Y
2

ë
2



2






2
  




2




|

 
 
 3-22

 
 

Ñ The first law of thermodynamics is essentially



 an expression of the conservation of energy

 principle. Energy can cross the boundaries of
2



a closed system in the form of heat or work.




Ñ If the energy transfer across the boundaries of

a closed system is due
to a temperature difference, it is `
r
otherwise, it is .

2




|

 
 
 3-23

 
 
Ñ eat is transferred in three ways: m m
,
m m
, and 



.



 · Y m
 is the transfer of energy from the more


energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
2



energetic ones as a result of interactions between the




particles.
· Y m
 is the mode of energy transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion, and it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
· 0



 is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms
2



or molecules.
|

 
 
 3-24

 
 
Ñ The three modes of heat transfer are expressed
as:





2






2




|

 
 
 3-25

 
 
Ñ ëarious forms of work are expressed as follows:

· ¦ m
m

: (kJ)





· p 

: (kJ)
2






· „






(=DPE): (kJ)

· mm 



(=DKE): (kJ)

· £`

: (kJ)

· £pring work: (kJ)

2




|

 
 
 3-26

 
 



 Ñ Gor the i i

m
im 
 = constant) of real

 gases, the boundary work can be expressed as:
2






2




|

 
 
 3-27

 
 

Ñ The energy balance for

 
undergoing





im 
can be expressed as:


2






2




|

 
 
 3-28

 
 

Ñ The energy balances for

 
undergoing





im 
can be expressed in the 


as:


2






2




|

 
 
 3-29

 
 

Ñ Taking heat transfer to the system and work done

by the system to be positive quantities, the energy


 balance for a closed system can also be


expressed as:
2






where:

2




|

 
 
 3-30

 
 

Ñ Gor a m
i  
im , .



 Thus


2






2




|

 
 
 3-31

 
 

Ñ The amount of energy needed to raise the



 temperature of a unit of mass of a substance by

 one degree is called the i m

m
`



m


2



 
Y for a constant-volume process and the




i m

m
`



m

i  
Yi for a
constant pressure process. They are defined as:

2




|

 
 
 3-32

 
 

Ñ Gor ideal gases , `, Y, and Yi are functions of



 temperature alone. The   and  ` of ideal gases

 can be expressed as:
2






2




|

 
 
 3-33

 
 

Ñ Gor ideal gases Y, and Yi are related by:






2






2




|

 
 
 3-34

 
 

Ñ The i m

m
`




 is defined as:





2






2




|

 
 
 3-35

 
 

Ñ Gor
mi 

 
m 
(liquids and


 solids), both the constant-pressure and constant-

 volume specific heats are identical and denoted by
2



C:




2




|

 
 
 3-36

 
 

Ñ The and ` of incompressible substances are



 given by


2






2




|

 
 
 3-37

 
 






2



Ñ The refrigeration and freezing of foods is a major

application area of thermodynamics.




2




|

 
 
 3-1


2 


ü






2






2




|

 
 
 3-2

  


ü






2






2




|

 
 
 3-3



2 


ü
 





2






2




|

 
 
 3-4




ü







2






2




|

 
 
 3-5

0  

ü






2






2




|

 
 
 3-6


 

ü
 





2






2




|

 
 
 3-7

  

ü






2






2




|

 
 
 3-8

p 

ü






2






2




|

 
 
 3-9

§




ü







2






2




|

 
 
 3-10


   !"ë#$

ü






2






2




|

 
 
 3-11


   !"ë#%

ü






2






2




|

 
 
 3-12

  




ü






2






2




|

 
 
 3-13


   !"ë#&ë

ü






2






2




|

 
 
 3-14


  ' 

ü
 





2






2




|

 
 
 3-15


 
 


ü
 





2






2




|

 
 
 3-16


 
 


ü
 





2






2




|

 
 
 3-17


#
(#


ü
 





2






2




|

 
 
 3-18

 
Y Y

ü






2






2




|

 
 
 3-19




) 


ü






2






2




|

 
 
 3-20

2 

   
*

ü
 





2






2




|

 
 
 3-21

2 

+
,-

ü







2






2




|