7. In ASCE 7-05, the
entire wind load information is covered in Chapter 6 alone, whereas in ASCE 7-10 the wind load infor-
mation is covered in Chapters 26 through 31. The changes are demonstrated in Tables 3.1 through 3.10
of this chapter.
TABLE 3.1
Arrangement of the Code
ASCE 7-05 ASCE 7-10
Chapter 6—Wind Loads Chapters 26–31 have been introduced.
alone deal with the
Chapter Title
complete information.
26 Wind Loads – General Requirements
27 Wind Loads on Buildings – MWFRS
(Directional Procedure)
28 Wind Loads on Buildings – MWFRS
(Envelope Procedure)
29 Wind Loads on Other Structures and
Building Appurtenances – MWFRS
30 Wind Loads – Components and
Cladding
31 Wind Tunnel Procedure
Significant Changes in ASCE Versions 37
TABLE 3.2
Definitions
ASCE 7-05 ASCE 7-10
In ASCE 7-10, definitions for “Building,” “Torsionally Regular under Wind Load,” “Diaphragm,” “Directional Procedure,”
“Envelope Procedure” and “Wind Tunnel Procedure” were added.
Hurricane-prone region is U.S. Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Hurricane-prone region is U.S. Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of
Mexico coasts where the basic wind speed is greater than Mexico coasts where the basic wind speed for Risk Category II is
90 mph. greater than 115 mph.
Wind-borne debris region areas within hurricane-prone Wind-borne debris region areas within hurricane-prone regions are
regions are located: located:
1. Within 1 mile of coastal mean high-water line where 1. Within 1 mile of coastal mean high-water line where the basic
the basic wind speed ≥ 110 mph and in Hawaii; or wind speed ≥ 130 mph; or
2. In areas where the basic wind speed ≥ 140 mph 2. In areas where the basic wind speed ≥ 140 mph
TABLE 3.3
Basic Wind Speed
ASCE 7-05 ASCE 7-10
Basic wind speed is determined using Figure 6-1 for all Basic wind speed is determined using Figure 26.5-1 according
exposure categories, with the exception of Special Wind to exposure categories, with the exception of Special Wind
Regions, and estimation of basic wind speeds from regional Regions, and estimation of basic wind speeds from regional
climatic data. climatic data.
Figure Risk Category
26.5-1A II
26.5-1B III and IV
26.5-1C I
Note: In both versions, tornadoes have not been considered in the basic wind speed distributions.
TABLE 3.4
Permitted Procedures
ASCE 7-05 ASCE 7-10
For both MWFRS and C & C, the following Directional, Envelope and Wind Tunnel procedures have been used in five
procedures are allowed. chapters.
Method Description Chap. Component Description
1 Simplified Procedure 27 MWFRS – Buildings of all heights Directional Procedure
2 Analytical Procedure 28 MWFRS – low-rise buildings Envelope Procedure
3 Wind Tunnel Procedure 29 Building appurtenances & Other structures Directional Procedure
30 C&C Envelope Procedure
(Parts 1 and 2)
Directional Procedure
(Parts 3, 4 and 5)
Building Appurtenances
(Part 6)
31 MWFRS/ C & C Wind Tunnel Procedure
TABLE 3.5
Importance Factor
ASCE 7-05 ASCE 7-10
Based on the building categories listed in The importance factor is the same for building
Table 1-1, the importance factors differ. categories. It is not used in the calculations
of wind velocity pressure.
TABLE 3.6
Exposure
ASCE 7-05 ASCE 7-10
Exposure B is applied to buildings of all For buildings of mean roof height ≤ 30 ft,
heights where Surface Roughness B exposure B is applied where Surface
prevails in the upwind direction for a Roughness B prevails in the upwind direction
distance of at least 2600 ft or 20 times the for a distance of at least 1500 ft.
height of the building, whichever is For buildings of mean roof height ≥ 30 ft,
greater. Exposure B is applied where Surface
Roughness B prevails in the upwind direction
for a distance of at least 2600 ft or 20 times
the height of the building, whichever is
greater.
TABLE 3.7
Gust Effects
ASCE 7-05 ASCE 7-10
The calculations of gust effect remain the
same; calculations for approximate natural
frequency in Sections 26.9.2 and 26.9.3 are
added.
TABLE 3.8
Velocity Pressure
ASCE 7-05 ASCE 7-10
.qz = 0.00256KzKztKdIV2 (lb/ft2) qz = 0.00256KzKztKdV2 (lb/ft2)
Because importance factor I = 1 for all
building classifications, it is not used in the
calculations of velocity pressure.
TABLE 3.9
Analytical Procedure of ASCE 7-05 and Directional and Envelope Procedures of ASCE 7-10
ASCE 7-05 ASCE 7-10
Method II (Analytical Procedure) Directional and Envelope Procedures
MWFRS Rigid buildings of all heights MWFRS Enclosed and Partially Enclosed rigid buildings (Chapter 27, Part 1)
MWFRS Low-rise buildings MWFRS Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Low-Rise buildings (Chapter 28, Part 1)
MWFRS Flexible buildings MWFRS Enclosed and Partially Enclosed flexible buildings (Chapter 27, Part 1)
MWFRS Parapets MWFRS Parapets (Chapter 27, Part 1)
C & C Low-Rise buildings, h ≤ 60 ft C & C Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Low-Rise Buildings, h ≤ 60 ft (Chapter
30, Part 1)
C & C Buildings, h > 60 ft C & C Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Buildings, h > 60 ft (Chapter 30, Part 3)
MWFRS for monoslope, pitched or MWFRS Open buildings with monoslope, pitched or troughed roof (Chapter 27,
troughed roof Open buildings Part 1)
C & C for monoslope, pitched or troughed C & C Open buildings with monoslope, pitched or troughed roof (Chapter 30,
roof Open buildings Part 5)
Solid Freestanding walls and solid signs Solid Freestanding walls and solid signs (Chapter 29)
Other Structures Other Structures (Chapter 29)
Rooftop structures and equipment of buildings The lateral force (Fh) and the vertical uplift force (Fv) are defined by equations
with h ≤ 60 ft uses equation 6-28 in 29.5-2 and 29.5-3 with the gust factor GCr varying in accordance with the
accordance with the note of Section 6.5.15.1 vertical and horizontal project areas (Chapter 29)
TABLE 3.10
Simplified Procedure of ASCE 7-05 and Directional and Envelope Procedures of ASCE 7-10
ASCE 7-05 ASCE 7-10
Method I (Simplified Procedure) Directional and Envelope Procedures
The Simplified method is used only for For the MWFRS of enclosed simple diaphragm buildings using the Directional
enclosed simple diaphragm buildings Procedure, the height has been extended to 160 ft. The buildings have been
< 60 ft high with either a flat or classified as Class 1 and Class 2 buildings. Class 1 buildings have mean roof height
gable-end roof with Θ ≤ 45° or a hip ≤ 60 ft while Class 2 buildings have 60 ft < h ≤ 160 ft. Separate tables for roofs
roof with Θ ≤ 45° for MWFRS and (110–200 mph wind velocity at exposure B) and walls (110–200 mph wind velocity
Θ ≤ 27° for C & C. at exposure C) are provided with related adjustment factors. (Chapter 27, Part 2)
Wind pressure values are tabulated for For MWFRS of enclosed simple diaphragm low-rise buildings for height ≤ 60 ft,
walls and roof at 30 ft, 85–170 mph using the Envelope Procedure, tables (at h = 30 ft and exposure B) are provided to
wind velocity and exposure B with the determine wind pressures for basic wind speed 110–200 mph. Adjustment factors
related adjustment factors. are used for height and exposure. (Chapter 28, Part 2)
For C & C of low-rise enclosed buildings with height ≤ 60 ft, simplified procedure
is used to tabulate wind pressures for roof and wall evaluated at 30 ft height and
exposure B. The values are tabulated for basic wind speed 110–200 mph and for
roofs (0–7°, 7–27° and 27–45°) and walls for effective wind areas 10–100 sft.
Adjustment factors are used for height and exposure. (Chapter 30, Part 2)
For C & C of low-rise enclosed buildings with height ≤ 160 ft, simplified procedure
is used to tabulate wind pressures for roof and wall for exposure C. The values are
tabulated for basic wind speed 110–200 mph and for flat, gable, mansard, hip and
monoslope roofs. Reduction factors for Effective Wind Area and Adjustment
factors for height and exposure are provided. (Chapter 30, Part 4)
3.4 Significant Changes in ASCE 7-16 Compared to ASCE 7-10

The significant changes made in ASCE 7-16 compared to ASCE 7-10 are discussed in the following sub-
sections for each chapter (26 through 30). The chapter on wind tunnel is not covered in this book. In this
subsection, S refers to the section of ASCE 7-16 and T refers to the table of ASCE 7-16.
3.4.1 Chapter 26 Wind Loads: General Requirements
S 26.1.2.1 For “Directional Procedure for Building Appurtenances,” single-plane open frames
are added. ASCE 7-16 has prescribed procedures to calculate wind pressures for
rooftop solar panels.
S 26.2 Definition of “Attached Canopy” is added in ASCE 7-16.
Definition of “Enclosed Building” is changed in ASCE 7-16. “Enclosed Building”
is defined as “a structure that has a total area openings in each wall, that receives
positive external pressure, less than or equal to 4 sft or 1% of area of that wall,
whichever is smaller.”
Definition of “Partially Open Building” is added in ASCE 7-16. If a building is not
“Open” or “Partially Enclosed” or “Enclosed,” it is a “Partially Open” building.
In ASCE 7-16, elements of building appurtenances and rooftop structures and
equipment are included in Components and Cladding.
Definition for “Effective Wind Area” of rooftop solar panels is added.
S 26.5.1 Separate wind maps for all four Risk Categories are provided. In ASCE 7-10 the
wind map for Risk Categories III and IV was the same as in ASCE 7-0. The wind
speeds for certain locations have been changed. Separate maps for Hawaii have
been provided.
S 26.6 In ASCE 7-10, wind directionality factor could be used only when the load combi-
nations of Sections 2.3 and 2.4 were used. In ASCE 7-16, that condition is removed.
T 26.6-1 Wind Directionality factor (Kd) for round elements has been changed from 0.95 to
1.0, and a value of 1.0 is assigned to octagonal elements.
S 26.9 The section numbers have been rearranged. Section 26.9 has been assigned to a
new factor; ground elevation factor (Ke) is used in the calculation of velocity pres-
sure. The factor is defined in Table 26.9-1. Ke is the ratio of air pressure and density
calculated at a given elevation. The conservative value of Ke is 1.0.
S 26.10 In ASCE 7-10, the value of the velocity pressure exposure coefficient was provided
in Chapters 27 through 30. In ASCE 7-16, it is provided only in Section 26.10.
S 26.12.2 In ASCE 7-10, this was Section 26.10.2. A clarification of definition for “Openings”
to determine the Enclosure Classification has been provided. ASCE 7-16 specifies
that each building wall shall be assumed as a windward wall for consideration of
the number of openings present w.r.t. the remaining building envelope.
S 26.12.3.2 In ASCE 7-10, this was Section 26.10.3.2. The requirement for testing of glazing in
garage doors and rolling in accordance with ANSI/DASMA 115 has been added in
ASCE 7-16.
T 26.13-1 In ASCE 7-10, this was Table 26.11-1. In ASCE 7-16, the internal pressure coef-
ficient for “Partially Open” buildings has been added as ± 0.18.
S 26.12.4 Procedure for multiple enclosure classification was added. If a building can be
classified as both “Open” and “Partially Open,” it shall be classified as an “Open”
building.
3.4.2 Chapter 27 Wind Loads on Buildings: Main Wind

Force Resisting System (Directional Procedure)
S 27.3.2 In ASCE 7-16, a requirement of an additional horizontal force for open or partially
enclosed buildings with transverse force and a pitched roof (Θ ≤ 45°) in the lon-
gitudinal direction has been added. This shall be determined in accordance with
Section 28.3.5 of ASCE 7-16.
3.4.3 Chapter 28 Wind Loads on Buildings: Main Wind

Force Resisting System (Envelope Procedure)
S 28.3.5 In ASCE 7-16, procedure to calculate the horizontal wind loads on Open or Partially
enclosed buildings with transverse frames and pitched roofs has been added.
3.4.4 Chapter 29 Wind Loads on Building Appurtenances and Other

Structures: Main Wind Force Resisting System (Directional Procedure)
S 29.1.1 In ASCE 7-16, procedure to determine wind forces for a single-plane open frame
system has been added.
T 29.1-1 In this table of ASCE 7-16, references to the equations for the determination of force
coefficient (Cf) for single-plane open frames and roof solar panels has been added.
S 29.4.1 This was Section 29.5.1 in ASCE 7-10, and there was a restriction of 60 ft height for
the determination of wind forces for rooftop structures and equipment for building.
In ASCE 7-16 that limitation has been removed.
S 29.4.2 This section has been added in ASCE 7-16 to define the procedures to determine
the wind forces for circular bins, silos and tanks. It has four subsections to deter-
mine the wind forces for exterior walls, roofs and undersides of isolated or grouped
circular bins, silos and tanks.
S 29.4.3 This section has been added in ASCE 7-16 to define the procedures to determine
the wind forces for rooftop solar panels for buildings of all heights with flat roofs
or gable or hip roofs with slopes less than 7°.
S 29.4.4 This section has been added in ASCE 7-16 to define the procedures to deter-
mine the wind forces for rooftop solar panels for buildings of all heights and
all slopes.
3.4.5 Chapter 30 Wind Loads: Components and Cladding
Part 1 In ASCE 7-10, there were only Figures 30.4-2A, 30.4-2B and 30.4-2C for flat roofs,
gable roofs and hip roofs. In ASCE 7-16, there are Figures 30.3-2A through 30.3-2I
for flat roofs, gable roofs and hip roofs. Figures 30.3-2D through 30.3-2I are figures
for hip roofs.
In ASCE 7-10, Figure 30.4-3 had information for stepped roofing. In ASCE 7-16,
for Figure 30.3-3, zones are added for stepped roofing.
Part 2 In ASCE 7-10, Figure 30.5-1 provided information for the determination of wind
pressures for the walls and roofs C & C for enclosed buildings with height less than
60 ft. In ASCE 7-16, in Figure 30.4-1, more zones are defined for walls and roofs,
providing information for the determination of wind pressures for the walls and
roofs C & C for enclosed buildings with height less than 60 ft. The tables in Figure
30.4-1 have been enhanced to determine wind pressures for a larger range of wind
velocity, and also separate tables have provided for hip roof.
Part 4 In ASCE 7-10, Part (4) was used to determine wind pressures for buildings up to
a height of 160 ft from the ground, but in ASCE 7-16, Part 4 is used for buildings
with height from 60 ft to 160 ft. The exposure adjustment factors for the roof and
wall pressures in ASCE 7-16 have been changed. In ASCE 7-10, Table 30.7-2 was
provided for monoslope roofs, hip roofs, mansard roofs, gable roofs and flat roofs
for heights to 160 ft. In ASCE 7-16, Table 30.6-2 is provided for flat roofs and
monoslope roofs for heights 60 ft to 160 ft.
Part 6 In Part (6) of ASCE 7-16, Section 30.11 has been added prescribing the procedure
to calculate wind pressure for attached canopies on buildings with height less than
60 ft.
Part 7 This is a new part added in ASCE 7-16 that prescribes procedures to determine
wind pressures for the C & C in non-building structures like circular bins, silos,
tanks and rooftop solar panels.
Note
1. Kishor C. Mehta (2010), “Wind Load History: ANSI A58.1-1972 to ASCE 7-05,” proceedings of ASCE Structures
Congress, May 2010.
Testing and Inspections
Chapter
4
4.1 Hurricane-Prone Regions
Hurricanes are the most devastating wind events in the United States. Section 202 of the 2015 International
Business Code (IBC) defines the hurricane-prone regions as the U.S. Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico
coasts where the ultimate design wind speed (Vult) for Risk Category II buildings exceeds 115 mph and
Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, Virgin Islands and American Samoa. The IBC (2015) has special requirements
for these regions. This chapter discusses the special testing and inspection requirements of the hurricane-prone
regions with emphasis on building envelope elements. Not only the structural elements such as columns,
beams, shear walls, exterior load-bearing walls and in-fill walls, and roof structural framing but also the
non-structural elements such as doors, windows, eaves, fascia and any other attachment to the building shall
be designed to resist the forces created during a wind event. Non-structural elements that get detached from
the building envelope during a hurricane can create a considerable hazard by becoming flying debris. They
can breach the envelope of a building, allowing wind and rain to enter the building and causing extensive
structural and non-structural damage to the building.
4.2 Wind-Borne Debris Regions

Wind-borne debris regions are defined in Section 202 of the IBC (2015) as areas within hurricane-prone
regions located within a mile of the coastal mean high-water line where the ultimate design wind speed
(Vult) is 130 mph or greater and areas where the ultimate design wind speed (Vult) is 140 mph or greater.
In the wind-borne debris regions, the building envelope is protected by providing either impact-resistant
glazing or shutters, fulfilling the requirements of the ASTM E1996 and ASTM E1886. The glazing for
openings located within 30 ft above the ground are tested for large missile impact, and the glazing for open-
ings located 30 ft or more above the ground are tested for small missile impact.
4.3 Building Envelope

Building envelope is the physical separator between the conditioned and unconditioned environment of a
building, including the resistance to air, water, heat, light and noise transfer. It consists of all the building
elements of the outer shell that maintain a dry, heated or cooled indoor environment and facilitate its climate
control. Building envelope design is a specialized area of architectural and engineering practice that draws
from all areas of building science and indoor climate control. The main functions of the building envelope are
• Providing resistance to structural and dynamic loads and transferring them to main structural elements
• Controlling the flow of matter and energy of all types
• Ensuring esthetics of the building
43
The building envelope needs to be structurally sound. The building envelope consists of walls, doors,
windows, roofs, skylights and shutters. The goal of the design is that the building should be safe and fully
functional during and after a hurricane. In hurricane zones, buildings are designed as “Enclosed Buildings.”
The glazing is protected from flying debris. In essence the entire envelope should be wind resistant to avoid
a breach of the envelope. In this chapter, building envelope elements are examined to resist the wind loads
and prevent a breach so that the interior of the building is not subject to extensive internal wind pressures
and penetration of moisture due to rain that may follow high wind events.
The definitions of the terms “Exterior Wall Covering” and “Exterior Wall Envelope” are provided in
Section 202 of the IBC (2015). Exterior Wall Covering is an assembly of materials applied on the exterior
side of the exterior walls for the purpose of providing a weather-resisting barrier and insulation or for aes-
thetics. Veneers, sidings, exterior insulation and finish systems (EIFSs), cornices, soffits, facias, gutters and
leaders are examples of the Exterior Wall Covering. These items and their connections should be capable of
resisting the anticipated wind pressures in the region. In case of their failure during a wind event, they not
only accelerate the process of breaching of the envelope but also can become a source of impact on other
building envelope elements. Exterior Wall Envelope is a system of exterior wall components, including
exterior wall finish materials that provide protection of the building’s structural elements such as framing
and sheathing and concrete masonry unit (CMU) walls. A damage to the stucco of the exterior CMU wall
or the sheathing of a wood-framed wall in the form of cracks during a wind event breaches the envelope and
permits moisture penetration.
Section 107.2.4 of the IBC (2015) requires that the construction documents describe the exterior wall
envelope in detail to determine compliance with the code. Details of the flashing, intersection with dissimi-
lar materials, corners, end details, control joints, intersection at roof, eaves or parapets, means of drainage,
and water-resistive membrane and details around openings shall be provided. They shall include manufac-
turer’s installation instructions that provide supporting documentation of the proposed penetrations and
opening details described in the construction documents to maintain the weather resistance of the exterior
wall envelope. This applies for the roofing details also. Section 1503.2 of the IBC (2015) provides the
requirement of the flashing details for the roofs. Most of the roof leaks occur at the intersection of surfaces
such as locations where roofs with different slopes meet, where roofs and walls meet, and around the roof
vents and chimneys penetrating the roof surface.
4.4 Structural Inspections

Section 1704.6.2 of the IBC (2015) mandates structural observations for Risk Categories III or IV
buildings of height greater than 75 ft located in areas where the V(asd) exceeds 110 mph. “Structural
Observations,” in accordance with Section 202 of the IBC (2015), are defined as the visual observation
of the structural system by a registered design professional for general conformance to the approved con-
struction documents.
Section 202 of the IBC (2015) defines “Special Inspections” as inspection of construction requiring the
expertise of an approved special inspector to ensure compliance of the IBC (2015) and approved construc-
tion documents. There are two types of special inspections: continuous and periodic. During continuous
special inspections, the “Special Inspector” is continuously present during the time when the work requir-
ing special inspection is performed. For periodic special inspection, the special inspector is intermittently
present during the time when the work requiring special inspection is performed. The Special Inspector is a
qualified person having the expertise to perform the inspection and is either retained by an approved agency
or approved by a building official.
For areas with V(asd) greater than or equal to 120 mph in exposure category B and for areas with V(asd)
greater than or equal to 110 mph in exposure categories C or D, Section 1705.11 of the IBC (2015) requires
Testing and Inspections 45
continuous special inspections for structural wood elements for the MWFRS and periodic special inspec-
tions for the following:
a. Nailing, bolting, anchoring and other fastening of elements of the MWFRS

b. Cold-formed steel light-frame construction
c. Roof covering, roof deck and roof framing connections
d. Exterior wall covering and wall connections to roof and floor diaphragms and framing
4.5 Product Control

The building envelope elements should be engineered to resist the design wind pressures. Typically, prod-
uct assemblies are engineered and tested and then submitted to a recognized agency for evaluation and
approval. The following agencies in the United States evaluate building envelope elements:
• International Code Council Evaluation Service

• Florida Building Commission Product Approval System
• Miami-Dade County Product Control Division
After Hurricane Andrew, which caused 65 fatalities and monetary damages of $65 billion in August
1992, the Miami-Dade County Product Control Division was established. It is the agency whose approval is
required not only for building element products but also for other products such as awnings, canopies, clad-
ding, fasteners, fences, flexible wind abatement systems, greenhouses, manufactured buildings, membrane
structures, metal trusses, railings, screened enclosures and sunshades that could be affected by winds.
Miami-Dade County has been processing and issuing product approvals since implementation of the
South Florida Building Code in 1957. Applications for products that require testing evidence for compli-
ance to code-adopted standards are processed by the Product Control Division of Miami-Dade County. On
fulfilling the testing and engineering standards, products are approved, and applicants are issued a product
approval form, the Notice of Acceptance (NOA).
After Hurricane Andrew in 1992, a grand jury report emphasized the need for changes to product
approval procedures and made several recommendations to Miami-Dade County’s procedures; the rec-
ommended changes were implemented in early 1994. Among the highlights were an independent test-
ing requirement, including the product’s wind pressure rating, and a new impact test performance. These
aspects can be found in all product approvals issued after 1994.
The Miami-Dade County NOA serves as an independent and reliable tool to convey a building product’s
performance. It is used by designers, building officials, inspectors and owners for specifications, permits,
inspections and comparisons. The process for issuance of the NOA entails review of code-required tests,
calculations and material specifications by a team of experts. The NOA approval process relieves building
officials of the task of conducting technical reviews for the rating of products and allows them to focus on
the qualification of the product’s use on the project.
A valid NOA has also served as proof that the product is under an active quality assurance program and
that its quality control process is independently monitored.
In early 2000, all active NOAs were scanned and posted on the Miami-Dade website for faster access.
This practice has been continued, and all NOAs issued after 2000 can be accessed online, even after the
NOA has expired. Earlier NOAs can also be searched in archives by contacting the Product Control Office
with details of the manufacturer and/or NOA number.1
The Florida Building Commission approves the products to be used in the building envelope. The appli-
cation for product approval consists of an evaluation report, a quality assurance test report, a description of
the product, a statement of compliance from an independent evaluator, technical documentation, installation
requirements and limitations and conditions of the product. The product search can be performed at the
Florida Building Commission website.2
The International Code Council Evaluation Service (ICC-ES) offers product evaluation to ensure that
the products meet the building codes. In collaboration with Innovation Research Laboratories, the ICC-ES
also offers product-testing services. The product evaluation report can be obtained from their website.3
4.6 Fenestration and Roof

Two of the most important building envelope elements are the roof and fenestration. A failure of these ele-
ments during a wind event causes severe structural and non-structural damage to the building. Fenestration
refers to the design, construction or presence of openings in a building. Fenestration includes windows,
doors, louvers, vents, wall panels, skylights, storefronts, curtain walls and slope glazed systems.
The most commonly used roof systems in the United States are concrete and clay tiles and asphaltic
shingles for pitched roofs and built-up roofing for low-sloped roofs. Other types of roofs like metal panel
roofs are becoming very popular because of their high wind resistance capacity. During a hurricane, the
asphaltic shingles should not exhibit creasing, uplifted corners, stripping and dislodging. The concrete and
clay tiles should not dislodge. The built-up roofing should not have peeled-back edges and corners and open
seams.
The asphaltic shingles shall comply with the requirements of ASTM D1758. The wind resistance of clay
and concrete tiles shall be designed in accordance with section 1609.5 of IBC (2015) for wind resistance.
They are tested for overturning resistance to verify adequacy against overturning caused by wind forces.
Built-up, modified bitumen, fully adhered or mechanically attached single-ply roof systems, and metal
panel roofs are required to be tested in accordance with FM 4474, UL 580 or UL 1897 for wind resistance
capacity. For impact resistance, they should comply with the requirements of ASTM D3746, ASTM D4272,
CGSB 37-GP-52M or FM 4470.
The design pressure for doors and windows is determined in accordance with section 1605.3 of IBC
(2015) using the allowable stress design. The allowable wind speed is determined using the following
equation.
Vasd = Vult 0.6 IBC (2015) Equation 16-33
The windows and doors shall be tested and labeled as conforming to the requirements of AAMA/
WDMA/CSA101/LS.2/A440.
Notes
1. Miami-Dade Regulatory Economic Resources website, www.miamidade.gov/building/pc-search_app.asp?class_
id=1&class_desc=High velocity hurricane zone.
2. Florida Building Commission website, https://floridabuilding.org/pr/pr_app_srch.aspx.
3. ICC Evaluation Service website, http://www.icc-es.org/Evaluation_Reports/.
Wind-Related Solved Examples
Chapter
5
PROBLEM 5.1
Determination of Effective Length (Leff )
Refer to Figure 5.1.
Use the following data to determine effective length:
Number of floors = 25
Each floor = 10 ft high
Width at base = 160 ft
Width at top = 80 ft
Base labeled 0
Top floor labeled 25
∑160(10 + 20 + 30 + 40 + 50) = 24, 000

i =1
10
∑140(60 + 70 + 80 + 90 + 100) = 56, 000

i =6
15
∑120(110 + 120 + 130 + 140 + 150) = 78, 000

i =11
20
∑100(160 + 170 + 180 + 190 + 200) = 90, 000

i =16
25
∑80(210 + 220 + 230 + 240 + 250) = 92, 000

i = 21
25
∑(10 + 20 + 30 + 40 + 50 + 60 + 70 + 80 + 90 + 100 + 110 + 120 + 130 + 140 + 150 + 160

i =1
+ 170 + 180 + 190 + 200 + 210 + 220 + 230 + 240 + 250) = 3250
∑ hL
n
i i
Effective
Length (L eff ) = i =1 ASCE Equation 26.11-1
∑ h
n
i
i =1
47
Figure 5.1
A 25-storied building.
Li – length of level parallel to wind direction

hi – height of level above ground
24, 000 + 56,000 + 78,000 + 90, 000 + 92,0000

Leff = = 104.6 ft
3250
Building height = 250 ft < 300 ft
Building height = 250 ft < 4 × Leff = 4 × 104.6 = 418.4 ft
Hence, approximate natural frequency according to ASCE Section 26.11.3 can be calculated.
PROBLEM 5.2
Calculation of Approximate Natural Frequency of Steel, Concrete and Concrete/Steel Buildings
Refer to Problem 5.1. In Problem 5.1, it was determined that the approximate natural frequency (na) for the
building can be calculated using Section 26.11.3 of ASCE 7-16.
For building with structural steel moment-resisting frames,
n a = 22.2 h 0.8 ASCE Equation 26.11-2

