Textbook MIT Mechanic S

Chapter 1 The History and Limitations of Classical Mechanics
Chapter 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1

Chapter 1 The History and Limitations of Classical Mechanics
Chapter 1.1 Introduction
Classical mechanics is the mathematical science that studies the displacement of bodies
under the action of forces. Gailieo Galilee initiated the modern era of mechanics by using
mathematics to describe the motion of bodies. His Mechanics, published in 1623,
introduced the concepts of force and described the constant accelerated motion of objects
near the surface of the Earth. Sixty years later Isaac Newton formulated his Laws of
Motion, which he published in 1687 under the title, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). In the third book,
subtitled De mundi systemate (On the system of the world), Newton solved the greatest
scientific problem of his time by applying his Universal Law of Gravitation to determine
the motion of planets. Newton established a mathematical approach to the analysis of
physical phenomena in which he stated that it was unnecessary to introduce final causes
(hypothesis) that have no experimental basis, “Hypotheses non fingo (I frame no
hypotheses), but that physical models are built from experimental observations and then
made general by induction. This led to a great century of applications of the principles of
Newtonian mechanics to many new problems culminating in the work of Leonhard Euler.
Euler began a systematic study of the three dimensional motion of rigid bodies, leading to
a set of dynamical equations now known as Euler’s equations of motion.
Alongside this development and refinement of the concept of force and its
application to the description of motion, the concept of energy slowly emerged,
culminating in the middle of the nineteenth century in the discovery of the principle of
conservation of energy and its immediate applications to the laws of thermodynamics.
Conservation principles are now central to our study of mechanics; the conservation of
momentum, energy, and angular momentum enabled a new reformulation of classical
mechanics.
During this period, the experimental methodology and mathematical tools of

Newtonian mechanics were applied to other non-rigid systems of particles leading to the
development of continuum mechanics. The theories of fluid mechanics, wave mechanics,
and electromagnetism emerged leading to the development of the wave theory of light.
However there were many perplexing aspects of the wave theory of light, for example,
does light propagate through a medium, the “ether”? A series of optics experiments,
culminating in the Michelson-Morley experiment in 1887 ruled out the hypothesis of a
stationary medium. Many attempts were made to reconcile the experimental evidence
with classical mechanics but the challenges were more fundamental. The basics concepts
of absolute time and absolute space, which Newton had defined in the Principia, were
themselves inadequate to explain a host of experimental observations. Albert Einstein, by
insisting on a fundamental rethinking of the concepts of space and time, and the relativity
of motion, in his special theory of relativity (1905) was able to resolve the apparent
conflicts between optics and Newtonian mechanics. In particular, special relativity
provides the necessary framework for describing the motion of rapidly moving objects
(speed greater than v > 0.1 c ).
1-1
A second limitation on the validity of Newtonian mechanics appeared at the
microscopic length scale. A new theory, statistical mechanics, was developed relating the
microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk
thermodynamic properties of materials. Started in the middle of the nineteenth century,
new observations at very small scales revealed anomalies in the predicted behavior of
gases (heat capacity). It became increasingly clear that classical mechanics did not
adequately explain a wide range of newly discovered phenomena at the atomic and sub-
atomic length scales. An essential realization was that the language of classical
mechanics was not even adequate to qualitatively describe certain microscopic
phenomena. By the early part of the twentieth century, quantum mechanics provided a
mathematical description of microscopic phenomena in complete agreement with our
empirical knowledge of all non-relativistic phenomena.
In the twentieth century, as experimental observations led to a more detailed

knowledge of the large-scale properties of the universe, Newton’s Universal Law of
Gravitation no longer accurately modeled the observed universe and needed to be
replaced by general relativity. By the end of the twentieth century and beginning of the
twenty-first century, many new observations, for example the accelerated expansion of
the Universe, have required introduction of new concepts like dark energy that may lead
once again to a fundamental rethinking of the basic concepts of physics in order to
explain observed phenomena.
1-2
Chapter 2 Units, Dimensional Analysis, and Estimation
2.1 International System of Units ................................................................................ 3

2.1.1 Definition of the second ..................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Definition of the meter ....................................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Definition of the kilogram ................................................................................. 8
Example 2.1.3.1 Definition of the kilogram in terms of the SI constants................... 9
2.1.4 Definition of the ampere .................................................................................. 11
Example 2.1.4.1 Ampere .......................................................................................... 11
2.1.5 Definition of the kelvin .................................................................................... 11
2.1.5.1 Example Kelvin ............................................................................................ 12
2.1.6 Definition of the mole ...................................................................................... 12
Example 2.1.6.1 Mole ............................................................................................... 13
2.1.7 Radians............................................................................................................. 13
Example 2.1.7.1 Parsec ............................................................................................. 15
2.1.8 Steradians ......................................................................................................... 16
2.1.9 Definition of the candela .................................................................................. 16
Example 2.1.9.1 Candela .......................................................................................... 16
2.2 Dimensions of Commonly Encountered Quantities........................................... 18
2.2.1 Dimensions of Fundamental Constants ........................................................... 20
Example 2.2.1.1 Dimension of the Universal Gravitation Constant G ................... 20
Example 2.2.1.2 Dimensions of the Coulombic constant 1/ 4πε 0 ........................... 20
Example 2.2.1.3 Dimensions of the Planck constant ................................................ 21
2.3 Dimensional Analysis............................................................................................ 22
Example 2.3.1 Period of a Pendulum........................................................................ 22
Example 2.4.2 Fine Structure Constant .................................................................... 23
Example 2.3.3 Rydberg constant .............................................................................. 24
2.4 Order of Magnitude Estimates - Fermi Problems ............................................. 25
Methodology for Estimation Problems ..................................................................... 26
Example 2.4.1 Fermi’s Problem Piano Tuners ......................................................... 27
Example 2.4.2 Estimation of Mass of Water on Earth ............................................. 27
Example 2.4.3 Lao-Tzu’s Last Breath ...................................................................... 29
Chapter 2 Units, Dimensional Analysis, and Estimation
But we must not forget that all things in the world are connected with one
another and depend on one another, and that we ourselves and all our thoughts
are also a part of nature. It is utterly beyond our power to measure the changes
of things by time. Quite the contrary, time is an abstraction, at which we arrive
by means of the change of things; made because we are not restricted to any one
definite measure, all being interconnected. A motion is termed uniform in which
equal increments of space described correspond to equal increments of space
described by some motion with which we form a comparison, as the rotation of
the earth. A motion may, with respect to another motion, be uniform. But the
question whether a motion is in itself uniform, is senseless. With just as little
justice, also, may we speak of an “absolute time” --- of a time independent of
change. This absolute time can be measured by comparison with no motion; it
has therefore neither a practical nor a scientific value; and no one is justified in
saying that he knows aught about it. It is an idle metaphysical conception.1
Ernst Mach
2.1 International System of Units
The system of units most commonly used throughout science and technology today is
the Système International (SI). The seven base quantities and their corresponding base
units, are shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Base Units
Base Quantity Base Unit

Time second (s)
Length meter (m)
Mass kilogram (kg)
Electric Current ampere (A)
Temperature kelvin (K)
Amount of Substance mole (mol)
Luminous Intensity candela (cd)
Many physical quantities are then derived from the base quantities by a set of algebraic
relations defining the physical relation between these quantities. Mechanics is based on
just the first three of these quantities, the second, the meter, and the kilogram, MKS or
1
E. Mach, The Science of Mechanics, translated by Thomas J. McCormack, Open Court
Publishing Company, La Salle, Illinois, 1960, p. 273.
meter-kilogram-second system. An alternative metric system, still widely used, is the
CGS system (centimeter-gram-second).
Example: Derived units for velocity, acceleration, force, energy, and power
Velocity is defined to be the rate of change of position with respect to time and
therefore has the derived SI unit m ⋅s−1 . Acceleration is defined to be the rate of
velocity with respect to time and therefore has the derived SI unit m ⋅s −2 . The newton,
symbol N , is the derived SI unit for force which is equal to the product of mass with
acceleration. Therefore force has the derived SI unit kg ⋅ m ⋅s −2 . The joule, symbol J , is
the derived SI unit for energy which is equal to the product of force with distance.
Therefore the derived SI unit for energy is kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s−2 . The watt, symbol W , is the
derived SI unit for power which is equal to the rate of change of energy with respect to
time. Therefore the derived SI unit for power is kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s−3 .
The base quantities were originally determined by experiment with uncertainties in their
values. Gradually the base units were no longer defined by physical prototypes like the
standard kilogram or standard meter bar but were defined by asset of constants. As of
May 20, 2019, all the base SI units are now defined in terms of seven constants shown
in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Defining Constants
Quantity Symbol
Cesium hyperfine frequency Δν Cs
Speed of light in vacuum c
Planck constant h
Elementary charge e
Boltzmann constant k
Avogadro constant NA
Luminous efficacy of a Kcd
defined visible radiation
The International Committee for Weights and Measures describes practical methods
(mises en practique) for “realizing” a unit”.2 This means a method for the
establishment of the value and associated uncertainty of a quantity of the same kind as
2
https://www.bipm.org/en/publications/mises-en-pratique/
the unit that is consistent with the definition of the unit. Any method that is traceable to
the seven constants could be used.
The future definition of a unit does not imply any particular experiment for its practical
realization. Any method capable of deriving an amount of base quantity value traceable
to the set of seven reference constants could, in principle, be used. A primary method
for realizing each unit is one that achieves the best precision and lowest uncertainty.
In what follows, the exact language for the definitions of the constants and SI base units
is used. The definitions specify the exact numerical value of each constant when its
value is expressed in the corresponding SI unit. By fixing the exact numerical value the
unit becomes defined, since the product of the numerical value and the unit has to
equal the value of the constant, which is postulated to be invariant. The seven constants
are chosen in such a way that any unit of the SI can be written either through a defining
constant itself or through products or quotients of defining constants.3
2.1.1 Definition of the second
Isaac Newton, in the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (“Mathematical

Principles of Natural Philosophy”), distinguished between time as duration and an
absolute concept of time,
“Absolute true and mathematical time, of itself and from its own nature,
flows equably without relation to anything external, and by another
name is called duration: relative, apparent, and common time, is some
sensible and external (whether accurate or unequable) measure of
duration by means of motion, which is commonly used instead of true
time; such as an hour, a day, a month, a year. ”4.
The development of clocks based on atomic oscillations allowed measures of

timing with accuracy on the order of 1 part in 1014 , corresponding to errors of less than
one microsecond (one millionth of a second) per year. Given the incredible accuracy of
this measurement, and clear evidence that the best available timekeepers were atomic in
nature, the second [s] was defined in 1967 by the International Committee on Weights
and Measures as a certain number of cycles of electromagnetic radiation emitted by
cesium (or caesium) atoms as they make transitions between two designated quantum
states:
3
https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/base-units.html
4
Isaac Newton. Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Translated by Andrew
Motte (1729). Revised by Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1934. p. 6.
The second, symbol s , is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the
fixed numerical value of the cesium frequency Δν Cs , the unperturbed
ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the cesium 133 atom to
be 9 192 631 770 when expressed in the unit Hz , which is equal to s −1 . 5
The second is equal to the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground
state of the cesium 133 atom. The hyperfine frequency is exactly defined to be
Δν Cs = 9 192 631 770 Hz = 9 192 631 770 s −1 (2.1)
Therefore the unit second is equal to
9 192 631 770

1s = . (2.2)
Δν Cs
A primary method to “realize” a second, the unit of time, with the highest accuracy
involves certain national metrology laboratories that design primary frequency
standards. The primary frequency standards aim at exactly realizing the SI second using
the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133
atom, and for which corrections with respect to all known systematic shifts due to a
variety of physical phenomena (gravitation is especially problematic in correcting for its
effect) have been applied to best knowledge. The accuracy order of the best primary
frequency standards that define the SI second approaches 1 part in 1016 . In 2018, the
time metrology community proved that a new generation of frequency standards
operating in optical wavelengths has uncertainties at the level of 10−18 , which may
require a re-definition of the second.6
2.1.2 Definition of the meter
The meter was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the arc from the Equator to the
North Pole along the meridian passing through Paris. In 1889 the meter was redefined
5
https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si-mep/SI-App2-second.pdf
6
Arias, E. F., Petit, G., The Hyperfine Transition for the Definition of the
Second. ANNALEN DER PHYSIK 2019, 531,
1900068. https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.201900068
in terms of the international prototype meter by the 1st Conférence Générale des Poids
et Mèsures (CGPM). The prototype meter was a platinum bar with an etched length
scale to aid in calibration and ease of comparison, preserved near Paris. The accuracy of
the bar was limited to one part in 107 . Effects of temperature and pressure needed to be
precisely calibrated as well as the mounting in order to ensure that the bar was straight.
In 1960 the CGPM introduced a microscopic reference by defining the meter as the
length equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to
the transition between the levels 2p10 and 5d 5 of the krypton 86 atom. This definition
of the meter depended on a particular radiation and cannot be realized to better than 4
parts in 109 .
In 1983 the 17th CGPM defined the speed of light as a constant and the meter was
redefined in terms of the distance that light traveled in 1/ 299 792 458 of a second.
The meter, symbol m , is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the

fixed numerical speed of light in vacuum c to be 299 792 458 when
expressed in the unit m ⋅s−1 , where the second is defined in terms of the
cesium frequency Δν Cs . 7
The definition of the speed of light states that
c = 299 792 458 m ⋅s−1 (2.3)
The meter is therefore defined by

c
1m = ⋅1 s (2.4)
299 792 458
The second is defined by Eq. (2.2). Therefore Eq. (2.4) becomes
c 9 192 631 770 c

1m = ⋅ = 30.663 314 9 (2.5)
299 792 458 Δν Cs Δν Cs
This new definition, opens the way to major improvements in the precision with which
the meter can be realized using laser wavelength and frequency measurement
techniques. It is worth noting that the new definition has only become practicable with
the development of techniques for the measurement of frequencies of electromagnetic
7
https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si-mep/SI-App2-metre.pdf
radiations in the visible and near infrared. These can now be measured directly in terms
of the frequency of the cesium standard which is used in the definition of the second.”8
2.1.2.1 Worked Example: Krypton Frequency Transition
The experimental value for frequency of the transition between the levels 2p10 and
86
5d 5 of the Kr is equal to f = 494886516.5 MHz . Using the definition of the speed of
light, c = 299 792 458 m ⋅s−1 , (i) calculate the wavelength corresponding to this
transition, (ii) How does this frequency compare to the frequency derived from the
wavelength λ Kr = (1/ 1650763.73) m in the 1960 definition of the meter?
c 299 792 458 m ⋅s −1

Answer: (i) λ = = = 605780210.2 fm
f 494886516.5 MHz
(ii) In the 1960 definition, the wavelength was equal to λ Kr = (1/ 1650763.73) m . Using
c = 299 792 458 m ⋅s−1 . The frequency is then
c 299 792 458 m ⋅s−1

f Kr = = = 494886516.2 MHz .
λ Kr 605780210.6 fm
2.1.3 Definition of the kilogram
The kilogram was the last base unit in the International System of Units (SI) that
was replaced in Nov 18, 2018 by a new definition in terms of the constants. The old
kilogram was a physical artifact, known as the “International Prototype of the Standard
Kilogram.” George Matthey (of Johnson Matthey) made the prototype in 1879 in the
form of a cylinder, 39 mm high and 39 mm in diameter, consisting of an alloy of 90 %
platinum and 10 % iridium. The international prototype is kept in the Bureau
International des Poids et Mèsures (BIPM) at Sevres, France, under conditions specified
by the 1st Conférence Générale des Poids et Mèsures (CGPM) in 1889 when it
sanctioned the prototype and declared “This prototype shall henceforth be considered to
be the unit of mass.” It is stored at atmospheric pressure in a specially designed triple
bell-jar. The prototype is kept in a vault with six official copies.
8
1. “Documents concerning the New Definition of the Metre”, Metrologia 19 (1984) 163. DOI:
10.1088/0026-1394/19/4/004
The 3rd Conférence Générale des Poids et Mèsures CGPM (1901), in a declaration
intended to end the ambiguity in popular usage concerning the word “weight”
confirmed that: the kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the
international prototype of the kilogram. As of Nov 18, 2018, the kilogram is now
defined as follows:
The kilogram, symbol kg , is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the

fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015 × 10−34
when expressed in the unit J ⋅s , which is equal to kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s−1 where the
meter and second are defined in terms of c and Δν Cs .
Thus the Planck constant h is exactly h = 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 J ⋅s . This

numerical value of h defines the unit joule second in the SI and, in
combination with the SI second and meter, defines the kilogram. The
numerical value of h given in the definition of the kilogram has ensured
the continuity of the unit of mass with the previous definition of the
kilogram.9
Example 2.1.3.1 Definition of the kilogram in terms of the SI constants
Find an expression for the unit kilogram in terms of the defining constants h , c
and Δν Cs .
Answer: The Planck constant is exactly defined as
h = 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 J ⋅s = 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −1 (2.6)
Therefore the kilogram is defined to be
h
1 kg = −34
⋅ m 2 ⋅s −1 (2.7)
6.626 070 15 × 10
Using the definitions of the second (Eq. (2.2) and meter (Eq. (2.5)), Eq. (2.7) becomes
2
h ⎛ c ⎞ Δν Cs
1 kg = ⋅ 30.663 314 9
−34 ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (2.8)
6.626 070 15 × 10 ⎝ Δν Cs ⎠ 9 192 631 770
9
https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si-mep/SI-App2-kilogram.pdf
Therefore
hΔν Cs
1 kg = 1.4755214 × 1040 (2.9)
c2
Realizing the kilogram requires practical methods that are describes in an article in
Physics Today by Wolfgang Ketterle (MIT) and Alan Jamison (Institute for Quantum
Computing at the University of Waterloo).10 They begin by using the above definition
to count photons and then describe a series of more practical methods.
The internal energy E of an object is proportional to the rest mass according to
E = mc 2 , (2.10)
where c is the speed of the light. The energy of a light particle (photon) is proportional
to the frequency of oscillation of the monochromatic classical wave associated to the
photon,
hc
E = hf = , (2.11)
λ
where h is Planck’s constant. The photon is a massless particle but we can define an
effective mass by equating Eqs. (2.10) and (2.11),
mc 2 = hf , (2.12)
yielding an effective mass
hf
m= . (2.13)
c2
The mass equivalence of a photon emitted due to the hyperfine transition between two
hyperfine ground states of cesium-133 atoms with frequency f = Δν Cs is then
hΔν Cs (6.62607015 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s-1 )(9192631770 s −1 )

m= =
c2 (2.99792458 × 108 m ⋅s-1 )2 (2.14)
= 6.77726531× 10−41 kg
The number N of photons, emitted due to the hyperfine transition between two
hyperfine ground states of cesium-133 atoms, needed in order for their total mass to
equal one kilogram is then
1
N= −41
= 1.4755214 × 1040 (2.15)
6.77726531× 10
10
https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/PT.3.4472
One kilogram is now equal to the mass of 1.4755214 × 1040 photons at the cesium
hyperfine frequency.
hΔν Cs
1 kg = 1.4755214 × 1040 (2.16)
c2
2.1.4 Definition of the ampere
The ampere, symbol A , is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by

taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be
1.602176634 × 10−19 when expressed in the unit C , which is equal to A ⋅s ,
where the second is defined in terms of Δν Cs . 11
Example 2.1.4.1 Ampere
Find an expression for the unit ampere in terms of the defining constants e and
Δν Cs .
Answer: The exact definition of the elementary charge is
e = 1.602176634 × 10−19 C = 1.602176634 × 10−19 A ⋅s . (2.17)
Therefore the unit ampere is defined to be
e e Δν Cs
1A = −19
⋅(1 s)−1 = −19
⋅ (2.18)
1.602176634 × 10 1.602176634 × 10 9 192 631 770
Hence
1 A = 6.789687 × 108 eΔν Cs (2.19)
2.1.5 Definition of the kelvin
The kelvin, symbol K , is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. It is

defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k
to be 1.380649 × 10−23 when expressed in the unit J ⋅ K −1 , which is equal
11
to kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −2 K −1 , where the kilogram, meter and second are defined in
terms of h , c and Δν Cs .
This definition implies the exact relation k = 1.380649 × 10−23 J ⋅ K −1 . Its

effect is that one kelvin is equal to the change of thermodynamic
temperature T that results in a change of thermal energy kT by
1.380649 × 10−23 J . 12
2.1.5.1 Example Kelvin
Find an expression for the unit kelvin in terms of the defining constants k , h , c and
Δν Cs .
Answer: The Boltzmann constant is exactly
k = 1.380649 × 10−23 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −2 ⋅ K −1 (2.20)
Therefore the unit kelvin is defined as
1.380649 × 10−23
1K = ⋅ kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −2 (2.21)
k
Using our above definitions for the kilogram, meter and second, Eq. (2.21)
becomes
⎛ 1.380649 × 10−23 ⎞ ⎛ hΔν Cs ⎞

1K = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ 1.4755214 × 1040 ⎟
⎝ k ⎠ ⎝ c2 ⎠
2 −2
(2.22)
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ 9 192 631 770 ⎞
⋅ ⎜ 30.663 314 9 ⋅
⎝ Δν Cs ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Δν Cs ⎟
⎠
One kelvin is then equal to

hΔν Cs
1 K = 2.266 665 265 (2.23)
k
2.1.6 Definition of the mole
12
The mole, symbol mol , is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole contains
exactly 6.02214076 × 1023 elementary entities. This number is the fixed
numerical value of the Avogadro constant, N A , when expressed in the unit
mol−1 and is called the Avogadro number.
The amount of substance, symbol n , of a system is a measure of the number of

specified elementary entities. An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule,
an ion, an electron, any other particle or specified group of particles. 13
Example 2.1.6.1 Mole
Find an expression for the unit mole in terms of the defining constant N A .
Answer:
The Avogadro number is exactly defined as
N A = 6.02214076 × 1023 mol (2.24)
Therefore, 1 mole is given by the expression:
NA
1 mol = (2.25)
6.02214076 × 1023
2.1.7 Radians
Consider the triangle drawn in Figure 2.1. The basic trigonometric functions of an angle
θ in a right-angled triangle ONB are sin(θ ) = y / r , cos(θ ) = x / r , and tan(θ ) = y / x .
P
B
r
y s
O
x N A X
Figure 2.1 Trigonometric relations
13
It is very important to become familiar with using the measure of the angle θ
itself as expressed in radians [rad]. Let θ be the angle between two straight lines OX
and OP . Draw a circle of radius r centered at O . The lines OP and OX cut the
circle at the points A and B where OA = OB = r . Denote the length of the arc AB
by s , then the radian measure of θ is given by
θ = s/r, (2.26)
and the ratio is the same for circles of any radii centered at O -- just as the ratios y / r
and y / x are the same for all right triangles with the angle θ at O . As θ
approaches 360 , s approaches the complete circumference 2π r of the circle, so that
360 = 2π rad .
tan( )
/2
1.0
sin( )
0
/2
Figure 2.2 Radians compared to trigonometric functions.
Let’s compare the behavior of sin(θ ) , tan(θ ) and θ itself for small angles.
One can see from Figure 2.1 that s / r > y / r . It is less obvious that y / x > θ . It is very
instructive to plot sin(θ ) , tan(θ ) , and θ as functions of θ [rad] between 0 and π / 2
on the same graph (see Figure 2.2). For small θ , the values of all three functions are
almost equal. But how small is “small”? An acceptable condition is for θ << 1 in
radians.
We can show this with a few examples. Recall that 360 = 2π rad , 57.3 = 1 rad , so an
angle 6 ≅ (6 )(2π rad / 360o ) ≅ 0.1 rad when expressed in radians. In Table 2.2 we
compare the value of θ (measured in radians) with sin(θ ) , tan(θ ) , (θ − sin θ ) / θ , and
(θ − tan θ ) / θ , for θ = 0.1 rad , 0.2 rad , 0.5 rad , and 1.0 rad .
Table 2.3 Small Angle Approximation
θ [rad] θ [deg] sin(θ ) tan(θ ) (θ − sin θ ) / θ (θ − tan θ ) / θ

0.1 5.72958 0.09983 0.10033 0.00167 -0.00335
0.2 11.45916 0.19867 0.20271 0.00665 -0.01355
0.5 28.64789 0.47943 0.54630 0.04115 -0.09260
1.0 57.29578 0.84147 1.55741 0.15853 -0.55741
The values for (θ − sin θ ) / θ , and (θ − tan θ ) / θ , for θ = 0.2 rad are less than ±1.4% .
Provided that θ is not too large, the approximation that
sin(θ ) ! tan(θ ) ! θ , (2.27)
called the small angle approximation, can be used almost interchangeably, within
some small percentage error. This is the basis of many useful approximations in
physics calculations.
Example 2.1.7.1 Parsec
A standard astronomical unit is the parsec . Consider two objects that are separated by a
distance of one astronomical unit, 1AU = 1.50 × 1011 m , which is the mean distance
between the earth and sun. (One astronomical unit is roughly equivalent to eight light
minutes, 1AU = 8.3light-minutes .) One parsec is the distance at which one
astronomical unit subtends an angle θ = 1 arcsecond = (1/ 3600) degree .
Suppose is a spacecraft is located in a space a distance 1 parsec from the Sun as shown
in Figure 2.3. How far is the spacecraft in terms of light years and meters?
Earth
1 arcsecond
1 AU
Sun spacecraft
1 parsec
Figure 2.3 Example 2.1.7.1
Because one arc second corresponds to a very small angle, one parsec is therefore equal
to distance divided by angle, hence
(1 AU) ⎛ 1.50 × 1011 m ⎞
1pc = = (2.06 × 105 AU) ⎜ ⎟ = 3.09 × 1016 m
(1/3600) ⎝ 1 AU ⎠
. (2.28)
⎛ 1ly ⎞
= (3.09 × 10 m) ⎜
16
= 3.26 ly
⎝ 9.46 × 10 m ⎟⎠
15
2.1.8 Steradians
The steradian [sr] is the unit of solid angle that, having its vertex in the center of a
sphere, cuts off an area of the surface of the sphere equal to that of a square with sides
of length equal to the radius of the sphere. The conventional symbol for steradian
measure is Ω , the uppercase Greek letter “Omega.” The total solid angle Ωsph of a
sphere is then found by dividing the surface area of the sphere by the square of the
radius,
Ωsph = 4π r 2 / r 2 = 4π (2.29)
This result is independent of the radius of the sphere.
2.1.9 Definition of the candela
The candela, symbol cd , is the SI unit of luminous intensity in a given

direction. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the
luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency
540 × 1012 Hz , K cd , to be 683 when expressed in the unit 1 m ⋅ W −1 ,
which is equal to cd ⋅sr ⋅ W −1 or cd ⋅sr ⋅ kg −1 ⋅ m −2 ⋅s3 where the
kilogram, meter and second are defined in terms of h , c and Δν Cs .
The candela is the SI base unit for the photometric quantity luminous
intensity. The definition of the candela is based on the SI defining constant
Kcd which links the photometric units to the corresponding radiometric
units14
Example 2.1.9.1 Candela
Find an expression for the unit candela in terms of the defining constants ,
h , and Δν Cs .
14
https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/base-units.h
Answer: One candela expressed in terms of the defining constants by inverting K cd ,
the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz . Starting
with
K cd = 683 cd ⋅sr ⋅ kg −1 ⋅ m −2 ⋅s3 ,
we have that
K
1 cd = cd sr −1 ⋅ kg ⋅ m −2 ⋅s−3
683
substituting the units kg , m , and s by their corresponding expressions in terms of the

defining constants:
K
1 cd = cd sr −1 ⋅ kg ⋅ m −2 ⋅s−3
683
2 −3
K ⎛ hΔν Cs ⎞ ⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ 9 192 631 770 ⎞
1 cd = cd ⎜ 1.4755214 × 1040 ⎟⎜ 30.6633149 ⋅
683 ⎝ c2 ⎠ ⎝ Δν Cs ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Δν Cs ⎟
⎠
(1.4755214 × 1040 )(30.6633149)2 (9 192 631 770)−3
1 cd = K cd hΔν Cs 2
683
10
1 cd = 2.614830 × 10 K cd hΔν Cs 2
The effect of this definition is that one candela is the luminous intensity, in a given
direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz
and has a radiant intensity in that direction of (1/ 683)W ⋅sr −1 .15
15
2.2 Dimensions of Commonly Encountered Quantities
Introduction
Many physical quantities are derived from the base quantities by a set of algebraic
relations defining the physical relation between these quantities. We shall refer to the
dimension of the base quantity by the quantity itself, for example
dim (length) ≡ length ≡ L, dim (mass) ≡ mass ≡ M, dim (time) ≡ time ≡ T. (2.1)
The dimension of a derived quantity is written as a power of the dimensions of the base
quantities. For example velocity is a derived quantity and the dimension is given by the
relationship
dim velocity = (length)/(time) = L ⋅ T-1 . (2.2)
where L ≡ length , T ≡ time . Force is also a derived quantity and has dimension
(mass)(dim velocity)
dim force = . (2.3)
(time)
where M ≡ mass . We can also express force in terms of mass, length, and time by the
relationship
(mass)(length)
dim force = = M ⋅ L ⋅ T-2 . (2.4)
(time)2
The derived dimension of kinetic energy is
dim kineticenergy = (mass)(dim velocity)2 , (2.5)
which in terms of mass, length, and time is
(mass)(length)2
dim kineticenergy = 2
= M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-2 . (2.6)
(time)
The derived dimension of work is
dim work = (dim force)(length) , (2.7)
which in terms of our fundamental dimensions is

(mass)(length)2
dim work = 2
= M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-2 . (2.8)
(time)
So work and kinetic energy have the same dimensions. Power is defined to be the rate
of change in time of work so the dimensions are
dim work (dim force)(length) (mass)(length)2

dim power = = = 3
= M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-3 .(2.9)
time time (time)
In Table 2.4 we include the derived dimensions of some common mechanical quantities
in terms of mass, length, and time.
Table 2.4 Dimensions of Some Common Mechanical Quantities

M ≡ mass , L ≡ length , T ≡ time
Quantity Dimension MKS unit

Angle dimensionless Dimensionless = radian
Solid Angle dimensionless Dimensionless = sterradian
Area L2 m2
Volume L3 m3
Frequency T-1 s −1 = hertz = Hz
Velocity L ⋅ T-1 m ⋅ s −1
Acceleration L ⋅ T-2 m ⋅ s −2
Angular Velocity T-1 rad ⋅ s −1
Angular Acceleration T-2 rad ⋅ s −2
Density M ⋅ L-3 kg ⋅ m −3
Momentum M ⋅ L ⋅ T-1 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s −1
Angular Momentum M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-1 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −1
Force M ⋅ L ⋅ T-2 kg ⋅m ⋅s−2 = newton = N
Work, Energy M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-2 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −2 = joule = J
Torque M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-2 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −2
Power M ⋅ L2 ⋅ T-3 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −3 = watt = W
Pressure M ⋅ L-1 ⋅ T-2 kg ⋅ m −1 ⋅ s −2 = pascal= Pa
2.2.1 Dimensions of Fundamental Constants
A number of fundamental constants appear in the fundamental laws of physics. The

values of these constants depend on the choice of units. We denote the dimension of a
quantity * by square brackets ⎡⎣*⎤⎦ : for example the dimension of frequency is denoted
by ⎡⎣ f ⎤⎦ and is equal to
⎡⎣ f ⎤⎦ = 1/ (time) .
In what follows all constants will be given in SI units.
Example 2.2.1.1 Dimension of the Universal Gravitation Constant G
Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation describes the gravitational force

between two bodies with masses, m1 and m2 . This force points along the line
connecting the bodies, is attractive, and its magnitude is proportional to the inverse
square of the distance, r1,2 , between the bodies.
! mm
F = G 1 22 ,
r1,2
where G = 6.6742(10) × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg -2 . The dimensions of the Universal Gravitation

Constant G are then
( length)
3
⎡⎣G ⎤⎦ = .
( mass)(time)
2
Example 2.2.1.2 Dimensions of the Coulombic constant 1/ 4πε 0
Coulomb’s Law describes the electric force between two charged bodies q1 and
q2 , separated by a distance r1,2 . The fundamental charge has magnitude
e = 1.602176634 × 10−19 C . The magnitude of the force exerted on an electron with
charge q1 = −e due to the interaction between and electron and a proton with charge
q2 = e is given by,
! 1 e2
F1,2 = .
4πε 0 r1,2 2
The vacuum permittivity is defined as
1
ε0 = ,
µ0 c 2
where the speed of light c = 2.99792458 × 108 m ⋅s-1 , in the new definitions of SI units,
the vacuum permeability is experimentally determined with a value
µ0 = 1.25663706212(19) × 10−6 N ⋅C−2 ⋅s 2 .
(Note that before the new definitions of units, µ0 = 4π × 10−7 N ⋅C−2 ⋅s 2 ).
Therefore ε 0 = 8.8541878128(13) × 10−12 N -1 ⋅ m -2 ⋅C2 . Note that

1/ 4πε 0 = 8.9875517923× 109 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅C-2 . Therefore the dimensions of
( force)(length)2
[1/ 4πε 0 ] = .
(charge)2
Example 2.2.1.3 Dimensions of the Planck constant
The internal energy of an object is proportional to the rest mass according to
E = mc 2 .
The energy of a light particle (photon) is proportional to the frequency of oscillation of

the monochromatic classical wave associated to the photon,
hc
E = hf = ,
λ
where Planck’s constant is defined to be exactly h = 6.62607015 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s-1 . The

dimensions of Planck’s constant can be determined from the relation
h= E/ f .
The dimension of energy can be determined form the relation E = mc 2 :
(mass)(length)2
⎡⎣ E ⎤⎦ = .
(time)2
The dimension of Planck’s constant is therefore

( mass)( length)
2
⎡⎣ h ⎤⎦ = ( energy ) ( time ) = .
(time)
2.3 Dimensional Analysis
There are many phenomena in nature that can be explained by simple relationships
between the observed phenomena.
Example 2.3.1 Period of a Pendulum
Consider a simple pendulum consisting of a massive bob suspended from a fixed point
by a string. Let T denote the time interval (period of the pendulum) that it takes the bob
to complete one cycle of oscillation. How does the period of the simple pendulum
depend on the quantities that define the pendulum and the quantities that determine the
motion?
Solution: What possible quantities are involved? The length of the pendulum l , the
mass of the pendulum bob m , the gravitational acceleration g , and the angular
amplitude of the bob θ 0 are all possible quantities that may enter into a relationship for
the period of the swing. Have we included every possible quantity? We can never be
sure but let’s first work with this set and if we need more than we will have to think
harder! Our problem is then to find a function f such that
T = f (l,m, g,θ 0 ) (2.10)
We first make a list of the dimensions of our quantities as shown in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 Dimensions of Quantities Relevant to the Period of Pendulum
Name of Quantity Symbol Dimensional Formula

Time of swing t T
Length of pendulum l L
Mass of pendulum m M
Gravitational acceleration g L ⋅ T-2
Angular amplitude of swing θ0 No dimension
Our first observation is that the mass of the bob cannot enter into our
relationship, as our final quantity has no dimensions of mass and no other quantity has
dimensions of mass. Let’s focus on the length of the string and the gravitational
acceleration. In order to eliminate length, these quantities must divide each other when
appearing in some functional relation for the period T . If we choose the combination
l / g , the dimensions are
length
dim[l / g] = 2
= (time)2 (2.11)
length/(time)
It appears that the time of swing may proportional to the square root of this ratio. Thus
we have a candidate formula
1/2
⎛l⎞
T ⎜ ⎟ . (2.12)
⎝ g⎠
(in the above expression, the symbol “  ” represents a proportionality, not an

approximation). Because the angular amplitude θ 0 is dimensionless, it may or may not
appear. We can account for this by introducing some function y(θ 0 ) into our
relationship, which is beyond the limits of this type of analysis. The period is then
1/2
⎛l⎞
T = y(θ 0 ) ⎜ ⎟ . (2.13)
⎝ g⎠
We shall discover later on that y(θ 0 ) is nearly independent of the angular amplitude θ 0
for very small amplitudes and is equal to y(θ 0 ) = 2π ,
1/2
⎛l⎞
T = 2π ⎜ ⎟
⎝ g⎠
Example 2.4.2 Fine Structure Constant
(a) What combination of constants h , c , e , and ε 0 gives a dimensionless quantity?

Hint: Let γ = h 1 c 2 e 3 ε 0
a a a a4
and find a1 ,a2 ,a3 , and a4 such that [γ ] is dimensionless.
Answer:
Let γ = h 1 c 2 e 3 ε 0
a a a a4
such that [γ ] is dimensionless. This means that
γ = (kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s-1 ) a1 (m ⋅s-1 ) a2 (C) a3 (kg −1 ⋅s 2 ⋅ m −3 ⋅C2 ) a4
must has no units. Therefore

a1 − a4 = 0
2a1 + a2 − 3a4 = 0
−a1 − a2 + 2a4 = 0
a3 + 2a4 = 0
We can solve these equations and find that

a1 = a2 = a4
a3 = −2a1
The smallest integer solution for a positive value of a1 is given by
a1 = a2 = a4 = 1
a3 = −2
Therefore
hcε 0
γ =
e2
(b) Fine structure constant
Define β = (h / 2π )c(4πε 0 ) / e2 . Find the value of the fine structure constant α given
by
1 e2 µ ce2
α= = = 0 .
β 2ε 0 ch 2h
Answer:
1
α!
137
Example 2.3.3 Rydberg constant
The Rydberg constant is named after a Swedish physicist Johannes Rydberg. It

corresponds to the wavenumber (inverse wavelength) of the lowest-energy photon that
can ionize an atom from its ground state. It’s expressed as RH for the hydrogen atom
and as R∞ for any atom whose nucleus is infinitely heavier than a single orbiting
electron.
According to the CODATA16, the value of the Rydberg constant for heavy atoms is:
16
https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?ryd
2π 2 me e4
R∞ = = 10 973 731.568 160 m −1
( 4πε )
2 3
0
hc
where me = 9.109 383 7015 × 10−31 kg is the rest mass of the electron, is the
elementary charge, ε 0 is the permittivity of free space, h is the Planck constant, and c
is the speed of light in vacuum.
In atomic physics, the Rydberg unit of energy, Ry , describes the energy of the photon
with a wavenumber equal to , thus corresponding to the ionization energy of the
hydrogen atom. It’s expressed as follows:
2π 2 me e4 1
Ry = hcR∞ = = (mec 2 )α 2
( 4πε )
2
0
h2 2
Find the numerical value of the Rydberg unit of energy.
Answer: The exact value, provided by the CODATA, is:
me e4
Ry = = 2.179 872 3611035 × 10−18 J
8ε 0 h
2 2
,
Ry =13.605 693122 994 eV
2.4 Order of Magnitude Estimates - Fermi Problems
Counting is the first mathematical skill we learn. We came to use this skill by
distinguishing elements into groups of similar objects, but counting becomes
problematic when our desired objects are not easily identified, or there are too many to
count. Rather than spending a huge amount of effort to attempt an exact count, we can
try to estimate the number of objects. For example, we can try to estimate the total
number of grains of sand contained in a bucket of sand. Because we can see individual
grains of sand, we expect the number to be very large but finite. Sometimes we can try
to estimate a number, which we are fairly sure but not certain is finite, such as the
number of particles in the universe.
We can also assign numbers to quantities that carry dimensions, such as mass,
length, time, or charge, which may be difficult to measure exactly. We may be
interested in estimating the mass of the air inside a room, or the length of telephone
wire in the United States, or the amount of time that we have slept in our lives. We
choose some set of units, such as kilograms, miles, hours, and coulombs, and then we
can attempt to estimate the number with respect to our standard quantity.
Often we are interested in estimating quantities such as speed, force, energy, or