= 22.2 250.8 = 1.69 Hz
Wind-Related Solved Examples 49
For concrete moment-resisting frames,
n a = 43.5 h 0.9
= 43.5 250.9 = 2.4 Hz
For structural steel/concrete moment-resisting frames,
n a = 75 h
= 75 25 = 3.0 Hz
Hence, the building is a rigid building because the natural frequency is greater than 1.0. (Refer to definition
of “Rigid Building” in Section 26.2 of ASCE 7-16.)
PROBLEM 5.3
Calculation of Approximate Natural Frequency of a Building with Shear Walls
Base area of a building (AB) − 100 ft × 125 ft = 12,500 sft
Horizontal cross-sectional area of shear wall (Ai) − (20 ft)(1 ft)(3) = 60 sft
For each floor,
2
 h Ai
 h  
 hi  
2
i
1 + 0.83   
  Di  
Figure 5.2
Building with sheer walls.
1st level:
2
 300  60
= 52,783
 10    10  
2
1 + 0.83  60  
 
2nd level:
2
 300  60
= 12,360
 20    20  
2
1 + 0.83  60  
 
:
30th level:
2
 300  60
= 2.76
 300    300  
2
1 + 0.83  60  
 
Using a spreadsheet (tabulated in Table 5.1),
2
100  h  Ai
Cw =   = 612.34
AB  hi    hi  
2
1 + 0.83   
  Di  
na = 385(Cw ) 0.5 h
= 385(612.34) 0.5 300

31.8 Hz
Shear walls provide greater rigidities to buildings.
PROBLEM 5.4
Approximate Natural Frequency—Gust Effect Factor
A 300 ft × 300 ft building located in exposure C is made of concrete moment-resisting frame and is 300 ft tall.
The basic wind velocity in the region is 150 mph. Find the gust effect factor for concrete moment-resisting frame.
SOLUTION
Approximate Natural Frequency (na ) = 43.5/h 0.9 = 43.5/300 0.9 = 0.256 < 1.0 ASCE Equation 26.11-3
Hence, it is a flexible building.
Use ASCE Section 26.9.5.
0.577
gR = 2 ln(3600n1 ) + ASCE Equation 26.11-11
2 ln(3600n1 )

0.577
= 2 ln(3600 × 0.256) + = 3.85
2 ln(3600 × 0.256)
z = 0.6h = 0.6(300 ft) = 180 ft, l = 500 ft, ε = 1/5.0

TABLE 5.1
Calculation of Cw
Height A B A*B
10 900.00 58.65 52,783.06
20 225.00 54.93 12,360.12
30 100.00 49.69 4968.94
40 56.25 43.83 2465.50
50 36.00 38.06 1370.22
60 25.00 32.79 819.67
70 18.37 28.17 517.46
80 14.06 24.24 340.83
90 11.11 20.92 232.49
100 9.00 18.15 163.36
110 7.44 15.83 117.76
120 6.25 13.89 86.81
130 5.33 12.25 65.26
140 4.59 10.87 49.92
150 4.00 9.70 38.79
160 3.52 8.69 30.56
170 3.11 7.83 24.38
180 2.78 7.08 19.68
190 2.49 6.44 16.04
200 2.25 5.87 13.21
210 2.04 5.37 10.96
220 1.86 4.93 9.18
230 1.70 4.55 7.74
240 1.56 4.20 6.57
250 1.44 3.89 5.61
260 1.33 3.62 4.82
270 1.23 3.37 4.16
280 1.15 3.15 3.61
290 1.07 2.94 3.15
300 1.00 2.76 2.76
∑ A× B 76542.61
Cw 612.34
A = (300/h)2
60
B=
  h 
2
1 + 0.83   
 60 
1
ε
z 180  5.0
Lz = l   = 500  = 702 ASCE Equation 26.11-9
 33   33 
1
b = 0.65, α = ASCE Table 26.11-1
6.5
α
z 88
Vz = b     Y ASCE Equation 26.11-16
 33   60 
1
180   88  150 = 185.6
= 0.65 
6.5
 33   60 
n1 Lz (702)
N1 = = 0.256 = 0.968 ASCE Equation 26.11-14
Vz (185.6)
7.47 N1 7.47(0.968)
Rn = 5 = 5 = 0.153 ASCE Equation 26.11-13
(1 + 10.3 N1 ) 3 (1 + 10.3(0.968) 3
4.6n1h (4.6)(0.256)(300)
Where Rl = Rh , η = = = 1.90
Vz 185.6
4.6n1 B (4.6)(0.256)(300)
Where Rl = RB , η = = = 1.90
Vz 185.6
15.4 n1 L (15.4)(0.256)(300)
Where Rl = RL , η = = = 6.37
Vz 185.6
1 1
In general, Rl = − 2 (1 − e −2 n ) for η > 0 ASCE Equation 26.11-15a
η 2η
1 1
Rh = −
1.9 2 (1.9 )2
(1 − e−2(1.9) ) = 0.390

1 1
RL = −
6.37 2 ( 6.37 )2
(1 − e−2(6.37) ) = 0.144
1
R = Rn Rh RB ( 0.53 + 0.47 RL ) ASCE Equation 26.11-12
β
Use 5% damping ratio, β = 0.05.
1 
R=  (0.153)(0.39)(0.39)(0.53 + 0.47 x 0.144) = 0.36
 0.05 
1
Q= 0.63
 B + h
1 + 0.63 
 L z
1
= 0.63 = 0.798 ASCE Equation 26.11-8
 600 
1 + 0.63
 702 
1
 33  6 ASCE Equation 26.11-7
I z = C   C = 0.20
 z 
1
 33  6
I z = 0.2  = 0.151 ASCE Table 26.11-1
 180 
 1 + 1.7 I z gQ2 Q 2 + gR2 R 2 

G f = 0.925   ASCE Equation 26.11-10
 1 + 1.7 gr I z 

 1 + 1.7 ( 0.151) (3.4)2 (0.798)2 + (3.85)2 (0.36)2 
= 0.925  
 1 + 1.7(3.4)(0.151) 
= 0.925
With a 2% damping, R = 0.678 and G f = 1.

Now, assume the same building is a rigid building.
 1 + 1.7 gQ I z Q 
G = 0.925 
 1 + 1.7 gr I z 
 1 + (1.7)(3.4)(0.151)(0.798) 
= 0.925   = 0.84
 1 + (1.7)(3.4)(0.151)
PROBLEM 5.5
Approximate Natural Frequency—Topographic Factor
( )
For a building with the profile shown in the following diagram, determine the topographic factor K z t .
SOLUTION
H = height of hill
LH = distance upwind of crest to where the difference in ground elevation is half the height of the hill.
x = distance from the crest to the building site
z = height above the ground surface at building site
Assume H = 200 ft, LH = 100 ft, x = 100 ft, z = 20 ft.
From ASCE Figure 26.8-1,
H 200 
= = 2.0,  K1 = 0.43
Ln 100 
x 100 
= = 1.0,  K 2 = 0.75
Ln 100 
z 30 
= = 0.3,  K 3 = 0.47
Ln 100 
K zt = (1 + K1K 2 K 3 )
2
= [1 + (0.43)(0.75)(0.47)] = 1.33
2
PROBLEM 5.6
Calculation of Velocity Pressure
Calculate the velocity pressure for the following data:
3-second gust = 175 mph

Height of the building = 100 ft
Location of building = Ocean front (hence, exposure D)

Type of building = Enclosed with impact-resistant glazing
The calculated pressures shall be used with the load combinations of chapter 2 to determine total load on
the building.
elocity pressure exposure coefficient (K z ) = 1.43

V ASCE Table 26.10-1
Topographic
factor (K zt ) = 1.0 ASCE Section 26.8.2
Directionality factor (K d ) = 0.85 ASCE Table 26.6-1
round elevation factor (K e ) = 1.0
G ASCE Table 26.9-1
Velocity pressure (q z ) = 0.00256 K z K zt K d K e V 2 ASCE Equation 26.10-1
= ((0.00256)(1.43)(1)(1)(1)175)2 )
= 112.1 psf
PROBLEM 5.7
Calculation of Wind Pressure Using the Directional Procedure
Consider a building 300 ft × 300 ft in footprint, 30 storied with the height of each floor as 10 ft. The build-
ing is an ocean-front residential building on flat land, located in Miami, Florida. The structure should be
designed as an enclosed building with impact-resistant glazing.
Velocity pressure (q z ) = 0.00256 K z K zt K d K e V 2 ASCE Equation 27.10-1

K z = Velocity pressure coefficient ASCE Table 26.10-1
K zt = Topographic factor = 1.0 ASCE Section 26.8.2
K d = Directional factor = 0.85 ASCE Table 26.6-1
K E = Ground elevation factor = 1.0 ASCE Table 26.9-1
V = basic wind speed for Miami = 175 mph for Risk Category II residential building
ASCE Figure 26.5-1B
The velocity pressure is calculated in Table 5.2.
Wind pressure(p) = qGCp − q i (GC pi ) ASCE Equation 27.3-1
Consider this building rigid with a gust effect factor (G) of 0.85. ASCE Section 26.11.5
The wall and roof pressure coefficients (Cp) are obtained from ASCE Figure 27.3-1.
Windward wall C p = 0.8

Leeward wall C p = −0.5 (L/B = 1.0)
Side wall Cp = −0.7
h = 300 ft
L 300 ft = 1.0
Horizontal distance from 0 to h 2 , Cp = −1.3, −0.18
For > h/2, Cp = −0.7, −0.18
Because the area of roof is 90,000 sft, Cp can be reduced by 80% according to ASCE Figure 27.3-1 footnotes.
0 to h 2 Cp = 1.04

Internal Pressure Coefficient (GCpi ) = ±0.18 ASCE Table 26.13-1
TABLE 5.2
Calculation of Wind Pressure
The building (300 ft × 300 ft) has equal dimensions in both directions.
In Table 5.2 of the book, the values of Kz, qz, Cp, G and GCpi are tabulated.
In ASCE equation 27.3-1, qGCp is the external pressure and qi(GCpi) is the internal pressure.
For an enclosed building, qi is taken as qz. In the value of the internal pressure coefficient (GCpi = ± 0.18),
the positive sign is for the internal pressure acting toward the wall and the negative sign is for internal pres-
sure acting away from the wall. Hence, the external pressure acting on the windward wall and negative
internal pressure acting away from the windward walls give the maximum pressure on the wall.
We will manually demonstrate the tabulated calculations for the 50 ft height of the building.
K z = 1.27
q z = ( 0.00256 )(1.27 )(1)( 0.85)(1)(175) = 84.6 psf
2
External pressure = (84.6 )( 0.8 )( 0.85) = 57.6 psf

Internal pressure = ( ±0.18 )(84.6 ) = ±15.2 psf
Max pressure = 57.6 − ( −15.2 ) = 72.8 psf
Min. pressure = 57.6 − ( +15.2 ) = 42.3 psf
For leeward wall, q = qh; qi = qh

h = 300 ft, from Table 5.2 of the book, qh = 115.6 psf
p = −(115.6)(0.5)(0.85) = −49.1 psf (acting away from the surface)
The internal pressure that acts toward the leeward wall,
p = (115.6)(0.18) = 20.8 psf
Hence, total pressure acting on the leeward wall = −49.1 − 20.8 = −69.9 psf.
Roof Pressure
For a distance of h 2 from windward edge,
External pressure = −(115.6)(0.85)(1.04) = 102.2 psf.
For a distance greater than h 2 from windward edge,
External pressure = −(115.6)(0.85)(0.7) = −68.8 psf.
The pressure distributions are illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3
Pressure distributions.
PROBLEM 5.8
Calculation of Wind Pressure Using the Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Building Method
Mean roof height = 30 ft ≤ 60 ft
(
Enclosed building: : L B = 100 ft 50 ft = 2 0.2 ≤ L B ≤ 5.0 )
Hence, this is a class 1 building per ASCE Section 27.4.2.
The building is located in exposure B.
Basic wind speed 110 mph
Topographic factor (K zt ) 1.0 ASCE Section 26.8.2
Directionality factor (K d ) 0.85 ASCE Table 26.6-1
Internal pressure coefficient (GC ) ±0.18 ASCE Table 26.13-1
pi
From ASCE Table 27.5-1:

Along-wind net wall pressure: Ph = 16.9 psf, Po = 15.4 psf
Slope of roof 10:50 = 2.4:12
Use the values of 3:12 slope.

For class 1, wind pressures are
Zone 1 = 26.9 psf

Zone 2 = 18.3 psf
Zone 3 = 27.4 psf
Figure 5.4
Plan and elevation.
Zone 4 = 24.4 psf

Zone 5 = 20.2 psf
From ASCE Table 27.5-2, use an exposure adjustment factor of 0.713 for a mean roof height of 30’ and
exposure B. Hence wind pressures are
Zone 1 = 19.2 psf

Zone 2 = 13.0 psf
Zone 3 = 19.5 psf
Zone 4 = 17.4 psf
Zone 5 = 14.3 psf
Refer to Figure 5.5 for pressure distribution.
Figure 5.5
Pressure distribution.
PROBLEM 5.9
Calculation of Wind Pressures of a Building with Transverse Frames
Calculate the wind pressure for a building with the following data.
Number of transverse frames = 8
Mean roof height (h) = 45 ft
Exposure C
Partially Enclosed Building
Topographic factor (K zt ) = 1.0 ASCE Section 26.8.2
G round elevation factor (K e ) = 1.0 ASCE Section 26.9
Agricultural building located in Columbia, South Carolina
Hence, Risk Category I
Basic wind speed = 105 mph ASCE Figure 26.5-1A
Figure 5.6
Plan and elevation.
Velocity pressure ( q h ) = 0.00256 ( K d )( K zt ) ( K h ) ( K e ) ( V 2 ) ASCE equation 26.10-1

= (0.00256)(0.85)(1.0)(K z )(1.0)(105)2 = 24 K z
Velocity pressure coefficient (K h ) = 1.07 ASCE Table 26.10-1
Hence, q h = 24 × 1.07 = 25.7 psf
Wind pressure (p) = q h [(GCpf )windward − (GCpf )leeward] K BK S ASCE equation 28.3-3

−0.40 − 0.48
(GCpf )windward = = −0.44
2
(For load case B, average values of zones 5 and 5E are taken.)
−0.29 − 0.43
(GCpf )leeward = = −0.36
2
(For load case B, average values of zones 6 and 6E are taken.)
K B − frame width factor − 0.8 (B ≥ 100 ft)
Solidity Ratio (φ) = A S A
E
We assume that the end wall has no openings, φ = 1.0,

where
AS = effective solid area of end wall
AE = total end wall area
Number of frames (n) = 8
Shielding factor ( K S ) = 0.60 + 0.073(n − 3) + (1.25φ1.8 )
= (0.06) + 0.073(8 − 3) + (1.25 × 11.8 ) = 2.2
Windward wall pressure (p) = (25.7)(0.44)(0.8)(2.2) = 19.9 psf
Leeward wall pressure (p) = (25.7)(0.36)(0.8)(2.2) = 16.3 psf
PROBLEM 5.10
Calculation of Wind Pressures of an Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Low-Rise Building
Refer to Figure 5.7. A single-family house was located in Key West, Florida, near the ocean. Calculate the
wind pressures for the following data:
Risk Category II
Exposure D
Basic wind speed = 180 mph ASCE Figure 26.5-1B
Mean roof height of the building = 20 ft
(
Roof angle (Θ) = Tan −1 10 25 = 21.8° )
Figure 5.7
Pressure diagram.
From ASCE Figure 28.5-1:

For load case A, wind pressure is perpendicular to the ridge, and horizontal pressure, from linear inter-
polation, is
A = 68.7 psf
B = 15.8 psf
C = 47.2 psf
D = 10.1 psf
E = 49.8 psf
F = 41.6 psf
G = 35.0 psf
H = 32.2 psf
These values are modified for mean roof height and exposure, using an adjustment factor of 1.55 from ASCE
Figure 28.5-1.
For load case B, roof angle (Θ) = 0° is used to read the values and modified using the adjustment fac-
tor 1.55.
PROBLEM 5.11
Calculation of Wind Pressures of a Water Tank with a Domed Roof
A water tank is for an essential facility located on flat land in Atlanta, Georgia. Use the following data to
calculate the wind pressures. Refer to Figure 5.8.
R
isk category IV ASCE Table 1.5-1
Exposure B
Basic wind speed = 116 mph ASCE Figure 26.5-1D
Wind directionality factor ( K d ) = 1.0 ASCE Table 26.6-1
Topographic factor ( K zt ) = 1.0 ASCE Section 26.8
Ground elevation factor ( K e ) = 1.0 ASCE Section 26.9
Velocity pressure ( q z ) = 0.00256 ( K z ) ( K zt )( K d )( K e ) V 2 ASCE Equation 26.10-1

q z = (0.00256) ( K z ) (1.0)(1.0)(1.0)(116)2 = 34.5 K z
Figure 5.8
Plan and elevation of water tank.
Height Kz qz(psf)
15 ft 0.57 19.7
20 ft 0.62 21.4
25 ft 0.66 22.8
30 ft 0.70 24.2
40 ft 0.76 26.2
50 ft 0.81 27.9
60 ft 0.85 29.3
70 ft 0.89 30.7
Considering the structure as rigid,

Gust effect factor (G) = 0.85 ASCE Section 26.11
Height of structure (h) = 70 ft
Diameter of circular structure (D) = 150 ft
h = 70
D 150 = 0.47
From ASCE Figure 29.4-1, the drag force coefficient (Cp) = 0.5 for moderately smooth surface.
Design wind force (F) on walls = q z (GCf )(A f ) ASCE Equation 29.4-1
Design Force Tabulation

h Af F (in lb)
0–15 ft 15 × 150 = 2250 sft (19.7)(0.85)(0.5)(2250) = 18,838
1–20 ft 5 × 150 = 750 sft (19.7)(0.85)(0.5)(750) = 6279
20–25 ft 5 × 150 = 750 sft (19.7)(0.85)(0.5)(750) = 6279
25–30 ft 5 × 150 = 750 sft (19.7)(0.85)(0.5)(750) = 6279
30–40 ft 10 × 150 = 1500 sft (19.7)(0.85)(0.5)(1500) = 12,558
Total force (F) = 50,235 lb
For the calculation of the wind pressures on the dome, two methods are used.
First, the directionality procedure of ASCE chapter 27 is used.
Design wind pressure (p) = qGCp − q i (GCpi ) ASCE Equation 27.3-1
For internal pressure of the dome, it is considered as an enclosed structure.
q i (GCpi ) = (30.7)( ±0.18) = ±5.5 psf
Dome rise (f) = 30 ft
Height of wall (h D ) = 40 ft
Diameter of dome (D) = 150 ft
h D = 40
D 150 = 0.27
f = 30
D 150 = 0.2
Refer to Figure 5.8 of this book.

From ASCE Figure 27.3.2,
Cp at point A = −0.65
Cp at point B = −1.1
Cp at point C = −0.26
External Wind Pressures
At point A, p = (30.7)(0.85)(−0.65) = −17.0 psf
At point B, p = (30.7)(0.85)(−1.1) = −28.7 psf
At point C, p = (30.7)(0.85)(−0.26) = −6.8 psf
Design Pressures
At point A, p = (−17.0) − ( ±5.5) = −22.5 psf
At point B, p = (−28.7) − ( ±5.5) = −34.2 psf
At point C, p = (−6.8) − ( ±5.5) = −12.3 psf
The second method uses ASCE Section 29.4.2.2.

Design wind pressure (p) = q h [GCp − GCpi ] ASCE Equation 29.4-4
The internal pressure on the roof was earlier calculated as ±5.5 psf.
Solid cylinder height (H) = 40 ft
Diameter of cylinder (D) = 150 ft
H = 40
D 150 = 0.26
b = 0.2D = (0.2)(150) = 30 ft
External pressure coefficient (Cp):
Zone 1 = −0.8
Zone 2 = −0.5
External pressure (p):
Zone 1 = ( 30.7 )( 0.85)( −0.8 ) = −20.9 psf
Zone 2 = ( 30.7 )( 0.85)( −0.5) = −13.0 psf
Design pressure:
Zone 1 = −20.9 − 5.5 = −26.4 psf
Zone 2 = −13.0 − 5.5 = −18.5 psf
PROBLEM 5.12
Calculation of Wind Pressures on a Solid Freestanding Sign
Refer to Figure 5.9. A sign is located in a residential area of Los Angeles. Calculate the wind pressures on
the sign for the following data:
Risk Category II ASCE Table 1.5-1
Exposure B
Basic wind speed = 95 mph ASCE Figure 26.5-1B
Figure 5.9
Traffic sign.
In Problem 5.4, we have learned how to calculate the gust effect factor. To simplify this problem, we assume
a gust effect factor (G) of 0.85.
Velocity pressure coefficient (K h ) = 0.66 ASCE Table 26.10-1
Wind directionality factor (K d ) = 0.85 ASCE Table 26.6-1
Ground elevation factor (K e ) = 1.0 ASCE Section 26.9
Velocity pressure (q h ) = 0.00256(K h )(K zt )(K d )(K e )V 2 ASCE Equation 26.10-1
= (0.00256)(0.66)(1.0)(0.85)(1.0)(95)2 = 12.96 psf
Area of sign (A s ) = 20 ft × 7 ft = 140 sft

Design wind force (f) = q h GCf A s ASCE Equation 29.3-1
Width of sign (B) = 20 ft
Vertical dimension of sign (S) = 7 ft
Height of the sign (h) = 25 ft
( )
Aspect ratio B = 20 7 = 0.86
S
Clearance ratio ( s h ) = 7 25 = 0.28
From ASCE Figure 29.3-1, by using linear interpolation, Cp = 1.80
F = (12.96)(0.85)(1.8)(140) = 2776 lb
PROBLEM 5.13
Calculation of Wind Pressures for Solar Panels
Refer to Figure 5.10. A solar panel is installed on a gable roof with a slope of 25°. The mean roof height of
the building is 22 ft. The enclosed building is located in exposure C, where the basic wind speed is 175 mph.
Assume that the size of solar panel is 20 sft.
Figure 5.10
Gable-end roof plan with solar panels.
Calculate the wind pressures with the following data:

Basic wind speed (V) = 175 mph
Exposure C
opographic factor (K zt ) = 1.0
T ASCE Section 26.8.2
elocity pressure exposure coefficient (K z ) = 0.92
Velocity pressure (q z ) = 0.00256K z K zt K d K e V 2 ASCE Equation 26.10-1
= 0.00256(0.92)(1.0)(0.85)(1.0)(175) = 61.3 psf
2
esign wind pressure (p) = q h (GCp )( γ E )( γ a )
D ASCE Equation 29.4-7
Assuming the solar panel is located in Zone 1,
xternal pressure coefficient (GCp ) = 0.45
E ASCE Figure 30.3-2C
Distance (a) = 10% of least horizontal dimension = 0.1 × 60 = 6 ft
Or
0.4 × mean roof height = 0.4 × 22 ft = 8.8 ft
Hence, a = 8.8 ft; the solar panel is located in Zone 1.

d1 = 10 ft. Hence, γ E = 1.0
Solar panel pressure equilation factor ( γ a ) = 0.7
Design wind pressure (p) = (61.3)(0.45)(1.0)(0.7) = 19.3 psf
PROBLEM 5.14
Calculation of Wind Pressures for Windows
Calculate wind pressures of windows of effective wind area (EWA) of 20 sft located at the 21st floor in
Zones 4 and 5 for the following data:
Building plan dimensions = 300 ft × 300 ft
Height of building = 210 ft
Number of floors = 21
Figure 5.11
Elevation of a 21-storied building.
Location = Miami Beach ocean front, flat terrain

Type of building = residential
Type of roof = flat (low-sloped)
Enclosed building with impact glazing
isk Category II
R ASCE Table 1.5-1
asic wind velocity = 175 mph
B ASCE Figure 26.5-1B
irectionality factor (K d ) = 0.85
D ASCE Table 26.6-1
round elevation factor (K e ) = 1.0
G ASCE Section 26.9
elocity pressure coefficient factor (K z ) = 1.62
qz = 0.00256 K z K zt K d K eV 2 ASCE Equation 26.10-1
= (0.00256)(1.62)(1.0)(0.85)(1.0)(175)2 = 108 psf.
Because the top-floor windows are considered, qz = qh .