power. We may want to estimate our natural walking speed, or the force of wind acting
against a bicycle rider, or the total energy consumption of a country, or the electrical
power necessary to operate a university. All of these quantities have no exact, well-
defined value; they instead lie within some range of values.
When we make these types of estimates, we should be satisfied if our estimate is

reasonably close to the middle of the range of possible values. But what does
“reasonably close” mean? Once again, this depends on what quantities we are
estimating. If we are describing a quantity that has a very large number associated with
it, then an estimate within an order of magnitude should be satisfactory. The number of
molecules in a breath of air is close to 1022 ; an estimate anywhere between 1021 and
1023 molecules is close enough. If we are trying to win a contest by estimating the
number of marbles in a glass container, we cannot be so imprecise; we must hope that
our estimate is within 1% of the real quantity. These types of estimations are called
Fermi problems. The technique is named after the physicist Enrico Fermi, who was
famous for making these sorts of “back of the envelope” calculations.
Methodology for Estimation Problems
Estimating is a skill that improves with practice. Here are two guiding principles that
may help you get started.
(1) You must identify a set of quantities that can be estimated or calculated.
(2) You must establish an approximate or exact relationship between these

quantities and the quantity to be estimated in the problem.
Estimations may be characterized by a precise relationship between an estimated

quantity and the quantity of interest in the problem. When we estimate, we are drawing
upon what we know. But different people are more familiar with certain things than
others. If you are basing your estimate on a fact that you already know, the accuracy of
your estimate will depend on the accuracy of your previous knowledge. When there is
no precise relationship between estimated quantities and the quantity to be estimated in
the problem, then the accuracy of the result will depend on the type of relationships you
decide upon. There are often many approaches to an estimation problem leading to a
reasonably accurate estimate. So use your creativity and imagination!
Example 2.4.1 Fermi’s Problem Piano Tuners
A famous type of estimation problem is named after the physicist Enrico Fermi. One of
his favorite examples was estimating the number of piano tuners in Chicago with the
only given information the population of Chicago which at the time was approximately
3 million people.
Solution: Our estimate will be based on how many individual living units there are in
Chicago. Assume that on average 5 people live together. Then there are 600,000 living
units. Assume that one in ten living units has a piano, which amounts to 60,000 pianos.
Suppose a piano tuner can tune three pianos a day. If a tuner works a 50 week year, five
days a week, then each tuner can tune 750 pianos per year. Therefore there is an need
for 60,000 / 750 = 80 , so we estimate there are 100 piano tuners in Chicago.
Solution: The first step is to consider what type of quantity is being estimated. In this
example we are estimating a dimensionless scalar quantity, the number of pennies. We
can now give a precise relationship for the number of pennies needed to mark off 1
kilometer
totaldistance
# of pennies = . (2.14)
diameter of penny
We can estimate a penny to be approximately 2 centimeters wide. Therefore the number

of pennies is
totaldistance (1 km)
# of pennies= =
length of a penny (2 cm)(1 km / 105 cm) (2.15)
= 50,000 pennies = 5 × 104 pennies.
When applying numbers to relationships we must be careful to convert units

whenever necessary. How accurate is this estimation? If you measure the size of a
penny, you will find out that the width is 1.9 cm , so our estimate was accurate to within
5%. This accuracy was fortuitous. Suppose we estimated the length of a penny to be 1
cm. Then our estimate for the total number of pennies would be within a factor of 2, a
margin of error we can live with for this type of problem.
Example 2.4.2 Estimation of Mass of Water on Earth
Estimate the mass of the water on the Earth.

Solution: In this example we are estimating mass, a quantity that is a fundamental in SI
units, and is measured in kg. We start by approximating that the amount of water on
Earth is approximately equal to the amount of water in all the oceans. Initially we will
try to estimate two quantities: the density of water and the volume of water contained in
the oceans. Then the relationship we want is
mass = (density)(volume) . (2.16)
One of the hardest aspects of estimation problems is to decide which relationship

applies. One way to check your work is to check dimensions. Density has dimensions of
mass/volume, so our relationship is correct dimensionally.
The density of fresh water is ρ = 1.0 g ⋅cm −3 ; the density of seawater is slightly
higher, but the difference won’t matter for this estimate. You could estimate this density
by estimating how much mass is contained in a one-liter bottle of water. (The density of
water is a point of reference for all density problems. Suppose we need to estimate the
density of iron. If we compare iron to water, we might estimate that iron is 5 to 10 times
denser than water. The actual density of iron is ρiron = 7.8 g ⋅ cm -3 ).
Because there is no precise relationship, estimating the volume of water in the

oceans is much harder. Let’s model the volume occupied by the oceans as if the water
completely covers the earth, forming a spherical shell of radius RE and thickness d
(Figure 2.4, which is decidedly not to scale), where RE is the radius of the earth and d
is the average depth of the ocean. The volume of that spherical shell is
volume ≅ 4π Rearth
2
d. (2.17)
RE
Figure 2.4 A model for estimating the mass of the water on Earth.
We also estimate that the oceans cover about 75% of the surface of the earth. So we can
refine our estimate that the volume of the oceans is
volume ≅ (0.75)(4π RE 2 d) . (2.18)
We therefore have two more quantities to estimate, the average depth of the ocean,
which we can estimate as d ≅ 1km , and the radius of the earth, which is
approximately RE ≅ 6 × 103 km . (The quantity that you may remember is the
circumference of the earth, about 25,000 miles . Historically the circumference of the
earth was defined to be 4 × 107 m ). The radius RE and the circumference s are exactly
related by
s = 2π RE . (2.19)
Thus
RE =
s
=
( )(
2.5 × 104 mi 1.6 km ⋅ mi-1 )
= 6.4 × 103 km (2.20)
2π 2π
We will use RE ≅ 6 × 103 km ; additional accuracy is not necessary for this problem,
since the ocean depth estimate is clearly less accurate. In fact, the factor of 75% is not
needed, but included more or less from habit. Altogether, our estimate for the mass of
the oceans is
mass = (density)(volume) ≅ ρ (0.75)(4π RE 2 d)
⎛ 1g ⎞ ⎛ 1 kg ⎞ ⎛ (105 cm)3 ⎞
mass ≅ ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
(0.75)(4π )(6 × 103 km)2 (1km) (2.21)
⎝ cm ⎠ ⎝ 10 g ⎠ ⎝ (1 km) ⎠
mass ≅ 3× 1020 kg ≅ 1020 kg.
Example 2.4.3 Lao-Tzu’s Last Breath
What is the probability that none of the molecules in your next breath were in the last
breath of Lao-Tzu (b. 551 B.C.E.), author of the Tao Te Ching, who expired in 471
B.C.E.?
Answer: We begin by making a few notational definitions.
Let N be the number of molecules in a breath.
Let p be the probability that one molecule in your next breath was contained in Lao-
Tzu’s last breath.
Let q = 1 − p be the probability that one molecule in your next breath was not
contained in Lao-Tzu’s last breath.
The probability P that none of the molecules in your next breath were contained in
Lao-Tzu’s last breath is therefore
P = q N = (1 − p ) .
N
(2.22)
We would like to estimate the number of molecules, N , in a breath, and the

probability, p , that one molecule in your next breath was also contained in Lao-Tzu’s
last breath. We shall estimate the number of molecules in one breath by first estimating
the volume Vbreath of one breath, and then converting this to moles, m , at STP (Standard
Temperature and Pressure). I estimate that the volume of one breath is approximately 1
L. At STP, one mole of an ideal gas (which is a good approximation for the actual
properties of air) occupies 22.4 L, so the number of moles of air in one breath is
Vbreath 1L
m≅ ≅ ≅ 4 ×10−2 mole . (2.23)
22.4 L mole 22.4 L mole
Then we calculate the number of molecules, N , in one breath to be
N = N Am ≅ ( 6 ×1023 molecules mole )( 4 ×10−2 mole ) ≅ 3×1022 molecules (2.24)
where N A ≅ 6 × 1023 molecules mole is the Avogadro constant.
We shall estimateteh probability p as the ratio of the volume of a breath to the volume
of the atmosphere:
volume of one breath Vbreath
p≅ = . (2.25)
volume of atmosphere Vatmo
In order to estimate the volume Vatmo of the earth’s atmosphere, let’s assume that the
atmosphere is a uniform spherical shell of thickness t and radius r ; this is the same
model used for the volume of the oceans in another example. Then the volume of the
shell is approximately
Vatmo ≅ 4π r 2t . (2.26)
We need to make two estimations. Let’s suppose:
1) the thickness of the shell is approximately t ≅ 10 km = 104 m ;

2) the radius r = Re , the radius of the earth, which we estimate as
Re ≅ 6 × 103 km = 6 × 106 m .
Note that we have t = Re , a necessary condition for using the spherical shell
approximation as given above. Then our estimate for the volume of the earth’s
atmosphere is
Vatmo ≅ 4π r 2t = 4π ( 6 ×106 m ) (104 m ) = 4 ×1018 m3 .

2
(2.27)
We estimated the volume of one breath as 1 L ; let’s convert this to cubic meters:
⎞ ⎛⎜ (1×10 m ) ⎞⎟
−2 3
⎛ 1L
Vbreath ≅1L = ⎜ 3 ⎟
=1×10−3 m3 . (2.28)
⎝ 1×10 cm ⎠ ⎜⎝ 1cm ⎟
3 3
So the probability that one specific molecule in your next breath was contained in Lao-
Tzu’s last breath is estimated as
volume of one breath Vbreath 1×10−3 m3

p≅ = ≅ ≅ 1×10−21 . (2.29)
volume of atmosphere Vatmo 4 ×10 m
18 3
The probability, q = 1 − p , that one specific molecule in your next breath was not
contained in Lao-Tzu’s last breath, is essentially one:
q = 1 − p ≅ 1 − 10−21 . (2.30)
The total probability P that none of the molecules in your next breath were
contained in Lao-Tzu’s last breath is then
P = q N = (1 − p ) ≅ (1 − 10−21 )
N 3×1022
, (2.31)
or alternately,
3×1022
⎛ 3 ×101 ⎞
P = q = (1 − p ) ≅ (1 − 10 )
22
N −21 3×10
N
= ⎜1 − 22 ⎟
. (2.32)
⎝ 3 ×10 ⎠
To simplify the calculation, we can now use a representation for the exponential
function,
N
−x ⎛ x⎞
e = lim ⎜ 1 − ⎟ . (2.33)
N →∞
⎝ N⎠
Thus
3×1022
⎛ 3× 101 ⎞ 1
P ≅ ⎜ 1− ≅ e−3×10 = 1× 10−13 ≅ 0 . (2.34)
⎝ 3× 10 ⎟⎠
22
So the probability P is nearly zero that none of the molecules in your next breath were
contained in Lao-Tzu’s last breath. From this, we see that it is certain that at least one
molecule of air you inhale was in Lao-Tzu’s last gasp.
Note one key assumption that we make in this problem: in 2500 years, the
atmosphere has re-circulated to the point that Lao-Tzu’s final exhalation is equally
distributed throughout the world. Recently, a 3 − km ice core sample had been drilled
from the Antarctic ice sheet. What is the probability that an air bubble in the ice at the
bottom of the sample contains an atom in Lao-Tzu’s final exhalation?
Chapter 3 Vectors
3.1 Vector Analysis ....................................................................................................... 1

3.1.1 Introduction to Vectors ................................................................................... 1
3.1.2 Properties of Vectors ....................................................................................... 1
3.2 Coordinate Systems ................................................................................................ 6
3.2.1 Cartesian Coordinate System ......................................................................... 6
3.2.2 Cylindrical Coordinate System ....................................................................... 8
3.3 Vectors ................................................................................................................... 10
3.3.1 The Use of Vectors in Physics ....................................................................... 10
3.3.2 Vectors in Cartesian Coordinates................................................................. 11
Example 3.1 Vector Addition ................................................................................. 14
Example 3.2 Sinking Sailboat ................................................................................ 15
Example 3.3 Vector Addition ................................................................................. 17
Example 3.4 Vector Description of a Point on a Line .......................................... 18
3.3.2 Transformation of Vectors in Rotated Coordinate Systems ...................... 19
Example 3.5 Vector Decomposition in Rotated Coordinate Systems................. 21
3.4 Vector Product (Cross Product) .......................................................................... 23
3.4.1 Right-hand Rule for the Direction of Vector Product ................................ 23
3.4.2 Properties of the Vector Product .................................................................. 25
3.4.3 Vector Decomposition and the Vector Product: Cartesian Coordinates .. 25
3.4.4 Vector Decomposition and the Vector Product: Cylindrical Coordinates 27
Example 3.6 Vector Products................................................................................. 27
Example 3.7 Law of Sines ....................................................................................... 28
Example 3.8 Unit Normal ....................................................................................... 28
Example 3.9 Volume of Parallelepiped ................................................................. 29
Example 3.10 Vector Decomposition..................................................................... 29
Chapter 3 Vectors
Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe which stands

continually open to our gaze. But the book cannot be understood unless
one first learns to comprehend the language and read the letters in which
it is composed. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its
characters are triangles, circles and other geometric figures without
which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without
these, one wanders about in a dark labyrinth.1
Galileo Galilee
3.1 Vector Analysis
3.1.1 Introduction to Vectors
Certain physical quantities such as mass or the absolute temperature at some point in
space only have magnitude. A single number can represent each of these quantities, with
appropriate units, which are called scalar quantities. There are, however, other physical
quantities that have both magnitude and direction. Force is an example of a quantity that
has both direction and magnitude (strength). Three numbers are needed to represent the
magnitude and direction of a vector quantity in a three dimensional space. These
quantities are called vector quantities. Vector quantities also satisfy two distinct
operations, vector addition and multiplication of a vector by a scalar. We can add two
forces together and the sum of the forces must satisfy the rule for vector addition. We can
multiply a force by a scalar thus increasing or decreasing its strength. Position,
displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and momentum are all physical quantities that
can be represented mathematically by vectors. The set of vectors and the two operations
form what is called a vector space. There are many types of vector spaces but we shall
restrict our attention to the very familiar type of vector space in three dimensions that
most students have encountered in their mathematical courses. We shall begin our
discussion by defining what we mean by a vector in three dimensional space, and the
rules for the operations of vector addition and multiplication of a vector by a scalar.
3.1.2 Properties of Vectors
A vector is a quantity that has both direction and magnitude. Let a vector be denoted by
  
the symbol A . The magnitude of A is | A |≡ A . We can represent vectors as geometric
objects using arrows. The length of the arrow corresponds to the magnitude of the vector.
The arrow points in the direction of the vector (Figure 3.1).
1
Galileo Galilei, The Assayer, tr. Stillman Drake (1957), Discoveries and Opinions of
Galileo pp. 237-8.
1
Figure 3.1 Vectors as arrows.
There are two defining operations for vectors:
(1) Vector Addition:

    
Vectors can be added. Let A and B be two vectors. We define a new vector, C = A + B ,
 
the “vector addition” of A and B , by a geometric construction. Draw the arrow that
  
represents A . Place the tail of the arrow that represents B at the tip of the arrow for A
 
as shown in Figure 3.2a. The arrow that starts
 at the tail of A and goes to the tip of B is
defined to be the “vector addition” C= A + B. There is an equivalent construction for the
law of vector addition. The vectors A and B can be drawn with their tails at the same
point. The two vectors form the sides of a parallelogram. The diagonal of the
  
parallelogram corresponds to the vector C = A + B , as shown in Figure 3.2b.
C= A+B C= A+B
B B
A A
(a) head to tail (b) parallelogram
Figure 3.2a Figure 3.2b
Vector addition satisfies the following four properties:
(i) Commutativity:
The order of adding vectors does not matter;

   
A+B =B+A. (3.1.1)
Our geometric definition for vector addition satisfies the commutative property (3.1.1).
We can understand this geometrically because in the head to tail representation for the
2
addition of vectors, it doesn’t matter which vector you begin with, the sum is the same
vector, as seen in Figure 3.3.
C=B+A C= A+B
B
A
B
A
Figure 3.3 Commutative property of vector addition.

(ii) Associativity:
When adding three vectors, it doesn’t matter which two you start with
     
( A + B) + C = A + (B + C) . (3.1.2)
     
In Figure 3.4a, we add (B + C) + A , and use commutativity to get A + (B + C) . In figure,
  
we add ( A + B) + C to arrive at the same vector as in Figure 3.4a.
C
A
A + (B + C) (A + B) + C
B
B B+C A+B
C A
Figure 3.4a Associative law.
(iii) Identity Element for Vector Addition:


There is a unique vector, 0 , that acts as an identity element for vector addition. For all

vectors A ,
    
A+0 = 0+A = A. (3.1.3)
(iv) Inverse Element for Vector Addition:

 
For every vector A , there is a unique inverse vector − A such that
3
  
A + (− A) = 0 . (3.1.4)
   
The vector −A has the same magnitude as A , | A |=| − A |= A , but they point in opposite
directions (Figure 3.5).
A A
Figure 3.5 Additive inverse
(2) Scalar Multiplication of Vectors:


Vectors can be multiplied by real numbers. Let A be a vector. Let c be a real positive

number. Then the multiplication of A by c is a new vector, which we denote by the
  
symbol c A . The magnitude of c A is c times the magnitude of A (Figure 3.6a),
 
cA = c A . (3.1.5)
 
Let c > 0 , then the direction of c A is the same as the direction of A . However, the
 
direction of −c A is opposite of A (Figure 3.6).
A cA cA

Figure 3.6 Multiplication of vector A by c > 0 , and −c < 0 .
Scalar multiplication of vectors satisfies the following properties:
(i) Associative Law for Scalar Multiplication:
The order of multiplying numbers is doesn’t matter. Let b and c be real numbers. Then
   
b (cA) = (bc) A = (cb A) = c (bA) . (3.1.6)
(ii) Distributive Law for Vector Addition:
Vectors satisfy a distributive law for vector addition. Let c be a real number. Then
4
   
c( A + B) = c A + c B . (3.1.7)
Figure 3.7 illustrates this property.
c(A + B) c A + cB
C= A+B
cB cA
B
A
Figure 3.7 Distributive Law for vector addition.
(iii) Distributive Law for Scalar Addition:
Vectors also satisfy a distributive law for scalar addition. Let b and c be real numbers.
Then   
(b + c) A = b A + c A (3.1.8)
Our geometric definition of vector addition and scalar multiplication satisfies this
condition as seen in Figure 3.8.
(b + c) A bA + c A
cA
A bA
Figure 3.8 Distributive law for scalar multiplication.
(iv) Identity Element for Scalar Multiplication:
The number 1 acts as an identity element for multiplication,

 
1A = A. (3.1.9)
5
Unit vector:
Dividing a vector by its magnitude results in a vector of unit length which we denote with
a caret symbol 
A
Â =  . (3.1.10)
A
 
Note that Â = A / A = 1.
3.2 Coordinate Systems
Physics involve the study of phenomena that we observe in the world. In order to connect
the phenomena to mathematics we begin by introducing the concept of a coordinate
system. A coordinate system consists of four basic elements:
(1) Choice of origin

(2) Choice of axes
(3) Choice of positive direction for each axis
(4) Choice of unit vectors at every point in space
There are three commonly used coordinate systems: Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical.
In this chapter we will describe a Cartesian coordinate system and a cylindrical
coordinate system.
3.2.1 Cartesian Coordinate System
Cartesian coordinates consist of a set of mutually perpendicular axes, which intersect at a

common point, the origin O . We live in a three-dimensional spatial world; for that
reason, the most common system we will use has three axes.
(1) Choice of Origin: Choose an origin O at any point that is most convenient.
(2) Choice of Axes: The simplest set of axes is known as the Cartesian axes, x -axis, y -
axis, and the z -axis, that are at right angles with respect to each other. Then each point
P in space can be assigned a triplet of values (x P , y P , z P ) , the Cartesian coordinates of
the point P . The ranges of these values are: −∞ < xP < +∞ ,
−∞ < yP < +∞ , −∞ < z P < +∞ .
(3) Choice of Positive Direction: Our third choice is an assignment of positive direction
for each coordinate axis. We shall denote this choice by the symbol + along the positive
axis. In physics problems we are free to choose our axes and positive directions any way
that we decide best fits a given problem. Problems that are very difficult using the
6
conventional choices may turn out to be much easier to solve by making a thoughtful
choice of axes.
(4) Choice of Unit Vectors: We now associate to each point P in space, a set of three
unit vectors (î P , ĵP , k̂ P ) . A unit vector has magnitude one: î P = 1 , ˆjP = 1 , and kˆ P = 1 .
We assign the direction of î P to point in the direction of the increasing x -coordinate at
the point P . We define the directions for ˆj and kˆ in the direction of the increasing
P P
y -coordinate and z -coordinate respectively, (Figure 3.10). If we choose a different point

S , and define a similar set of unit vectors (îS , ĵS , k̂ S ) , the unit vectors at S and P
satisfy the equalities
îS = î P , ĵS = ĵP , and k̂ S = k̂ P , (3.2.1)
because vectors are equal if they have the same direction and magnitude regardless of
where they are located in space.
Figure 3.10 Choice of unit vectors at points P and S .
A Cartesian coordinate system is the only coordinate system in which Eq. (3.2.1) holds
for all pair of points. We therefore drop the reference to the point P and use (î, ĵ, k̂) to
represent the unit vectors in a Cartesian coordinate system (Figure 3.11).
.
+z
zP k̂
ĵ
î P
yP + y
0
xP
+x
Figure 3.11 Unit vectors in a Cartesian coordinate system
7
3.2.2 Cylindrical Coordinate System
Many physical objects demonstrate some type of symmetry. For example if you rotate a
uniform cylinder about the longitudinal axis (symmetry axis), the cylinder appears
unchanged. The operation of rotating the cylinder is called a symmetry operation, and the
object undergoing the operation, the cylinder, is exactly the same as before the operation
was performed. This symmetry property of cylinders suggests a coordinate system, called
a cylindrical coordinate system, that makes the symmetrical property under rotations
transparent.
First choose an origin O and axis through O , which we call the z -axis. The
cylindrical coordinates for a point P are the three numbers (r,θ , z) (Figure 3.12). The
number z represents the familiar coordinate of the point P along the z -axis. The
nonnegative number r represents the distance from the z -axis to the point P . The points
in space corresponding to a constant positive value of r lie on a circular cylinder. The
locus of points corresponding to r = 0 is the z -axis. In the plane z = 0 , define a
reference ray through O , which we shall refer to as the positive x -axis. Draw a line
through the point P that is parallel to the z -axis. Let D denote the point of intersection
between that line PD and the plane z = 0 . Draw a ray OD from the origin to the point
D . Let θ denote the directed angle from the reference ray to the ray OD . The angle θ is
positive when measured counterclockwise and negative when measured clockwise.
+z
r
. P (r, , z)
r
z
O
x
+x
y
r
.
D (r, ,0) +y
Figure 3.12 Cylindrical Coordinates
The coordinates (r,θ ) are called polar coordinates. The coordinate transformations
between (r,θ ) and the Cartesian coordinates (x, y) are given by
8
x = r cosθ , (3.2.2)
y = r sin θ . (3.2.3)
Conversely, if we are given the Cartesian coordinates (x, y) , the coordinates (r,θ ) can
be determined from the coordinate transformations
r = +(x 2 + y 2 )1 2 , (3.2.4)
θ = tan −1 ( y / x) . (3.2.5)
We choose a set of unit vectors (r̂P , θ̂ P , k̂ P ) at the point P as follows. We choose k̂ P to

point in the direction of increasing z . We choose r̂P to point in the direction of
increasing r , directed radially away from the z -axis. We choose θ̂ P to point in the
direction of increasing θ . This unit vector points in the counterclockwise direction,
tangent to the circle (Figure 3.13a). One crucial difference between cylindrical
coordinates and Cartesian coordinates involves the choice of unit vectors. Suppose we
consider a different point S in the plane. The unit vectors (r̂S , θ̂ S , k̂ S ) at the point S are
also shown in Figure 3.13. Note that r̂P ≠ r̂S and θ̂ P ≠ θ̂ S because their direction differ.
We shall drop the subscripts denoting the points at which the unit vectors are defined at
and simply refer to the set of unit vectors at a point as (r̂, θ̂, k̂) , with the understanding
that the directions of the set (r̂, θ̂) depend on the location of the point in question.
. k̂ S +z
r̂S k̂ P
ˆ
S
S
P
. r̂P
ˆ
P
+x
+y
Figure 3.13a Unit vectors at two different points in cylindrical coordinates.
9
+y
ˆ ĵ r̂
î
+x
Figure 3.13b Unit vectors in polar coordinates and Cartesian coordinates.
The unit vectors (r̂, θ̂) at the point P also are related to the Cartesian unit vectors ( î, ĵ )
by the transformations
r̂ = cosθ î + sin θ ĵ , (3.2.6)
θ̂ = − sin θ î + cosθ ĵ . (3.2.7)
Similarly the inverse transformations are given by
î = cosθ r̂ − sin θ θ̂ , (3.2.8)

ĵ = sin θ r̂ + cosθ θ̂ . (3.2.9)
A cylindrical coordinate system is also a useful choice to describe the motion of an object
moving in a circle about a central point. Consider a vertical axis passing perpendicular to
the plane of motion passing through that central point. Then any rotation about this
vertical axis leaves circles unchanged.
3.3 Vectors
3.3.1 The Use of Vectors in Physics
From the last section we have three important ideas about vectors, (1) vectors can exist at
any point P in space, (2) vectors have direction and magnitude, and (3) any two vectors
that have the same direction and magnitude are equal no matter where in space they are
located. When we apply vectors to physical quantities it’s nice to keep in the back of our
minds all these formal properties. However from the physicist’s point of view, we are
interested in representing physical quantities such as displacement, velocity, acceleration,
force, impulse, and momentum as vectors. We can’t add force to velocity or subtract
momentum from force. We must always understand the physical context for the vector
quantity. Thus, instead of approaching vectors as formal mathematical objects we shall
instead consider the following essential properties that enable us to represent physical
quantities as vectors.
10
3.3.2 Vectors in Cartesian Coordinates
(1) Vector Decomposition: Choose a coordinate system with an origin, axes, and unit
vectors. We can decompose a vector into component vectors along each coordinate axis
(Figure 3.14).
+z A
Az
Ax
.
0 Ay +y
+x
Figure 3.14 Component vectors in Cartesian coordinates.


A vector A at P can be decomposed into the vector sum,
   
A = Ax + A y + Az , (3.3.1)

where A x is the x -component vector pointing in the positive or negative x -direction,
 
A y is the y -component vector pointing in the positive or negative y -direction, and A z
is the z -component vector pointing in the positive or negative z -direction.
(2) Vector Components: Once we have defined unit vectors (î, ĵ, k̂) , we then define the
   
components of a vector. Recall our vector decomposition, A = A x + A y + A z . We define

the x-component vector, A x , as

A = A î .
x x (3.3.2)
In this expression the term Ax , (without the arrow above) is called the x -component of

the vector A . The x -component Ax can be positive, zero, or negative. It is not the

magnitude of A x which is given by ( Ax 2 )1/ 2 . The x -component Ax is a scalar quantity

and the x -component vector, A x is a vector. In a similar fashion we define the y -

component, Ay , and the z -component, Az , of the vector A according to
 
A y = Ay ˆj, A z = Az kˆ . (3.3.3)
11

A vector A is represented by its three components ( Ax , Ay , Az ) . Thus we need three

numbers to describe a vector in three-dimensional space. We write the vector A as

A = Ax î + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ . (3.3.4)

(3) Magnitude: Using the Pythagorean theorem, the magnitude of A is,
A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 . (3.3.5)

(4) Direction: Let’s consider a vector A = ( Ax , Ay ,0) . Because the z -component is zero,
 
the vector A lies in the x-y plane. Let θ denote the angle that the vector A makes in
the counterclockwise direction with the positive x -axis (Figure 3.15).
+y
ĵ
A î
Ay
P A
x
+x
Figure 3.15 Components of a vector in the xy -plane.
Then the x -component and y -component are
Ax = Acos(θ ), Ay = Asin(θ ) . (3.3.6)
We now write a vector in the xy -plane as


A = A cos(θ ) î + A sin(θ ) ˆj (3.3.7)
Once the components of a vector are known, the tangent of the angle θ can be
determined by
Ay Asin(θ )
= = tan(θ ) , (3.3.8)
Ax Acos(θ )
and hence the angle θ is given by

⎛A ⎞
θ = tan −1 ⎜ y ⎟ . (3.3.9)
⎝ Ax ⎠
12
Clearly, the direction of the vector depends on the sign of Ax and Ay . For example, if
both Ax > 0 and Ay > 0 , then 0 < θ < π / 2 . If Ax < 0 and Ay > 0 then π / 2 < θ < π .
If Ax < 0 and Ay < 0 then π < θ < 3π / 2 . If Ax > 0 and Ay < 0 , then 3π / 2 < θ < 2π .
Note that tan(θ ) is a double valued function because
− Ay Ay Ay − Ay
= , and = . (3.3.10)
− Ax Ax − Ax Ax
 
(5) Unit Vectors: Unit vector in the direction of A : Let A = Ax î + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ . Let Â

denote a unit vector in the direction of A . Then

A Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
Â =  = . (3.3.11)
A ( Ax 2 + Ay 2 + Az 2 )1/ 2
 
(6) Vector Addition: Let A and B be two vectors in the x-y plane. Let θ A and θ B
 
denote the angles that the vectors A and B make (in the counterclockwise direction)
with the positive x -axis. Then

A = Acos(θ A ) î + Asin(θ A ) ĵ , (3.3.12)

B = Bcos(θ B ) î + Bsin(θ B ) ĵ (3.3.13)
  
In Figure 3.16, the vector addition C = A + B is shown. Let θ C denote the angle that the

vector C makes with the positive x-axis.
+y C= A+B
B By
C y = Ay + By
A B
C
Ay
A
+x
Ax Bx
Cx = Ax + Bx
Figure 3.16 Vector addition using components.


From Figure 3.16, the components of C are
Cx = Ax + Bx , C y = Ay + By . (3.3.14)
13
In terms of magnitudes and angles, we have
Cx = C cos(θ C ) = Acos(θ A )+ Bcos(θ B )

(3.3.15)
C y = C sin(θ C ) = Asin(θ A ) + Bsin(θ B ).

We can write the vector C as

C = ( Ax + Bx ) î + ( Ay + By ) ĵ = C cos(θ C ) î + C sin(θ C ) ĵ , (3.3.16)
Example 3.1 Vector Addition

   
Given two vectors, A = 2 î + −3 ˆj + 7 kˆ and B = 5î + ˆj + 2kˆ , find: (a) A ; (b) B ; (c)
    
A + B ; (d) A − B ; (e) a unit vector Â pointing in the direction of A ; (f) a unit vector B̂

pointing in the direction of B .
Solution:
 
( ) ( )
1/2 1/2
(a) A = 22 + (−3)2 + 7 2 = 62 = 7.87 . (b) B = 52 + 12 + 22 = 30 = 5.48 .
 
A + B = ( Ax + Bx ) î + ( Ay + By ) ĵ + ( Az + Bz ) k̂
(c) = (2 + 5) î + (−3+ 1) ĵ + (7 + 2) k̂
= 7 î − 2 ĵ + 9 k̂.
 
A − B = ( Ax − Bx ) î + ( Ay − By ) ĵ + ( Az − Bz ) k̂
(d) = (2 − 5) î + (−3− 1) ĵ + (7 − 2) k̂
= −3 î − 4 ĵ + 5 k̂.
 
(e) A unit vector Â in the direction of A can be found by dividing the vector A by the

magnitude of A . Therefore
 
(
Â = A / A = 2 î + −3 ĵ + 7 k̂ / 62 . )
 
( )
(f) In a similar fashion, B̂ = B / B = 5î + ĵ + 2k̂ / 30 .
14
Example 3.2 Sinking Sailboat
A Coast Guard ship is located 35 km away from a checkpoint in a direction 52 north of
west. A distressed sailboat located in still water 24 km from the same checkpoint in a
direction 18 south of east is about to sink. Draw a diagram indicating the position of
both ships. In what direction and how far must the Coast Guard ship travel to reach the
sailboat?
Solution: The diagram of the set-up is Figure 3.17.
Coast Guard N
ship
35 km
52
W E
18
24 km
checkpoint
sailboat
S
Figure 3.17 Example 3.2

Coast Guard N
ship + y ĵ
î
r1
1
+x
W E
2
r2
sailboat
S
Figure 3.18 Coordinate system for sailboat and ship
Choose the checkpoint as the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system with the positive x -
axis in the East direction and the positive y –axis in the North direction. Choose the
corresponding unit vectors î and ĵ as shown in Figure 3.18. The Coast Guard ship is
then a distance r1 = 35 km at an angle θ1 = 180 − 52 = 128 from the positive x -axis,
15
and the sailboat is at a distance r2 = 24 km at an angle θ 2 = −18 from the positive x -
axis. The position of the Coast Guard ship is then

r1 = r1 (cosθ1 î + sin θ1 ĵ)

r = −21.5km î + 27.6km ĵ
and the position of the sailboat is


r2 = r2 (cosθ 2 î + sin θ 2 ĵ)

r2 = 22.8km î − 7.4km ĵ.
Coast Guard N
ship ĵ
21 î
r1 r2 r1
W E
r2
sailboat
S
Figure 3.19 Relative position vector from ship to sailboat
The relative position vector from the Coast Guard ship to the sailboat is (Figure 3.19)
 
r2 − r1 = (22.8km î − 7.4km ĵ) − (−21.5km î + 27.6km ĵ)
 
r2 − r1 = 44.4km î − 35.0km ĵ.
The distance between the ship and the sailboat is

 
r2 − r1 = ((44.4km)2 + (−35.0km)2 )1/2 = 56.5km
The rescue ship’s heading would be the inverse tangent of the ratio of the y - and x -
components of the relative position vector,
θ 21 = tan −1 (−35.0km/44.4km) = −38.3 .

or 38.3 South of East.
16
Example 3.3 Vector Addition
      
Two vectors A and B , such that B = 2 A , have a resultant C = A + B of magnitude
 
26.5 . The vector C makes an angle θ C = 41 with respect to vector A . Find the
 
magnitude of each vector and the angle between vectors A and B .

Solution: We begin by making a sketch of the three vectors, choosing A to point in the
positive x -direction (Figure 3.20).
C= A+B
B
ĵ
î
A
Figure 3.20 Choice of coordinates system for Example 3.3
 
Denote the magnitude of C by C ≡ C = (Cx )2 + (C y )2 = 26.5 . The components of
  
C = A + B are given by
Cx = Ax + Bx = C cosθ C = (26.5)cos(41 ) = 20 (3.3.17)

C y = By = C sin θ C = (26.5)sin(41 ) = 17.4 . (3.3.18)
 
From the condition that B = 2 A , the square of their magnitudes satisfy
(Bx )2 + (By )2 = 4( Ax )2 . (3.3.19)
Using Eqs. (3.3.17) and (3.3.18), Eq. (3.3.19)becomes
(Cx − Ax )2 + (C y )2 = 4( Ax )2
(Cx )2 − 2Cx Ax + ( Ax )2 + (C y )2 = 4( Ax )2 .
This is a quadratic equation

0 = 3( Ax )2 + 2Cx Ax − C 2
which we solve for the component Ax :
17
−2Cx ± (2Cx )2 + (4)(3)(C 2 ) −2(20) ± (40))2 + (4)(3)(26.5)2
Ax = = = 10.0,
6 6
where we choose the positive square root because we originally chose Ax > 0 . The

components of B are then given by Eqs. (3.3.17) and (3.3.18):
Bx = Cx − Ax = 20.0 − 10.0 = 10.0

By = 17.4 .

The magnitude of B = (Bx )2 + (By )2 = 20.0 which is equal to two times the magnitude
  
of A = 10.0 . The angle between A and B is given by

θ = sin −1 (By / B ) = sin −1 (17.4 / 20.0 N) = 60 .
Example 3.4 Vector Description of a Point on a Line

a
+y d a
P1 . . ĵ
î
.P 2
A
+x
Consider two points, P1 with coordinates (x1 , y1 ) and P2 with coordinates (x2 , y2 ) , that

are separated by distance d . Find a vector A from the origin to the point on the line
connecting P1 and P2 that is located a distance a from the point P1 (Figure 3.21).
 
Solution: Let r1 = x1î + y1 ĵ be the position vector of P1 and r2 = x2 î + y2 ĵ the position
 
vector of P2 . Let r1 − r2 be the vector from P2 to P1 (Figure 3.22a). The unit vector
     
pointing from P2 to P1 is given by r̂21 = (r1 − r2 ) / r1 − r2 = (r1 − r2 ) / d , where
d = ((x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 )1/2
18
P1 . r1 r2 P1 . .
s = a(r1 r2 ) / d
r1 . P2 r1 . P2
A r2 A r2
Figure 3.22a: Relative position vector Figure 3.22b: Relative position vector
  
The vector s in Figure 3.22b connects A to the point at r1 , points in the direction of r̂12 ,
     
and has length a . Therefore s = ar̂21 = a(r1 − r2 ) / d . The vector r1 = A + s . Therefore
       
A = r1 − s = r1 − a(r1 − r2 ) / d = (1− a / d)r1 + (a / d)r2

A = (1− a / d)(x1î + y1 ĵ) + (a / d)(x2 î + y2 ĵ)
 ⎛ a(x2 − x1 ) ⎞ ⎛ a( y2 − y1 ) ⎞
A = ⎜ x1 + î + y + ĵ.
⎝ ((x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 )1/2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 ((x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 )1/2 ⎟⎠
3.3.2 Transformation of Vectors in Rotated Coordinate Systems
Consider two Cartesian coordinate systems S and S ′ such that the ( x ′, y ′ ) coordinate
axes in S ′ are rotated by an angle θ with respect to the (x, y) coordinate axes in S ,
(Figure 3.23).
ĵ ĵ
î î
+y ĵ
rotation + y'
by angle î
+x '
+x
Figure 3.23 Rotated coordinate systems
The components of the unit vector î′ in the î and ĵ direction are given by
ix′ = î′ cosθ = cosθ and i′y = î′ sin θ = sin θ . Therefore
î′ = i′ î + i′ ĵ = î cosθ + ĵsin θ . (3.3.20)

x y
19
A similar argument holds for the components of the unit vector ˆj′ . The components of ˆj′
in the î and ĵ direction are given by jx′ = − ˆj′ sin θ = − sin θ and j′y = ˆj′ cosθ = cosθ .
Therefore
ˆj′ = j′ î + j′ ĵ = ĵcosθ − î sin θ . (3.3.21)
x y
Conversely, from Figure 3.23 and similar vector decomposition arguments, the
components of î and ĵ in S ′ are given by
î = î′ cosθ − ˆj′ sin θ , (3.3.22)

ĵ = î′ sin θ + ˆj′ cosθ . (3.3.23)