Zone 5 width is from ASCE Figure 30.5-1.
10% of least horizontal dimension = 0.1 × 300 = 30 ft
esign wind pressures (p) = q(GCp ) − q i (GCpi )
D ASCE Equation 30.5-1
External pressure coefficient (GCp ) = 0.9 for zone 4 and 5
= −0.9 for zone 4
= −1.8 for zone 5
(from ASCE Figure 30.5-1 for EWA = 20 sft)
External Wind Pressure on Windows
Zone 4 positive (108)(0.9) = 97.2 psf
Zone 4 negative (108)(−0.9) = −97.2 psf
Zone 5 positive (108)(0.9) = 97.2 psf
Zone 5 negative (108)(−1.8) = −194.4 psf
Internal Wind Pressure on Windows
( ±0.18 )(108 ) = ±19.4 psf
Positive wind pressures on zone 4 windows = + 97.2 + 19.4 psf = +116.6 psf
Negative wind pressures on zone 4 windows = −97.2 − 19.4 psf = −116.6 psf
Positive wind pressure on zone 5 windows = + 97.2 + 19.4 psf = +116.6 psf
Negative wind pressure on zone 5 windows = −194.4 − 19.4 psf = −213.8 psf
These wind pressures are ultimate wind pressures.
Allowable wind speed = (Vult ) 0.6 = 0.774 Vult .
Hence,
Allowable wind pressures for zone 4 windows + 90.2 psf; −90.2 psf
Allowable wind pressures for zone 5 windows + 90.2 psf; −165.5 psf

It is very difficult to obtain windows with a wind pressure rating of 165 psf. Typically, wind tunnel testing
is performed for high-rise buildings, which results in lower wind pressures. Other solutions to reduce wind
pressures in Zone 5 is to use larger windows or sliding doors with large EWA to reduce wind pressure.
PROBLEM 5.15
Calculation of Hipped Roof Wind Pressures
Calculate the wind pressures for the hipped roof of a single-family structure located in exposure B for the
following data. The building is partially enclosed with basic wind velocity of 110 mph. Refer to Figure 5.12.
Mean roof height = 15 ft
Basic wind velocity = 110 mph
D irectionality factor (K d ) = 0.85 ASCE Table 26.6-1
opographic factor (K zt ) = 1.0
T ASCE Section 26.8.2
G round elevation factor (K e ) = 1.0 ASCE Section 26.9
Velocity pressure coefficient (K z ) = 0.57 ASCE Table 26.10-1
I nternal pressure coefficient = ±0.55 ASCE Table 26.13-1
Figure 5.12
Plan and elevation of a hipped roof single-family structure.
q z = 0.00256K z K zt K d K e V 2 ASCE Equation 26.10-1

= (0.00256)(0.85)(0.57)(1.0)(1.0)(110)2 = 15.0 psf
Design wind pressures (p) = q h (GCp − GCpi ) ASCE Equation 30.3-1
External pressure coefficient (GCp) for an EWA of 20 sft
h 15
B= 60 = 0.25 < 0.5
−1.9 for zone 1
−2.3 for zone 2r
−2.9 for zone 2e
−3.0 for zone 3
Wind pressure (p)

Zone 1 = 15(−1.9 − 1.55) = −36.75 psf
Zone 2r = 15(−2.3 − 0.55) = −42.75 psf
Zone 2e = 15(−2.9 − 0.55) = −51.75 psf
Zone 3 = 15(−3.0 − 0.55) = −53.25 psf
Miscellaneous Structures—
Chapter
6
Calculations of Wind Pressures
PROBLEM 6.1
Solar Panels
Chapter 26 of ASCE 7-16 defines “Rooftop Solar Panels” as a device to receive solar radiation and convert it
into electricity or heat energy. Typically, this is a photovoltaic module or solar thermal panel. “Solar Array”
is any number of rooftop solar panels grouped together.
Section 4.17 of ASCE 7-16 requires that roof structures that support solar panel systems shall be designed
to resist the uniform and concentrated live loads with the solar panel system dead loads. The roof live load
need not be applied to the area covered by solar panels where the clear space between panels and the roof
surface is 24 in. or less.
SOLUTION
Refer to Figures 6.1 and 6.2.
Calculate the wind pressures acting on solar panels shown in Figure 6.1.
Exposure B
Velocity
pressure coefficient ( K z ) = 0.62 ASCE Table 26.10-1
Wind Directionality Factor ( K d ) = 0.85 ASCE Section 26.6
Ground
Elevation Factor ( K e ) = 1.0 ASCE Section 26.9
Assume Topographic Factor (Kzt) = 1.0 ASCE Equation 26.10
Velocity pressure (q h ) = 0.00256 K z K zt K d K e V 2
= (0.00256)(0.62)(1.0)(0.85)(1.0)(160)2
= 34.5 psf
Calculations of design wind pressures on the solar panels: ASCE Equation 29.4-7
( )
= q h GCp ( γ E ) ( γ a )
P
To calculate the external pressure coefficient (GCp) for a gable end roof with a roof slope of 15°, ASCE
Figure 30.3-2B is used.
A − 10% least horizontal dimension (or) 40% of mean roof height:
0.1 × 81ft = 8.1ft
0.4 × 22 ft = 8.8 ft
Hence, a = 8.1
73

Figure 6.1
Roof solar panel layout.
All the solar panels are installed in zone 1.

Effective wind area (EWA) = 15 ft × 16 ft − 90 sft
Panel chord length (Lp) = 15 ft; d1 − 10 ft, d2 − 5ft
p = +0.3 and − 0.5
GC ASCE Figure 29.4-7
0.5h = 0.5 × 20 ft = 10 ft
Roof edge = 0.25 h; panel is exposed.
Hence array edge factor (γE) = 1.5

Solar
panel pressure equalization factor ( γ a ) = .04 ASCE Figure 29.4-7
Hence, wind pressure (p) =
(34.5)(+0.3)(1.5)(0.4) = 6.21psf
and
(34.5)(−0.5)(1.5)(0.4) = 10.35 psf
Miscellaneous Structures 75
Figure 6.2
Roof solar panel details.
PROBLEM 6.2
Roof Diaphragm
Refer to Figure 6.3. An enclosed building is one-storied with a flat roof, located in exposure D, where the
maximum ultimate wind velocity is 180 mph. The height of the building is 10 ft.
Design the roof diaphragm.
SOLUTION
Assume the following:
Topographic Factor (Kzt) = 1.0
Velocity
Ground
Velocity
pressure ( q z ) = 0.00256 K z K zt K d K e V 2 ASCE Equation 26.10-1
= (0.00256)(1.03)(1.0)(0.85)(1.0)(180)2
= 72.6 psf
q z (asd) = 0.6 q z (ult.) = 56.2 psf IBC Equation 16-33

Figure 6.3
Flat roof.
Assume the structure is a rigid building.
(
Design wind pressure (p) = q GCp − q i GCpi ) ASCE Equation 27.3-1
q = q z for windward wall = 56.2 psf
q = q h for leeward wall, sidewall and roof = 56.2 psf
Gust effect factor (G) = 0.85 for rigid building ASCE Section 26.11
External pressure coefficient (Cp) from ASCE Figures 27.3-1. 27.3-2 and 27.3-3
( )
Internal pressure coefficient GCpi = ±0.18 ASCE Table 26.13-1
For walls, determine the value of Cp: ASCE Figure 27.3-1
L/B = 20 ft/12 ft = 1.67
Windward wall, Cp = 0.8
Leeward wall, Cp = −0.3
Sidewall, Cp = −0.7
Design wall wind pressures (main wind force resisting system, MWFRS):
Windward wall (p) = (56.2) (0.85) (0.8) − (56.2) (±0.18) = (38.2) − (±10.1) = 48.3 psf
Leeward wall (p) = (56.2) (0.85) (−0.3) − (56.2) (±0.18) = −14.3 − (±10.1) = −24.4 psf
For roof, refer to ASCE Figure 27.3-1
h/L = 10 ft/20 ft = 0.5
Wind direction = short span (12 ft)
Cp for 0 to h/2 (5 ft) = −0.9
h/2 (5 ft) to h (10 ft) = −0.9
h (10 ft) to (12 ft) = −0.5
Wind direction = long span (20 ft)

Cp for 0 to h/2 (5 ft) = −0.9
h/2 (5 ft) to h (10 ft) = −0.9
h (10 ft) to h (20 ft) = −0.5
When the wind is acting along the short span (12 ft), only the end 2 ft will have less wind pressure. When
the wind is along the long span (20 ft), half the span (from 10 ft to 20 ft) will have less wind pressure.
For this problem, we uniformly use Cp = −0.9.
Roof wind pressure (p) = (56.2)(0.85)(−0.9) − 56.2 ( ±0.18)

= −43.0 − ( ±10.1) = −53.1 psf
A horizontal diaphragm is a large, thin structural element that is loaded in its plane. In a wood-framed struc-
ture, it consists of roof sheathing, rafter or trusses, and boundary elements. The horizontal diaphragm acts
as the horizontal beam and distributes forces to the vertical elements, from where the forces are transferred
to the ground.
Total wind force on wall = 48.3 psf (windward) + 24.4 psf (leeward) = 72.7 psf
Force acting on diaphragm = 72.7 × 10 ft/2 = 363.5 plf.
In the transverse direction, maximum shear = 363.5 × 20 ft/2 = 3635 lb

OR
3635/12 ft = 302.9 lb
In the longitudinal direction, maximum shear = 363.5 × 12 ft/2 = 2181 lb

OR
2181/20 ft = 109.1 lb
PROBLEM 6.3
Hurricane Straps
Using the data from problem 6.2, design the connectors for the rafters. The design of the connectors
for the rafters (2 ft × 8 ft @ 16 ft o.c.) requires determining the horizontal forces in the two orthogonal
directions and the net wind uplift and comparing them with the design values of the connectors in an
interaction equation. The actual design values of any particular brand of connectors are not used in this
example.
SOLUTION
The design wind pressures in the previous example are based on allowable stress design method (see Figure 6.4).
Span of rafters = 12 ft
Spacing of rafters = 16 in.
Assume a dead load of 10 psf −
Net wind uplift − (53.1 − 10) = 43.1 psf
Uplift reactions at the end of the rafters (u) = 43.1 × 19 in./12 in. × 12 ft/2 = 345 lb
Horizontal force on connector in the direction (ℓ1) = 109.1 × 16 ft/12 = 146 lb
Horizontal force on connector in the transverse direction (ℓ2) = 363.5 × 16 in./12 = 485 lb
Figure 6.4
Shear diagram for diaphragm.
Assume the design values of connectors
Uplift (U) = 1000 lb

Longitudinal ( L1 ) = 1000 lb
Transverse ( L 2 ) = 1000 lb
l1 l2 u
+ + ≤ 1.0
L1 L2 U
146 485 385
+ + = 0.976 < 1.0
1000 1000 1000
The connector with the assumed design value is adequate.

Figure 6.5
Masonry fence.
PROBLEM 6.4
Fences
Refer to Figure 6.5. Calculate the moment due to wind on foundation and check the soil stresses.
SOLUTION
Exposure C
Velocity pressure coefficient ( K z ) = 0.85 ASCE Table 26.10-1
Ground
Assume Topographic Factor (Kzt) = 1.0
Velocity pressure ( q h ) = 0.00256 K z K zt K d K e V 2 ASCE Equation 26.10-1

= (0.00256)(0.85)(1.0)(0.85)(1.0)(175)2
= 56.6 psf
q h (asd) = 6 q h (ult.) IBC Equation 16-33

= 6 (56.6) = 43.8 psf
Calculation of design wind force on the wall (F) = q h GCq A s , ASCE Equation 29.3-1
where
As = area of the wall
Force for unit area (F) = qh GCq Cf
Gust effect factor (G) = 0.85
Assume that the wall is a rigid structure. ASCE Section 26.11

From ASCE Figure 29.3-1, s/h = 1.0,
Assume wall = longer than 60 ft, B/s > 10
Net force coefficient (Cf ) = 1.3
F = (43.8) (0.85) (1.3) = 48.5 psf
Assuming the wall is 6 ft high,
Movement at base = 48.5 × 62 /2 = 872 lb/ft
Weight of CMU = 55 psf × 6 ft = 330 lb/ft
30 in. 18 in.
Weight of footing = × × 150 = 562.5 lb/ft
12 in. 12 in.
Total dead weight = 330 + 562.5 = 892.5 lb/ft
P M 892.5 872 × 6
F ( max, min ) = ± = ± = 357 ± 837 psf
A S 2.5 ft × 1ft 1ft × 2.5 ft
fmax = 1194 psf; fmin = 480 psf
Tensile stresses on soil
The footing is inadequate.

To avoid tensile stresses on the soil, one of two changes needs to be made:
1. Increase the depth of the footing (h) to add soil weight and increase the size of the footing. This will increase
the dead load.
2. Add tension piles to support the footing.
The foregoing calculations are based on the load combination (7) of Section 2.4.1 of ASCE 7-16. Load com-
bination (5) is less stringent because the wind load is reduced by 40%.
PROBLEM 6.5
Signs
Refer to Figure 6.6. Signs are flexible structure. The gust effect factor needs to be calculated per Section
26.9.2 of ASCE 7-16. The calculations for the gust effect factor of flexible structure are demonstrated in
problem 5.4.
Figure 6.6
Shopping center sign.
SOLUTION
In this problem, we assume G = 1.0.
Basic wind velocity (V) = 100 mph
Wind Directionality Factor k = 0.85 for sign
( d) ASCE Section 26.6
= 1.0 for poles
Ground Elevation Factor ( K e ) = 1.0 ASCE Section 26.9
Exposure C
Velocity,
pressure coefficient ( k z ) ASCE Table 26.10-1
Height Kz
0–15 ft 0.85
20 ft 0.90
25 ft 0.94
30 ft 0.98
40 ft 1.04
Design wind forces on the Sign.

Refer to ASCE Figure 29.3-1:
S = 10 ft, h = 40 ft, B = 30 ft
Aspect ratio (B/S) = 30 ft/10 ft = 3
Clearance ratio = (s/h) = 10 ft/40 ft = 0.25
For load cases A and B (interpolated from the Table in ASCE Figure 29.3-1) = 1.8
Velocity pressure ( q h ) = 0.00256 K z K zt K d K e V 2 ASCE Equation 26.10-1
Kz for the solid sign is taken as the average of Kz at 30 ft and 40 ft
0.98 + 1.04
= = 1.02
2
qh = (0.00256) (1.02) (1.0) (.085) (1.0) (100)2 = 22.2 psf
q z ( asd ) = 0.6 q z (ult.)
= 0.6 ( 22.2 ) = 17.2 psf IBC Equation 16-33
Area of sign (As) = (30 ft) (10 ft) = 300 sft
Force coefficient (Cf ) for load case A
0 to S, Cf = 2.6
S to 2S, Cf = 1.7
2S to 3S, Cf = 1.15
Load case B, e = 0.2B = (0.2) (30 ft) = 6 ft

Design
wind load on sign (f) = q h GCf A s ASCE Equation 29.3-1
For load case A, F = (17.2) (1.0) (1.8) (300) = 9288 lb

For load case B, F = 92,880 lb acting at 6 ft from center of sign
For load case C,
0 − 10 ft F1 = (17.2) (1.0) (2.6) (300) = 13, 416 lb

10 − 20 ft F2 = (17.2) (1.0) (1.7) (300) = 8772 lb
20 − 30 ft F3 = (17.2) (1.0) (1.15) (300) = 5934 lb
Wind forces on sign poles

Velocity pressure for poles
0 − 15 ft qh = (0.00256)(0.85)(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)(100)2 = 21.76 psf

15 − 20 ft qh = (0.00256)(0.9)(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)(100)2 = 23.04 psf
20 − 25 ft qh = (0.00256)(0.94)(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)(100) 2 = 24.06 psf
25 − 30 ft qh = (0.00256)(0.98)(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)(100) 2 = 25.09 psf
For the sake of simplification, consider qh = 25.09 psf for the entire height of the pole.
q z ( asd ) = 0.6 q z (ult.) IBC Equation 16-33

= 0.6 (25.09) = 19.4 psf
Consider a pole diameter (D) of 18 in.

D qS = (1.5′) 25.09 = 7.51 ASCE Figure 29.4-2
Height of poles (h) = 30 ft

h/D = 30/1.5 = 20
Consider a moderately smooth pole force coefficient (Cf ) = 0.68.
Hence wind force on pole (F) = qh GCf As ASCE Equation 29.3-1
F = (19.4)(1.0)(0.68)(1.5 ft) = 19.8 plf
PROBLEM 6.6
Rooftop Equipment
A rooftop air-conditioning unit has a base dimension of 6 ft × 8 ft and a height of 4 ft. The equipment is
supported on a metal stand 4 ft high. The legs of the stand consist of 2 in. × 2 in. tubular steel, and the base
of the legs is a 6 in. × 6 in. steel plate. Calculate the tensile forces on connectors of the steel plate.
SOLUTION
Height of building = 100 ft
Wind
Directionality Factor ( K d ) = 0.85 ASCE Section 26.6
Ground
Exposure C
Velocity
Velocity pressure q h = 0.00256 K z K zt K d K e V 2 ASCE Equation 26.10-1

= 0.0256(1.26)(1.0)(0.85)(1.0)(100)2
= 27.42 psf
IBS Equation 16-33

q h (asd) = 0.6 q h (ult.)

= 0.6 ( 27.42 )
= 21.2 psf
Figure 6.7
Rooftop air-conditioning unit.
Lateral force on rooftop equipment ( Fh ) = q h GCr ( A f ) ASCE Equation 29.4-2

Height of equipment (h) = 4 ft + 4 ft = 8 ft
In long direction
Width of equipment (B) = 8 ft
Area of equipment (Af ) = 8 ft × 4 ft = 32 sft
Bh = 8 ft × 8 ft = 64 sft
Af = 0.5 Bh in long direction
In short direction
Width of equipment (B) = 6 ft
Area of equipment (Af ) = 6 ft × 4 ft = 24 sft
Bh = 6 ft × 8 ft = 48 sft
Af = 0.5 Bh
Hence, GCr = 1.5
F = (21.2) (1.5) Af = 31.8 psf
In short direction
(31.8)(6 ft × 4 ft) × (2 ft + 4 ft)
Movement at base of each column of the support =
2
= 2289.6 lb
2289.6
Hence, tension on bolts of base plate of column = = 286.2 lb
8 ft
In long direction
(31.8)(8 ft × 4 ft)(2 ft + 4 ft)
Movement at base of each of the support =
2 ft
= 3052.8 lb
3052.8
Hence, tension on bolts of base plate of column = = 508.8 lb
6 ft
PROBLEM 6.7
Skylights
Skylights are part of building envelope and require a product approved from an approved agency. They
can be treated as components and cladding (C & C) while determining the wind pressure. Refer to
Figure 6.8.
SOLUTION
Ground
Exposure C
Velocity
Velocity pressure ( q h )
ASCE Equation 26.10
= 0.00256 K z K zt K d K e V 2
= (0.00256)(0.94)(1.0)(0.85)(1.0)(120)2 = 29.5 psf
q h (asd) = 0.6q h (ult.) IBC Equation 16-33

= 0.6 (29.5) = 22.9 psf
Effective wind area (EWA) = 2 ft × 3 ft = 6 sft

Refer to ASCE Figure 30.3-2B for an enclosed gable-end building with a height ≤ 60 ft.
Figure 6.8
Skylight.
( ) (
Design wind pressure of skylight (p) = q h  GCp − GCpi  ) ASCE Equation 30.4-1
Edge distance (a) = 10%of least horizontal dimension (or) 0.4 h

= (0.1)(40 ft) = 4 ft
OR
(0.4)(22 ft) = 8.8 ft
Hence, a = 4 ft
The skylight is located in zone 1.
External pressure coefficient (GCp) = + 0.5 and −2.0
( )
Internal pressure coefficient for enclosed building GCpi = ± 0.18 ASCE Table 26.13-1
Design pressure (p) = 22.9 [(0.5) − ( ±0.18)]
= +15.6 psf
and
= 22.9 [(2) − ( ±0.18)]
= −49.9 psf
Hence, design wind pressure of skylight = +15.6 psf, −49.9 psf
Figure 6.9
Awning layout.
PROBLEM 6.8
Awnings
The construction of awnings is defined in Section 3105 of the IBC (2015). Awnings are designed for the
wind loads specified in Chapter (16) of the IBC (2015), where the canvas of the awning is not required to
be removed after a hurricane warning. However, Section 3105.4.2.1 of the FBC (2017) allows the canvas to
be removed when winds approach 105 mph. The frame of the awning is designed for 105 mph covered with
awning. Refer to Figure 6.9.
Design the footings of the awnings for the following data:
Exposure D
Height at eave 10 ft
Height at ridge 13 ft
Mean roof height 11.5 ft
SOLUTION
Ground elevation factor ( K e ) = 1.0
Assume Topographic Factor ( K zt ) = 1.0
Velocity pressure coefficient ( K z ) = 1.03 ASCE Table 26.10-1
Velocity pressure ( q z ) ASCE Equation 26.10
= (0.00256) K z K zt K d K e V 2
= (0.00256)(1.03)(0.85)(1.0)(105)2 = 24.7 psf
Wind velocity of 105 mph is used because the awning is removed beyond this wind velocity.
q h ( asd ) = 0.6 q h (ult.) IBC Equation 16-33
q h ( asd ) = 0.6 (24.7) = 19.1 psf
Wind pressure for MWFRS of open building (p) − qh GCN
The structure is flexible; we assume a gust effect factor (G) of 1.0.
Angle of roof (Θ) = Tan −1 (3/10) = 16.7°
Use a net pressure coefficient (CN)
= 1.1 for windward side for load case (A)
= −0.4 for leeward side for load case (B)
P = (19.1)(1.0)(1.1) = 21.01 psf (windward)
= (19.1)(1.1)(−0.4) = −8.4 psf (leeward)
Check foundations for a wind pressure of 21 psf.
Tributary area for an interior column = 12 ft × 10 ft = 120 sft
Wind uplift = (120) (21) = 2520 lb
Provide a footing of 4 ft × 4 ft × 1.5 ft
Weight of concrete = (4) (4) (1.5) (150) = 3600 lb > 2520 lb
PROBLEM 6.9
Parapets
Refer to Figure 6.10. The height of the top of a parapet is 180 ft. The height of the parapet is 5 ft. The plan
dimension of the building is 200 ft × 200 ft. Calculate pressures p1, p2, p3 and p4.
SOLUTION
Exposure C
Ground
Velocity
pressure coefficient ( K z ) = 1.43(for wall) ASCE Table 26.10-1
Kz for roof = 1.43 (Use Kz = 1.43 for all calculations.)
Figure 6.10
Parapet.
Velocity pressure q z = (0.00256)K z K zt K d K e V 2

= (0.00256)(1.42)(1.0)(0.85)(1.0)(145)2 ASCE Equation 26.10
= 65.0 psf
q z (asd) = 0.6 q z (ult.) IBC Equation 16-33

= 0.6 (65) = 50.3 psf
( ) ( )
Design wind pressure for parapet (p) = q p  GCp − GCpi  . ASCE Equation 30.8-1
The building is enclosed.
( )
Internal pressure coefficient GCpi = ±0.18 ASCE Table 26.13
The value external pressure coefficient (GCp) is obtained from ASCE Figure 30.5-1. In Figure 6.10, use an
effective wind area of 20 sft.
Edge width (a) = 10% of 200 ft = 20 ft for edge and corner zones.
P1 = Positive wall pressure for zone 4 or 5; GCp = 0.9 for zones 4 and 5
P1 = (50.3) [0.9 − (±0.18)] = 53.4 psf
P2 = Leeward parapet pressure using negative roof pressure for zone 2 or 3
GCp = 2.2 for zone 2
GCp = 3.0 for zone 3
P2 = (50.3) (−2.2 − (± 0.18)) = −119.7 psf for zone 4
P2 = (50.3) (−3.0) − (± 0.18)) = −160.0 psf for zone 5
P3 = Positive wall pressure for zone 4 or 5
P3 = P1 = 53.4 psf
P4 = Leeward parapet pressure using negative wall pressure for zone 4 or 5
GCp = −0.9 for zone 4
GCp = −1.8 for zone 5
P4 = (50.3)(−0.9 − (±0.18)) = −54.3 psf for zone 4
= (50.3)(−1.8 − ( ±0.18)) = −99.6 psf for zone 5
Part 2
Flood Loads
Introduction—Floods
Chapter
7
7.1 Introduction
A flood is a body of water that spreads over the ground, which is generally dry. Floods are common natural
calamities that have affected millions of people around the world. They damage houses and buildings, and
they transport soil away from valuable farming land. Floods can also pollute drinking water and become
causes for diseases. They are caused by overflowing rivers and lakes and by roiled seas. Flooding has always
been a part of human history. Many ancient civilizations developed along waterways and rivers because
people needed water for their fields. Floods are not always destructive natural events. The Aswan High Dam
is an embankment dam built across the Nile at Aswan, Egypt, between 1898 and 1902. Before the Aswan
High Dam was built, yearly floods in Egypt brought along nutrients and made the land around the Nile very
fertile. Though floods kill thousands of people and leave millions homeless in Bangladesh, they also deposit
fertile soil helping the country in their agriculture.
Plains surrounding large rivers are flooded because of the amount of water the rivers bring with them
as a result of heavy rainfall or melting snow in the mountainous regions. Flash flooding is rapid flooding
of low-lying areas caused by heavy rain associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane or tropical storm
or by meltwater from ice or snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields. Hurricane Katrina, for example,
caused a massive flooding of the whole Mississippi Delta in 2004. Most of New Orleans had to be evacuated
because of widespread flooding.
Coastal regions get affected by flooding. After earthquakes on the ocean floor, tsunamis can bring up
to 15-meter-high waves and flood the coast many miles inland. Tsunamis are a series of seismic sea waves
caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean. In 2004, for example, a devas-
tating tsunami in the Indian Ocean killed over 250,000 people in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand and other
countries.
7.2 Benefits of Floods

In spite of causing major damages, floods have also been beneficial for humanity.
1. They recharge water sources. Floods are natural hydrologic processes and provide variable river flows; they
are also an intermittent source of freshwater supply, filling natural depressions and recharging groundwater.
Recharged groundwater is an important source of drinking water and is essential for agriculture. Floods help to
restock local engineered water sources such as ponds, reservoirs, dams, and irrigation channels, enabling com-
munities to meet year-round demand.
2. Nutrients and sediments carried by the flood are deposited on floodplains, enriching the soil and thus helping
agriculture.
93

3. Floods allow migration of fish species across different aquatic systems, which are essential for various stages of
the life cycle of the fish species.
4. Floods rejuvenate the river ecosystem. An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with the
non-living components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil) as a system. The river
ecosystem is critical for fish, wildlife and waterfowl. Floods provide variability and help maintain ecological
biodiversity in rivers and floodplains. They help wash down pollutants and contaminants deposited on land by
the intensive use of pesticides and fertilizers. They also flush out accumulated organic substances brought by
untreated drainage water from farmlands, stockyards and factories, as well as from domestic use, and restore the
ecological health of stagnant rivers and streams by diluting them and providing clean water.
7.3 Federal Emergency Management Agency