Consider a fixed vector r = x î + yĵ with components (x, y) in coordinate system S . In

coordinate system S ′ , the vector is given by r = x′ î′ + y′ˆj′ , where ( x ′, y ′ ) are the
components in S ′ , (Figure 3.24).
ĵ î
î
ĵ
y rotation
by angle
r
r
y' x'
x
Figure 3.24 Transformation of vector components
Using the Eqs. (3.3.20) and (3.3.21), we have that


r = x î + yĵ = x( î′ cosθ − ˆj′ sin θ ) + y( ˆj′ cosθ + î′ sin θ )
 (3.3.24)
r = (x cosθ + y sin θ )î′ + (x sin θ − y cosθ )ˆj′.
Therefore the components of the vector transform according to
x′ = x cosθ + y sin θ , (3.3.25)

y′ = x sin θ − y cosθ . (3.3.26)
We now consider an alternate approach to understanding the transformation laws for the
components of the position vector of a fixed point in space. In coordinate system S ,
 
suppose the position vector r has length r = r and makes an angle φ with respect to
the positive x -axis (Figure 3.25).
20
ĵ î
î
ĵ
y rotation
by angle
r
r
y' x'
x
Figure 3.25 Transformation of vector components of the position vector

Then the components of r in S are given by
x = r cosφ , (3.3.27)
y = r sin φ . (3.3.28)

In coordinate system S ′ , the components of r are given by
x′ = r cos(φ − θ ) , (3.3.29)
y′ = r sin(φ − θ ) . (3.3.30)
Apply the addition of angle trigonometric identities to Eqs. (3.3.29) and (3.3.30) yielding
x′ = r cos(φ − θ ) = r cosφ cosθ + r sin φ sin θ = x cosθ + y sin θ , (3.3.31)

y ′ = r sin(φ − θ ) = r sin φ cosθ − r cos φ sin θ = y cosθ − x sin θ , (3.3.32)
in agreement with Eqs. (3.3.25) and (3.3.26).
Example 3.5 Vector Decomposition in Rotated Coordinate Systems


With respect to a given Cartesian coordinate system S , a vector A has components
Ax = 5 , Ay = −3 , Az = 0 . Consider a second coordinate system S ′ such that the ( x ′, y ′ )
coordinate axes in S ′ are rotated by an angle θ = 60 with respect to the (x, y)
coordinate axes in S , (Figure 3.26). (a) What are the components Ax ' and Ay ' of vector

A in coordinate system S ′ ? (b) Calculate the magnitude of the vector using the ( Ax , Ay )
components and using the ( Ax ' , Ay ' ) components. Does your result agree with what you
expect?
21
ĵ ĵ î
î
rotation
Ax = 60
by angle
= 60
Ay A
A

Solution: a) We begin by considering the vector decomposition of A with respect to the
coordinate system S ,

A = Ax î + Ay ĵ . (3.3.33)
Now we can use our results for the transformation of unit vectors î and ĵ in terms of î′

and ˆj′ , (Eqs. (3.3.22) and (3.3.23)) in order decompose the vector A in coordinate
system S ′

A = Ax î + Ay ĵ = Ax (cosθ î′ − sin θ ˆj′ ) + Ay (sin θ î′ + cosθ ˆj′ )
= ( Ax cosθ + Ay sin θ )î′ + (− Ax sin θ + Ay cosθ )ˆj′ (3.3.34)
= Ax′ î + Ay′ ĵ,
where
Ax ′ = Ax cosθ + Ay sin θ (3.3.35)
Ay′ = − Ax sin θ + Ay cosθ . (3.3.36)
We now use the given information that Ax = 5 , Ay = −3 , and θ = 60 to solve for the

components of A in coordinate system S ′
Ax′ = Ax cosθ + Ay sin θ = (1/ 2)(5 − 3 3) ,
Ay′ = − Ax sin θ + Ay cosθ = (1/ 2)(−5 3 − 3) .
b) The magnitude can be calculated in either coordinate system


A = ( Ax )2 + ( Ay )2 = (5)2 + (−3)2 = 34
((1/ 2)(5 − 3 3)) + ((1/ 2)(−5 3 − 3))

 2 2
A = ( Ax′ )2 + ( Ay′ )2 = = 34 .

This result agrees with what I expect because the length of vector A is independent of
the choice of coordinate system.
22
3.4 Vector Product (Cross Product)
 
Let A and B be two vectors. Because any two non-parallel
 vectors form a plane, we

denote the angle θ to be the angle between the vectors A and B as shown in Figure
   
3.27. The magnitude of the vector product A× B of the vectors A and B is defined to

be product of the magnitude of the vectors A and B with the sine of the angle θ
between the two vectors,
   
A × B = A B sin(θ ) . (3.3.37)
The angle θ between the vectors is limited to the values 0 ≤ θ ≤ π ensuring that
sin(θ ) ≥ 0 .
Figure 3.27 Vector product geometry.

 
The direction of the vector product is defined as follows. The vectors A and B form a
plane. Consider the direction perpendicular to this plane. There are two possibilities: we
shall choose one of these two (the one shown in Figure 3.27) for the direction of the
 
vector product A × B using a convention that is commonly called the “right-hand rule”.
3.4.1 Right-hand Rule for the Direction of Vector Product

 
The first step is to redraw the vectors A and B so that the tails are touching. Then draw
 
an arc starting from the vector A and finishing on the vector B . Curl your right fingers
the same way as the arc. Your right thumb points in the direction of the vector product
 
A × B (Figure 3.28).
23
C=A B
Figure 3.28 Right-Hand Rule.

 
You should remember that the direction of the vector product A × B is perpendicular to
 
the plane formed by A and B . We can give a geometric interpretation to the magnitude
of the vector product by writing the magnitude as
   
(
A × B = A B sin θ . ) (3.3.38)
 
The vectors A and B form a parallelogram. The area of the parallelogram is equal to the
height times the base, which is the magnitude of the vector product. In Figure 3.29, two
different representations of the height and base of a parallelogram are illustrated. As
 
depicted in Figure 3.29(a), the term B sin θ is the projection of the vector B in the

direction perpendicular to the vector B . We could also write the magnitude of the vector
product as
   
(
A × B = A sin θ B . ) (3.3.39)
 
The term A sin θ is the projection of the vector A in the direction perpendicular to the

vector B as shown in Figure 3.29(b). The vector product of two vectors that are parallel
(or anti-parallel) to each other is zero because the angle between the vectors is 0 (or π )
and sin(0) = 0 (or sin(π ) = 0 ). Geometrically, two parallel vectors do not have a unique
component perpendicular to their common direction.
B sin A sin
B B
A A
(a) (b)
24
   
Figure 3.29 Projection of (a) B perpendicular to A , (b) of A perpendicular to B
3.4.2 Properties of the Vector Product
(1) The vector product is anti-commutative because changing the order of the vectors
changes the direction of the vector product by the right hand rule:
   
A × B = −B × A . (3.3.40)
 
(2) The vector product between a vector c A where c is a scalar and a vector B is
   
c A × B = c ( A × B) . (3.3.41)
Similarly,
   
A × c B = c ( A × B) . (3.3.42)
  
(3) The vector product between the sum of two vectors A and B with a vector C is
      
( A + B) × C = A × C + B × C (3.3.43)
Similarly,
      
A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C . (3.3.44)
3.4.3 Vector Decomposition and the Vector Product: Cartesian Coordinates
We first calculate that the magnitude of vector product of the unit vectors î and ĵ :
| î × ˆj |=| î || ˆj |sin(π / 2) = 1 , (3.3.45)
because the unit vectors have magnitude | î |=| ˆj |= 1 and sin(π / 2) = 1 . By the right hand
rule, the direction of î × ˆj is in the +kˆ as shown in Figure 3.30. Thus î × ˆj = kˆ .
k̂ = î ˆj
ˆj
î
Figure 3.30 Vector product of î × ˆj
25
We note that the same rule applies for the unit vectors in the y and z directions,
ˆj × kˆ = î , kˆ × î = ˆj . (3.3.46)
By the anti-commutatively property (1) of the vector product,
ˆj × î = −kˆ , î × kˆ = −ˆj (3.3.47)
The vector product of the unit vector î with itself is zero because the two unit vectors are
parallel to each other, ( sin(0) = 0 ),
| î × î |=| î || î | sin(0) = 0 . (3.3.48)
The vector product of the unit vector ĵ with itself and the unit vector k̂ with itself are
also zero for the same reason,
ˆj × ˆj = 0, kˆ × kˆ = 0 . (3.3.49)
With these properties in mind we can now develop an algebraic expression for the vector
product in terms of components. Let’s choose a Cartesian coordinate system with the

vector B pointing along the positive x-axis with positive x-component Bx . Then the
 
vectors A and B can be written as

A = Ax î + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ (3.3.50)

B = Bx î , (3.3.51)
respectively. The vector product in vector components is

 
A × B = ( Ax î + Ay ˆj + Az k)
ˆ × B î .
x (3.3.52)
This becomes,
 
A × B = ( Ax î × Bx î ) + ( Ay ˆj × Bx î ) + ( Az kˆ × Bx î )
= Ax Bx (î × î ) + Ay Bx (ˆj × î ) + Az Bx (kˆ × î ) . (3.3.53)
= − Ay Bx kˆ + Az Bx ˆj
The vector component expression for the vector product easily generalizes for arbitrary
vectors

A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ (3.3.54)

B = Bx î + By ˆj + Bz kˆ , (3.3.55)
to yield
26
 
A × B = ( Ay Bz − Az By ) î + ( Az Bx − Ax Bz ) ˆj + ( Ax By − Ay Bx ) kˆ . (3.3.56)
3.4.4 Vector Decomposition and the Vector Product: Cylindrical Coordinates
Recall the cylindrical coordinate system, which we show in Figure 3.31. We have chosen
two directions, radial and tangential in the plane, and a perpendicular direction to the
plane.
+z
!
k̂ ˆ
z r̂
+y
r
+x
Figure 3.31 Cylindrical coordinates
The unit vectors are at right angles to each other and so using the right hand rule, the
vector product of the unit vectors are given by the relations
r̂ × θ̂ = k̂ (3.3.57)
θ̂ × k̂ = r̂ (3.3.58)
k̂ × r̂ = θ̂ . (3.3.59)
   
Because the vector product satisfies A × B = − B × A , we also have that
θ̂ × r̂ = −k̂ (3.3.60)
k̂ × θ̂ = −r̂ (3.3.61)
r̂ × k̂ = − θ̂ . (3.3.62)
Finally

r̂ × r̂ = θ̂ × θ̂ = k̂ × k̂ = 0 . (3.3.63)
Example 3.6 Vector Products

   
Given two vectors, A = 2 î + −3 ˆj + 7 kˆ and B = 5î + ˆj + 2kˆ , find A × B .
Solution:
27
 
A × B = ( Ay Bz − Az By ) î + ( Az Bx − Ax Bz ) ĵ + ( Ax By − Ay Bx ) k̂
= ((−3)(2) − (7)(1)) î + ((7)(5) − (2)(2)) ĵ + ((2)(1) − (−3)(5)) k̂
= −13 î + 31 ĵ + 17 k̂.
Example 3.7 Law of Sines
For the triangle shown in Figure 3.32(a), prove the law of sines,
  
A / sin α = B / sin β = C / sin γ , using the vector product.
Figure 3.32(a) Example 3.6 Figure 3.32(b) Vector analysis

  
Solution: Consider the area of a triangle formed by three vectors A , B , and C , where
     
A+B+C = 0 (Figure 3.32(b)). Because A + B + C = 0 , we have that
               
0 = A × ( A + B + C) = A × B + A × C . Thus A × B = − A × C or A × B = A × C . From
       
Figure 17.7b we see that A × B = A B sin γ and A × C = A C sin β . Therefore
     
A B sin γ = A C sin β , and hence B / sin β = C / sin γ . A similar argument shows that
 
B / sin β = A / sin α proving the law of sines.
Example 3.8 Unit Normal

 
Find a unit vector perpendicular to A = î + ˆj − kˆ and B = −2î − ˆj + 3kˆ .
   
Solution: The vector product A × B is perpendicular to both A and B . Therefore the
     
unit vectors nˆ = ± A × B / A × B are perpendicular to both A and B . We first calculate
 
= ((1)(3) − (−1)(−1)) î + ((−1)(2) − (1)(3)) ĵ + ((1)(−1) − (1)(2)) k̂
= 2 î − 5 ĵ − 3 k̂.
We now calculate the magnitude
28
 
A × B = (22 + 52 + 32 )1/2 = (38)1/2 .
Therefore the perpendicular unit vectors are

   
n̂ = ± A × B / A × B = ±(2 î − 5 ĵ − 3 k̂) / (38)1/2 .
Example 3.9 Volume of Parallelepiped

 
Show that the volume of a parallelepiped with edges formed by the vectors A , B , and
   
C is given by A ⋅ (B × C) .
Solution: The volume of a parallelepiped is given by area of the base times height. If the
 
base is formed by the vectors B and C , then the area of the base is given by the
     
magnitude of B × C . The vector B × C = B × C nˆ where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular
to the base (Figure 3.33).


The projection of the vector A along the direction n̂ gives the height of the

parallelepiped. This projection is given by taking the dot product of A with a unit vector

and is equal to A ⋅ nˆ = height . Therefore
        
A ⋅ (B × C) = A ⋅ ( B × C )n̂ = ( B × C ) A ⋅ n̂ = (area)(height) = (volume) .
Example 3.10 Vector Decomposition


Let A be an arbitrary vector and let n̂ be a unit vector in some fixed direction. Show
that A = ( A ⋅ n̂)n̂ + ( n̂ × A) × n̂ .
 
Solution: Let A = An̂ + A⊥ ê where A is the component A in the direction of n̂ , ê is

the direction of the projection of A in a plane perpendicular to n̂ , and A⊥ is the
29
 
component of A in the direction of ê . Because eˆ ⋅ nˆ = 0 , we have that A ⋅ n̂ = A . Note
that 
n̂ × A = n̂ × ( An̂ + A⊥ ê) = n̂ × A⊥ ê = A⊥ ( n̂ × ê) .
The unit vector nˆ × eˆ lies in the plane perpendicular to n̂ and is also perpendicular to ê .
Therefore ( n̂ × ê) × n̂ is also a unit vector that is parallel to ê (by the right hand rule. So

( n̂ × A) × n̂ = A⊥ ê . Thus
  
A = An̂ + A⊥ ê = ( A ⋅ n̂)n̂ + ( n̂ × A) × n̂ .
30
Chapter 4 One Dimensional Kinematics
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 2

4.2 Position, Time Interval, Displacement .................................................................. 3
4.2.1 Position .............................................................................................................. 3
4.2.2 Time Interval .................................................................................................... 3
4.2.3 Displacement .................................................................................................... 3
4.3 Velocity .................................................................................................................... 4
4.3.1 Average Velocity .............................................................................................. 4
4.3.3 Instantaneous Velocity..................................................................................... 5
Example 4.1 Determining Velocity from Position .................................................. 6
Example 4.2 Mean Value Theorem ......................................................................... 7
4.4 Acceleration ............................................................................................................. 9
4.4.1 Average Acceleration ....................................................................................... 9
4.4.2 Instantaneous Acceleration ............................................................................. 9
Example 4.3 Determining Acceleration from Velocity ........................................ 10
4.5 Constant Acceleration .......................................................................................... 11
4.5.1 Velocity: Area Under the Acceleration vs. Time Graph ............................ 11
4.5.2 Displacement: Area Under the Velocity vs. Time Graph ........................... 11
Example 4.4 Accelerating Car ............................................................................... 13
Example 4.5 Catching a Bus .................................................................................. 15
4.6 One Dimensional Kinematics and Integration ................................................... 16
4.6.1 Change of Velocity as the Indefinite Integral of Acceleration ................... 16
Example 4.6 Non-constant acceleration ................................................................ 17
4.6.2 Area as the Indefinite Integral of Acceleration ........................................... 17
4.6.3 Change of Velocity as the Definite Integral of Acceleration ...................... 19
4.6.4 Displacement as the Definite Integral of Velocity ....................................... 22
Example 4.5 Non-constant Acceleration ............................................................... 22
Example 4.6 Bicycle and Car ................................................................................. 24
Chapter 4 One Dimensional Kinematics
In the first place, what do we mean by time and space? It turns out that these deep
philosophical questions have to be analyzed very carefully in physics, and this is
not easy to do. The theory of relativity shows that our ideas of space and time are
not as simple as one might imagine at first sight. However, for our present
purposes, for the accuracy that we need at first, we need not be very careful about
defining things precisely. Perhaps you say, “That’s a terrible thing—I learned
that in science we have to define everything precisely.” We cannot define
anything precisely! If we attempt to, we get into that paralysis of thought that
comes to philosophers, who sit opposite each other, one saying to the other, “You
don’t know what you are talking about!” The second one says. “What do you
mean by know? What do you mean by talking? What do you mean by you?”, and
so on. In order to be able to talk constructively, we just have to agree that we are
talking roughly about the same thing. You know as much about time as you need
for the present, but remember that there are some subtleties that have to be
discussed; we shall discuss them later.1
Richard Feynman
4.1 Introduction
Kinematics is the mathematical description of motion. The term is derived from the
Greek word kinema, meaning movement. In order to quantify motion, a mathematical
coordinate system, called a reference frame, is used to describe space and time. Once a
reference frame has been chosen, we shall introduce the physical concepts of position,
velocity and acceleration in a mathematically precise manner. Figure 4.1 shows a
Cartesian coordinate system in one dimension with unit vector î pointing in the direction
of increasing x -coordinate.
î
0 +x
Figure 4.1 A one-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.
1
Richard P. Feynman, Robert B. Leighton, Matthew Sands, The Feynman Lectures on
Physics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, (1963), p. 12-2.
4.2 Position, Time Interval, Displacement
4.2.1 Position
Consider a point-like object moving in one dimension. We denote the position

coordinate of the object with respect to the choice of origin by x(t) . The position
coordinate is a function of time and can be positive, zero, or negative, depending on the
location of the object. The position of the object with respect to the origin has both
direction and magnitude, and hence is a vector (Figure 4.2), which we shall denote as the
position vector (or simply position) and write as

r(t) = x(t) î . (4.2.1)
We denote the position coordinate at t = 0 by the symbol x0 ≡ x(t = 0) . The SI unit for
position is the meter [m].
î
r(t) +x
0
x(t)
Figure 4.2 The position vector, with reference to a chosen origin.
4.2.2 Time Interval
Consider a closed interval of time [t1 , t2 ] . We characterize this time interval by the
difference in endpoints of the interval,
Δt = t2 − t1 . (4.2.2)
The SI units for time intervals are seconds [s].
4.2.3 Displacement
The displacement of a body during a time interval [t1 , t2 ] (Figure 4.3) is defined
to be the change in the position of the body
  
Δr ≡ r(t2 ) − r(t1 ) = (x(t2 ) − x(t1 )) î ≡ Δx(t) î . (4.2.3)
Displacement is a vector quantity.

r
r(t2 ) î
0 r(t1 ) +x
x(t1 ) x(t2 )
Figure 4.3 The displacement vector of an object over a time interval is the vector
difference between the two position vectors
4.3 Velocity
When describing the motion of objects, words like “speed” and “velocity” are used in
natural language; however when introducing a mathematical description of motion, we
need to define these terms precisely. Our procedure will be to define average quantities
for finite intervals of time and then examine what happens in the limit as the time interval
becomes infinitesimally small. This will lead us to the mathematical concept that velocity
at an instant in time is the derivative of the position with respect to time.
4.3.1 Average Velocity
The x -component of the average velocity, vx,ave , for a time interval Δt is defined
to be the displacement Δx divided by the time interval Δt ,
Δx
vx,ave ≡ . (4.3.1)
Δt
Because we are describing one-dimensional motion we shall drop the subscript x and
denote
vave = vx,ave . (4.3.2)
When we introduce two-dimensional motion we will distinguish the components of the

velocity by subscripts. The average velocity vector is then
 Δx
v ave ≡ î = vave î . (4.3.3)
Δt
The SI units for average velocity are meters per second ⎡⎣ m⋅ s −1 ⎤⎦ . The average velocity is
not necessarily equal to the distance in the time interval Δt traveled divided by the time
interval Δt . For example, during a time interval, an object moves in the positive x -
direction and then returns to its starting position, the displacement of the object is zero,
but the distance traveled is non-zero.
4.3.3 Instantaneous Velocity
Consider a body moving in one direction. During the time interval [t , t + Δt ] , the average
velocity corresponds to the slope of the line connecting the points (t , x(t )) and
(t + Δt, x(t + Δt)) . The slope, the rise over the run, is the change in position divided by
the change in time, and is given by
rise Δx x(t + Δt) − x(t)

vave ≡ = = . (4.3.4)
run Δt Δt
As Δt → 0 , the slope of the lines connecting the points (t, x(t)) and (t + Δt, x(t + Δt)) ,
approach slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function x(t) at the time t (Figure
4.4).
x(t + t) x(t)
x(t) tangent line

at time t
t t+ t
t
Figure 4.4 Plot of position vs. time showing the tangent line at time t .
The limiting value of this sequence is defined to be the x -component of the

instantaneous velocity at the time t .
The x -component of instantaneous velocity at time t is given by the

slope of the tangent line to the graph of the position function at time t :
Δx x(t + Δt) − x(t) dx

v(t) ≡ lim vave = lim = lim ≡ . (4.3.5)
Δt→0 Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt dt
The instantaneous velocity vector is then


v(t) = v(t) î . (4.3.6)
The component of the velocity, v(t) , can be positive, zero, or negative, depending on
whether the object is travelling in the positive x -direction, instantaneously at rest, or the
negative x -direction.
Example 4.1 Determining Velocity from Position
Consider an object that is moving along the x -coordinate axis with the position function
given by
1
x(t) = x0 + bt 2 (4.3.7)
2
where x0 is the initial position of the object at t = 0 . We can explicitly calculate the x -
component of instantaneous velocity from Equation (4.3.5) by first calculating the
displacement in the x -direction, Δx = x(t + Δt ) − x(t ) . We need to calculate the position
at time t + Δt ,
1 1
x(t + Δt) = x0 + b(t + Δt)2 = x0 + b(t 2 + 2tΔt + Δt 2 ) . (4.3.8)
2 2
Then the x -component of instantaneous velocity is
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ x0 + b(t 2 + 2t Δt + Δt 2 )⎟ − ⎜ x0 + bt 2 ⎟
x(t + Δt) − x(t) ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
v(t) = lim = lim . (4.3.9)
Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt
This expression reduces to

⎛ 1 ⎞
v(t) = lim ⎜ bt + bΔt ⎟ . (4.3.10)
Δt→0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
The first term is independent of the interval Δt and the second term vanishes because in
the limit as Δt → 0 , the term (1/ 2)bΔt → 0 is zero. Therefore the x -component of
instantaneous velocity at time t is
v(t) = bt . (4.3.11)
In Figure 4.5 we plot the instantaneous velocity, v(t) , as a function of time t .
v(t) v(t) = bt
t
Figure 4.5 Plot of instantaneous velocity instantaneous velocity as a function of time.
Example 4.2 Mean Value Theorem
Consider an object that is moving along the x -coordinate axis with the position function
given by
1
x(t) = x0 + v0t + bt 2 . (4.3.12)
2
The graph of x(t) vs. t is shown in Figure 4.6.
x(t) 1
x(t) = x0 + v0t + bt 2
2
x(t f )
slope = vave
slope = v(t1 )
x(ti )
x0
t
ti t1 = (t f ti ) / 2 tf
Figure 4.6 Intermediate Value Theorem
The x -component of the instantaneous velocity is
dx(t)
v(t) = = v0 + bt . (4.3.13)
dt
For the time interval [ti ,t f ] , the displacement of the object is
1 1
x(t f ) − x(ti ) = Δx = v0 (t f − ti ) + b(t f 2 − ti 2 ) = v0 (t f − ti ) + b(t f − ti )(t f + ti ) . (4.3.14)
2 2
Recall that the x -component of the average velocity is defined by the condition that
Δx = vave (t f − ti ) . (4.3.15)
We can determine the average velocity by substituting Eq. (4.3.15) into Eq. (4.3.14)
yielding
1
vave = v0 + b(t f + ti ) . (4.3.16)
2
The Mean Value Theorem from calculus states that there exists an instant in time t1 , with
ti < t1 < t f , such that the x -component of the instantaneously velocity, v(t1 ) , satisfies
Δx = v(t1 )(t f − ti ) . (4.3.17)
Geometrically this means that the slope of the straight line (blue line in Figure 4.6)
connecting the points (ti , x(ti )) to (t f , x(t f )) is equal to the slope of the tangent line (red
line in Figure 4.6) to the graph of x(t) vs. t at the point (t1 , x(t1 )) (Figure 4.6),
v(t1 ) = vave . (4.3.18)

We know from Eq. (4.3.13) that
v(t1 ) = v0 + bt1 . (4.3.19)
We can solve for the time t1 by substituting Eqs. (4.3.19) and (4.3.16) into Eq. (4.3.18)
yielding
t1 = (t f + ti ) / 2 (4.3.20)
This intermediate value v(t1 ) is also equal to one-half the sum of the initial velocity and
final velocity
v(ti ) + v(t f ) (v0 + bti ) + (v0 + bt f ) 1

v(t1 ) = = = v0 + b(t f + ti ) = v0 + bt1 . (4.3.21)
2 2 2
For any time interval, the quantity (v(ti ) + v(t f )) / 2 , is the arithmetic mean of the initial
velocity and the final velocity (but unfortunately is also sometimes referred to as the
average velocity). The average velocity, which we defined as vave = (x f − xi ) / Δt , and the
arithmetic mean, (v(ti ) + v(t f )) / 2 , are only equal in the special case when the velocity is
a linear function in the variable t as in this example, (Eq. (4.3.13)). We shall only use the
term average velocity to mean displacement divided by the time interval.
4.4 Acceleration
We shall apply the same physical and mathematical procedure for defining acceleration,
as the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. We first consider how the
instantaneous velocity changes over a fixed time interval of time and then take the limit
as the time interval approaches zero.
4.4.1 Average Acceleration
Average acceleration is the quantity that measures a change in velocity over a particular
time interval. Suppose during a time interval Δt a body undergoes a change in velocity
  
Δv = v (t + Δt ) − v (t ) . (4.3.22)
The change in the x -component of the velocity, Δv , for the time interval [t , t + Δt ] is
then
Δv = v(t + Δt) − v(t) . (4.3.23)
The x -component of the average acceleration for the time interval Δt is defined
to be
 Δv (v(t + Δt) − v(t))
a ave = aave î ≡ î = î . (4.3.24)
Δt Δt
The SI units for average acceleration are meters per second squared, [m⋅s −2 ] .
4.4.2 Instantaneous Acceleration
Consider the graph of the x -component of velocity, v(t) , (Figure 4.7).
v(t + t)
v(t)
slope = a(t)
t
t t+ t
t
Figure 4.7 Graph of velocity vs. time showing the tangent line at time t .
The average acceleration for a fixed time interval Δt is the slope of the straight line
connecting the two points (t, v(t)) and (t + Δt, v(t + Δt)) . In order to define the x -
component of the instantaneous acceleration at time t , we employ the same limiting
argument as we did when we defined the instantaneous velocity in terms of the slope of
the tangent line.
The x -component of the instantaneous acceleration at time t is the slope of the

tangent line at time t of the graph of the x -component of the velocity as a
function of time,
Δv (v(t + Δt) − v(t)) dv

a(t) ≡ lim = lim ≡ . (4.3.25)
Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt dt
The instantaneous acceleration vector at time t is then


a(t) = a(t) î . (4.3.26)
Because the velocity is the derivative of position with respect to time, the x -component
of the acceleration is the second derivative of the position function,
dv d 2 x
a= = . (4.3.27)
dt dt 2
Example 4.3 Determining Acceleration from Velocity
Let’s continue Example 4.1, in which the position function for the body is given by
x = x0 + (1/ 2)bt 2 , and the x -component of the velocity is v = bt . The x -component of
the instantaneous acceleration is the first derivative (with respect to time) of the x -
component of the velocity:
dv v(t + Δt) − v(t) bt + bΔt − bt

a= = lim = lim = b. (4.3.28)
dt Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt
Note that in Eq. (4.3.28), the ratio Δv / Δt is independent of t , consistent with the
constant slope as shown in Figure 4.5.
4.5 Constant Acceleration
v(t) v(t) = v0 + at a(t)

a(t) = a
a
v0 Area = at
t t
(a) (b)
Figure 4.8 Constant acceleration: (a) velocity, (b) acceleration
When the x -component of the velocity is a linear function (Figure 4.8(a)), the average
acceleration, Δv / Δt , is a constant and hence is equal to the instantaneous acceleration
(Figure 4.8(b)). Let’s consider a body undergoing constant acceleration for a time interval
[0, t] , where Δt = t . Denote the x -component of the velocity at time t = 0 by
v0 ≡ v(t = 0) . Therefore the x -component of the acceleration is given by
Δv v(t) − v0
a(t) = = . (4.4.1)
Δt t
Thus the x -component of the velocity is a linear function of time given by
v(t) = v0 + at . (4.4.2)
4.5.1 Velocity: Area Under the Acceleration vs. Time Graph
In Figure 4.8(b), the area under the acceleration vs. time graph, for the time interval
Δt = t − 0 = t , is
Area(a(t), t) = at . (4.4.3)
From Eq. (4.4.2), the area is the change in the x -component of the velocity for the
interval [0, t] :
Area(a(t),t) = at = v(t) − v0 = Δv . (4.4.4)
4.5.2 Displacement: Area Under the Velocity vs. Time Graph
In Figure 4.9 shows a graph of the x -component of the velocity vs. time for the case of
constant acceleration (Eq. (4.4.2)).
v(t)
v(t) = v0 + at
1
A2 = (v(t) v0 ) t
2
v0
A1 = v0 t
O
t
Figure 4.9 Graph of velocity as a function of time for a constant.
The region under the velocity vs. time curve is a trapezoid, formed from a rectangle with
area A1 = v0 t , and a triangle with area A2 = (1/ 2)(v(t) − v0 )t . The total area of the
trapezoid is given by
1
Area(v(t),t) = A1 + A2 = v0 t + (v(t) − v0 )t . (4.4.5)
2
Substituting for the velocity (Eq. (4.4.2)) yields
1
Area(v(t),t) = v0 t + at 2 . (4.4.6)
2
Recall that from Example 4.2 (setting b = a and Δt = t ),
1
vave = v0 + at = Δx / t , (4.4.7)
2
therefore Eq. (4.4.6) can be rewritten as
1
Area(v(t),t) = (v0 + at)t = vavet = Δx (4.4.8)
2
The displacement is equal to the area under the graph of the x -component of the velocity
vs. time. The position as a function of time can now be found by rewriting Equation
(4.4.8) as
1
x(t) = x0 + v0 t + at 2 . (4.4.9)
2
Figure 4.10 shows a graph of this equation. Notice that at t = 0 the slope is non-zero,
corresponding to the initial velocity component v0 .
x(t)
x0
O
slope = v0
t
Figure 4.10 Graph of position vs. time for constant acceleration.
Example 4.4 Accelerating Car
A car, starting at rest at t = 0 , accelerates in a straight line for 100 m with an unknown
constant acceleration. It reaches a speed of 20 m ⋅ s −1 and then continues at this speed for
another 10 s . (a) Write down the equations for position and velocity of the car as a
function of time. (b) How long was the car accelerating? (c) What was the magnitude of
the acceleration? (d) Plot speed vs. time, acceleration vs. time, and position vs. time for
the entire motion. (e) What was the average velocity for the entire trip?
Solutions: (a) For the acceleration a , the position x(t) and velocity v(t) as a function of
time t for a car starting from rest are
x(t) = (1/ 2) at 2
(4.4.10)
vx (t) = at.
b) Denote the time interval during which the car accelerated by t1 . We know that the
position x(t1 ) = 100 m and v(t1 ) = 20 m ⋅ s −1 . Note that we can eliminate the acceleration
a between the Equations (4.4.10) to obtain
x(t) = (1 / 2) v(t) t . (4.4.11)
We can solve this equation for time as a function of the distance and the final speed
giving
x(t)
t=2 . (4.4.12)
v(t)
We can now substitute our known values for the position x(t1 ) = 100 m and
v(t1 ) = 20 m ⋅ s −1 and solve for the time interval that the car has accelerated
x(t1 ) 100 m
t1 = 2 =2 = 10s . (4.4.13)
v(t1 ) 20 m ⋅ s −1
c) We can substitute into either of the expressions in Equation (4.4.10); the second is
slightly easier to use,
v(t ) 20 m ⋅ s −1
a= 1 = = 2.0 m ⋅ s −2 . (4.4.14)
t1 10s
d) The x -component of acceleration vs. time, x -component of the velocity vs. time, and
the position vs. time are piece-wise functions given by
⎧2 m ⋅s-2 ; 0 < t ≤ 10 s
a(t) = ⎨ ,
⎩0; 10 s < t < 20 s
⎧⎪(2 m ⋅s-2 )t; 0 < t ≤ 10 s
v(t) = ⎨ ,
⎪⎩20 m ⋅s ; 10 s ≤ t ≤ 20 s
-1
⎧⎪(1/ 2)(2 m ⋅s-2 )t 2 ; 0 < t ≤ 10 s

x(t) = ⎨ .
⎪⎩100 m +(20 m ⋅s )(t − 10 s); 10 s ≤ t ≤ 20 s
-2
The graphs of the x -component of acceleration vs. time, x -component of the velocity vs.
time, and the position vs. time are shown in Figure 4.11.
(e) After accelerating, the car travels for an additional ten seconds at constant speed and
during this interval the car travels an additional distance Δx = v(t1 ) × 10s = 200 m (note
that this is twice the distance traveled during the 10s of acceleration), so the total
distance traveled is 300 m and the total time is 20s , for an average velocity of
300 m
vave = =15m⋅s −1 . (4.4.15)
20s
a(t) v(t) x(t)
2 m s-2 20 m s-1 100 m
t t t
10 s 20 s 10 s 20 s 10 s 20 s
Figure 4.11 Graphs of the x-components of acceleration, velocity and position as piece-
wise functions
Example 4.5 Catching a Bus
At the instant a traffic light turns green, a car starts from rest with a given constant
acceleration, 3.0 m ⋅s-2 . Just as the light turns green, a bus, traveling with a given
constant velocity, 1.6 × 101 m ⋅ s-1 , passes the car. The car speeds up and passes the bus
some time later. How far down the road has the car traveled, when the car passes the bus?
Solution:
There are two moving objects, bus and the car. Each object undergoes one stage of one-
dimensional motion. We are given the acceleration of the car, the velocity of the bus, and
infer that the position of the car and the bus are equal when the bus just passes the car.
Figure 4.12 shows a qualitative sketch of the position of the car and bus as a function of
time.
bus x2 (t)
car x1 (t)
0 t
ta
Figure 4.12 Position vs. time of the car and bus
Choose a coordinate system with the origin at the traffic light and the positive x -
direction such that car and bus are travelling in the positive x -direction. Set time t = 0 as
the instant the car and bus pass each other at the origin when the light turns green. Figure
4.13 shows the position of the car and bus at time t .
x2 (t)
x1 (t)
0 +x
Figure 4.13 Coordinate system for car and bus
Let x1 (t) denote the position function of the car, and x2 (t) the position function for the
bus. The initial position and initial velocity of the car are both zero, x1,0 = 0 and v1,0 = 0 ,
and the acceleration of the car is non-zero a1 ≠ 0 . Therefore the position and velocity
functions of the car are given by
1
x1 (t) = a1t 2 ,
2
v1 (t) = a1t .
The initial position of the bus is zero, x2,0 = 0 , the initial velocity of the bus is non-zero,
v2,0 ≠ 0 , and the acceleration of the bus is zero, a2 = 0 . Therefore the velocity is constant,
v2 (t) = v2,0 , and the position function for the bus is given by x2 (t) = v2,0t .
Let t = ta correspond to the time that the car passes the bus. Then at that instant, the
position functions of the bus and car are equal, x1 (ta ) = x2 (ta ) . We can use this condition
to solve for ta :
2v2,0 (2)(1.6 × 101 m ⋅s-1 )
(1/ 2)a1ta 2 = v2,0ta ⇒ ta = = = 1.1× 101 s .
a1 (3.0m ⋅s-2 )
Therefore the position of the car at ta is
1 2v 2 (2)(1.6 × 101 m ⋅s-1 )2

x1 (ta ) = a1ta 2 = 2,0 = = 1.7 × 102 m .
2 a1 (3.0 m ⋅s )
-2
4.6 One Dimensional Kinematics and Integration
When the acceleration a(t) of an object is a non-constant function of time, we would like
to determine the time dependence of the position function x(t) and the x -component of
the velocity v(t) . Because the acceleration is non-constant we no longer can use Eqs.
(4.4.2) and (4.4.9). Instead we shall use integration techniques to determine these
functions.
4.6.1 Change of Velocity as the Indefinite Integral of Acceleration
Consider a time interval t1 < t < t2 . Recall that by definition the derivative of the velocity
v(t) is equal to the acceleration a(t) ,
dv(t)
= a(t) . (4.5.1)
dt
Integration is defined as the inverse operation of differentiation or the ‘anti-derivative’.
For our example, the function v(t) is called the indefinite integral of a(t) with respect
to t , and is unique up to an additive constant C . We denote this by writing
v(t) + C = ∫ a(t) dt . (4.5.2)
The symbol ∫ ...dt means the ‘integral, with respect to t , of …”, and is thought of as the
d
inverse of the symbol .... . Equivalently we can write the differential dv(t) = a(t)dt ,
dt
called the integrand, and then Eq. (4.5.2) can be written as
v(t) + C = ∫ dv(t) , (4.5.3)
which we interpret by saying that the integral of the differential of function is equal to the
function plus a constant.
Example 4.6 Non-constant acceleration
Suppose an object at time t = 0 has initial non-zero velocity v0 and acceleration

a(t) = bt 2 , where b is a constant. Then dv(t) = bt 2 dt = d(bt 3 / 3) . The velocity is then
v(t) + C = ∫ d(bt 3 / 3) = bt 3 / 3 . At t = 0 , we have that v0 + C = 0 . Therefore C = −v0 and
the velocity as a function of time is then v(t) = v0 + (bt 3 / 3) .
4.6.2 Area as the Indefinite Integral of Acceleration
Consider the graph of a positive-valued acceleration function a(t) vs. t for the
interval t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 , shown in Figure 4.14a. Denote the area under the graph of a(t) over
the interval t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 by A tt2 .
1
a(t) Figure 4.14a: Area under the graph of

a(t2 ) acceleration over an interval t1 ≤ t ≤ t2
a(t1 ) t
Area = A t2
1
t
t1 tc t2
a(t) Figure 4.14b: Intermediate value
a(t2 )
Theorem. The shaded regions above and
below the curve have equal areas.
a(tc )
a(t1 )
t
t1 tc t2
The Intermediate Value Theorem states that there is at least one time tc such that the
area A tt2 is equal to
1
A tt2 = a(tc )(t2 − t1 ) . (4.5.4)

1
In Figure 4.14b, the shaded regions above and below the curve have equal areas, and
hence the area A tt2 under the curve is equal to the area of the rectangle given by
1
a(tc )(t2 − t1 ) .
a(t)
a(t2 )
a(t1 )
A tt A t+
t
t
1
t
t1 t t+ t t2
Figure 4.15 Area function is additive
We shall now show that the derivative of the area function is equal to the acceleration and
thererfore we can write the area function as an indefinite integral. From Figure 4.15, the
area function satisfies the condition that
A tt + A t+Δt
t
= A t+Δt
t
. (4.5.5)
1 1
Let the small increment of area be denoted by ΔA tt = A t+Δt

t
− A tt = A t+Δt
t
. By the
1 1 1
Intermediate Value Theorem

ΔA tt = a(tc )Δt , (4.5.6)
1
where t ≤ tc ≤ t + Δt . In the limit as Δt → 0 ,
dA tt ΔA tt
1
= lim 1
= lim a(tc ) = a(t) , (4.5.7)
dt Δt→0 Δt tc →t
with the initial condition that when t = t1 , the area A tt1 = 0 is zero. Because v(t) is also an
1
integral of a(t) , we have that
A tt = ∫ a(t) dt = v(t) + C . (4.5.8)