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is an agency of the U.S. Department of Homeland
Security that coordinates the response to disasters that occur in the United States and exceed the resources
of local and state authorities.
FEMA instituted the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), which serves as an agreement between
the federal and local authorities. The goal of NFIP is to reduce the impact of flooding on private and public
structures by providing affordable insurance to property owners and by encouraging communities to adopt
and enforce floodplain management regulations. These efforts help mitigate the effects of flooding on new
and improved structures. The program reduces the socioeconomic impact of disasters by promoting the
purchase and retention of general risk insurance as well as flood insurance.
FEMA prepared the official flood maps, collectively called Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM), for
communities delineated on the maps, both the special hazard areas and the risk premium zones applicable
to the communities. The FIRM is used for several purposes:
• Communities, states and federal agencies use them as the basis for regulating new flood prone construction.
• Insurance agents use them when rating flood insurance policies.
• Lenders and federal agencies use them to determine when flood insurance must be purchased as a condition of
a loan or financial assistance.
The FIRM provides the base flood elevation (BFE). Base flood is the flood having a 1% chance of being
equaled or exceeded in any given year. It is also called the 100-year flood. “Special Flood Hazard Area”
(SFHA) is the land area covered by the floodwaters of the base flood as indicated on the FIRM. An SFHA
is an area where the NFIP floodplain management regulations must be enforced and where the mandatory
purchase of flood insurance applies.
The SFHA includes Zones A, AO, AH, A1-30, AE, A99, AR, AR/A1-30, AR/AE, AR/AO, AR/AH,
AR/A, VO, V1-30, VE and V. Among these zones, Zone AE is the area subject to flood according to the 1%
annual chance. BFEs are shown on the FIRM. Zone V is the area along coasts subject to floor according to
the 1% annual chance with additional hazards associated with storm-induced waves. Zone VE is the area
subject to flood according to the 1% annual chance with additional hazards resulting from storm-induced
velocity wave action. BFEs derived from detailed hydraulic analyses are shown.
FEMA defines “Freeboard” as a factor of safety usually expressed in feet-above-BFE against many unknown
factors that contribute to flood heights greater than the height calculated for a selected-size flood and floodway
conditions, such as wave action, bridge openings, and hydrological effect of urbanization of the watershed. This
measure is adopted by communities to lower flood insurance rates because it indicates lower flood risk. For
example, if the BFE of a property is 8 ft National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD), a freeboard of 1 ft adopted
by the community mandates that the property owner construct a building such that the bottom surface of the
lowest structural element of the building is 1 ft above the BFE. Freeboards vary from 6 in. to 4 ft.
Introduction—Floods 95
The Community Rating System (CRS), instituted by NFIP, is a voluntary incentive program that recog-
nizes and encourages community floodplain management activities that exceed the minimum NFIP require-
ments. The discounts on flood insurance premiums are based on the CRS rating a community is awarded. The
goal of the CRS is to reduce flood damage to insurable property, strengthen and support the insurance aspects
of the NFIP, and encourage a comprehensive approach to floodplain management. To maintain the rating, the
community (local governments like cities, towns, counties and villages) implements the floodplain manage-
ment standards. Implementing the freeboard could be one standard among them. Any new construction or sub-
stantial improvement to existing construction is required to comply with the floodplain management standards.
If the cost of improvements or the cost to repairs to the damaged structure exceeds 50% of the market value of
the building, then the building needs to comply with the floodplain management standards.
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in Section 44 CFR 59.1 defines “Substantial Improvement” as
any reconstruction, rehabilitation, addition or other improvement to a structure, the total cost of which equals
or exceeds 50 percent of the market value of the structure before the start of construction of the improvement.
Section 44 CFR 59.1 defines “Substantial Damage” as
damage of any origin sustained by a structure whereby the cost of restoring the structure to its before damaged
condition would equal or exceed 50 percent of the market value of the structure before the damage occurred.
When rectifications to substantial damage are performed or when a substantial improvement is made
to a property, the building is made to comply with the floodplain management standards. However, if there
is a code violation issued to the building, the work performed to rectify the code violation does not count
toward substantial improvement.
When lateral addition is made to a property, only the addition needs to be compliant with the floodplain
management standards, except in the V zone, where the existing structure also needs to be compliant with
the floodplain management standards because the lower existing structure will obstruct any storm surge,
causing damage to the addition. When lateral addition is made to a property, the existing structure also
needs to be made compliant with the floodplain management standards because failure of the existing build-
ing will also likely result in the failure of the addition.
7.4 Examples
1. The market value of a property (excluding the land) is $123,789. The Owner proposes to perform a remodeling
of the property. The Contractor quotes a price of $42,350 to perform the work. The price does not include the
architect’s fee and the building permit fee.
Value of improvement as compared to the market value of the property = 123,789

42,350
= 0.35.
Because this is less than 50%, it does not constitute substantial improvement. Hence, the property owner does
not need to meet the floodplain management standards.
2. Within 2 years, the owner decides to perform a second remodeling worth $32,000. The community had estab-
lished an ordinance stipulating that work performed over a period of 5 years shall be cumulative in the establish-
ment of the cost of construction toward substantial improvement.
42,350 + 32,000
Hence, now the value of improvement (V) as compared to the market value of the property = 123,789 = 0.60
Because this is greater than 50%, it will be substantial improvement. Hence, the property owner will now have
to meet the floodplain management standards.

7.5 Title 44—Code of Federal Regulations

Appendix G of the 2015 International Building Code (IBC) addresses the requirements of the floodplain
management standards in building permits. Buildings or other structures, temporary structures, and tempo-
rary or permanent structures to store materials are classified under the term “Development.” Appendix G
is intended to fulfill the requirements of the NFIP not included in the code. The main objective of the IBC
requirements is to protect human life. Other objectives include economizing the need of flood relief efforts
with improved planning and construction. The minimum requirements of the NFIP are specified in Part
(60) of Title 44 of the CFR.
The minimum design requirement of new construction and substantial improvement according to
Part (60) of Title 44 of the CFR in flood zones include the following:
• Structural elements shall be designed (or modified) to provide proper anchors in resisting flotation, col-
lapse, or lateral movement resulting from hydrodynamic and hydrostatic forces, including buoyancy
effects.
To demonstrate the buoyancy effects, let us consider a concrete slab on grade. If the slab serves a livable area,
then it is required to be raised such that the bottom of the slab is at the BFE. According to the local ordinance
of the community, there may be a requirement to provide a freeboard to obtain a better flood insurance rate for
the community. If the BFE is 8 ft NGVD and a community requires a freeboard of 1 ft for new construction or
substantial improvements, the bottom of the slab shall be at 9 ft (NGVD). If the slab is 6 in. thick, the top of the
slab shall be at 9.5 ft NGVD.
If there is no livable space like parking garages, with the floor slab placed below the BFE, the slab needs to
be anchored against hydrostatic uplift. If the BFE is 8 ft NGVD and the bottom of the slab is at 5 ft NGVD, the
slab should be capable of resisting 3 ft of hydrostatic uplift.
Hydrostatic uplift at the bottom of the slab = 3 ft × 62.4 pcf − 187.2 psf.
According to Section 2.3.2 of ASCE 7-16, fluid loads and dead loads should have the same load factor. Hence, to
balance a hydrostatic uplift of 187.2 psf, a concrete slab of weight 187.2 psf must be provided. A 15-in.-thick slab
would be required, assuming a density of 150 pcf for the concrete. If there is a permanent superimposed dead
load acting on the top surface of the slab, it can be subtracted from the weight of the slab to resist the hydrostatic
uplift. For example, if a superimposed dead load of 25 psf is acting on the top surface of a slab, then the weight
of the slab required to resist the hydrostatic uplift is (187.2 – 25 = 162.2 psf). Then a 13-in.-thick concrete slab
would be required to resist the hydrostatic uplift.
The thickness of the slab can be reduced by supporting the slab on concrete grade beams. The slab
becomes a suspended slab (also called structural slab). The concrete grade beams are supported on piles
(refer to Figure 7.1). The slabs have a c/c span of 16 ft with a clear span of 14 ft. The slabs are supported
on grade beams, which are supported on piles. A slab thickness of 7 in. can be provided. The grade
beams are 24 in. × 24 in. They may be supporting other loads from the superstructure and not just the
ground slab.
The 7-in.-thick slab weighs 87.5 psf. Hence, it is designed for an upward load of (187.2 − 87.5 = 99.7 psf).
The ground slabs can be supported directly on the piles (see Figure 7.2). A slab thickness of 8 in. can be pro-
vided. Because this slab is not supported on grade beams, the slab system does not support the superstructure
load unless the slab is designed as a transfer slab. The slab acts as a flat plate.
The 8-in.-thick slab weighs 100 psf. Hence, it is designed for an upward load of (187.2 − 100 = 87.2 psf).
The horizontal hydrostatic and hydrodynamic forces are calculated in accordance with chapter 5 of ASCE 7-16.
The structural strength in the load path is calculated to verify if the applied hydrostatic and hydrodynamic
forces can be adequately resisted. The structural elements include stem walls and foundations.
Introduction – Floods 97
Figure 7.1
Anchored slab to resist hydrostatic uplift.
Figure 7.2
Slab directly anchored to piles.
• Structural elements shall be constructed using materials that are capable of resisting damage resulting from
flood.
Flood damage-resistant building materials should be capable of withstanding direct and prolonged contact
with floodwaters without sustaining significant damage. The time period should be at least 72 hours, and the cost
of cosmetic repair should be less than the cost of replacing building materials. FEMA classifies building materi-
als into five categories according to their ability to resist flood damage. The materials of class 5 are the strongest
because they resist floodwater damage, including water damage caused by moving flood. Class 4 materials resist
floodwater damage, but not moving flood. Class 3 materials do not resist floodwater damage, but they do resist
clean-water damage. Class 2 materials cannot resist clean-water damage but can resist moisture damage. Class 1
materials do not resist moisture damage. Floodwaters may include pollutants and hence require strong materials
to resist them. FEMA accepts only class 4 and 5 materials for building elements exposed to floodwaters.
According to FEMA Technical Bulletin 2, “Flood Damage-Resistant Materials Requirements,” structural
materials include all elements necessary to provide structural support, rigidity and integrity to a building or
building component – materials for floor slabs, beams, subfloors, framing, trusses, wall panels, I-joists, headers
and interior/exterior sheathing. Finish materials include all coverings, finishes and elements that do not provide
structural support or rigidity to a building or building component. They include floor coverings, wall and ceiling
surface treatments, insulation, cabinets, doors, partitions and windows.
Good flood damage-resistant materials include metal doors, glass blocks, vinyl flooring, terrazzo flooring,
ceramic tiles, concrete, masonry units, etc. Materials like paper-faced gypsum board are not as good in their
ability to resist floods.
• The construction methodology shall be such that it minimizes damages due to flood.
The best way to minimize damages from floods is to provide a freeboard in the design. During the con-
struction of a new building or substantial improvement, generally the cost of providing a freeboard may be
moderately higher, but the gains over a period of time offset the cost of providing a freeboard. The cost of flood
insurance is lessened, and damages caused by floods are lessened also.
• The electrical systems and heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) and plumbing equipment shall be
designed to prevent water from entering them during flooding.
Destructive elements like dissolved chemicals, silt, suspended solids and floating debris accompanying
floodwaters are harmful to mechanical, electrical and plumbing systems. Improperly designed mechanical
elements can get damaged by floods through infiltration of harmful components escorting them. Similarly,
improperly designed and installed electrical system components such as switches, electric-panel board and
receptacles cause short-circuit and corrosion; they also pose hazards for electrical shock. Electrical panels can
be torn off their attachments by the force of breaking waves or floating debris impact. Improperly designed and
installed water supply and sewage systems can experience penetration of harmful elements traveling with the
floodwater and cause pollution. Inundation causes tanks to float. Sewage backup is also a very common occur-
rence during floods. The best way to protect the mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems is to elevate
them above the base flood elevation or to install them at upper floors. They need to be anchored adequately to
protect them against any hydrostatic uplift or lateral dynamic forces. Any mechanical, electrical, and plumb-
ing systems installed below the base flood elevation should be placed in watertight enclosures and anchored
adequately.
• The water supply and sanitary sewer lines shall be designed in such a way that there is no infiltration of flood-
water into them and no discharge of the sanitary waste into the floodwater to contaminate it during flooding.
• Manufactured homes must be elevated and anchored to resist flotation, collapse and lateral movements using
over-the-top or frame ties to anchor. Typically, manufactured homes are permitted by a state agency (like the
Department of Business and Professional Regulation in Florida), but the responsibility of checking the adequacy
of the anchor lies with the local building officials.
Manufactured homes are typically installed on top of compacted soil or gravel or concrete slab on grade. The
foundation of manufactured homes typically consists of concrete masonry unit (CMU) piers supporting the steel
beams attached to the base of the manufactured home. Frame ties are used to anchor the manufactured build-
ing to the ground. While the frame ties and anchors provide lateral support, the piers provide vertical support.
Manufactured homes should be designed to adequately resist hydrodynamic and hydrostatic forces, buoyancy,
erosion and scour during a flood event.
Introduction – Floods 99
• The lowest floor of new construction or substantial improvement shall be elevated at a minimum to the base
flood elevation. There may be special exception granted to areas like basements that are not used for living
purposes. The walls and floors of these portions of the building shall be watertight and structurally capable of
resisting hydrodynamic and hydrostatic forces, including buoyancy effects.
This has been discussed in the earlier sections of this chapter.
• Areas other than basements constructed below the lowest livable floor shall be used solely for parking and stor-
age. The walls of these areas shall have at least two openings having an area equal to 1 sq.in. for every square
foot of floor area to equalize hydrostatic floor forces on exterior walls by allowing for the entry and exit of
floodwater. The bottom of these openings shall not be higher than a foot above the grade.
For example, a 16 ft × 22 ft garage in a single-family home with its floor located below the BFE shall have
two opening of area 352 sq.in to allow for the entry and exit of floodwater.
• In V and VE flood zones, the lowest structural elements shall be elevated to or above the base flood elevation
using piles and columns. The piles and the column foundations shall be anchored to resist flotation, collapse and
lateral movement acting simultaneously on the building.
All buildings in V and VE zones must be properly anchored to resist flotation, collapse and lateral movement
due to the effects of wind and water loads acting simultaneously on all buildings. Open foundations like piers,
pilings or columns are required. Closed foundations like solid masonry or concrete walls, and use of fill, are not
permitted. Basements are not permitted. Enclosed areas below elevated buildings are permitted to be used only
for parking, building access and storage. The bottom of the lowest horizontal structural member of the lowest
floor must be elevated to the base flood elevation. Areas below elevated buildings must be free of obstructions.
• In V and VE flood zones, if there is a space below the lowest floor and below the base flood elevation, the break-
away walls of open-wood lattice-work or insect screening need to be installed so that they collapse in case of a
wind or flood event without causing collapse, displacement or other structural damage to the elevated portion
of the building or the supporting foundation system. The breakaway wall shall be designed to resist a minimum
horizontal load of 10 psf and a maximum horizontal load of 20 psf. It should collapse if a horizontal load greater
than 20 psf acts on it.
7.6 ASCE 7-16 and ASCE 24-14

The other two documents that play a major role in assessing the flood loads and design buildings in flood
zones are ASCE 7-16, “Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures,” and ASCE 24-14,
“Flood Resistant Design and Construction.” Both these documents are published by the American Society
of Civil Engineers.
The scope of ASCE 24-14 includes providing minimum requirements for flood-resistant design
and construction of structures that are located in the flood hazard area and are subject to building code
requirements.
The scope of ASCE 7-16 includes providing minimum flood load requirements for the design of build-
ings and other structures that are subject to building code requirements. The code also specifies the loads
and appropriate load combinations, which have been developed to be used together, for the strength design
and allowable stress design.
References
FEMA, www.fema.gov/flood-insurance-rate-map-firm.
FEMA, www.fema.gov/flood-zones.
FEMA, www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1535-20490-4788/unit8.pdf.
FEMA Technical Bulletin 2, “Flood Damage-Resistant Materials Requirements.”
Part (60) of Title 44 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), “Criteria for Land Management and Use.”
ASCE 7-16 for Flood Loads
Chapter
8
8.1 Introduction
Chapter 5 of ASCE 7-16 addresses the load requirements of designing buildings and other structures to
protect them against flood loads.
Flood loads vary according to the type of flooding. ASCE 7-16 specifies three types of loads: hydrostatic
load, hydrodynamic load and wave loads. To understand the application of these loads, an engineer needs to
understand the types of flood events.
There are two main types of flood events:
• Riverine flooding occurs when heavy rainfall causes relatively high water levels in rivers or creeks to overtop
the banks. The magnitude of a flood is determined by the amount of rainfall that has fallen in the catchment, its
duration and its spatial distribution. The dynamics of riverine flooding vary with terrain. Shallow, slow-moving
floods are experienced for several days in flat areas. High velocity floods occur along with a heavy rainfall
in mountainous areas in a short duration of time. These are termed “flash floods.” According to the National
Weather Service, “flash flood” is defined as
a rapid and extreme flow of high water into a normally dry area, or a rapid rise in a stream or creek above
a predetermined flood level, beginning within six hours of the causative event (e.g., intense rainfall, dam
failure, ice jam). However, the actual time threshold may vary in different parts of the country. Ongoing
flooding can intensify to flash flooding in cases where intense rainfall results in a rapid surge of rising
flood waters.
• Coastal flooding is a result of storm surges and wave actions. During a hurricane, due to wind action over an
extended length of open water, a low barometric pressure is developed; this increases the height of the nor-
mal water surface of the ocean. This increase in the height of the top surface of the ocean is called a storm
surge. Category 4 and 5 hurricanes cause storm surges greater than 25 ft, which result in major damages to
coastline structures. Further, a hurricane is accompanied by waves that act dynamically on the surfaces of
the buildings and other structures they come across. They batter solid structures and scour the sand below
the foundations.
Engineers use design flood elevation to calculate loads on buildings and other structures. Design load
can be based on either the base flood elevation (BFE) established by the National Flood Insurance Program
(NFIP) or a more stringent elevation established by the local community. A freeboard, over and above the
BFE, may be required by the local community. The community may conduct a hydrologic and hydraulic
study that may be different from the study conducted by the NFIP and may result in a higher flood elevation.
The flood elevation that is used in the design is called design flood elevation (DFE).
101
8.2 Breakaway Walls

Breakaway walls are provided to enclose spaces that are not habitable and are permitted below the BFE.
They are not part of the structural support system of the building. They are designed to collapse under loads
as specified in this section, to allow free passage of floodwater so that the later forces caused by the flood-
water do not compromise the stability of the structure. According to Section 5.3.3 of ASCE 7-16, breakaway
walls shall be designed for the largest of
• Calculated wind pressure

• Calculated earthquake load
• 10 psf
The breakaway walls shall be designed such that they collapse when a lateral load of 20 psf acts on it,
unless the structure is designed to resist the flood loads acting on the wall.
Section 44 CFR 60.3(e)(5) of the Code of Federal Regulations states that
all new construction and substantial improvements within Zones V1-V-30, VE, and V on the community’s
FIRM have the space below the lowest floor either free of obstruction or constructed with non-supporting
breakaway walls, open wood lattice-work, or insect screening intended to collapse under wind and water
loads without causing collapse, displacement, or other structural damage to the elevated portion of the
building or supporting foundation system. For the purposes of this section, a breakaway wall shall have
a design safe loading resistance of not less than 10 and no more than 20 pounds per square foot. Use of
breakaway walls which exceed a design safe loading resistance of 20 pounds per square foot (either by
design or when so required by local or State codes) may be permitted only if a registered professional
engineer or architect certifies that the designs proposed meet the following conditions: (i) Breakaway
wall collapse shall result from a water load less than that which would occur during the base flood;
and (ii) The elevated portion of the building and supporting foundation system shall not be subject to col-
lapse, displacement, or other structural damage due to the effects of wind and water loads acting simul-
taneously on all building components (structural and non-structural). Water loading values used shall
be those associated with the base flood. Wind loading values used shall be those required by applicable
State or local building standards. Such enclosed space shall be useable solely for parking of vehicles,
building access, or storage.
In flood zones V1–V-30, VE and V, either there should not be any walls enclosing the space below the
lowest floor of an elevated building or if the space is enclosed, it shall be done so with breakaway walls,
open lattice-work, or insect screening, which should collapse under the wave load and allow free passage
of water. The collapse of these building elements is required so that the wave load is not transferred to the
other structural elements like the columns or foundations supporting the main structure. The space below
the elevated building can be used for automobile parking, building access or storage.
NFIP recommends three method of design for breakaway walls:
• Prescriptive design approach

• Simplified design approach
• Performance-based design approach
The prescriptive design approach is used for the design of breakaway walls of heights between 6 ft and
9 ft and where piles, columns or piers are spaced between 8 ft and 12 ft. It is based on ASCE 7-05, where the
3-second gust design wind speed does not exceed 110 mph. Breakaway walls are intended to serve as backup
for brick veneer or other material not allowed to be designed using the prescriptive design method. The maxi-
mum load used in the design is 20 psf. FEMA Technical Bulletin 9 provides tables for the size and nailing
ASCE 7-16 for Flood Loads 103
requirement to connect wood stud and metal stud walls to act as breakaway walls. Breakaway walls designed
using the prescriptive design approach shall meet all applicable local requirements and building code require-
ments. The breakaway panels shall keep clear of the main structural elements in order for them to get uprooted
during the action of the wall load and not apply pressure on the main structural elements (see Figure 8.1). They
shall be discontinuous between the main structural elements. Utility features such as plumbing, conduits and
power meters shall not be connected to breakaway walls. Partial breakaway walls are not permitted.
The simplified design approach allows the maximum load to exceed the 20 psf maximum limit in the
design of the breakaway walls if a design professional certifies that the wall would collapse before base
flood conditions are reached and the elevated building will not be damaged by combined wind and flood
loads acting on all building components. The design approach is used for the design of breakaway walls
of heights between 6 ft and 9 ft, and where piles, columns or piers are spaced between 8 ft and 12 ft. It is
based on ASCE 7-05, where the 3-second gust design wind speed is between 110 and 140 mph. Breakaway
walls intended to serve as backup for brick veneer or other material are not allowed to be designed using the
prescriptive design method. FEMA Technical Bulletin 9 provides tables for the size and nailing requirement
to connect wood stud and metal stud walls to act as breakaway walls.
Figure 8.1
Wood studs breakaway walls.
The performance-based design approach allows breakaway walls to be designed for an allowable load of
more than 20 psf. Wave loads, hydrodynamic loads and impact loads on breakaway walls must be considered
in the design of the breakaway walls and the elevated structure by the design professional. Wood studs, steel
studs, unreinforced masonry or alternative materials are permitted to be used, and the design method is appli-
cable for taller walls, wider spans and higher design wind speeds. Performance-based design of breakaway
walls consists of designing the breakaway walls to resist the largest out-of-plane load of the design wind pres-
sure, or the design seismic out-of-plane load or 10 psf. The effects of flood loads on the breakaway walls are
included in the design of the main structure. Breakaway walls shall be designed to meet all applicable local
requirements and building code requirements. Wood-framed and steel stud-framed breakaway wall panels
may be attached to the main structural pilings as long as their effect is accounted for in the design of the main
structure. Unreinforced, ungrouted concrete masonry unit (CMU) may be attached to the main structural
element with standard mortars and minimum perimeter connections, if the load effect is taken into consider-
ation. However, continuous breakaway wall systems that span across pilings are not permitted.
8.3 Erosion and Scours

Erosion is the action of water flow or wind that removes soil, rock or dissolved material from one location on
the earth’s crust, then transports it away to another location. Scour is the removal of sand and rocks caused
by swiftly moving water, which scoops out scour holes. Both erosion and scour can affect foundation sta-
bility. They increase the flood loads on the structures. These are addressed in the design of foundations by
providing more embedment depth of the foundations.
Erosion and scour cause the soil under the foundations to be removed. If the foundations are not ade-
quately embedded in the ground, the building becomes inadequate to resist the design flood and wind loads
and could collapse. When soil around the piles is removed by erosion and scour, the unbraced length of the
elements increases and hence the acting bending moment occurs. The piles may not have been designed for
this addition in bending and so they could get overstressed.
8.4 Flood Loads

ASCE 7-16 specifies three types of flood loads in building design:
a. Hydrostatic loads
b. Hydrodynamic loads
c. Wave loads
8.4.1 Hydrostatic Loads
If you are swimming in an ocean and go beneath the water, you can feel a pressure on your eardrums. This
is because of an increase in hydrostatic pressure, which is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid on an
object. The deeper you go under the sea, the greater the pressure pushing on you. For every 33 ft you go
down, the pressure increases by approximately 14.5 psi (1 bar) – 2088 psf. The density of water is 62.4 pcf.
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by water at equilibrium at a given point within the
water due to the force of gravity. Hydrostatic pressure increases in proportion to depth measured from the
surface because of the increasing weight of water exerting downward force from above.
If water is within a container, the depth of an object placed in water can be measured. The deeper the object
is placed in the water, the more pressure it experiences. This is because of the weight of the water above it.
Figure 8.2
Hydrostatic loads on slabs.
Hydrostatic uplift (buoyancy) occurs on a body when the body is placed below the water table. It is the ten-
dency of water to exert a supporting upward force on a body placed in a fluid. A simple example of hydrostatic
uplift is the pushing of an empty bottle downward in a bucket full of water. When you apply a downward force
on the bottle, the water bottle will stay suspended in place. But as soon as the force is removed, the bottle will
float to the surface. The buoyant force on the object determines whether the object will sink or float.
The theory of flotation and its accompanying definition of buoyancy was first introduced by Archimedes.
He realized that submerged objects always displace fluid upward. Then with that observation, he concluded
that this force (buoyancy) must be equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. A solid object would float in
water if the density of the solid object is less than the density of water.
Hydrostatic forces are applied on structural elements from both above and below ground levels. The hydro-
static head is based on the DFE. If the design flood elevation is 8 National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD)
and the structural element is placed at an elevation of 6 NGVD, then the hydrostatic head for the design of
the structural element is 2 ft. If the structural element is a ground slab, with enclosed periphery walls, then a
hydrostatic uplift of 2 ft acts at the bottom surface of the slab (2 ft × 62.4 pcf = 124.8 psf).
According to Section 5.4.2 of ASCE 7-16, if a provision is made for the entry and exit of the floodwater,
the hydrostatic head can be reduced based on the size of the openings. Hydrostatic forces on slabs and walls
are demonstrated in Figures 8.2 and 8.3.
Figure 8.3
Hydrostatic loads on walls.
8.4.2 Hydrodynamic Loads
Hydrodynamic loads result from water flowing against and around a rigid structural element or system
(Figure 8.4). They are lateral forces caused by the impact of moving water and the drag forces around a
structural element. The effects of broken and non-breaking waves striking structures are considered. A
detailed analysis utilizing basic concepts of fluid mechanics is required when evaluating hydrodynamic
loads. There are experimental and analytical methods for determining pressures induced by flowing
fluids. Pressures are functions of velocity, direction of flow relative to the object, object geometry and
object surface roughness characteristics. The key variable used in the evaluation of flood loading is the
average velocity of the water, which is an important parameter in the evaluation of the forces acting on
structures during floods.
If the average water velocity does not exceed 10 ft/sec, the dynamic effects of moving water are permit-
ted to be converted into an equivalent hydrostatic load by increasing the DFE by a height dh.
aV 2
dh = , ASCE 7-16 Equation 5.4-1
2g
where
V = average velocity of water (ft/sec)
g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/s2
a = drag coefficient (not less than 1.25)
Drag coefficient is a dimensionless quantity used to assess the resistance of an object in a fluid environ-
ment. A low value of drag coefficient implies that the structural element will have less resistance to the flow of
water. Drag coefficient depends on the shape of the structural element. The two contributors to drag coefficient
are skin friction and form drag. Skin friction arises from the friction of the fluid against the “skin” of the struc-
tural element around which the fluid is moving. Form drag arises from the shape of the object. The general size
and shape of the body are the most important factors in form drag. Bodies with a larger cross-section will have
a higher drag. Smoother bodies will have lower drag coefficients. Values of drag coefficient of some common
shapes are provided in Table 8.1 of the book. The Coastal Construction Manual provides values of drag coef-
ficient for other shapes based on the parameters shown in Table 8.2 of the book. The value of drag coefficient
Figure 8.4
Hydrodynamic load on walls with water velocity <10 ft/sec.
TABLE 8.1
Drag Coefficient
Shape Drag Coefficient
Sphere 0.47
Half-Sphere 0.42
Cone 0.50
Cube 1.05
Angled Cube 0.80
Long Cylinder 0.82
Short Cylinder 1.15
shall be taken as at least 1.25 in the calculations of forces on structural elements. The drag coefficient is
determined by using one of the following ratios:
• The ratio of the width of the object (w) to the height of the object (h) if the object is completely immersed in
water
• The ratio of the width of the object (w) to the still-water flood depth of the water (dh) if the object is not fully
immersed
The design force (in lb) of moving water with a velocity greater than 10 ft/sec is given by
Fdyn = aρV 2 A/2, Equation 8.1
where
A = the area of the structural element obstructing the floodwater flow,
ρ = the mass density of water (1.94 slugs/ft3)
ρ = 62.4/32.2 = 1.94 slugs/ft3
The Coastal Construction Manual provides a lower and upper bound of the flood velocity:
ds
Lower bound V = ASCE 7-16 Equation C5-1
t
TABLE 8.2
Drag Coefficient
Width-to-Depth Ratio (w/dh) Drag Coefficient
1–12 1.25
13–20 1.30
21–32 1.40
33–40 1.50
41–80 1.75
81–120 1.80
> 120 2.00
Upper bound V = ( gd s ) ,
0.5
ASCE 7-16 Equation C5-2
where
t = 1 sec and g is the acceleration due to gravity 32.2 ft/sec2,
ds = local still-water depth (ft)
8.4.3 Wave Loads
Wave impacts on vertical structural elements of buildings are among the most severe and hazardous loads
these elements can experience. There are many analytical procedures available to evaluate the impact of
waves on building structural elements. ASCE 7-16 specifies three methods in its Section 5.4.4:
• Analytical procedures of ASCE 7-16