1
When t = t1 , the area A tt1 = 0 is zero, therefore v(t1 ) + C = 0 , and so C = −v(t1 ) . Therefore
1
Eq. (4.5.8) becomes

A tt = v(t) − v(t1 ) = ∫ a(t) dt . (4.5.9)
1
When we set t = t2 , Eq. (4.5.9) becomes
A tt2 = v(t2 ) − v(t1 ) = ∫ a(t) dt . (4.5.10)

1
The area under the graph of the positive-valued acceleration function for the interval
t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 can be found by integrating a(t) .
4.6.3 Change of Velocity as the Definite Integral of Acceleration
Let a(t) be the acceleration function over the interval ti ≤ t ≤ t f . Recall that the velocity
v(t) is an integral of a(t) because dv(t) / dt = a(t) . Divide the time interval [ti , t f ] into
n equal time subintervals Δt = (t f − ti ) / n . For each subinterval [t j ,t j+1 ] , where the index
j = 1, 2, ... ,n , t1 = ti and tn+1 = t f , let tc be a time such that t j ≤ tc ≤ t j+1 . Let
j j
j=n
S n = ∑ a(tc ) Δt . (4.5.11)
j
j=1
S n is the sum of the blue rectangle shown in Figure 4.16a for the case n = 4 . The
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that in the limit as n → ∞ , the sum is equal
to the change in the velocity during the interval [ti , t f ]
j=n
lim S n = lim
n→∞ n→∞
∑ a(t cj
) Δt = v(t f ) − v(ti ) . (4.5.12)
j=1
a(t) a(t)
a(tc ) a(tc )
4 4
a(tc ) a(tc )
3 3
a(tc ) a(tc )
2 2
a(tc ) a(tc )
1 1
t t
t1 tc t2 tc t3 tc t4 tc t5 t1 tc t2 tc t3 tc t4 tc t5
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Figure 4.16a Graph of a(t) vs. t Figure 4.16b Graph of a(t) vs. t
The limit of the sum in Eq. (4.5.12) is a number, which we denote by the symbol
tf j=n
∫ a(t) dt ≡ lim ∑ a(t

ti
n→∞
j=1
cj
) Δt = v(t f ) − v(ti ) , (4.5.13)
and is called the definite integral of a(t) from ti to t f . The times ti and t f are called
the limits of integration, ti the lower limit and t f the upper limit. The definite integral is
a linear map that takes a function a(t) defined over the interval [ti , t f ] and gives a
number. The map is linear because
tf tf tf
∫ (a (t) + a (t)) dt = ∫ a (t) dt + ∫ a (t) dt

ti
1 2
ti
1
ti
2
, (4.5.14)
Suppose the times tc , j = 1,...,n , are selected such that each tc satisfies the Intermediate
j j
Value Theorem,
dv(tc )
Δv j ≡ v(t j+1 ) − v(t j ) = j
Δt = a(tc )Δt , (4.5.15)
dt j
where a(tc ) is the instantaneous acceleration at tc , (Figure 4.16b). Then the sum of the
j j
changes in the velocity for the interval [ti , t f ] is
j=n
∑ Δv j
= (v(t2 ) − v(t1 )) + (v(t3 ) − v(t2 )) +  + (v(tn+1 ) − v(tn )) = v(tn+1 ) − v(t1 )
(4.5.16)
j=1
= v(t f ) − v(ti ).
where v(t f ) = v(tn+1 ) and v(ti ) = v(t1 ) . Substituting Eq. (4.5.15) into Equation (4.5.16)
yields the exact result that the change in the x -component of the velocity is give by this
finite sum.
j=n j=n
v(t f ) − v(ti ) = ∑ Δv j = ∑ a(tc ) Δt . (4.5.17)
j
j=1 j=1
We do not specifically know the intermediate values a(tc ) and so Eq. (4.5.17) is not
j
useful as a calculating tool. The statement of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is

that the limit as n → ∞ of the sum in Eq. (4.5.12) is independent of the choice of the set
of tc . Therefore the exact result in Eq. (4.5.17) is the limit of the sum.
j
Thus we can evaluate the definite integral if we know any indefinite integral of the
integrand a(t)dt = dv(t) .
Additionally, provided the acceleration function has only non-negative values, the limit is
also equal to the area under the graph of a(t) vs. t for the time interval, [ti , t f ] :
tf
A t = ∫ a(t) dt .
tf
(4.5.18)
i
ti
In Figure 4.14, the red areas are an overestimate and the blue areas are an underestimate.
As N → ∞ , the sum of the red areas and the sum of the blue areas both approach zero. If
there are intervals in which a(t) has negative values, then the summation is a sum of
signed areas, positive area above the t -axis and negative area below the t -axis.
We can determine both the change in velocity for the time interval [ti , t f ] and the area
under the graph of a(t) vs. t for [ti , t f ] by integration techniques instead of limiting
arguments. We can turn the linear map into a function of time, instead of just giving a
number, by setting t f = t . In that case, Eq. (4.5.13) becomes
t ′ =t
v(t) − v(ti ) = ∫ a(t ′)dt ′ .

t ′ =ti
(4.5.19)
Because the upper limit of the integral, t f = t , is now treated as a variable, we shall use
the symbol t ′ as the integration variable instead of t .
4.6.4 Displacement as the Definite Integral of Velocity
We can repeat the same argument for the definite integral of the x -component of the
velocity v(t) vs. time t . Because x(t) is an integral of v(t) the definite integral of v(t)
for the time interval [ti , t f ] is the displacement
t ′ =t f
x(t f ) − x(ti ) = ∫
t ′ =ti
v(t ′ )dt ′ . (4.5.20)
If we set t f = t , then the definite integral gives us the position as a function of time
t ′ =t
x(t) = x(ti ) + ∫ v(t ′)dt ′ .

t ′ =ti
(4.5.21)
Summarizing the results of these last two sections, for a given acceleration a(t) , we can
use integration techniques, to determine the change in velocity and change in position for
an interval [ti , t] , and given initial conditions (xi ,vi ) , we can determine the position x(t)
and the x -component of the velocity v(t) as functions of time.
Example 4.5 Non-constant Acceleration
Let’s consider a case in which the acceleration, a(t) , is not constant in time,
a(t) = b0 + b1 t + b2 t 2 . (4.5.22)
The graph of the x -component of the acceleration vs. time is shown in Figure 4.16
a(t) a(t) = b0 + b1 t + b2 t 2
b0 slope = b1
+t
Figure 4.16 Non-constant acceleration vs. time graph.
Denote the initial velocity at t = 0 by v0 . Then, the change in the x -component of the
velocity as a function of time can be found by integration:
t ′ =t t ′ =t
b1 t 2 b2 t 3
v(t) − v0 = ∫
t ′ =0
a(t ′ ) dt ′ = ∫
t ′ =0
(b0 + b1 t ′ + b2 t ′ 2 ) dt ′ = b0 t +
2
+
3
. (4.5.23)
The x -component of the velocity as a function in time is then
b1 t 2 b2 t 3
v(t) = v0 + b0 t + + . (4.5.24)
2 3
Denote the initial position at t = 0 by x0 . The displacement as a function of time is
t ′ =t
x(t) − x0 = ∫ v(t ′) dt ′.
t ′ =0
(4.5.25)
Use Equation (4.5.24) for the x -component of the velocity in Equation

Error! Reference source not found. and then integrate to determine the displacement as
a function of time:
t ′ =t
x(t) − x0 = ∫ v(t ′) dt ′
t ′ =0
(4.5.26)
t ′ =t
⎛ b t ′ 2 b t ′3 ⎞ b t2 b t3 b t4
= ∫ ⎜ v0 + b0 t ′ + 1 + 2 ⎟ dt ′ = v0 t + 0 + 1 + 2 .
t ′ =0 ⎝
2 3 ⎠ 2 6 12
Finally the position as a function of time is then
b0 t 2 b1 t 3 b2 t 4
x(t) = x0 + vx, 0 t + + + . (4.5.27)
2 6 12
Example 4.6 Bicycle and Car
A car is driving through a green light at t = 0 located at x = 0 with an initial speed

vc,0 = 12 m ⋅s-1 . At time t1 = 1 s , the car starts braking until it comes to rest at time t2 . The
acceleration of the car as a function of time is given by the piecewise function
⎧⎪0; 0 < t < t1 = 1 s

ac (t) = ⎨ ,
⎩⎪b(t − t1 ); 1 s < t < t2
where b = −(6 m ⋅s-3 ) .
(a) Find the x -component of the velocity and the position of the car as a function of time.
(b) A bicycle rider is riding at a constant speed of vb,0 and at t = 0 is 17 m behind the car.
The bicyclist reaches the car when the car just comes to rest. Find the speed of the bicycle.
Solution: a) In order to apply Eq. (4.5.19), we shall treat each stage separately. For the
time interval 0 < t < t1 , the acceleration is zero so the x -component of the velocity is
constant. For the second time interval t1 < t < t2 , the definite integral becomes
t ′ =t
vc (t) − vc (t1 ) = ∫ b(t ′ − t ) dt ′

t ′ =t1
1
Because vc (t1 ) = vc0 , the x -component of the velocity is then
⎧vc0 ; 0 < t ≤ t1
⎪ t ′ =t
vc (t) = ⎨ .
⎪vc0 + ∫ b(t ′ − t1 ) dt ′; t1 ≤ t < t2
⎩ t ′ =t1
Integrate and substitute the two endpoints of the definite integral, yields
⎧vc0 ; 0 < t ≤ t1
⎪
vc (t) = ⎨ 1 .
⎪vc0 + b(t − t1 ) ; t1 ≤ t < t2
2
⎩ 2
In order to use Eq. (4.5.25), we need to separate the definite integral into two integrals
corresponding to the two stages of motion, using the correct expression for the velocity
for each integral. The position function is then
⎧ t ′ =t1
⎪ xc0 + ∫ vc0 dt ′; 0 < t ≤ t1

⎪ t ′ =0
xc (t) = ⎨ t ′ =t
.
⎪ x (t ) + ⎛ v + 1 b(t ′ − t )2 ⎞ dt; t ≤ t < t
⎪ c 1 ∫ ⎜⎝ c0 2 1 ⎟
⎠ 1 2
⎩ t ′ =t1
Upon integration we have
⎧ xc (0) + vc0 t; 0 < t ≤ t1

⎪⎪ t ′ =t
xc (t) = ⎨ ⎛ 1 3⎞
.
x (t ) +
⎪ c 1 ⎜⎝ c0 v ( t ′ − t ) + b( t ′ − t )
1 ⎟
; t ≤ t < t
⎪⎩
1
6 ⎠ t′=t 1 2
1
We chose our coordinate system such that the initial position of the car was at the origin,
xc0 = 0 , therefore xc (t1 ) = vc0 t1 . So after substituting in the endpoints of the integration
interval we have that
⎧vc0t; 0 < t ≤ t1
⎪
xc (t) = ⎨ 1 .
⎪vc0 t1 + vc0 (t − t1 ) + b(t − t1 ) ; t1 ≤ t < t2
3
⎩ 6
(b) We are looking for the instant t2 that the car has come to rest. So we use our
expression for the x -component of the velocity the interval t1 ≤ t < t2 , where we set t = t2
and vc (t2 ) = 0 :
1
0 = vc (t2 ) = vc0 + b(t2 − t1 )2 .
2
Solving for t2 yields
2vc0
t2 = t1 + − ,
b
where we have taken the positive square root. Substitute the given values then yields
2(12 m ⋅s −1 )
t2 = 1 s + − = 3s.
(−6 m ⋅s −3 )
The position of the car at t2 is then given by

1
xc (t2 ) = vc0 t1 + vc0 (t2 − t1 ) + b(t2 − t1 )3
6
1
xc (t2 ) = vc0 t1 + vc0 −2vc0 / b + b(−2vc0 / b)3/2
6
2 2(vc03/2 )
xc (t2 ) = vc0 t1 +
3(−b)1/2
where we used the condition that t2 − t1 = −2vc0 / b . Substitute the given values then
yields
4 2(vc0 )3/2 4 2((12 m ⋅s-1 )3/2
xc (t2 ) = vc0 t1 + 2 = (12 m ⋅s -1
)(1 s) + = 28 m .
3(−b)1/2 3((6 m ⋅s −3 ))1/2
b) Because the bicycle is traveling at a constant speed with an initial position

xb0 = −17 m , the position of the bicycle is given by xb (t) = −17 m + vbt . The bicycle and
car intersect at time t2 = 3 s , where xb (t2 ) = xc (t2 ) . Therefore −17 m + vb (3 s) = 28 m . So
the speed of the bicycle is vb = 15 m ⋅s −1 .
Chapter 5 Two Dimensional Kinematics
5.1 Introduction to the Vector Description of Motion in Two Dimensions ............. 1

5.2 Projectile Motion..................................................................................................... 2
Example 5.1 Time of Flight and Maximum Height of a Projectile ...................... 5
5.2.1 Orbit equation .................................................................................................. 8
Example 5.2 Hitting the Bucket ............................................................................. 10

Chapter 5 Two Dimensional Kinematics
Where was the chap I saw in the picture somewhere? Ah yes, in the dead
sea floating on his back, reading a book with a parasol open. Couldn’t
sink if you tried: so thick with salt. Because the weight of the water, no,
the weight of the body in the water is equal to the weight of the what? Or
is it the volume equal to the weight? It’s a law something like that. Vance
in High school cracking his fingerjoints, teaching. The college curriculum.
Cracking curriculum. What is weight really when you say weight?
Thirtytwo feet per second per second. Law of falling bodies: per second
per second. They all fall to the ground. The earth. It’s the force of gravity
of the earth is the weight. 1
James Joyce
5.1 Introduction to the Vector Description of Motion in Two Dimensions
We have introduced the concepts of position, velocity and acceleration to describe

motion in one dimension; however we live in a multidimensional universe. In order to
explore and describe motion in more than one dimension, we shall study the motion of a
projectile in two-dimension moving under the action of uniform gravitation.
We extend our definitions of position, velocity, and acceleration for an object that
moves in two dimensions (in a plane) by treating each direction independently, which we
can do with vector quantities by resolving each of these quantities into components. For
example, our definition of velocity as the derivative of position holds for each component
!
separately. In Cartesian coordinates, the position vector r(t) with respect to some choice
of origin for the object at time t is given by
!
r(t) = x(t) î + y(t) ĵ . (5.1.1)

The velocity vector v (t ) at time t is the derivative of the position vector,
 dx(t ) ˆ dy (t ) ˆ
v (t ) = i+ j ≡ vx (t ) î + v y (t ) ˆj , (5.1.2)
dt dt
where vx (t ) ≡ dx(t ) / dt and v y (t ) ≡ dy (t ) / dt denote the x - and y -components of the

velocity respectively.

The acceleration vector a(t ) is defined in a similar fashion as the derivative of the
velocity vector,
1
James Joyce, Ulysses, The Corrected Text edited by Hans Walter Gabler with Wolfhard
Steppe and Claus Melchior, Random House, New York.
1
 dv (t ) dv (t )
a(t ) = x î + y ˆj ≡ ax (t ) î + a y (t ) ˆj, (5.1.3)
dt dt
where ax (t ) ≡ dvx (t ) / dt and a y (t ) ≡ dv y (t ) / dt denote the x - and y -components of the

acceleration.
5.2 Projectile Motion

!
Consider the motion of a body that is released at time t = 0 with an initial velocity v 0 .
Two paths are shown in Figure 5.1.
parabolic orbit
v0
actual orbit
Figure 5.1 Actual orbit accounting for air resistance and parabolic orbit of a projectile
The dotted path represents a parabolic trajectory and the solid path represents the actual
trajectory. The difference between the two paths is due to air resistance acting on the
!
object, F air = −bv 2 v̂ , where v̂ is a unit vector in the direction of the velocity. (For the
!
orbits shown in Figure 5.1, b = 0.01 N ⋅s 2 ⋅ m -2 , v 0 = 30.0 m ⋅s , the initial launch angle
with respect to the horizontal θ 0 = 21! , and the actual horizontal distance traveled is
71.7% of the projectile orbit.). There are other factors that can influence the path of
motion; a rotating body or a special shape can alter the flow of air around the body,
which may induce a curved motion or lift like the flight of a baseball or golf ball. We
shall begin our analysis by neglecting all interactions except the gravitational interaction.
y
y(t) . ĵ
v0 î
r(t)
0
y0
O x
x(t)
Figure 5.2 A coordinate sketch for parabolic motion.
Choose coordinates with the positive y-axis in the upward vertical direction and the
positive x-axis in the horizontal direction in the direction that the object is moving
horizontally. Choose the origin at the ground immediately below the point the object is
2
!
released. Figure 5.2 shows our coordinate system with the position of the object r(t) at
!
time t , the initial velocity v 0 , and the initial angle θ 0 with respect to the horizontal, and
the coordinate functions x(t) and y(t) .
Initial Conditions:
y
v0 .
v y,0 ĵ
0 î
O
vx,0
x
Figure 5.3 A vector decomposition of the initial velocity
Decompose the initial velocity vector into its components:

!
v 0 = vx,0 î + v y,0 ĵ . (5.1.4)
The vector decomposition for the initial velocity is shown in Figure 5.3. Often the
description of the flight of a projectile includes the statement, “a body is projected with
an initial speed v0 at an angle θ 0 with respect to the horizontal.” The components of the
initial velocity can be expressed in terms of the initial speed and angle according to
vx ,0 = v0 cos θ 0 , (5.1.5)
v y ,0 = v0 sin θ 0 . (5.1.6)
Because the initial speed is the magnitude of the initial velocity, we have that
v0 = (vx,2 0 + v 2y, 0 )1/ 2 . (5.1.7)
The angle θ 0 is related to the components of the initial velocity by
θ 0 = tan −1 (v y,0 / vx,0 ) . (5.1.8)
Equation (5.1.8) will give two values for the angle θ 0 , so care must be taken to choose
the correct physical value. The initial position vector generally is given by
!
r0 = x0 î + y0 ĵ . (5.1.9)
Note that the trajectory in Figure 5.3 has x0 = 0 , but this will not always be the case.
3
Force Diagram:
We begin by neglecting all forces other than the gravitational interaction between the
object and the earth. This force acts downward with magnitude m g , where m is the
mass of the object and g = 9.8 m ⋅s −2 . Figure 5.4 shows the force diagram on the object.
y
ĵ
î
.
Fg
O x
Figure 5.4 Free-body force diagram on the object with the action of gravity
The vector decomposition of the force is


F g = −m g ĵ . (5.1.10)
Equations of Motions:
The force diagram reminds us that the force is acting in the y -direction. Newton’s
!
Second Law states that the sum of the force, F total , acting on the object is equal to the

product of the mass m and the acceleration vector a ,
 
F total = m a . (5.1.11)
 