• Advanced numerical modeling procedures
• Laboratory test procedures
Modeling Process
A—Development of mathematical model
B—Computer program to evaluate mathematical model
C—Calibrating model with laboratory test data
D—Verification of model with field data
E—Using model to generate data
F—Applying model to real life structures
Care shall be taken so that accurate values of wave forces are evaluated during the design to avoid over-
estimation or underestimation of forces. Waves have both lateral and buoyancy effect on structures. Wave
forces on structures must be avoided by designing low elevation building floors (DFE + freeboard) and
avoiding elevated members. It is advisable to design long-span slabs rather than long-span beams to avoid air
space below the slab. If the waves have long and large amplitude and little variation in velocity and accelera-
tion, the effect of the waves on the structure is weak. On the other hand, if the waves have short and small
amplitude and large variation of velocity and acceleration, the effect of the waves on the structure is strong.
ASCE 7-16 considers the following wave effects during the design of structures:
• Breaking waves
• Uplift
• Striking of wave run-ups
• Drag and inertia
• Scours
Breaking wave is a wave whose amplitude reaches a critical level at which some process can suddenly
start to occur that causes large amounts of wave energy to be transformed into turbulent kinetic energy. A
reminder to the reader that kinetic energy is the energy in a body by virtue of its motion. Wave loads pro-
duced by breaking waves are greater than those produced by non-breaking or broken waves. Generally, A
zones are designated at locations where the breaking wave height is less than 3 ft, and V zones are desig-
nated at locations where the breaking wave height is greater than or equal to 3 ft.
H b = 0.78d s ASCE 7-16 Equation 5.4-2
d s = 0.65( BFE − G ), ASCE 7-16 Equation 5.4-3
where
Hb = breaking wave height (ft)
G = natural ground elevation (ft)
Breaking wave load (FD) (in pounds) on vertical piles and columns is given by
FD = 0.5γ wC D DH b2 , ASCE 7-16 Equation 5.4-4
where
γw = density of water (pcf)
D = column or pile diameter for circular section or 1.4 times width for rectilinear section
CD = drag coefficient 1.75 for round sections and 2.25 for rectilinear sections
The maximum pressures (Pmax) (in pounds) and for normal breaking wave force (Ft) (in pounds) on vertical
walls are given by
Pmax = C p γ w d s + 1.2 γ w d s ASCE 7-16 Equation 5.4-5
Ft = 1.1C p γ w d s2 + 2.4 γ s d s2 , ASCE 7-16 Equation 5.4-6
where Cp is dynamic pressure coefficient in accordance with Table 5.4-1 of ASCE 7-16 (shown in
Table 8.3 of the book).
If there is free water behind the wall, the normal breaking wave force (Ft) (in pounds) on vertical wall
is given by
Ft = 1.1C p γ w d s2 + 1.9 γ s d s2 ASCE 7-16 Equation 5.4-7
The normal breaking wave force (Fnv) (in pounds) on non-vertical wall is given by
Fnv = Ft Sin 2α, ASCE 7-16 Equation 5.4-8
where ∝ is the vertical angle between non-vertical surface and the horizontal.
TABLE 8.3
Dynamic Pressure Coefficient
Risk Category Cp
I 1.6
II 2.8
III 3.2
IV 3.5
TABLE 8.4
Importance Coefficient
Risk Category CI
I 0.6
II 1.0
III 1.2
IV 1.3
Breaking wave load (Foi) (in pounds) from obliquely incident waves is given by
Foi = Ft Sin 2α ASCE 7-16 Equation 5.4-9
8.5 Impact Loads

Impact loads are created with objects moving with the floodwater. They can be created by normal objects
flowing with the floodwater; ice floats; accumulated debris; boats; barges; collapsed buildings; etc.
Impact force (F) (in lb) is given by
πWVbCl CoC DC B Rmax

F= , ASCE 7-16 Equation C5-3
2 g∆t
where
W = debris weight
Vb = velocity of object (ft/sec)
Cl = importance factor (Table 8.4 of the book)
Co = orientation coefficient (0.8)
CD = depth coefficient (Table 8.5 of the book)
CB = blockage coefficient (Table 8.6 of the book)
Rmax = maximum response ratio, assuming approximate natural period T for timber pile and masonry
column, T = 0.75 sec; T = 0.35 sec for concrete pile or concrete or steel moment-resisting frames;
and T = 0.2 sec for reinforced concrete foundation walls. (For the Rmax value, refer to Table C5-4
of ASCE 7-16, which recommends an impact duration of 0.03 sec.)
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/s2)
Δt = impact duration time in seconds
TABLE 8.5
Depth Coefficient
Building Location CD
V zone 1.0
A zone, ds > 5 ft 1.0
A zone, ds = 4 ft 0.75
Any zone, ds < 1 ft 0.0
TABLE 8.6
Blockage Coefficient
Degree of Screening Within 100 ft Upstream CB
No upstream screening, flow path wider than 30 ft 1.0
Limited upstream screening, flow path 20 ft wide 0.6
Moderate upstream screening, flow path 10 ft wide 0.2
Dense upstream screening, flow path less than 5 ft wide 0.0
The use of the coefficients in the equation is to take into account the local conditions. To simplify the
equation, the coefficients can be taken as 1, reducing the equation to
πWVb Rmax
F= Equation 8.2
2 g∆t
8.6 Scours
In the coastal area, waves create scours around foundations. These scours reduce the bearing or anchoring
capacity of the foundations. Important parameters in the determination of loss of strength due to scours
include flood conditions, soil characteristics and foundation type. The Coastal Construction Manual pro-
vides equations to determine the scour depths for different conditions.
Localized scour around a single vertical pile (Smax) (in feet) = 2a, where a is the diameter of a
round foundation element or the maximum diagonal cross-section dimension for a rectangular element
(in feet).
Localized scour around a single vertical pile (Smax) (in feet) if multiple piles are present = 6.0a + 2 ft (if
grade beam and/or slab-on-grade is present).
Localized scour around a single vertical pile (Smax) (in feet) if multiple piles are present = 6.0a (if no
grade beam and/or slab-on-grade present).
Scour depth around vertical walls and enclosures (STOT) (in feet) = 0.15L, where L is the horizontal
length along the side of the building or obstruction exposed to flow and waves (in feet).
8.7 ASCE Load Combinations Involving Flood Loads

The load combinations using the strength and allowable stress designs are specified in Sections 2.3 and 2.4
of ASCE 7-16, respectively. Including the flood load (Fa), the load combinations are altered according to
zones:
Strength Design—V Zone
1.2D + 1.0W + 2.0Fa + L + 0.5 ( L r or S or R ) Combination (4)
0.9D + 1.0W + 2.0Fa Combination (6)

Strength Design—A Zone
1.2D + 0.5W + 1.0Fa + L + 0.5 ( L r or S or R ) Combination (4)
Allowable Stress Design—V Zone
D + (0.6W) + 1.5 Fa Combination (5)
D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R) + 1.5Fa Combination (6a)
Allowable Stress Design—A Zone
D + (0.6W) + 0.75Fa Combination (5)
D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R) + 0.75Fa Combination (6a)
8.8 Effects of Hydrostatic Forces on Swimming Pools

When a swimming pool is emptied in a high water table zone, there is a possibility of the swimming pool
being damaged because the pool can “pop.” The hydrostatic force of water below the pool slab can push the
pool out. If the pool is full, the weight of water in the pool helps resist the hydrostatic uplift along with the
weight of the pool.
According to the Archimedes principle, when a body is submerged in water, the upward force on the
body is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the body. This upward force is the hydrostatic uplift
or buoyancy force, which is opposed by the total weight of the object. When a pool is empty, the opposing
force to the hydrostatic uplift is only the weight of the pool slab. Hence, pools are designed for the worst
condition of an empty pool.
Hydrostatic relief valves are placed in the main pool drain line to equalize the pressure between the
water beneath the pool and the water on top of the pool slab. If the hydrostatic uplift is more than the down-
ward force at the base of the pool (like in case of empty pool), the valve opens upward and allows water
beneath the pool to flow into the pool bottom. Sometimes the relief valves do not work, allowing the hydro-
static uplift to pop the pool slab.
8.9 Design Examples

8.9.1 Calculations of Loads on Piles
Refer to Figure 8.5. The BFE at the site was 8 ft NGVD. The top surface of the slab was at an elevation of
6 ft NGVD. The thickness of the slab was 8 in. The property was located in a V zone. Calculate the service
tensile forces on the three piles (A, B and C).
Figure 8.5
Slab directly anchored to piles.
In this problem, we do not consider the flood loads. We consider only the fluid loads, which are assigned
the same factors as the dead loads in accordance with Section 2.4.1 of ASCE 7-16.
Elevation at the bottom surface of the slab = 6 ft − 8 in. = 5.33 ft
Hence, the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the slab = (8 − 5.33) (62.4) = 166.7 psf
8 in. 
Weight of slab =  (150) = 100 psf
 12 in. 
Net hydrostatic uplift = 166.7 − 100 = 66.7 psf
Tributary area of pile type A = 8 ft × 8 ft = 64 sft
Tensile load on pile type A = 64 × 66.7 = 4268.8 lb
Tributary area of pile type B = 16 ft × 8 ft = 128 sft
Tensile load on pile type B = 128 × 66.7 = 8537.6 lb
Tributary area of pile type C = 16 ft × 16 ft = 256 sft
Tensile load on pile type C = 256 × 66.7 = 17,075 lb
8.9.2 Calculations of Loads on Walls
Refer to Figures 8.6(a) and 8.6(b). Figure 8.6(a) shows the wall of a basement floor. Calculate the maximum
bending moment acting on the wall, assuming simple connections at the slab and footing.
Use an angle of internal friction (ϕ) of 30°.
Assume weight of soil as 120 pcf.
Figure 8.6
(a) Basement wall. (b) Force diagram.
Using the Rankine equation,
1 − Sin φ 1 − Sin 30 1 − 0.5 0.5

Ka = = = = = 0.33.
1 + Sin φ 1 + Sin 30 1 + 0.5 1.5
1 1
Rankine’s active earth pressure ( PA ) =   γK a H 2 =   (120)(0.33)(4)2 = 316.8 lb/ft
 2  2
1 lb
Lateral pressure due to water =   (62.4)(6)2 = 1123.2
 2 ft
During floods, water would act as a surcharge on the soil.

Surcharge pressure = ϒhKa = (62.4)(6’)(0.33) = 123.6 lb/ft acting at half soil depth (2 ft) above the top
of the foundation
Reaction at top support = [(316.8 × 4/3) + (123.6 × 2) + (1123.2 × 6)]/10 = 740.88 lb/ft
Reaction at bottom support = 1123.2 + 123.6 + 316.8 − 740.88 = 822.72 lb/ft
Shear force changes the sign at the location of the load 1123.2 lb/ft, which is the point of maximum bending
moment.
Maximum bending moment = (740.88) (4 ft) = 2963.5 lb/ft
8.9.3 Hydrodynamic and Breaking Wave Loads on Piles
A building is elevated on 12 in. × 12 in. concrete piles. The depth of still water is 10 ft. Calculate the hydro-
dynamic and breaking wave loads on the piles.
Step (1): Design Flood Velocity

d s 10 ft
Lower bound (V) = = = 10 ft /sec
t 1sec
Upper bound (V) = ( gd s )
0.5
= (32.2 × 10)0.5 = 17.9 ft /sec
Step (2): Drag Coefficient

Cd = 2.25 for square section
Step (3): Mass Density

Assume normal water with a specific gravity (ϒ) of 62.4 pcf
γ 62.4
Mass density (ρ) = = = 1.94 slugs/ft 3
g 32.2
Step (4): Pile Surface Area

12 ft
A = dimension facing water × depth of still water ( d s ) = × 10 ft = 10 sfs
12 ft
Step (5): Dynamic Force

1
Fdyn = Cd ρV 2 A
2
For V = 10 ft/sec
1
Fdyn = (2.25)(1.94)(10)2 (10) = 2182.5 lb/pile
2
For V = 17.9 ft/sec
1
Fdyn = (2.25)(1.94)(17.9)2 (10) = 6992.9 lb/pile
2
Step (6): Breaking Wave Height

H b = 0.78d s = 0.78 × 10 ft = 7.8 ft
Step (7): Breaking Wave Load

FD = 0.5γ wC D DH b2 = (0.5)(62.4)(2.25)(1.4 × 1ft)(7.8)2 = 5979 lb/pile
8.9.4 Debris Impact
A debris weighing 2000 lb traveling at a speed of 20 ft/sec hits a reinforced concrete wall of an ocean-facing
residential building located in VE flood zone. The debris hits for 1 sec. Calculate the impact force.
πWVbCI CoC DC B Rmax

Impact Force (F) = , ASCE 7-16 Equation C5.3
2 g∆t
where
W = weight of debris = 2000 lb
Vb = Velocity of debris = 20 ft/sec
CI = Importance factor = 1.0 (ASCE 7-16 Table C5-1)
Co = Orientation coefficient = 0.8
CD = Depth coefficient = 1.0 (ASCE 7-16 Table C5-2)
CB = Blockage coefficient = 1.0 (ASCE 7-16 Table C5-3)
(Assume no upstream screening.)
Rmax = Response ratio for 1 sec impact = 1.7 (ASCE 7-16 Table C5-4)
Δt = Impact duration = 1 sec
( π)(2000)(20)(1)(0.8)(1)(1)(1.7)
F= = 1561.7 lb
(2)(32.2)(1)
8.9.5 Swimming Pools
In an AE zone, the BFE is 8 ft NGVD. The natural ground elevation is 7 ft NGVD. Design the base slab of
the swimming pool in which the deep end is 5 ft below the natural ground. (This is the worst condition for
swimming pools when they are empty.)
Elevation at the base of the pool is 7 ft − 5 ft = 2 ft NGVD
BFE = 8 ft NGVD
Hydrostatic uplift = 8 ft − 2 ft = 6 ft
Use a relief valve that could relieve 2 ft of water.
Hence, design head = 6 ft − 2 ft = 4 ft
Using the allowable stress design load combinations 5, 6a and 7 of Section 2.4 of ASCE 7-16,
Weight of slab = 0.75 × hydrostatic uplift = (0.75)(62.4 psf)(4 ft) = 187.2 psf
15 in. 
A concrete slab of 15 in. thickness weighs  (150 psf) = 187.5 psf
 12 in. 
A 15-in.-thick concrete slab with two layers of steel (#3 bars at 12 o.c.) needs to be provided to resist the
hydrostatic uplift during an empty pool condition. However, to reduce cost, pool contractors do not provide
this thickness, and they rely on ANSI-approved relief valves. The slab can also be designed as a reinforced
concrete slab suspended on piles.
References
ASCE 7-16, “Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures,” American Society of Civil Engineers,
Reston, Virginia.
FEMA, “Erosion, Scour, and Foundation Design,” www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1644-20490-8177/
757_apd_5_erosionscour.pdf.
FEMA P=55 “Coastal Construction Manual,” Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S. Department of Homeland
Security, August 2011.
FEMA Technical Bulletin 9, “Design and Construction Guidance for Breakaway Walls,” Federal Emergency
Management Agency, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, August 2008, www.fema.gov/media-library/
assets/documents/3514.
ASCE 24-14 for Flood Loads
Chapter
9
9.1 Introduction
The next standard to discuss in the design of building structures for floods is ASCE 24-14, “Flood Resistant Design
and Construction.” The standard provides requirements for the design of building structural elements like shallow
foundations such as isolated footings; deep foundations such as piles; posts; piers; columns; pile caps; grade beams;
shear walls and breakaway walls for flood loads. It also provides construction requirements in flood zones.
The standard has nine chapters. A synopsis of each chapter is provided. Each chapter is discussed in
detail in the subsequent sections of this chapter.
Chapter 1.0—“General” deals with the identification of flood hazard areas and flood-prone structures. It
outlines the basic design and construction requirements of building foundations and their connections. The
requirements of the flood loads and their combinations with other loads are discussed.
Chapter 2.0—“Basic Requirements for Flood Hazard Areas That Are Not Identified as Coastal High
Hazard Areas and Coastal A Zones” deals with development in floodways; elevation requirements and
design requirements of slab-on-grade; foundations; foundation walls and breakaway walls.
Chapter 3.0—“High Risk Flood Hazard Areas” specifies the requirements of protective work in the
alluvial fan areas; flash flood area; mudslide areas; erosion-prone areas; high velocity flow areas; areas sub-
ject to wave actions and ice jam; and debris areas.
Chapter 4.0—“Coastal High Hazard Areas and Coastal A Zones” provides information to identify the
zones; their elevation requirements and the design requirements of building structural elements – shallow
foundations such as isolated footings; deep foundations such as piles; posts, piers; columns; pile caps; grade
beams; shear walls and breakaway walls in these zones.
Chapter 5.0—“Materials” specifies the requirements of materials such as structural steel, concrete,
masonry, wood and other building-finish material in the flood zones.
Chapter 6.0—“Dry Floodproofing and Wet Floodproofing” specifies the requirements and limitations
of the floodproofing.
Chapter 7.0—“Attendant Utilities and Equipment” deals with the requirements of mechanical, electri-
cal and plumbing (MEP) systems of buildings in flood zones.
Chapter 8.0—“Building Access” includes stairways and ramps design criteria in flood zones.
Chapter 9.0—“Miscellaneous Construction” specifies the requirements of other structures like decks,
porches, garages, carports, storage areas, chimneys, fireplaces, swimming pools and tanks.
9.2 ASCE 24 Chapter 1.0—General

Section 1.2 of ASCE 24-14 provides the definitions of the terms frequently used in the standard. Most of
these definitions have been discussed in the preceding chapter, and some will be discussed in this chapter.
The reader needs to get familiarized with these terms.
119

The standard introduces the concept of Flood Design Class, which is the classification of build-
ings and other structures for the determination of flood loads and the minimum elevation requirement
for structural elements. The four flood classes (1, 2, 3 and 4) are defined in Table 1-1 of the standard.
Though similar, these classes are not equivalent to the risk categories of Table 1.5-1 of ASCE 7-16 or the
occupancy categories of the prior versions of ASCE 7. Most buildings are assigned Class 2. Buildings
such as churches and schools that accommodate assemblies are assigned Class 3. Essential facilities
such as police control room, hospitals and fire stations are assigned Class 4. Buildings that are not con-
tinuously occupied and pose less threat to public life safety such as agricultural buildings and storage
buildings are assigned Class 1. As the number assigned to the class increases, the requirements become
more stringent.
The chapter specifies the requirements for elevation of structure; foundation type and site specific geo-
technical factors; adequacy for the structural elements and their connections to resist flood loads; obstruc-
tions for structural elements to the flood flow; flood damage-resistant materials; floodproofing; utilities;
means of egress and adverse impact to other structures during a flood. These requirements are specified in
detail in subsequent chapters of the standard. The flood loads and their combinations with other loads in
accordance with ASCE 7-16 are discussed in Chapter 2 of the book.
9.3 ASCE 24 Chapter 2.0—Basic Requirements for Flood

Hazard Areas That Are Not Identified as Coastal
High Hazard Areas and Coastal A Zones
This chapter deals with the requirements for flood hazard areas outside the coastal areas.
According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), “Regulatory Floodway” is the
channel of a river or other watercourse and the adjacent land areas that must be reserved in order to dis-
charge the base flood without cumulatively increasing the water surface elevation more than a designated
height. The standard prohibits construction or placing of fill in the floodways if such construction or fill will
increase the flood level or reduce the conveyance of the flood. In the floodways, a large quantity of water is
conveyed at high speed. If floodways are interrupted, the flood elevation increases, causing more damage
to the structures. However, if it can be demonstrated by hydraulic modeling that construction in floodways
does not cause an increase in the flood elevation, construction or fill may be permitted in the floodways.
Structural fills are permitted if the underlying soil is consolidated due to the structural fill and the differen-
tial settlements of the foundations and if slope stability and erosion are accounted for in the design. Slabs
on grade can be placed on well-compacted structural fill (at least 95% Proctor density). Footing design shall
account for scouring, erosion, floatation, collapse and lateral movement.
The elevation requirement for the top of the lowest floor in the flood hazard areas is tabulated in
Figure 2-1 of the standard in accordance with the flood design class.
The highest elevation or the alternates are taken. Example: For Class 2, the higher value of the
base flood elevation (BFE) plus 1 ft or the design flood elevation (DFE) is considered in the design (see
Table 9.1 of the book).
For enclosures below the DFE, flood vents are provided. For example, the finished floor elevation of a
single-family residence can be at 9 ft National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD) in an area where the BFE
is 8 ft NGVD. The slab on grade of the garage can be at 6.5 NGVD. However, flood vents need to be pro-
vided in the garage. The area of the flood vents shall be 1 sq.in for every sft of the floor area of the garage.
For a 20-ft-wide and 30-ft-long garage, vents comprising an area of 60 sq.in are required. Two vents each
5 in. × 6 in. are provided in two different walls, no more than 1 ft above grade.
Openings in enclosed areas can be engineered using the equation of Section 2.7.2.2 of ASCE 24-14.

TABLE 9.1
Elevation Requirements
Flood Design Class Minimum Elevation
1 DFE
2 BFE + 1 ft (or) DFE
3 BFE + 1 ft (or) DFE
4 BFE + 2 ft (or) DFE or 500 years
of flood elevation
( )
A0 = 0.033 1 c ( R ) ( Ae ) ,
where
Ao = Area of flood vent (sq.in),
c = Flood opening coefficient of discharge (from Table 2-2 of ASCE 24-14)
R = Worst-case rate of rise and fall (ft/h) (can be taken as 5 ft/h)
Ae = Total enclosed area (sft)
The openings shall not be less than 3 in. in dimension. If louvers, screens, grills and faceplates are present
in the walls of the enclosed areas, they shall be taken into account. The vertical location of the opening in
the walls shall be such that difference between the exterior and interior floodwater level shall not exceed 1 ft.
9.4 ASCE 24 Chapter 3.0—High Risk Flood Hazard Areas

Chapter 3.0 deals with high risk flood hazard areas. The standard classifies the alluvial fan areas, flash flood
areas, mudslide areas, erosion-prone areas, high velocity flow areas, areas subject to wave actions, and ice
jam and debris areas as high risk flood hazard areas. Other than the coastal high hazard area and coastal A
zone, the requirements of Chapter 2.0 of the standard apply to the high risk flood hazard areas.
Alluvial Fan Areas
Alluvial fan is a fan or cone-shaped deposit of sediment built up by streams and is usually washed from
mountain slopes. The flows come from a single-point source at the apex of the fan and over time move to
occupy many positions on the fan surface.
Alluvial fans are subject to flooding. They can be more dangerous than the upstream valleys that feed
them. Their slightly convex perpendicular surfaces cause water to spread widely until there is no zone of
refuge. If the gradient is steep, active transport of materials down the fan creates a moving substrate that is
inhospitable to travel on foot or wheels. But as the gradient diminishes downslope, water comes down from
above faster than it can flow away downstream, and ponds depths could become very dangerous. Typically,
the entire area occupied by the alluvial fan is at risk because of the high velocity of water, erosion and drain-
age channels winding across its surface.
The standard does not permit new construction or substantial improvement at the apex of the fan, in the
fan’s meandering flow paths or in areas of braided channels, erratic flow paths and sediment transport. Other
than these areas, construction is permitted with the following stipulations by the standard:
• Elevation of the lowest floor shall be a minimum of 1 ft above the adjacent grade or higher if required by the flood map.

Photograph 9.1
Alluvial fan.
• Foundations shall be required to resist scours caused by flow velocity of not less than 5 ft/sec.
• The load combinations of Chapter 2 of ASCE 7-16 shall be used in the design.
FEMA recommends the following actions in alluvial fan areas:
• Map fans as high risk areas.

• Develop and implement a drainage master plan if development is to occur on fans.
• Limit grading, paving and channelization unless consistent with the master plan.
• Construct floodwalls, drainage channels and debris basins.
Flash Flood Areas
A flash flood is a rapid flooding of low-lying areas such as washes, rivers, dry lakes and basins. It is typi-
cally caused by heavy rain accompanied by a severe thunderstorm, hurricane or tropical storm. During a
typical rain shower, some of the water is soaked up by the land while the rest of it runs off into lakes, rivers
or streams. As the intensity of the rain increases, a larger portion of the rainwater becomes runoff, as less
is able to be absorbed by the land. The excess water results in fast-swelling rivers and streams, along with
pooling water in low-lying areas. Streams that had a low quantity of water in them hours before can become
powerful torrents in a matter of very little time. In addition, city sewer systems can quickly become over-
whelmed and backed up, resulting in street and overland flooding.
The standard does not permit new construction or substantial improvement in the flash flood areas.
FEMA recommends the following actions in flash flood areas:
• Collect historical data on flash flooding; use it in engineering studies to map flash flood.
• Prohibit development and other activities (e.g., campgrounds) in high risk areas.
• Require that new development in other areas be constructed consistent with water velocities and potential debris.
• Install or require developers to prepare warning systems; prepare and implement evacuation plans.
• Require that subdividers install onsite flood detention.
• Design drainage systems to reduce flash flood potential.
• Mark areas.
• Construct reservoirs and other engineering devices to reduce flash floods.

Mudslide Areas
Mudslide is a rapid flow of debris that has become partially or fully liquefied by the addition of significant
amounts of water to the source material. It occurs when a large amount of water causes rapid erosion of soil
on a steep slope. Rapid snowmelt at the top of a mountain or a period of intense rainfall can trigger a mud-
slide, as the great volume of water mixes with soil and causes it to liquefy and move downhill. A mudslide
can vary from very watery mud to thick mud with tons of debris, including large boulders, trees and even
cars or houses. Mudslides contain a significant proportion of clay, which makes them more fluid than debris
flows; hence they travel farther and across lower-slope angles.
The standard does not permit new construction or substantial improvement in mudslide areas during
periods of rainfall and runoff. FEMA recommends taking the following actions in mudslide areas:
• Gather and use available data to map mud flow areas.

• Require developers in slope areas with unconsolidated soils to prepare engineering studies.
• Prohibit development in high risk areas; require that developments in other areas be constructed on compacted
fill or with adequate foundations on pilings to accommodate expected water and debris.
• Construct debris basins, retaining walls and other remedial measures.
Erosion-Prone Areas
Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that remove soil, rock or dissolved
material from one location on the earth’s crust and transport it away to another location. The erosion-prone
area is the width of the coast that is considered to be vulnerable to coastal erosion and tidal inundation.
The standard does not permit new construction or substantial improvement in the erosion-prone areas
where erosion is caused by caving banks, meandering streams or eroding shorelines. FEMA recommends
the following actions in erosion-prone areas:
• Gather existing erosion studies and historic data; prepare general or specific maps based on these or other maps.
• Adopt setback lines to prohibit development in erosion-prone land and on protective land features such as dunes.
Photograph 9.2
Mudslide.

Photograph 9.3
Erosion.
• Adopt building performance standards pertaining to depth and specifications for pilings, groins, seawalls, use
of septic tanks and surface drainage.
• Acquire undeveloped coastline and relocate structures.
• Construct groins and seawalls; rebuild beaches and dunes.
High Velocity Flow Areas
ASCE 24-14 defines high velocity flow areas as areas where water moves adjacent to buildings and struc-
tures with a velocity greater than 10 ft/sec. Hydraulic modeling or information from historic events is used
to determine the velocity of flood flow. The high velocity flow areas are identified based on site location,
historical observation of flood condition and hydraulic analysis.
The standard does not permit new construction or substantial improvement in the high velocity flow
areas unless protective works like dams, levees, floodwalls, diversions, channels and flood structures are
provided. These should be noted on the flood maps as providing protection during design flood conditions.
Ice Jams and Debris Areas
Pieces of floating ice carried with a stream’s current can accumulate at any obstruction to the stream flow.
The viable locations for ice jams include river bends, mouths of tributaries, location of decrease in river
slopes, downstream of dams and upstream of bridges or obstructions. The water that is held back may
cause flooding or flash flooding upstream. If the obstruction suddenly breaks, flash flooding may occur
downstream. The most likely times are freeze-up jams in early winter and break-up jams in early spring.
Freeze-up jams typically result in minimal if any flooding. Break-up jams usually cause the most damage
and flooding.

Debris jams can occur at any time of the year and have the same implications as an ice jam. As ice or debris
moves downstream, it may get caught on some kind of obstruction to the water flow. When this occurs, water can
be held back, causing upstream flooding. When the jam finally breaks, flash flooding can occur downstream.
The standard does not permit new construction or substantial improvement in the ice jam and debris areas
unless protective work is provided. FEMA recommends taking the following actions in ice jam and debris areas:
• Collect historical data on ice jam floods; use it for engineering studies to map ice jam inundation areas.
• Adopt setback lines.
• Require additional freeboard to protect against ice.
• Adopt construction standards, especially for floodproofing, that consider ice damage.
• Acquire hazardous lands and relocate structures that cannot be protected.
• Develop a warning system and emergency action plan.
• Undertake remedial engineering measures.
9.5 ASCE 24 Chapter 4.0—Coastal High Hazard

Areas and Coastal A Zones
The chapter sets standards for Coastal High Hazard Areas and Coastal “A” Zones. It deals with the siting,
elevation, foundation and enclosed area below DFE and erosion structures requirements for the Coastal
High Hazard Areas and Coastal “A” Zones.
FEMA defines “Coastal High Hazard Area” as
an area of special flood hazard extending from offshore to the inland limit of a primary frontal dune along an
open coast and any other area subject to high velocity wave action from storms or seismic sources. The coastal
high hazard area is identified as Zone V on Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs). Special floodplain manage-
ment requirements apply in V Zones including the requirement that all buildings be elevated on piles or columns.
The still-water depth of the base flood above the eroded ground elevation in Coastal High Hazard Area
is greater than or equal to 3.8 ft. It is sufficient to support a wave height equal to or greater than 3 ft and
the conditions are conducive to the formation and propagation of such waves. The eroded ground elevation
under base flood conditions is 3 ft or more below the maximum wave run-up elevation.
FEMA defines “Coastal ‘A’ Zone” as an
area landward of a V Zone, or landward of an open coast without mapped V Zones. In a Coastal “A” Zone, the
principal source of flooding will be astronomical tides, storm surges, seiches or tsunamis, not riverine flooding.
During base flood conditions, the potential for breaking wave heights between 1.5 feet and 3.0 feet will exist.
Coastal A zones are landward of V zones and seaward of the Limit of Moderate Wave Action (LMWA),
if LMWA is defined on the Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM). The local jurisdiction also has the authority
to define the coastal A zones.
Design Loads
Section 4.2 of ASCE 24-14 requires that the following loads be considered in the design of buildings located
in the Coastal High Hazard Area and Coastal “A” zones.
• Wave breaking against the bracing, side of the structure and underside of the structure.

• Drag, uplift and other wave-induced forces acting on structural members supporting elevated structures.
• Uplift forces from breaking waves striking the underside of the structures.
• Wave run-up forces including those deflected by the structure.
Wave Forces on Piles
A structural element is considered to be of “small diameter” if its diameter is less than 15% of the wave
length. A pile can be considered as a structural element of small diameter. When waves hit a pile, they do
not get scattered by the obstruction provided by the pile.
Morison formulated his equation simply by hypothesizing that the superposition of two separate and
well-known phenomena (drag in a current and hydrodynamic inertia in an accelerating flow) would yield a
viable solution for a vertical pile in waves. According to the Morison equation,
Total wave force (FT) = FD + FI
FD = Drag force, proportional to the kinetic head
FI = Inertial force, proportional to mass × acceleration
1
FD = C D ρAV 2
2
πd 2
FI = C M ρ a,
4
where
CD and CM = Coefficients of drag and inertia,
ρ = Mass density of water
A = Projected area of pile
V = Velocity of wave
a = Acceleration of wave
Siting
New construction is not permitted seaward of mean high tide, but substantial improvement is permitted.
However, buildings with substantial improvements shall be made to comply with the current standards with
regard to foundations, elevations and other important requirements. Mangroves and sand dunes are natural
barriers that reduce the transmission of waves and high velocity flows. The standard restricts their removal
and/or alteration because of new construction and substantial improvement.
Elevations
In the Coastal High Hazard Areas and Coastal A Zones, the bottom of the lowest member shall have
elevation conforming to Table 4-1 of ASCE 24-14. The table is the same as Table 2-1 of the standard as
illustrated earlier in Table 9-1 of this book. The difference is that for hazard areas other than the Coastal
High Hazard Areas and Coastal A Zones, the requirement is for the top surface of the lowest element,
whereas for these two areas the requirement is for the bottom surface. For example, consider a slab sup-
ported on beams as the lowest structural level of the building. In hazard areas other than the Coastal High
Hazard Areas and Coastal A Zones, the elevation requirement is for the top surface of the slab. In the

Figure 9.1
Shallow foundations in coastal high hazard areas.
Coastal High Hazard Areas and Coastal A Zones, the elevation requirement is for the bottom surface of
the beam supporting the slab.
Foundations
In the Coastal High Hazard Areas and Coastal A Zones, deep foundations like piles, drilled shafts and
caissons are usually required. However, shallow foundations such as individual footings and mat and raft
foundations can be used if they are anchored to prevent sliding, uplift and overturning. The shallow foun-
dations need to be supported on undisturbed soil, and the top of the foundation shall be below the eroded
ground elevation. The effect of erosion must be taken into account while designing the shallow foundations
(see Figure 9.1).
Wood Piles
Specifications for wood piles according to ASCE 24-14 to be used in the Coastal High Hazard Areas and
Coastal A Zones (see Figure 9.2):
• For a pile length ≤ 12 ft, use a minimum 8-in.-diameter pile or a square pile with a minimum side of 8 in.
• For a pile length > 12 ft, use a minimum 10-in.-diameter pile or a square pile with a minimum side of 10 in.
• Use minimum two 5/8-in.-diameter hot-dipped galvanized steel bolt to connect wood piles to lowest raised
member. The connection shall be designed using the requirements of ASCE 7-16.
• The hole diameter in the wood pile for the connection shall be 1/16 in. plus the bolt diameter.
• The minimum edge distance of the bolt shall be 2 in.
• The maximum notching of pile top shall be 50% of the cross-section.
For connection details of wood piles, see Figures 9.3, 9.4 and 9.5 of the book.

Figure 9.2
Typical pile detail.
Figure 9.3
Wood piles not in tension.
Figure 9.4
Wood piles in tension.

Figure 9.5
Wood piles not in tension.
Steel Piles
Specifications for steel piles according to ASCE 24-14 to be used in the Coastal High Hazard Areas and
Coastal A Zones:
• Corrosion protection using concrete, bituminous, or plastic coating or cathodic protection shall be applied to steel piles.
• Piles shall be tied into the concrete members using reinforcing steel or structural sections welded to piles lapped
minimum 6 in. with the concrete reinforcement. For piles in tension, the bond stress between concrete and steel
shall not exceed 0.02f′c.
For connection details of steel piles, see Figure 9.6 of the book.
Pre-Stressed Concrete, Reinforced Concrete and Precast Concrete Piles
A good practice is to have a minimum 10-in.-diameter pile with a minimum 3 in. clear cover to the rein-
forcement. The pile shall be embedded at least 3 in. inside the concrete pile cap or grade beam. The rein-
forcement of the pile shall be doweled in the pile cap or grade beam.
For connection details of concrete piles, see Figure 9.7 of the book.
Further, details of pile caps are provided in Figure 9.8 of the book, details of grade beams are provided
in Figure 9.9 of the book, details of bracing of piles for elevated structures are provided in Figure 9.10 of the
book and details of shear walls are provided in Figure 9.11 of the book.
9.6 ASCE 24 Chapter 5.0—Materials

The flood damage-resistant materials are discussed in Section 7.5 of this book. They shall be used in con-
struction performed below the elevations specified in Table 9.1 of the book. These materials shall have
adequate strength, rigidity and durability to resist the flood loads and other loads and shall be capable of
resisting damage, deterioration, corrosion or decay when they come in contact with floodwater.

Figure 9.6
Steel pile detail.
Figure 9.7
Concrete pile.

Figure 9.8
Pile caps.
Figure 9.9
Grade beams.

Figure 9.10
Bracing of piles for elevated structure.
In flood hazard areas, structural elements may be exposed to both corrosive and non-corrosive environ-
ments. Even in non-corrosive environments, structural steel shall be primed, coated or plated because there
is a high probability of these elements getting in contact with floodwaters, precipitation and wind-driven
water. The compressive strength of concrete shall not be less than 5000 psi, and the durability of concrete
shall be enhanced by protecting the reinforcement from chloride and sulfate ions. Concrete masonry unit
(CMU) used below the design floor elevation shall be fully grouted to avoid water accumulation in the
masonry cells.
The standards for materials for metal plates, connectors, screws, bolts and nails specified in ASCE 24-14
are identified in the following sections.
ASTM A123/A123M-15 Standard Specification for Zinc

(Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel Products
Standard requirements for hot-dip galvanized zinc coatings on iron and steel products made from rolled,
pressed and forged shapes, castings, plates, bars and strips. This section deals with both unfabricated and
fabricated products.

Figure 9.11
Shear walls.
ASTM A153/A153M-16a Standard Specification for Zinc

Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware
Specification covers standards for zinc coatings applied through hot-dip process on iron and steel hard-
ware. The hot-dip galvanizing process shall form layers of Zn/Fe alloy adhering to the steel surface. This
specification is applicable to steel hardware items of Classes A, B, C and D. The thickness or weight/mass
of zinc coating shall conform to specified values for various classes of materials. The coated articles shall
be free from uncoated areas, blisters, flux deposits, dross inclusions and other defects. The coating shall be
smooth and reasonably uniform in thickness. Tests shall be performed to determine the minimum coating
weight or minimum coating thickness, finish and appearance, embrittlement, adherence, average weight/
mass of coating and average thickness of coating. Guidelines are also given in the standard for inspection,
rejection and retest, packaging and certification procedures.
The steel and iron items are divided into the following classes:
Class A – Structural Steel and Iron

Class B – Ornamental Steel and Iron
Class C – Steel Floor Joists
Class D – Miscellaneous Steel and Iron

ASTM A653/A653M-15e1 Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated

(Galvanized) or Zinc-Iron Alloy-Coated (Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip Process
Specification covers steel sheet, zinc-coated (galvanized) or zinc-iron alloy-coated (galvannealed) by the
hot-dip process in coils and cut lengths. The material is available in several designations as follows: com-
mercial steel, forming steel, deep drawing steel, extra deep drawing steel, structural steel, high strength
low alloy steel, high strength low alloy steel with improved formability, solution hardened steel and bake
hardenable steel. Yield strength, elongation and bending properties of the steel shall be determined. A bend
test shall be done to the coated sheets.
ASTM A924/A924M-16ae1 Standard Specification for General

Requirements for Steel Sheet, Metallic-Coated by the Hot-Dip Process
Specification covers the general requirements for steel sheets in coils and cut length, metallic-coated
on continuous lines by the hot-dip process. This material is intended for applications requiring cor-
rosion resistance. Hot-dip metallic coatings are available in six different types: zinc and zinc-iron
alloy, lead-tin alloy, aluminum, aluminum-zinc alloy, zinc-aluminum alloy and zinc-aluminum-
magnesium alloy. Heat analysis shall be made to determine the percentage of carbon, manganese,
phosphorus, sulfur and other elements specified. Product analysis and coating analysis shall also be
done. Mechanical properties shall be determined by tension tests. Coating weight test and coating
bend test are for coating properties. Weigh-strip-weigh method and X-ray fluorescence methods are for
the coating weight test.
The standards for materials for structural steel specified in ASCE 24-14 are identified in the following
sections.
ASTM A252-10 Standard Specification for Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe Piles
Specification covers nominal wall cylindrical steel pipe piles in which the steel cylinder acts as a permanent
load-carrying member or as a shell to form cast-in-place concrete piles. Each welded pile shall be made
by seamless, electric resistance welding, flash welding or fusion welding with longitudinal, helical-butt or
helical-lap seams. This specification also deals with material tensile requirements, minimum elongation
values and common size and weights per unit length values.
ASTM A572/A572M-15 Standard Specification for High-Strength

Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium Structural Steel
Specification covers the standard requirements for Grades 42 [290], 50 [345], 55 [380], 60 [415] and 65
[450] of high-strength low-alloy columbium-vanadium structural steel shapes, plates, sheet piling, and
bars for applications in bolted, welded and riveted structures in bridges and buildings. The alloy shall
conform to the required contents of columbium, vanadium, titanium and nitrogen. Permissible values for
the product thickness and size are given. Tensile requirements (including yield point, tensile strength and
minimum elongation) and alloy content are also specified. General delivery and test report requirements
are also cited.

ASTM A690/A690M-13a Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-

Alloy Nickel, Copper, Phosphorus Steel H-Piles and Sheet Piling with
Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance for Use in Marine Environments
Specification deals with the standard structural quality of high-strength low-alloy nickel, copper, phospho-
rus steel H-piles and sheet piling for use in the construction of dock walls, bulkheads, excavations and like
applications in marine environments. The steel shall be semi-killed or killed and shall be exposed to the
washing action of rain and the drying action of wind or sun, or both to determine its atmospheric corro-
sion resistance. Material specimens shall undergo product analysis, heat analysis, and tension testing and
shall conform to the required chemical composition, tolerance, tensile strength, yield point and elongation
specifications.
ASTM A36/A36M-14 Standard Specification for Carbon Structural Steel
Specification covers carbon structural steel shapes, plates and bars of structural quality for use in riveted,
bolted or welded construction of bridges and buildings, and for general structural purposes. Heat analysis
shall be used to determine the required chemical composition for carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulfur,
silicon and copper. Tensile strength, yield strength and elongation shall be evaluated using tension test and
must conform to the required tensile properties.
ASTM A572/A572M-15 Standard Specification for High-Strength

Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium Structural Steel
Specification covers the standard requirements for Grades 42 [290], 50 [345], 55 [380], 60 [415] and 65
[450] of high-strength low-alloy columbium-vanadium structural steel shapes, plates, sheet piling and bars
for applications in bolted, welded and riveted structures in bridges and buildings. The alloy shall conform
to the required contents of columbium, vanadium, titanium and nitrogen. Permissible values for the product
thickness and size are provided. Tensile requirements (including yield point, tensile strength and minimum
elongation) and alloy content are also specified.
ASTM A992/A992M-11 Standard Specification for Structural Steel Shapes
Specification covers rolled steel structural shapes for use in building framing or bridges, or for general struc-
tural purposes. Heat analysis shall be used to determine the percentage of carbon, manganese, phospho-
rus, sulfur, vanadium, titanium, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, columbium and copper for the required
chemical composition. Tension test shall be used to evaluate the required tensile properties such as tensile
strength, yield strength and elongation.
ASTM A148/A148M-15a Standard Specification for Steel

Castings, High Strength, for Structural Purposes
Specification covers the standard for carbon steel, alloy steel and martensitic stainless steel castings that
are to be subjected to higher mechanical stresses. All castings shall undergo heat treatment by either full
annealing, normalizing, normalizing and tempering, or quenching and tempering and shall be regulated

under pyrometers. Several grades of steel castings are covered and shall conform to the required chemical
composition for sulfur and phosphorus. A tension test shall be performed and shall conform to the required
tensile strength, yield point, and elongation. The notch bar impact properties shall also be determined by
testing one set of three Charpy V-notch impact specimens.
9.7 ASCE 24 Chapter 6.0—Dry Floodproofing and Wet Floodproofing

The definition of floodproofing is provided in Chapter 1.0 of ASCE 24-14. Floodproofing is the combination
of structural or non-structural adjustments, changes or actions that reduce or eliminate flood damage to a
structure, contents, attendant utilities and equipment.
There are two types of floodproofing:
• Dry Floodproofing
• Wet Floodproofing
To make the structure watertight, dry floodproofing adopts a range of measures both structural and
non-structural to protect the building. The building walls are wrapped with waterproof compounds or heavy
plastic sheathing so that the structure is watertight. Walls are designed to resist hydrostatic force of the
water. Doors, windows and other openings are protected with flood panels. Certain openings are closed.
CMU is better material in resisting flood loads than wood framing. An unreinforced CMU is capable of
resisting approximately 3 ft flood load. Sump pumps are provided to remove water accumulated due to any
passage of vapor of seepage of water during a flood event. Sewage backup is a major concern during floods.
Floor drain plugs, floor drain standpipes, overhead sewers, backup valves and grind pumps are used to pro-
tect the interiors of the building from flood backup.
Wet floodproofing relies on the use of flood damage-resistant materials and construction techniques in
areas of structures that are below the elevation required by ASCE 24-14 by intentionally allowing the areas
to flood. In wet floodproofing, the structure is allowed to be flooded, but it is anchored to prevent flotation
and has flood vents, or permanent openings, that allow water to flow in and out of the structure without dam-
aging the structural elements. The hydrostatic pressure on the interior and exterior sides of the structure is
equalized. Wet floodproofing is not conducive if the flood duration is greater than 24 hours. Wet conditions
Photograph 9.4
Flood panels.

lead to damage of structural elements of the building and to the formation of mold and mildew. Utilities,
appliances, and contents are placed at higher locations or are protected in place. Flood damage-resistant
building materials are used for those parts of the building that will be flooded. Automatic shutoff valves are
installed on sewer and fuel lines.
9.8 ASCE 24 Chapter 7.0—Attendant Utilities and Equipment

ASCE 24-14 defines “Attendant Utilities and Equipment” as utilities, MEP, fuel gas, and Heating, Ventilation,
and Air Conditioning (HVAC) and related equipment, as well as services associated with new construction
and substantial improvements. They are typically located above the BFE unless permitted by the manu-
facturer to be located below the BFE, in which case they are anchored to resist the design flood. Attendant
Utilities and Equipment below the flood protection level must be designed, constructed and installed to
prevent floodwaters, including any backflow through the system, from entering or accumulating within the
components. Corrosion is also a major consideration because metallic components of the equipment get
exposed to water.
After a flood hazard, the goal is that the facility should have a continuous MEP supply. Electrical
utilities typically include power, communication and fire alarm loops. Mechanical utilities include domestic
water service, water service for fire suppression, steam service and utilities to collect and dispose of sanitary
and storm sewerage. Utilities may be supplied by private or public organizations. Electrical systems include
power distribution, controls, lighting, fire alarm, telephone and IT (information technology). Mechanical
systems include HVAC; domestic water systems; drain, waste, and vent systems; smoke control systems; fuel
storage and distribution systems; and fire suppression systems.
In flood zones, the MEP systems shall be designed for the following structural loads:
• Lateral hydrostatic and buoyant forces caused by standing or slow-moving water above the surface of the ground
• Hydrodynamic forces from the moderate velocity flow or high velocity flow of water as well as wave action
• Impact loads caused by floating debris
• Localized ponding caused by poor drainage
9.9 ASCE 24 Chapter 8.0—Building Access

Chapter 8.0 of ASCE 24-14 deals with building access. Staircases and ramps in flood zones shall be designed
either to resist the flood load, which should include the use of flood-resistant material, or to break away with-
out causing damage to the supporting structure, or they shall be retractable or able to be raised to a higher
elevation.
Staircases and ramps below the DFE can be enclosed by a breakaway wall or can be designed as unen-
closed. If the staircases and ramps are enclosed by a breakaway wall, they can resist the intended failure of
the breakaway walls. It is preferable to keep them unenclosed. Open stairs are the best options below the
DFE because they allow floodwater to freely flow through them. The design of staircases and ramps must
satisfy one of the following requirements:
• They shall break away during base flood conditions without causing damage to the building or its foundation.
• They must resist flood loads and remain in place during the base flood. In this case, the building and its
foundation must be designed to resist any flood loads that are transferred from the stairs or ramp to the
building.

9.10 ASCE 24 Chapter 9.0—Miscellaneous Construction

Chapter 9.0 of ASCE 24-14 deals with decks, porches, concrete slabs, garages, carports, storage facilities,
chimneys, fireplaces, pools and tanks. Invariably, big or small residential or commercial structures have one
or more of these features, either attached to them or detached.
Typically, buildings are planned in such a manner that decks and patios are located outside the main
building. They may be attached to the building or abutting the building or located at a distance from the
building. If the deck is attached to the building, the bottom of the deck must be above the BFE or DFE. The
foundation of the deck may be below the BFE or DFE but must be capable of resisting the applied loads after
erosion and scouring occurs after a flood event. If the deck is below the BFE or DFE, it must be completely
independent of the building structure and its foundation. Typically, decks are made of wood or concrete. If
they are placed below the BFE or DFE, they should be designed such that they do not convert into a danger-
ous debris after a flood event.
In buildings in other than the Coastal High Hazard Areas and Coastal A Zones, concrete slabs for
parking and similar uses can be independently placed below the BFE or attached to main structure
provided the structure is adequate to resist the load transferred from the slabs. In buildings located in
flood zone V, concrete slabs below the BFE that are used for parking and storage shall not be thicker
than 4 in. and shall not be reinforced. These slabs shall be frangible without turned-down edges. Slabs
can also be designed as suspended slabs, independent from the structural system of the building. These
slabs are designed as spanning between pile supports as two-way slabs capable of withstanding the
uplift pressures.
Attached garages, carports and accessory storage structures are permitted in all flood hazard areas
below the BFEs. As discussed earlier, openings needed to be provided in the garages. In Coastal High
Hazard Areas, Coastal A Zones and other High Risk Flood Hazard Areas, breakaway walls can also be
provided for attached garages to comply with the requirements of ASCE 24-14.
Parking structures in multi-storied buildings located in areas other than Coastal High Hazard Areas,
Coastal A Zones and other High Risk Flood Hazard Areas may have slabs below the BFE; however, the top
slab is required to be above grade, at least on one side. If any enclosure is present, the opening in the enclo-
sure shall be designed as discussed earlier. The enclosed area below the specified elevation can also be dry
flood proofed, considering the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic forces in the design.
In Coastal High Hazard Areas, Coastal A Zones and other High Risk Flood Hazard Areas, parking
structures are permitted below the BFEs if they are not connected to the building structure; if the lowest slab
is at grade level, at least on one side; if the structural elements of the parking building allow free passage of
the floodwaters; and if the enclosed area below the BFEs have breakaway walls. In addition, if elevators are
present, they need to be made of flood damage-resistant material.
9.11 Design Examples

9.11.1 Garage Openings
A two-car garage for a single-family home is located in flood zone AE, where the BFE is 8 ft, 0 in. NGVD.
The slab of the garage is placed at 6 ft, 6 in. NGVD. The size of the garage is 24 ft × 24 ft. Design the flood
vents for the garage.
Area of the garage (Ae) = 24 ft × 24 ft = 576 sft
Assume a rate of rise and fall (R) = 5 ft/hr
Flood opening coefficient of discharge (c) = 0.4 ASCE 24-14 Table 2.2
Use a rectangular opening with the long axis horizontal

Area of vent (Ao) = 0.033(1/c)(R)(Ae) ASCE 24-14 Equation 2.7.2.2

= 0.033(1/0.4)(5)(576) = 237.6 sq.in
Provide two openings of size 12 in. × 10 in.
Hence area provided = 2 × 12 in. × 10 in. = 240 sq.in
Install openings such that the bottom of the opening is not higher than 6 in. above the high point of the
garage floor.
9.11.2 Decks
Refer to Figure 9.12. The wood deck is located 2 ft below the BFE. All the wood joists and beams are single
spanned.
Figure 9.12
Wood decks.
Dead Loads
Weight of 2 ft decking is 5 psf
Using 2 ft × 8 ft Southern Yellow Pine wood joists spaced at 16 in. o.c.,
10 joists are required in the 16 ft panel.
The joists are approximately 10 ft long.
1.5 in.× 7.25 in.
(10 )(10 )( 5.8 )
Weight of joists − 144
= 0.27 psf
160
Hence, maximum dead weight of the deck and joists is 5 + 0.27 = 5.0 psf (rounded off).
Hydrostatic Uplift
Hydrostatic uplift − 2 ft × 62.4 pcf = 124.8 psf
Net upward hydrostatic uplift −124.8 − 5 = 119.8 psf
Load on Joists
Load on joists − 119.8 (16 in./12 in.) = 159.7 lb/ft
Load on Beams
Load on beams (B-4) − 119.8 × 5 ft = 599 lb/ft
Load on beams (B-2) − 119.8 × 10 ft = 1198 lb/ft
Ignore uniform load of the tributary width of 8 in.
Load on beams (B-1) − 1198 × (16 ft/2) = 9584 lb at midspan
Load on beams (B-3) − 2 × 1198 × (16 ft/2) = 19,168 lb at midspan
Loads on Columns
Column C-1
From beam B-4, 599 × (16 ft/2) = 4792 lb
From beam B-1, 9584/2 = 4792 lb
Total = 9584 lb
Column C-2
From beam B-1, 2 × 9584/2 = 9584 lb
From beam B-2, 1198 × 16 ft/2 = 9584 lb
Total = 19,168 lb
Column C-3
From beam B-4, 2 × 599 × 16 ft/2 = 9584 lb
From beam B-3, 19,168/2 = 9584 lb
Total = 19,168 lb
Column C-4
From beam B-3, 2 × 19,168/2 = 19,168 lb
From beam B-2, 2 × 1198 × 16 ft/2 = 19,168 lb
Total = 38,336 lb
References
American Institute of Steel Construction, https://steelstructures.com/american-institute-fo-steel-construction/.
American Society for Testing Materials, www.astm.org/.
Cazanacli, Dan; Paola, Chris; Parker, Gary. (2002). “Experimental Steep, Braided Flow: Application to Flooding Risk
on Fans.” Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
Committee on Alluvial Fan Flooding, Water Science and Technology Board, Commission on Geosciences,
Environment, and Resources, National Research Council. (1996). Alluvial Fan Flooding. National Academy
Press, Washington, D.C.
Hungr, Oldirch; Evans, S. G.; Bovis, M. J.; Hutchinson, J. N. (August 2001). “A Review of the Classification of
Landslides of the Flow Type.” Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, McLean, VA.
FEMA 116 - Reducing Losses in High Risk Flood Areas: A Guide for Local Officials, published by Federal Emergency
Management Agency.
FEMA 551 - Selecting Appropriate Mitigation Measures for Flood-Prone Structures, Federal Emergency Management
Agency (March 2007).
Flood Damage-Resistant Materials Requirements for Buildings Located in Special Flood Hazard Areas in Accordance
with the National Flood Insurance Program Technical Bulletin 2, Federal Emergency Management Agency
(August 2008).
Free-of-Obstruction Requirements for Buildings Located in Coastal High Hazard Areas in accordance with
the National Flood Insurance Program Technical Bulletin 5, Federal Emergency Management Agency
(August 2008).
Wind versus Storm Surge—
Chapter
10
Hurricane Irma Experience
10.1 Introduction
In the previous nine chapters, we reviewed the building codes and design concepts for wind and flood loads.
In this chapter, we will distinguish between the damage caused by wind forces in relation to storm surge.
This chapter is written based on my experience during the investigative work of the damage caused by
Hurricane Irma, which made landfall in the Florida Keys on September 10, 2017.
Irma developed near the Cape Verde Islands on August 30, 2017, from a tropical wave that had moved
off the West African coast three days prior. Under favorable conditions, Irma rapidly intensified shortly
after formation, becoming a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale within a mere 24 hours. It
became a Category 3 hurricane (and therefore a major hurricane) shortly afterward; however, the intensity
fluctuated between Categories 2 and 3 for the next several days due to a series of eyewall replacement cycles.
On September 4, Irma resumed intensifying, becoming a Category 5 hurricane by early next day. On
September 6, Irma reached its peak intensity with 185 mph winds and a minimum pressure of 27 in., mak-
ing it the second most intense tropical cyclone worldwide in 2017. Another eyewall replacement cycle caused
Irma to weaken back to a Category 4 hurricane, but the storm attained Category 5 status for a second time
before making landfall in Cuba. After dropping to Category 3 intensity as a result of land interaction, the
storm re-intensified to Category 4 status as it crossed warm waters between Cuba and Florida, before mak-
ing landfall on Cudjoe Key with maximum sustained winds at 130 mph. Irma dropped back to Category 3
by the time it made a second Florida landfall on Marco Island. Irma weakened to a Category 2 hurricane
later that day, the first time it weakened below major hurricane status in over a week, and eventually dis-
sipated off the coast of New England on September 16, 2017. The weather maps that document the wind
forces and storm surge in areas affected by Hurricane Irma were reviewed prior to an inspection.
The hurricane caused damage to the roof, the building structure (roof structure, walls, columns, beams
and foundations), interior finishes, façade elements and slabs on grade of buildings. We were assigned the
task of determining the cause and origin as well as the extent and duration of the damage at several types
of residential structures.
10.2 Engineering Investigation Methodology

The investigation for hurricane-related damage to a building begins with a site inspection. Because every
project faces potential litigation, it is advisable that the primary on-site investigation be performed by the
professional engineer in charge of the assignment. Detailed site inspections can be delegated to field inspec-
tors, junior engineers or other associates.
143
The investigation should be performed as soon as possible after the storm to accurately document the
damage. An interview with the property owners (typically, the “insured”) or their representatives (such
as attorneys, loss consultants or public adjusters) is one of the first steps to take. The interview helps the
engineer gather facts such as the age of the building, date of purchase, any remodeling or repairs performed
before the storm, occupancy status of the building during the storm, precautions taken to prevent damages
during the storm (such as installation of shutters, storm panels and flood panels), any photographs of the
property taken prior to the storm, any damages that existed prior to the storms, overview of the damages
observed by the insured after the storm, etc. As the starting point of the inspection, it is important that in
the interview the insured describe the damage sustained during the storm in detail.
Before starting the inspection, the engineer should sketch the layout of the property, using approxi-
mate dimensions if the building plans are not available. This is essential because it helps the engineer to
recollect the building and the locations of damage after an elapsed period of time. The façade and topog-
raphy of the site must be photographed, which should include the terrain, escarpments, obstructions,
adjacent buildings and proximity to the water bodies such as ocean and water inlet. If there are any fallen
trees, then the trunk of the tree should be photographed and the shortest distance between the tree and the
building should be measured. Marks of debris and waterline on the exterior walls must be photographed
and their heights must be measured. The waterline will be a surprisingly straight line that will be present
on both interior and exterior walls; it is a key indicator of storm surge. After a storm, when the cleaning
process begins, debris is piled in the front or backyard. The piles of debris should be carefully inspected
and photographed. Then the documentation of the interior damage and damage to the roof, attic and crawl
space follows.
The building exterior must be inspected for cracks on walls, damaged glazing, condition of the sealants
of the doors and windows, condition of the exterior finishes of the walls, gutters, downspouts and eaves. In
the VE zone, damage to the breakaway walls must be examined. If the damage to the glazing of the door is
at a lower elevation, that damage was more likely done by storm surge. If the damage is at a higher elevation,
then the most probable cause of damage is flying debris. Damage to the eaves, downspouts and roof gutters
is often the result of wind forces. The damage caused by wind is from top to bottom, and by the storm surge
is from the bottom to top of a building.
The main areas of inspection are discussed in the following subsections. They include the roof, attic,
walls, doors and windows, interior finishes and structural system.
10.2.1 Roofs
Typically, pitched roof structures are covered with metal panels, concrete tiles, clay tiles or asphaltic
shingles. Low-sloped roofs are covered with built-up roofing systems or one-ply thermoplastic (PVC)
systems.
Metal roof panels can be used for up to 2% slope roofs on top of solid decks. In areas of high wind, the
underlayment shall be fastened to the roof deck using corrosion-resistant fasteners.
Clay and concrete tiles are used on roofs with slopes greater than 2.5:12 and are attached to sheathed
decks with mechanical fasteners, mortar, or foam. There should be two layers of underlayment for slopes
less than 4:12, and one layer if the slope is greater than 4:12. In areas of high wind, the underlayment shall
be fastened to the roof deck using nails.
Asphaltic shingles are used on roofs with slopes 2:12 or greater and are attached to sheathed deck with
two layers of underlayment for slopes less than 4:12 and one layer if the slope is greater than 4:12. In areas
of high wind, the underlayment shall be fastened to the roof deck using nails.
Built-up, modified bitumen and single-ply roofing are very popular for low-sloped roofs (2% slope). A
typical built-up roof has a base sheet, two or three layers of felt and layers with hot-mopped asphalt.
Wind versus Storm Surge 145
For shingled roofs, a shingle adhesion survey is performed by applying a small amount of upward pres-
sure at the bottom lap of the shingle. Apart from a count of the missing shingles, a shingle adhesion survey
should be performed to assess the damage to the roof.
Wind-related damage to the shingles typically consists of creasing, uplifted corners, stripping, dishevel-
ing, dislodging and missing shingles. Look for a pattern of damaged shingles in particular with relation to
the direction of wind. A single or a few random, displaced shingles may not necessarily constitute wind-
related damage. In low-sloped roofs, we look for areas of peeled-back built-up roofing or uplifted, torn
seams. Again, seek a pattern in relation to wind direction. Concrete and clay tiles during wind events will
experience breakage (more than one crack) and missing, displaced or disheveled tiles.
The performance of a roof during a wind event depends on the age of the roof as well as the type of
material and its maintenance. Any prior repairs made to the roof must be carefully documented, which
should include type, location, size and materials used during the repair. Important locations on the roof to
be checked include flashing around roof vents, turbines, the intersection of walls and roof and where there
is a change of slope.
Section 1503.2 of the 2015 International Business Code (IBC) requires that flashing be installed at the
intersection of walls and roofs, at gutters, at locations of change of slope, and around roof openings such
as vents, skylights and turbines to prevent moisture penetration into the building. Flashings are the most
vulnerable areas that permit moisture penetration inside the building, which results in damage to the inte-
rior finishes. Wind-driven rain during hurricane-type events will result in an exacerbation of a pre-existing
condition, resulting in a larger amount of water intrusion.
Damage on a roof resulting from wind forces during a hurricane are most severe at the ridges, edges,
gables and corners. The entire roof can also be lost. Less severe damage includes breaches in the roof, which
allow moisture penetration.
There could also be damage caused by tree or limb falls and flying debris. The impact of a fallen tree is
apparent. The impact of flying debris is characterized by starbursts or radial pattern on the roofing material.
The “building envelope” is the separation between the interior and the exterior environments of
the building and consists of the outer shell to protect the indoor environment as well as to facilitate its
climate control. Building envelope systems fail from natural aging and deterioration; abnormal external
forces that the systems were not designed to withstand, such as an impact of flying debris; or prema-
ture failure due to inadequate design, construction defects or improper maintenance. Water-shedding
systems rely on the geometry and slope of the top surface to shed water off the roof. The damage to the
shingle or tile covering will often result in damage to the underlayment, in particular, as the fastening
system is torn out. This results in minor breaches that permit direct water intrusion into the building
envelope.
According to section 202 of the IBC (2015), “roof repair” is defined as reconstruction or renewal of any
part of an existing roof for the purposes of its maintenance. Section 1521.4 of the Florida Building Code
(2014) requires that if the area of damage to the roof is greater than 25% of the total roof area, the roof
(or the pertinent section of the roof) needs to be replaced; it may not be repaired.
10.2.2 Roof Structure
There could be distress to the wooden roof structural systems (consisting of trusses, rafters and roof deck)
caused by fallen limbs, flying debris or moisture penetration. The damage to the roof structure can be docu-
mented from the roof or the attic. The wood members of the roof trusses could be separated or split. Wood
rot or termite damage is indicative of old damage.
On a low-sloped roof, ponding of water and spongy surface areas are indicative of long-term deflections
of the wooden rafters or joists resulting from long-term moisture intrusion.
The conditions of other miscellaneous roof structures such as gutters, downspouts, scuppers and eave
soffits should be checked. The forces during a wind event will often distort these elements. Sometimes,
damages to the roof are claimed even when there is no damage to the gutters and eave soffits, which are
more vulnerable to experience damage during a wind event.
10.2.3 Attics
Inspections in the attic help an engineer to assess short-term and long-term damages. If the wood elements
of the attic space such as truss members and the roof plywood exhibit fungal growth, wood rot, dark brown
stains, wood deterioration, and corrosion of nails or hurricane straps, the damage can be classified as long
term and would not have been the result of the one-time hurricane event. Short-term damages include light-
colored moisture-related stains on the plywood and wood elements of the trusses and rafters. If the roof
structure is damaged by an impact of a heavy object like a fallen tree, the wooden members of the roof
trusses could be separated or split, and the exposed wood will have a fresh appearance.
Moisture penetration through the roof could damage the insulation material and the mechanical, electrical
and plumbing elements. A breach of roof elements could cause the insulation material in the attic to experience
displacement, and mechanical ducts may lose their integrity. Typical insulation material is pink or yellow in color.
10.2.4 Interiors
The moisture penetration that occurs due to breach of building envelope often results in damage to the
interior finishes. Typically, interior walls are finished with painted drywall or plaster. Moisture penetra-
tion causes stains and mold-like growth on the interior finishes. Mold-growth can occur very rapidly given
the right circumstances of darkness, food and moisture. After a hurricane event, the cleaning and drying
processes are typically not conducted immediately because of lack of access to the building and shortage
of contractors.
The engineer is assigned the task of determining the cause and origin of the moisture damage inside
the building to assess if the damage is a result of wind forces or storm surge. If there are moisture stains
on the lower sections of the walls, the most probable cause is the water intrusion due to flooding or storm
surge. Stains on ceilings and drip stains on the top sections of the walls are indicative of moisture intrusion
from rain after wind forces breach the envelope. The moisture penetration through the window and door
sills at the ground floor could be due to either flood or rain. A detailed study of the height of storm surge and
inspections of the exterior surface is required.
The sealants of the doors and windows must be inspected for cracks and earlier repairs. The engineer
must assess if the deterioration of the sealants was pre-existing or caused by the hurricane.
The assessment of the damage to the cabinetry is also important. The age of the stains on the toe kicks
of the base cabinet and the base shelves provide an indication of the duration of the damage. Dark brown or
multi-ringed stains indicate that the damage was most likely pre-existing.
A moisture-meter gives a good measure of relative moisture level. Simply recording moisture-meter
readings on walls, ceilings and cabinetry provides a good measure of the relative moisture-content of the
building elements.
10.2.5 Walls
Walls in residential and commercial buildings are typically made of concrete masonry unit (CMU) or wood
studs. Walls could be gravity load-bearing or lateral load-bearing walls. The exterior walls of a load-bearing
structure bear both gravity and lateral loads. In a framed structure, the exterior walls could be in-fill walls
designed to resist lateral loads acting perpendicular to the surface of the walls.
Ground floor walls in the VE flood zone are designed as breakaway walls. They should fail (separate
from the main structure) if flood loads act on the wall and allow passage of water into the non-living space.
If the walls do not fail as they should, the structure could get damaged by the lateral pressure of the flood
water.
Damage to the ground floor walls, which are not breakaway walls, could be caused by flood or wind.
The ground floor walls are examined for water marks to assess the depth of the floodwater. Damage caused
by floodwater to wood stud walls includes stains, dislocation of base plates, disconnection of the wood studs
at the base, splitting of wood studs and bowing of wood studs.
Previous damages includes wood rot, termite infection, and dark brown stains on the wood studs and
plywood sheathing. Flood water can cause horizontal cracks on CMU walls and displacement of the wall
from the foundations. High winds can cause bowing of the wood studs and braces, as well as separation of
the wood studs from the top plates. Severe winds can cause failure of CMU walls in terms of severe crack-
ing and displaced CMUs.
Flying debris impacts result in damage to interior and exterior finishes. If the high wind pressures result
in the disconnection of the hurricane straps of trusses, walls can displace and the building can experience
substantial structural failure.
10.2.6 Doors and Windows
Doors and windows in hurricane-prone regions are rated for the design wind pressures based on the pre-
vailing building codes. Building codes in wind-borne debris regions require that glazing of the doors and
windows be either impact resistant or covered with shutters.
In the past, during hurricanes, impact-resistant glazing has failed at upper levels and shutters have dis-
lodged as a result of negative wind pressures (suction). In addition, glazed doors and windows have failed from
the pressures. Once the envelope is breached, the negative wind pressure builds up inside the building and
can cause structural damage or even building collapse. Moisture intrusion occurs as a result of the breach and
causes damage to the interior finishes and belongings such as furniture, cabinets, closets and clothes.
The engineer should inspect the sealants of the doors and windows very closely. Very rarely does the
wind force cause damage to the sealants. Cracks in the sealants most likely existed before the hurricane, and
the wind-driven rain intrudes into the building through these pre-existing breaches.
10.2.7 Foundations
Typically, the foundations of one- or two-storied buildings consist of a slab on grade with thickened edge
to support the load-bearing walls. There could also be continuous wall footings supporting the exterior
load-bearing walls. These foundations could experience soil erosion or scouring caused by storm surge.
Soil erosion and scouring could cause loss of support of foundation and result in the cracking of the founda-
tions, walls and slabs on grade. Recent cracks have sharp edges and a fresh appearance. Aged cracks appear
weathered, have paint within them, or are soiled with blunt edges indicating long-term damage. The cracks
may house vegetation growth.
In VE flood zones, foundations may be required to extend above the grade. An example is piles with
grade beams, where the bottom surface of the grade beam is above the base flood elevation. Soil erosion
and scouring caused by storm surge result in an increased unsupported length of the pile. Severe soil erosion
could result in the failure of the structure.
10.2.8 Structural Framing
The selection of structural framing depends on the type and height of structure. Wood structural framing
is used in low-rise buildings. Moment-resisting structural steel and reinforced concrete frames are used in
mid-rise buildings. Reinforced concrete beams and columns to support the gravity and shear walls to resist
the lateral loads are typically used in buildings that are 15- to 70-storied.
The walls at the ground floor up to the height of the base flood elevation are designed as breakaway
walls. With the action of the storm surge, these walls should break and allow the floodwater to flow. If the
walls do not break, the storm surge causes structural damage to the building.
10.2.9 Flooring
In residential structures, typically, wood flooring, tile flooring or carpeting is used. As engineers, we are
assigned the task of assessing any damage caused to the flooring during a hurricane.
If the carpeting has multi-colored stains and dirt stains, the damage was pre-existing, which can be
confirmed by checking the nails of the tack strips for corrosion. The corrosion of the tack strip nails is an
indicator of long-term exposure to moisture.
Wood flooring should be checked for cupping, crowing, warping, staining and raised edges, which are
caused by moisture intrusion. Though not a highly accurate method, measuring the relative moisture content
using a moisture-meter provides evidence of the presence of moisture beneath the wood flooring.
In the case of ceramic tiles, the success of any installation of tiles over a concrete slab, where tiles are
directly bonded in a thin-set application, begins with identifying potential bond breakers or contaminants
and successfully removing them. Curing compounds, sealers, coatings, paint, existing adhesives, remaining
residue from previous floor coverings, grease, oil, dead cement, surface laitance, dust, dirt, and so on, should
all be viewed as potential bond breakers. Even clean, potable water on a clean concrete slab could be consid-
ered a bond breaker if there is too much of it. Surface contaminants can also react with the bonding mortar
or adhesive, which could have a detrimental effect on the success of the installation. Finishing techniques
along with the use of some types of concrete additives can also affect the ability of a mortar to form a good
bond. Steel or rotary troweled concrete produces a slick, shiny, dense, glass-like surface, making it difficult
for a mortar to develop a mechanical or adhesive bond. Concrete additives along with finishing techniques
can also produce a very dense concrete surface.
During the installation of tiles, all surfaces must be clean to avoid bond breakers. Using pressure, a thin
skim coat is applied with the flat edge of a trowel. Then, using a proper-sized notched trowel, a second coat
is applied to form ridges. The tiles are applied and pressed. If the tiles are not uniformly pressed with the
appropriate pressure, channels remain in the thin set, which lead to debonding of the tiles. A characteristic
of debonded tiles is the “hollow” sound that can be heard by merely tapping a blunt object or weighted
pole on the surface of the tile. The engineer should determine if a hollow sound is heard when tapping the
tiles. The tile debonding is primarily the result of improper workmanship but could be exacerbated by the
moisture intrusion. Though not a very accurate method, measuring the relative moisture content using a
moisture-meter provides evidence of the presence of moisture beneath the floor tiles.
10.3 Hurricane Irma

In the aftermath of Hurricane Irma, we were assigned several tasks by property insurance companies to
determine the cause, origin, extent and duration of damage to structural and non-structural elements of
buildings. We were also assigned the task of specifically distinguishing any observed damage resulting from
Photograph 10.1
Roof shingles missing as a result of high wind pressure.
wind versus storm surge. We conducted inspections in the Florida Keys, South Florida, west coast of Florida
and counties on Florida’s east coast such as Martin, Port Saint Lucie, Brevard and Volusia.
During our inspections, we observed a variety of damages to building elements. This section of chapter 10
demonstrates some of the types of damages that a hurricane can cause.
Refer to Photograph 10.1. According to the analytical procedures of ASCE 7-10, “Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures,” critical areas of maximum wind pressure on a roof are the ridge
corners and the edges. The calculated wind forces on the roof were in the order of 25 psf, sufficient to affect
the connectivity of the asphaltic shingles from the roof deck. We observed that more than 25% of the roof
shingles were missing. Many of them were missing at the edge of the roof and adjacent to the ridge, which
are areas that experience high wind pressures. Section 1521.4 of the Florida Building Code (2014) requires
that if the repair of the roof section is greater than 25% of the roof area, the entire roof needs to be replaced.
We concluded that the damage to the shingle roof was a result of wind-induced forces and that therefore the
roof required replacement in accordance with section 1521.4 of the Florida Building Code (2014).
Refer to Photograph 10.2. Homes with gabled roofs are more likely to suffer damage during a hurricane.
A gabled roof looks like an “A” on the ends, with the exterior walls extending to the top of the gabled ends.
Photograph 10.2
Structural damage to eave.
Photograph 10.3
Interior ceiling missing due to breach of envelope.
The end wall of a home with a gabled roof is subjected to considerable forces during a hurricane, and those
that are not properly braced can collapse, causing major damage to the roof. During Hurricane Andrew
several gable-end structures suffered wind-related damage in Miami-Dade County, which initiated the revi-
sion of the South Florida Building Code, requiring stringent details of the gable-end connections. A com-
mon mode of failure in the gable wall is the loss of connection between the triangular portion of the wall
with the rectangular portion of the wall below it. The triangular portion of the gable end that failed had been
removed and the debris discarded, and hence we could not inspect the connections. The triangular portion
of the gable-end wall lost its connection and failed during the wind event, causing a breach of envelope. The
forces induced by the triangular portion of the gable-end wall on the adjacent trusses resulted in the failure
of two trusses. We concluded that the structural failure of the north-side gable-end wall and the two adjacent
roof trusses was a result of wind-induced forces. The failure of the structural elements at the north side of
the building caused a breach of the building envelope.
Refer to Photograph 10.3. When the envelope of the building was breached by wind-induced forces,
rainwater entered the building. There was severe moisture-related damage to the finishes of the second floor,
which included moisture-stains and cracks on the wall finishes, water-soaked ceiling and water-soaked
insulation material in the attic. An opening allowed rainwater to enter the space between the second-floor
deck and the ground-floor ceiling, causing moisture-related damage to the ground-floor ceiling and the
second-floor decking. We concluded that the damage to the finishes at the second floor (inclusive of wall
finishes, ceiling, insulation material and vinyl flooring of the northeast corner bedroom) was a result of the
rainwater that penetrated the building due to a breach of envelope caused by wind-induced forces.
Refer to Photograph 10.4. The railing was bent and had lost the top rail for almost its entire length. The
balcony railing consisted of 2 in. × 2 in. metal posts spaced at 60 in. o.c. with a 2.5 in.-channel top rail.
Typically, the railing posts in South Florida are spaced at 48 in. o.c. and the top rail is a steel tube. The post
is required to resist a concentrated load of 200 lb applied at its top and/or a linear load of 50 lb/ft applied
at the top rail. Because the span of the top rail was 5 ft, the reaction of the linear load at the top of the post
was 250 lb. A 2 in. × 2 in. post was inadequate to resist a concentrated load of 250 lb acting at its top. We
concluded that the failure of the railing at the front balcony was the result of inadequate design exacerbated
by the hurricane-related wind forces.
Refer to Photograph 10.5. We observed several nails on the wood sheathing of the exterior walls. The
vinyl cladding of the exterior walls was missing, having been torn off by the wind during Irma. ASTM
D5206-13, “Standard Test Method for Wind Load Resistance of Rigid Plastic Siding,” now requires the
siding to resist a wind pressure of 100 psf. The maximum wind force acting on the vinyl siding did not
Photograph 10.4
Bent metal rails.
exceed 56.14 psf. The ASTM standard requires a tensile strength of 5800 psi for the vinyl siding. We
concluded that the installation of the vinyl siding was not adequate to resist the wind pressure caused
during Hurricane Irma.
Refer to Photograph 10.6. Mold growth was a result of moisture intrusion and delayed cleaning after
the hurricane.
Refer to Photographs 10.7 and 10.8. Using the envelope procedure of chapter 28 of ASCE 7-10, we
determined that the wind force for the main wind force-resisting system (MWFRS) was approximately
56.14 psf on the walls and 53.38 psf on the roof. We observed that the hurricane strap connection of the
wood framing failed and led to the collapse of the front portion of the building. The envelope of the
building was breached and wind-driven rainwater penetrated inside the building. The building was con-
structed in 1989, before Hurricane Andrew, and the codes were less stringent at that time. As explained
in chapter 1, a major revision to the South Florida Building Code occurred in 1994 after Hurricane
Andrew. The building structure was not capable of resisting a wind speed of 155 miles per hour in
exposure D conditions. The failure of the structure of the building was a result of wind forces during
Hurricane Irma.
Photograph 10.5
Missing vinyl siding.
Photograph 10.6
Mold growth after hurricane.
Photograph 10.7
Collapsed wood-framed wall.
Photograph 10.8
Failure of hurricane straps.
Photograph 10.9
Cracks in concrete columns to which the breakaway wall was attached.
Refer to Photographs 10.9 and 10.10. The property was located directly adjacent to the ocean. There
were traces of wood stud walls attached to the concrete columns at the ground-floor level. The walls were
designed as breakaway walls because the property was located in the VE flood zone, in accordance with the
requirements of Part (60) of Title 44 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). According to section 5.3.3
of ASCE 7-10, breakaway walls shall be designed for the largest of
• Calculated wind pressure

• Calculated earthquake load
• 10 psf
The breakaway walls shall be designed such that they collapse when a lateral load of 20 psf acts on it,
unless the structure is designed to resist the flood loads acting on the wall.
The highest sustained wind recorded in Marathon was 80 mph, and the maximum 3-second gust
recorded was 100 mph. The minimum height of the storm tide was 5 ft. We used Table 30.5.1 of the
ASCE 7-10, which is prepared by exposure B to calculate the wind pressures. An adjustment factor of 1.66
Photograph 10.10
View of breakaway wall.
for the building of 30 ft height in exposure D was applied. The tabulated values are ultimate wind pressures.
To convert them into allowable wind pressures, a factor of 0.6 (=0.775) was used. We used an effective
wind area of 50 sft. We determined that an ultimate wind speed of approximately 100 mph was capable of
producing an allowable wind pressure of 20 psf. The building was located at a distance of approximately
100 ft from the ocean. The wind shear forces created the storm surge. Considering the storm surge and wind
acting on the building simultaneously on an incremental basis, the effect of the minimum storm surge far
exceeded the wind acting at that time, which was not the maximum. Only the maximum recorded wind
could have produced a wind pressure of 20 psf, which was the design force necessary to cause the collapse
of the breakaway wall. As the storm surge applied its lateral force, the wood breakaway wall resisted it and
caused damage to the concrete columns to which it was attached. The breakaway wall collapsed only after
the reinforced concrete columns were cracked. We concluded that the damage in the form of cracks and
spalling to the reinforced concrete columns located at the ground floor was a result of the storm surge. It
should be noted that the wall connections were improperly designed, given that they should have broken off
before any damage occurring to the structure. The collapse of the wood breakaway wall was also a result
of the storm surge.
Index
Figures/tables/photos/illustrations are indicated by an italicized number.
across-wind effects 6 importance factor in 38

Agnes, hurricane 5 permitted procedures in 37
allowable stress design 113 velocity pressure in 38
alloy columbium-vanadium structural steel 135 ASCE 7-16
alluvial fan areas 121–122, 122 breakaway walls for flood loads in 102–104, 103
along-wind effects 6 C & C in 11, 12
American National Standard Institute (ANSI) 5 changes from ASCE 7-10 40–42
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) chapter 26 - general requirements 40
chapter 26 - general requirements 40 chapter 27 - Directional Procedure 41
chapter 27 - Directional Procedure 18–22, 19, 21, 22, 41 chapter 28 - envelope procedure 41
chapter 28 - envelope procedure 22–25, 23, 24, 41 chapter 29 - other structures and building
chapter 29 - other structures and building appurtenances appurtenances 41
25, 25–27, 41 chapter 30 - C & C 41–42
chapter 30 - C & C 27–34, 28–34, 41–42 design examples for flood loads in 112–117, 113, 114
glazed opening tested in accordance with 17 Directional Procedure 18–22, 19, 21, 22
load combinations involving flood loads in 112–113 envelope procedure 22–25, 23, 24
standards published by 5 exposure category in 13, 13–14, 14
versions changes in 35–42, 36, 37, 38, 39 exposure classification in 13, 16–17
anchored slab 97 flood loads in 99, 101–119, 103, 105, 106, 107, 109, 110,
Andrew, hurricane 5, 45 111, 113, 114
ANSI see American National Standard Institute general requirements for 11–13
Approximate Natural Frequency (na) ground elevation factor in 13, 15
building with shear walls 49–50, 51 gust effect factor in 13, 15–16
concrete 48–49 hydrodynamic loads in building design for flood loads in
concrete/steel buildings 48–49 106.107, 106–108
effective length determination 47–48 hydrostatic loads in building design for flood loads in
gust effect factor 50–53 104–106, 105
steel 48–49 impact loads for flood loads in 110, 110–111, 111
topographic factor 54 internal pressure coefficient in 13, 17
ASCE see American Society of Civil Engineers MWFRS in 11, 12
ASCE 7 organization of 11, 12
evolution of 35–36 publishing of 5
history of 35 review of 11–34
ASCE 7-10 risk category in 11–12
arrangement of code in 36 scour with floods in 104, 108, 111
ASCE 7-16 compared to 40–42 structural damping in 17–18
basic wind speed determination in 37 three types in building design for flood loads in 104
changes from ASCE 7-05 36, 36, 37, 38, 39 topographic factor in 13, 14–15
definitions 37 wave loads in building design for flood loads in 108–110,
Directional Procedure of 39 109.110
envelope procedure of 39 wind directionality in 13, 13
exposure in 38 wind load parameters for 13, 13–18
gust effects in 38 wind velocity pressure in 18
155
156 Index
ASCE 24-14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 6

chapter 1 - general 119–120 Title 44 of 96–99, 97
chapter 2 - requirements for flood hazard areas 120–121, 121 columbium-vanadium structural steel 134
chapter 3 - high risk flood hazard areas 121–125, 122, 123, 124 Community Rating System (CRS) 95
chapter 4 - coastal high hazard areas 125–129, 127, 128, 129 Components and Cladding (C & C) 8
chapter 5 - materials 129–136 ASCE 7-16 compared to ASCE 7-10 for 41–42
chapter 6 - floodproofing 136, 136–137 ASCE 7-16 in 11, 12
chapter 7 - attendant utilities and equipment 137 ASCE chapter 30 27–34, 28–34
chapter 8 - building access 137 attached canopies on buildings with height ≤ 60 ft 32–33
chapter 9 - miscellaneous construction 138 building appurtenances 31
design examples 138–140, 139 buildings with height ≤ 160 ft 30–31, 31
flood loads in 99, 119–140, 121–124, 127–133, 136, 139 buildings with height greater than 60 ft 30, 30
asphaltic shingles 46 circular bins 33–34
ASTM A36/A36M-14 135 equipment for buildings with height ≤ 60 ft 31
ASTM A123/A123M-15 132 examples of 12
ASTM A148/A148M-15a 135–136 general conditions and limitation with 27–28, 28
ASTM A153/A153M-16a 133 low-rise buildings 28–30, 29, 30
ASTM A252-10 134 non-building structures 33–34.34
ASTM A572/A572M-15 134, 135 open buildings 31.32
ASTM A653/A653M-15e1 134 parapets 31–32
ASTM A690/A690M-13a 135 roof overhang 31–33.33
ASTM A924/A924M-16ae1 14 rooftop solar panel 34
ASTM A992/A992M-11 135 rooftop structures 31.32
Aswan High Dam 93 silos 33–34
attics, hurricane damage investigation with 146 tanks with height ≤ 120 ft 33–34
awnings, design of 87, 87–88 concrete
approximate natural frequency calculation of 48–49
baguios 3 slabs 138
base flood elevation (BFE) 101 with steel buildings, approximate natural frequency
Betsy, hurricane 5 calculation of 48–49
BFE see base flood elevation concrete masonry unit (CMU) 8
breakaway walls 102–104, 103 CRS see Community Rating System
breaking waves 108 cyclones, tropical 3
loads on piles from 115–116
buffeting 6–7 damping 17–18
building appurtenances 25, 25–27 dead loads 140
ASCE 7-16 compared to ASCE 7-10 for 41 debris impact 116
C & C with 31 decks 138–140, 139
“building enclosure” 6 design loads
building envelope 6 coastal flood hazard areas from 125–126
for fenestration 46 flood elevation as basis for 101
main functions of 43 Directional Procedure
product control for 45 ASCE 7-10 39
for roof 46 ASCE 7-16 compared to ASCE 7-10 for 41
testing and inspections for 43–44 design wind load cases 21
building with shear walls, approximate natural frequency enclosed & partially enclosed buildings 19, 19–20
calculation of 49–50, 51 enclosed simple diaphragm buildings with h ≤ 160 ft
Burj Khalifa 7 20–22, 22
MWFRS determined by 18
canopies. attached 32–33 velocity pressure calculation using 55–57, 56
carbon structural steel 135 doors, hurricane damage investigation with 147
carports 138 drag 108
C & C see Components and Cladding drag coefficient 107
CFR see Code of Federal Regulations dry floodproofing 136
Charley, hurricane 5 duplexes, wind loads for 8
chimneys 25, 138 dynamic pressure coefficient 108
circular bins, C & C with 33–34
clay tiles 46 eccentricities modification equation 21
CMU see concrete masonry unit effective length (Leff )
coastal flooding 101 determination of 47–48
hazard areas with 126–127, 127 elevation; see also ground elevation factor
Index 157
base flood 101 coastal regions affected by 93

coastal flood hazard areas from 126–127 defined 93
enclosed building classification 16–17 erosion with 104
ASCE Directional Procedure with 19, 19–20 examples 95
envelope procedure with low-rise buildings in 22–24, 23 FEMA in management of 94–95
enclosed simple diaphragm building method, velocity pressure flash 101
calculation using 58–59 hurricane inland 5
envelope procedure Katrina caused 93
ASCE 7-10 39 Mississippi Delta 93
ASCE 7-16 compared to ASCE 7-10 for 41 riverine flooding 101
enclosed and partially enclosed low-rise buildings in scour with 104, 108, 111
22–24, 23 Title 44 of CFR in 96–99, 97
enclosed simple diaphragm low-rise buildings in 24, 24–25 two main types of events with 101
MWFRS determined by 22 flooring
erosion hurricane damage investigation with 148
flood hazard from areas prone to 123–124, 124 steel joists for 133
flood loads with 104 Florida Building Code
exposure 38 product control procedures of 45–46
exposure category 13, 13–14, 14 wind and flood loads addressed by 5–6
exposure classification 13, 16–17 flutter 7
Exterior Wall Covering 44 foundations
Exterior Wall Envelope 44 coastal flood hazard areas from 127, 127
hurricane damage investigation with 147
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 94–95 freestanding sold signs 25
fence, design of 79, 79–80 fundamental natural frequency 16; see also Approximate
fenestration, inspections for 46 Natural Frequency
fireplaces 138
flash flood galloping 7
areas of hazard for 122 garages 138–139
National Weather Service definition 101 GCpi see internal pressure coefficient
flood hazard areas ground elevation factor (Ke)
alluvial fan areas 121–122, 122 roof diaphragm design with 75
coastal 125–129, 127, 128, 129 wind load with 13, 15
erosion-prone areas 123–124, 124 ground surface roughness 14
flash flood areas 122 gust 7
high velocity flow areas 124 gust effect factor 13, 15–16
ice jams and debris area 124–125 approximate natural frequency calculation of 50–53
mudslide areas 123, 123 ASCE 7-10 compared to ASCE 7-05 with 38
flood loads
in ASCE 7-16 and ASCE 24-14 99 heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) 6
ASCE 7-16 for 101–119, 103, 105, 106, 107, 109, 110, 111, building codes for 6
113, 114 high velocity flow areas 124
ASCE load combinations involving 112–113 “High Velocity Hurricane Zone” (HVHZ) 5
construction methodology to minimizes damage from 98 hipped roof, wind pressure calculation for 70–71
damage-resistant building materials for 98 hot-dip galvanizing process 132–134
hydrodynamic loads in building design for 106.107, Hugo, hurricane 5
106–108 hurricane
hydrostatic loads in building design for 104–106, 105 Agnes 5
three types in building design for 104 Andrew 5, 45
wave loads in building design for 108–110, 109.110 Betsy 5
flood loads design examples Charley 5
debris impact 116 formation 3, 4
hydrodynamic and breaking wave loads on piles 115–116 Ike 5
loads on piles calculations 112–113, 113 inland flooding from 5
loads on walls calculations 113–115, 114 Ivan 5
swimming pool 116–117 Katrina 5, 93
floodproofing 136, 136–137 Rita 5
floods Saffir/Simpson scale for 4
benefits of 93–94 storm surges from 5
building codes addressing 5–6 testing and inspections for regions prone to 43
coastal flooding 101 tornadoes from 5
158 Index
Wilma 5 Ke see ground elevation factor

wind speed definition of 3 Kz see velocity pressure coefficient
Hurricane Irma 148–154, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153 Kzt see Topographic Factor
attics in engineering investigation of 146
doors and windows in engineering investigation of 147 lattice frameworks 25
engineering investigation methodology with 143–144 Leff see effective length
flooring in engineering investigation of 148 load on beams 140
foundations in engineering investigation of 147 load on joists 140
interiors in engineering investigation of 146 load path 8
roofs in engineering investigation of 144–145 loads on column 140
roof structure in engineering investigation of 145–146 loads on piles
structural framing in engineering investigation of 148 calculations 112–113, 113
walls in engineering investigation of 146–147 hydrodynamic and breaking wave 115–116
hurricane straps, design of 77–78, 78 loads on walls calculations 113–115, 114
HVAC see heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning low-rise buildings
HVHZ see “High Velocity Hurricane Zone” C & C with 28–30, 29, 30
hydrodynamic loads 106–108 enclosed and partially enclosed 22–24, 23
drag coefficient for 107 enclosed simple diaphragm 24, 24–25
loads on piles from 115–116 wind pressure calculation for 23
walls with water velocity and 106 wind pressures calculation for enclosed simple
hydrostatic loads 104–106 diaphragm 61–62
effects on swimming pools of forces from 112
on slabs 105 Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWFRS) 8
on walls 105 ASCE 7-16 in 11, 12
hydrostatic uplift 105, 140 ASCE Directional Procedure as determiner for 18
ASCE envelope procedure as determiner for 22
IBC see International Building Code Mean Recurrence Interval (MRI) 12
ICC see International Code Council Miami-Dade County, product control procedures of 45
ice jams and debris area 124–125 miscellaneous steel and iron 133
Ike, hurricane 5 Mississippi Delta 93
impact loads 110, 110–111, 111 MRI see Mean Recurrence Interval
importance coefficient 109 mudslide areas 123, 123
importance factor 38 multi-storied buildings, wind loads for 9
industrial buildings, wind loads for 8–9 MWFRS see Main Wind Force Resisting System
inertia 108
inspections na see Approximate Natural Frequency
for building envelope 43–44 National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) 6, 94
engineering investigation methodology with 143–144 National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD) 105
for fenestration 46 National Hurricane Center 5
for hurricane prone regions 43 NFIP see National Flood Insurance Program
for product control 45–46 NGVD see National Geodetic Vertical Datum
for roof 46 nickel, copper, phosphorus steel h-piles 135
structural 44–45 NOA see Notice of Acceptance
for wind-borne debris regions 43 non-building structures, C & C with 33–34.34
for wind loads 43–46 Notice of Acceptance (NOA) 45
interiors, hurricane damage investigation with 146
internal pressure coefficient (GCpi) 13, 17 open building classification 16–17
International Building Code (IBC) 6 ASCE Directional Procedure with 19, 19–20
International Code Council (ICC) 6 C & C with 31.32
product control procedures of 46 open signs 25
Irma see Hurricane Irma ornamental steel and iron 133
iron
classes 133 parapets
miscellaneous 133 C & C with 31–32
ornamental 133 design of 88, 88–89
structural 133 wind loads for 22
zinc coating on hardware of 132–133 wind pressure calculation for 23
Ivan, hurricane 5 partially enclosed building classification 16–17
ASCE Directional Procedure with 19, 19–20
Katrina, hurricane 5, 93 envelope procedure with low-rise buildings in 22–24, 23
Kd see Wind Directionality Factor partially open building classification 16–17
Index 159
pile caps 131 silos, C & C with 33–34

piles single-family homes, wind loads for 8
calculations for loads on 112–113, 113 siting, coastal flood hazard areas from 126
hydrodynamic and breaking wave loads on 115–116 skylights, design of 85–86, 86
nickel, copper, phosphorus steel h- 135 slab 96, 97
precast concrete 129, 130, 131, 132 anchored 97
pre-stressed concrete 129, 130, 131, 132 concrete 138
reinforced concrete 129, 130, 131, 132 hydrostatic loads on 105
sheet 135 solar panels
steel 129, 130 C & C with rooftop 34
steel pipe 134 wind pressure calculation for 66–68, 73–75, 74, 75
wave forces on 126 solid freestanding sign, wind pressure calculation for 65–66
wood 127, 128, 129 solid freestanding walls 25
pools 138 steel
porches 138 approximate natural frequency calculation of 48–49
precast concrete pile 129, 130, 131, 132 castings for structural purposes 135–136
pre-stressed concrete pile 129, 130, 131, 132 classes 133
product control floor joists 133
Florida Building Code’s procedures for 45–46 miscellaneous 133
ICC evaluation service’s procedures for 46 ornamental 133
Miami-Dade County’s procedures for 45 piles 129, 130
pipe piles 134
RAS see Roofing Application Standards sheet, metallic-coated 134
reinforced concrete pile 129, 130, 131, 132 sheet, zinc-coated 134
rigid structures 16 structural 133
risk category, in ASCE 7-16 11–12 zinc coating on hardware of 132–133
Rita, hurricane 5 storage facilities 138
riverine flooding 101 storm surges
roof from hurricane 5
building envelope for 46 wind forces versus 143–154, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153
diaphragm design 75–77, 76 strength design 112–113
hipped, wind pressure calculation for 70–71 striking of wave run-ups 108
hurricane damage investigation with 144–145 structural damping 17–18
inspections for 46 structural framing, hurricane damage investigation with 148
water tank with domed 63–65 structural inspections 44–45
Roofing Application Standards (RAS) 6 structural steel and iron 133
roof overhangs: structural steel shapes 135
C & C with 31–33.33 Substantial Damage 95
wind loads for 22 surface roughness 14, 14
wind pressure calculation for 23 swimming pools
rooftop equipment 25 design example 116–117
design of 83–85, 84 hydrostatic forces’ effects on 112
rooftop structures 25; see also building appurtenances
C & C with 31.32 tanks
hurricane damage investigation with 145–146 ASCE 24 chapter 9 and 138
solar panel, C & C with 34 ASCE chapter 29 on 25
roof wind pressure, roof diaphragm design with 77 with height ≤ 120 ft 33–34
roughness 14, 14 wind pressure calculation for water 63–65
TAS see Testing Application Standards
Saffir/Simpson scale 4 testing, for wind loads 43–46
scour 104, 108, 111 Testing Application Standards (TAS) 6
Sears tower 7 Topographic Factor (Kzt) 13, 14–15
shear walls approximate natural frequency calculation of 54
building with 49–50, 51 roof diaphragm design with 75
details of 133 tornadoes, from hurricane 5
sheet piling 135 transverse frames, velocity pressure calculation using 60–61
signs tropical cyclones 3
design of 80–83, 81 tropical depression 3
freestanding sold 25 tropical storm 3
open 25 trusses towers 25
wind pressure calculation for solid freestanding 65–66 turbulence 6
160 Index
uplift with hurricane damage investigation with 147

ASCE 7-16 with 108 wind pressure calculation for 68–70
hydrostatic 105, 140 wind pressure
calculation for enclosed simple diaphragm low-rise
velocity pressure building 61–62
ASCE 7-10 compared to ASCE 7-05 with 38 calculation for hipped roof 70–71
calculation 54–55 calculation for solar panels 66–68, 73–75, 74, 75
calculation using Directional Procedure 55–57, 56 calculation for solid freestanding sign 65–66
calculation using enclosed simple diaphragm building calculation for water tank with domed roof 63–65
method 58–59 calculation for windows 68–70
calculation using transverse frames 60–61 equation 23
equation 23 roof diaphragm design with 77
roof diaphragm design with 75 wind-related solved examples
velocity pressure coefficient (K z) awnings design 87, 87–88
roof diaphragm design with 75 building with shear walls, approximate natural frequency
vortex shedding 6–7 calculation of 49–50, 51
concrete, approximate natural frequency calculation of
walls 48–49
breakaway 102–104, 103 concrete/steel buildings, approximate natural frequency
calculations for loads on 113–115, 114 calculation of 48–49
hurricane damage investigation with 146–147 effective length determination 47–48
hydrodynamic loads on 106 fence design 79, 79–80
hydrostatic loads on 105 gust effect factor, approximate natural frequency
shear 49–50, 51, 133 calculation of 50–53
water tank with domed roof, wind pressure calculation for 63–65 hurricane straps design 77–78, 78
wave forces on piles, coastal flood hazard areas from 126 parapet design 88, 88–89
wave loads 108–110, 109.110 roof diaphragm design 75–77, 76
wet floodproofing 136–137 rooftop equipment design 83–85, 84
Wilma, hurricane 5 signs design 80–83, 81
wind-borne debris regions 43 skylights design 85–86, 86
Wind Directionality Factor (Kd) 13, 13 steel, approximate natural frequency calculation of 48–49
roof diaphragm design with 75 topographic factor, approximate natural frequency
wind loads calculation of 54
affect on buildings 7 velocity pressure calculation 54–55
ASCE 7-16 in calculations of 11–13 velocity pressure calculation using Directional Procedure
building codes addressing 5–6 55–57, 56
causes of forces in 3–5 velocity pressure calculation using enclosed simple
design cases 21 diaphragm building method 58–59
dispersal in building structures of 8–9 velocity pressure calculation using transverse frames
for duplexes 8 60–61
engineering concepts for 6–7 wind pressure of enclosed simple diaphragm low-rise
exposure category in 13, 13–14, 14 building calculation 61–62
exposure classification in 13, 16–17 wind pressure of hipped roof calculation 70–71
ground elevation factor in 13, 15 wind pressure of solar panels calculation 66–68, 73–75,
gust effect factor in 13, 15–16 74, 75
for industrial buildings 8–9 wind pressure of solid freestanding sign calculation 65–66
internal pressure coefficient in 13, 17 wind pressure of water tank with domed roof calculation
for multi-storied buildings 9 63–65
parameters for 13, 13–18 wind pressure of windows calculation 68–70
parapets 22 wind pressures of enclosed simple diaphragm low-rise
roof overhangs: 22 building calculation 61–62
for single-family homes 8 wind speed determination
storm surge versus 143–154, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153 ASCE 7-10 compared to ASCE 7-05 with 37
structural damping in 17–18 equation 46
testing and inspections for 43–46 Wind Tunnel Procedure 15
topographic factor in 13, 14–15 wind velocity pressure 18
wind directionality in 13, 13 wood piles 127, 128, 129
wind velocity pressure in 18
windows zinc coating, on iron and steel hardware 132–133

Design Wind and Flood Loads Syed M Ashraf

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Design Wind and Flood Loads Syed M Ashraf

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Structural Building Design:

Wind and Flood Loads

“A tragedy unheard of—May your soul rest in peace, Ahsan”

I also dedicate this book to my teachers with a deep sense of gratitude

My love to my four children,

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Part 1 Wind Loads

Chapter 2. Review of ASCE 7-16��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11

2.7 ASCE Chapter 30—Components and Cladding��������������������������������������������������������������������������������27

Chapter 3. Significant Changes in ASCE Versions����������������������������������������������������������� 35

Chapter 4. Testing and Inspections��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 43

Chapter 5. Wind-Related Solved Examples�����������������������������������������������������������������������47

Problem 5.4 Approximate Natural Frequency—Gust Effect Factor�����������������������������������������������������������50

Chapter 6. Miscellaneous Structures—Calculations of Wind Pressures���������������������������� 73

Part 2 Flood Loads

Chapter 8. ASCE 7-16 for Flood Loads���������������������������������������������������������������������������101

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Chapter 9. ASCE 24-14 for Flood Loads������������������������������������������������������������������������ 119

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ASTM A572/A572M-15 Standard Specification for High-Strength Low-Alloy

Chapter 10. Wind versus Storm Surge—Hurricane Irma Experience���������������������������������143

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ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers

pcf pounds per cubic foot

1.2 Building Codes Addressing Wind and Flood Loads

1.3 Basic Wind-Engineering Concepts

1.4 Dispersal of Wind Loads in Building Structures

2.2 General Requirements of Wind Load Calculations

2.2.2 General Requirements

2.2.3 Wind Directionality Factor (Kd )

2.2.4 Exposure Category

Sob ASCE Equation C26.7-1

2.2.5 Topographic Factor (Kzt )

2.2.6 Ground Elevation Factor (Ke )

2.2.7 Gust Effects

Building Height ≤ 300 ft (and)

2.2.8 Enclosure Classifications

2.2.9 Internal Pressure Coefficient (GCpi)

Open Buildings 0.0

2.2.10 Structural Damping

2.3 Wind Velocity Pressure

Q z = 0.00256K z K zt K d K e V 2 ASCE Equations 26.10-1

2.4 ASCE Chapter 27—Directional Procedure

• For Regular-shaped buildings

q z = 0.00256K z K zt K d K e V 2 ASCE Equation 27.10-1

5. Calculate wind force as shown below for each case

b. Open Buildings with Monoslope, Pitched or Troughed-Free Roofs

p = q h GC N ASCE Equation 27.3-2

2.4.2 Part (2): Enclosed Simple Diaphragm Buildings with H ≤ 160 ft

Building shall meet the class 1 or class 2 requirements of the code.

2.5 ASCE Chapter 28—Envelope Procedure

2.5.1 Part (1): Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Low-Rise Buildings

• For Regular-shaped buildings

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q z = 0.00256K z K zt K d V 2 ASCE Equation 26.10-1

4. Calculate wind pressure (p) for each case as shown below.

qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height

qp = velocity pressure evaluated at top of the parapet

Chapter 2. Review of ASCE 7-16��11

2.7 ASCE Chapter 30—Components and Cladding��27

Chapter 3. Significant Changes in ASCE Versions�� 35

Chapter 4. Testing and Inspections�� 43

Chapter 5. Wind-Related Solved Examples��47

Problem 5.4 Approximate Natural Frequency—Gust Effect Factor��50

Chapter 6. Miscellaneous Structures—Calculations of Wind Pressures�� 73

Chapter 8. ASCE 7-16 for Flood Loads��101

Chapter 9. ASCE 24-14 for Flood Loads�� 119

Chapter 10. Wind versus Storm Surge—Hurricane Irma Experience��143

2.7.6 Part (6): ASCE Chapter 30—Building Appurtenances

3.4.2 Chapter 27 Wind Loads on Buildings: Main Wind

3.4.3 Chapter 28 Wind Loads on Buildings: Main Wind

3.4.4 Chapter 29 Wind Loads on Building Appurtenances and Other