Because we are modeling the motion with only one force, we have that F total = F g . This is
a vector equation; the components are equated separately:
−mg = m a y , (5.1.12)
0 = m ax . (5.1.13)
Therefore the y -component of the acceleration is
a y = −g. (5.1.14)
We see that the acceleration is a constant and is independent of the mass of the object.
Notice that a y < 0 . This is because we chose our positive y -direction to point upwards.
The sign of the y -component of acceleration is determined by how we choose our
4
coordinate system. Because there are no horizontal forces acting on the object, we
conclude that the acceleration in the horizontal direction is also zero
ax = 0 . (5.1.15)
Therefore the x -component of the velocity remains unchanged throughout the flight of
the object.
The acceleration in the vertical direction is constant for all bodies near the surface of the
Earth, independent of the mass of the object, thus confirming Galileo’s Law of Free
Falling Bodies. Notice that the equation of motion (Equation (5.1.14)) generalizes the
experimental observation that objects fall with constant acceleration. Our statement about
the acceleration of objects near the surface of Earth depends on our model force law Eq.
(5.1.10), and if subsequent observations show the acceleration is not constant then we
either must include additional forces (for example, air resistance), or modify the force
law (for objects that are no longer near the surface of Earth, or consider that Earth is a
non-symmetric non-uniform body), or take into account the rotational motion of the Earth.
We can now integrate the equation of motions (Eqs. (5.1.14) and (5.1.15))
separately for the x - and y - directions to find expressions for the x - and y -components
of velocity and position:
t ′ =t
vx (t) − vx, 0 = ∫ ax (t ′ ) dt ′ = 0 ⇒ vx (t) = vx, 0

t ′ =0
t ′ =t t ′ =t
x(t) − x0 = ∫ vx (t ′ ) dt ′ = ∫ vx, 0 dt ′ = vx, 0t ⇒ x(t) = x0 + vx, 0t

t ′ =0 t ′ =0
t ′ =t t ′ =t
v y (t) − v y, 0 = ∫ a y (t ′ ) dt ′ = − ∫ g dt ′ = −gt ⇒ v y (t) = v y, 0 − gt

t ′ =0 t ′ =0
t ′ =t t ′ =t
y(t) − y0 = ∫
t ′ =0
v y ( t ′ ) dt ′ = ∫ (v
t ′ =0
y,0
− gt) dt ′ = v y,0t − (1/ 2)gt 2 ⇒ y(t) = y0 + v y,0t − (1/ 2)gt 2 .
The complete set of vector equations for position and velocity for each independent
direction of motion are given by

r(t) = x(t) î + y(t) ĵ = (x0 + vx,0t) î + ( y0 + v y,0 t + (1/ 2)a y t 2 ) ĵ , (5.1.16)

v(t) = vx (t) î + v y (t) ĵ = vx,0 î + (v y,0 + a y t) ĵ , (5.1.17)

a(t ) = ax (t ) î + a y (t ) ˆj = a y ˆj . (5.1.18)
Example 5.1 Time of Flight and Maximum Height of a Projectile
5
A person throws a stone at an initial angle θ 0 = 45! from the horizontal with an initial
speed of v0 = 20 m ⋅ s-1 . The point of release of the stone is at a height d = 2 m above the
ground. You may neglect air resistance. a) How long does it take the stone to reach the
highest point of its trajectory? b) What was the maximum vertical displacement of the
stone? Ignore air resistance.
Solution: Choose the origin on the ground directly underneath the point where the stone
is released. We choose the positive y-axis in the upward vertical direction and the
positive x-axis in the horizontal direction in the direction that the object is moving
horizontally. Set t = 0 the instant the stone is released. At t = 0 the initial conditions are
then x0 = 0 and y0 = d . The initial x - and y -components of the velocity are given by
Eqs. (5.1.5) and (5.1.6).
At time t the stone has coordinates (x(t), y(t)) . These coordinate functions are shown in
Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5: Coordinate functions for stone
Figure 5.6 Plot of the y-component of the position as a function of time
The slope of this graph at any time t yields the instantaneous y-component of the
velocity v y (t) at that time t . Figure 5.5 is a plot of y(t) vs. x(t) and Figure 5.6 is a plot
of y(t) vs. t . There are several important things to notice about Figures 5.5 and 5.6. The
first point is that the abscissa axes are different in both figures. The second thing to notice
is that at t = 0 , the slope of the graph in Figure 5.5 is equal to
6
dy ⎛ dy / dt ⎞ v y,0
=⎜ = = tan θ 0 , (5.1.19)
dx t=0 ⎝ dx / dt ⎟⎠ t=0 vx,0
while at t = 0 the slope of the graph in Figure 5.6 is equal to
dy
= v y,0 . (5.1.20)
dt t=0
The slope of this graph in Figure 5.6 at any time t yields the instantaneous y-component
of the velocity v y (t) at that time t . Let t = t1 correspond to the instant the stone is at its
maximal vertical position, the highest point in the flight. The final thing to notice about
Figure 5.6 is that at t = t1 the slope is zero or v y (t = t1 ) = 0 . Therefore
v y (t1 ) = v0 sin θ 0 − gt1 = 0 . (5.1.21)
Solving Eq. (5.1.21) for t1 yields,
v0 sin θ 0 (20 m ⋅s-1 )sin(45! )

t1 = = = 1.44 s . (5.1.22)
g 9.8 m ⋅s-2
The graph in Figure 5.7 shows a plot of v y (t) as a function of time. Notice that at t = 0
the intercept is positive indicting that v y,0 is positive which means that the stone was
thrown upwards. The y -component of the velocity changes sign at t = t1 indicating that
the stone is reversing its direction and starting to move downwards.
v y (t)
15
10
[m s 1 ]
0 1 2 3 4 t
t1 [s]
-5
-10
-15
Figure 5.7 y -component of the velocity as a function of time
7
We now substitute the expression for t = ttop (Eq. (5.1.22)) into the y -component of the
position in Eq. (5.1.16) to find the maximal height of the stone above the ground
2
v sin θ 0 1 ⎛ v0 sin θ 0 ⎞
y(t = ttop ) = d + v0 sin θ 0 0 − g⎜
g 2 ⎝ g ⎟⎠
, (5.1.23)
v0 2 sin 2 θ 0 (20 m ⋅s-1 )2 sin 2 (45 )
=d+ =2m+ = 12.2 m
2g 2(9.8 m ⋅s-2 )
5.2.1 Orbit equation
So far our description of the motion has emphasized the independence of the spatial
dimensions, treating all of the kinematic quantities as functions of time. We shall now
eliminate time from our equation and find the orbit equation of the body undergoing
projectile motion. We begin with the x -component of the position in Eq. (5.1.16),
x(t ) = x0 + vx ,0 t (5.1.24)
and solve Equation (5.1.24) for time t as a function of x(t ) ,
x(t ) − x0
t= . (5.1.25)
vx ,0
The y -component of the position in Eq. (5.1.16) is given by
1
y (t ) = y0 + v y ,0 t − g t 2 . (5.1.26)
2
We then substitute Eq. (5.1.25) into Eq. (5.1.26) yielding
2
⎛ x(t ) − x0 ⎞ 1 ⎛ x(t ) − x0 ⎞
y (t ) = y0 + v y ,0 ⎜ − g
⎜ vx ,0 ⎟⎟ 2 ⎜⎜ vx ,0 ⎟⎟
. (5.1.27)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
A little algebraic simplification yields the equation for a parabola:
1 g ⎛gx v ⎞ v 1 g
y (t ) = − x(t ) 2 + ⎜ 2 0 + y ,0 ⎟ x(t ) − y ,0 x0 − 2 x02 + y0 . (5.1.28)
2
2 vx ,0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ vx ,0 vx ,0 ⎠ vx ,0 2 vx ,0
The graph of y (t ) as a function of x(t ) is shown in Figure 5.8.
8
Figure 5.8 The parabolic orbit
The velocity vector is given by
 dx(t ) ˆ dy (t ) ˆ
v (t ) = i+ j ≡ vx (t ) î + v y (t ) ˆj . (5.1.29)
dt dt
The direction of the velocity vector at a point (x(t), y(t)) can be determined from the
components. Let θ be the angle that the velocity vector forms with respect to the positive
x -axis. Then
⎛ v (t) ⎞ ⎛ dy / dt ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞
θ = tan −1 ⎜ y ⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ . (5.1.30)
⎝ vx (t) ⎠ ⎝ dx / dt ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠
Differentiating Eq. (5.1.28) with respect to x yields
dy g ⎛ gx v ⎞
= − 2 x + ⎜ 2 0 + y,0 ⎟ . (5.1.31)
dx vx,0 ⎝ vx,0 vx,0 ⎠
The direction of the velocity vector at a point (x(t), y(t)) is therefore
⎛ g ⎛ g x v ⎞⎞
θ = tan −1 ⎜ − 2 x + ⎜ 2 0 + y,0 ⎟ ⎟ . (5.1.32)
⎝ vx,0 ⎝ vx,0 vx,0 ⎠ ⎠
Although we can determine the angle of the velocity, we cannot determine how fast the
body moves along the parabolic orbit from our graph of y(x) ; the magnitude of the
velocity cannot be determined from information about the tangent line.
9
If we choose our origin at the initial position of the body at t = 0 , then x0 = 0 and y0 = 0 .
Our orbit equation, Equation (5.1.28) can now be simplified to
1 g v y,0
y(t) = − 2
x(t) 2
+ x(t) . (5.1.33)
2 vx,0 vx,0
Example 5.2 Hitting the Bucket
A person is holding a pail while standing on a ladder. The person releases the pail from
rest at a height h1 above the ground. A second person, standing a horizontal distance s
from the pail, aims and throws a ball the instant the pail is released in order to hit the pail.
The person releases the ball at a height h2 above the ground, with an initial speed v0 , and
at an angle θ 0 with respect to the horizontal. Assume that v0 is large enough so that the
stone will at least travel a horizontal distance s before it hits the ground. You may ignore
air resistance.
h1
h2
Figure 5.9: Example 5.2
a) Find an expression for the angle θ 0 that the person aims the ball in order to hit the
pail. Does the answer depend on the initial velocity?
b) Find an expression for the time of collision as a function of the initial speed of the
ball v0 , and the quantities h1 , h2 , and s .
c) Find an expression for the height above the ground where the collision occurred
as a function of the initial speed of the ball v0 , and the quantities h1 , h2 , and s .
Solution:
There are two objects involved in this problem. Each object is undergoing free fall, so
there is only one stage of motion for each object. The pail is undergoing one-dimensional
10
motion. The ball is undergoing two-dimensional motion. The parameters h1 , h2 , v0 , and
s are unspecified, so our answers will be functions of those quantities. Figure 5.9 shows
a sketch of the motion of all the bodies in this problem.
Choose an origin on the ground directly underneath the point where the ball is released,
upwards for the positive y -direction and towards the pail for the positive x -direction.
Choose position coordinates for the pail as follows. The horizontal coordinate is constant
and given by x1 = s . The vertical coordinate represents the height above the ground and
is denoted by y1 (t) . The ball has coordinates (x2 (t), y2 (t)) . We show these coordinates in
the Figure 5.10.
h1
x1 = s
v0 x2 (t)
h2
0
y1 (t)
y2 (t)
Figure 5.10: Coordinate System
The pail undergoes constant acceleration a1,y = −g in the vertical direction and the ball
undergoes uniform motion in the horizontal direction and constant acceleration in the
vertical direction, with a2,x = 0 and a2,y = −g .
The initial conditions for the pail are (v1,0 ) y = 0 , x1,0 = s , y1,0 = h1 . The equations for
position and velocity of the pail simplify to
1 2
y1 (t) = h1 − gt (5.1.34)
2
v y,1 (t) = −gt . (5.1.35)
The initial position is given by x2,0 = 0 , y2,0 = h2 . The components of the initial velocity
are given by (v2,0 ) y = v0 sin(θ 0 ) and (v2,0 ) x = v0 cos(θ 0 ) , where v0 is the magnitude of the
initial velocity and θ 0 is the initial angle with respect to the horizontal. The equations for
the position and velocity of the ball simplify to
11
x2 (t) = v0 cos(θ 0 )t (5.1.36)
v2,x (t) = v0 cos(θ 0 ) (5.1.37)
1 2
y2 (t) = h2 + v0 sin(θ 0 )t − gt (5.1.38)
2
v2,y (t) = v0 sin(θ 0 ) − gt . (5.1.39)
Note that the quantities h1 , h2 , v0 , and s should be treated as known quantities although
no numerical values were given. There are six independent equations with 8 as yet
unspecified quantities y1 (t) , t , y2 (t) , x2 (t) , v1,y (t) , v2,y (t) , v2,x (t) , and θ 0 .
So we need two more conditions, in order to find expressions for the initial angle, θ 0 , the
time of collision, ta , and the spatial location of the collision point specified by y1 (ta ) or
y2 (ta ) . At the collision time t = ta , the collision occurs when the two balls are located at
the same position. Therefore
y1 (ta ) = y2 (ta ) (5.1.40)

x2 (ta ) = x1 = s . (5.1.41)
We shall now apply these conditions that must be satisfied in order for the ball to hit the
pail.
1 1
2
( )
h1 − gta 2 = h2 + v0 sin θ 0 ta − gta 2
2
(5.1.42)
s = v0 cos(θ 0 )ta . (5.1.43)
Eq. (5.1.42) simplifies to

v0 sin(θ 0 )ta = h1 − h2 (5.1.44)
Dividing Eq. (5.1.44) by Eq. (5.1.43) yields
v0 sin(θ 0 )ta h −h
= tan(θ 0 ) = 1 2 . (5.1.45)
v0 cos(θ 0 )ta s2
So the initial angle θ 0 is independent of v0 , and is given by
θ 0 = tan −1 ((h1 − h2 ) / s) . (5.1.46)
From the Figure 5.11 we can see that tan(θ 0 ) = (h1 − h2 ) / s implies that the second person
aims the ball at the initial position of the pail.
12
h1
h1 h2
h2 0
s
Figure 5.11: Geometry of collision
In order to find the time that the ball collides with the pail, we begin by squaring both
Eqs. (5.1.44) and (5.1.43), then utilize the trigonometric identity sin 2 (θ 0 ) + cos 2 (θ 0 ) = 1 .
Our squared equations become
v0 2 sin 2 (θ 0 )ta 2 = (h1 − h2 )2 (5.1.47)
v0 2 cos 2 (θ 0 )ta 2 = s 2 . (5.1.48)
Adding these equations together and using the identity sin 2 (θ 0 ) + cos 2 (θ 0 ) = 1 and taking
square roots yields
v0ta = (s 2 + (h1 − h2 )2 )1/2 . (5.1.49)
We can solve Eq. (5.1.49) for the time of collision
1 2
ta = (s + (h1 − h2 )2 )1 2 . (5.1.50)
v0
We can now use the y -coordinate function of either the ball or the pail at t = ta to find
the height that the ball collides with the pail. Because the pail had no initial y -
component of the velocity, it’s easier to use the condition for the pail,
g(s 2 + (h1 − h2 )2 )
y1 (ta ) = h1 − . (5.1.51)
2v0 2
Comments:
(1) Eqs. (5.1.49) and (5.1.50) can be arrived at in a very direct way. Suppose we analyze
!
the motion in a reference frame that is accelerating downward with A = −g ĵ . In that
13
reference frame both the pail and the stone are not accelerating; the pail is at rest and the
stone is travelling with speed v0 , at an angle θ 0 . Therefore in order to hit the stationary
pail, the stone must be thrown at the angle given by Eq. (5.1.46) and the time that it takes
to hit the stone is just given by distance traveled divided by speed, Eq. (5.1.50).
14
Chapter 6 Circular Motion
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1

6.2 Circular Motion: Velocity and Angular Velocity ................................................ 2
6.2.1 Geometric Derivation of the Velocity for Circular Motion.......................... 4
6.3 Circular Motion: Tangential and Radial Acceleration ....................................... 5
Example 6.1 Circular Motion Kinematics .............................................................. 7
6.4 Period and Frequency for Uniform Circular Motion.......................................... 7
6.4.1 Geometric Interpretation for Radial Acceleration for Uniform Circular
Motion ........................................................................................................................ 9
6.5 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration ...................................................... 10
6.5.1. Angular Velocity ........................................................................................... 10
Example 6.2 Angular Velocity ............................................................................... 12
Example 6.3 Integration and Circular Motion Kinematics ................................ 14
6.6 Non-circular Central Planar Motion .................................................................. 15
Example 6.4 Spiral Motion..................................................................................... 16

Chapter 6 Central Motion
And the seasons they go round and round
And the painted ponies go up and down
We're captive on the carousel of time
We can't return we can only look
Behind from where we came
And go round and round and round
In the circle game 1
Joni Mitchell
6.1 Introduction
We shall now investigate a special class of motions, motion in a plane about a central
point, a motion we shall refer to as central motion, the most outstanding case of which is
circular motion. Special cases often dominate our study of physics, and circular motion
about a central point is certainly no exception. There are many instances of central
motion about a point; a bicycle rider on a circular track, a ball spun around by a string,
and the rotation of a spinning wheel are just a few examples. Various planetary models
described the motion of planets in circles before any understanding of gravitation. The
motion of the moon around the earth is nearly circular. The motions of the planets around
the sun are nearly circular. Our sun moves in nearly a circular orbit about the center of
our galaxy, 50,000 light years from a massive black hole at the center of the galaxy.
When Newton solved the two-body under a gravitational central force, he discovered that
the orbits can be circular, elliptical, parabolic or hyperbolic. All of these orbits still
display central force motion about the center of mass of the two-body system. Another
example of central force motion is the scattering of particles by a Coulombic central force,
for example Rutherford scattering of an alpha particle (two protons and two neutrons
bound together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus) against an atomic nucleus
such as a gold nucleus.
We shall begin by describing the kinematics of circular motion, the position, velocity,
and acceleration, as a special case of two-dimensional motion. We will see that unlike
linear motion, where velocity and acceleration are directed along the line of motion, in
circular motion the direction of velocity is always tangent to the circle. This means that as
the object moves in a circle, the direction of the velocity is always changing. When we
examine this motion, we shall see that the direction of the change of the velocity is
towards the center of the circle. This means that there is a non-zero component of the
acceleration directed radially inward, which is called the centripetal acceleration. If our
object is increasing its speed or slowing down, there is also a non-zero tangential
acceleration in the direction of motion. But when the object is moving at a constant speed
in a circle then only the centripetal acceleration is non-zero.
1
Joni Mitchell, The Circle Game, Siquomb Publishing Company.
1
In 1666, twenty years before Newton published his Principia, he realized that the
moon is always “falling” towards the center of the earth; otherwise, by the First Law, it
would continue in some linear trajectory rather than follow a circular orbit. Therefore
there must be a centripetal force, a radial force pointing inward, producing this
centripetal acceleration.
In all of these
! instances, when an object is constrained to move in a circle, there
must exist a force F acting on the object directed towards the center. Because Newton’s
Second Law is a vector equality, the radial component of the Second Law is
Fr = m ar . (6.1.1)
6.2 Circular Motion: Velocity and Angular Velocity
We begin our description of circular

 motion by choosing polar coordinates. In Figure 6.1
we sketch the position vector r (t ) of the object moving in a circular orbit of radius r .
+y ĵ r̂(t)
ˆ (t)
r
.P î
(t) +x
Figure 6.1 A circular orbit with unit vectors.
At time t , the particle is located at the point P with coordinates (r, θ (t)) and position
vector given by
!
r(t) = r r̂(t) . (6.2.1)
At the point P , consider two sets of unit vectors ( r̂(t) , θ̂(t) ) and ( î , ĵ ), as shown in
Figure 6.1. The vector decomposition expression for r̂(t) and θ̂(t) in terms of î and ĵ is
given by
r̂(t) = cosθ (t) î + sin θ (t) ĵ , (6.2.2)
θ̂(t) = − sin θ (t) î + cosθ (t) ĵ . (6.2.3)
Before we calculate the velocity, we shall calculate the time derivatives of Eqs. (6.2.2)
and (6.2.3). Let’s first begin with d r̂ (t) / dt :
2
d r̂ (t) d dθ (t) dθ (t)
= (cosθ (t) î + sin θ (t) ĵ) = (− sin θ (t) î + cosθ (t) ĵ)
dt dt dt dt
; (6.2.4)
dθ (t) dθ (t)
= (− sin θ (t) î + cosθ (t) ĵ) = θ̂(t)
dt dt
where we used the chain rule to calculate that
d dθ (t)
cosθ (t) = − sin θ (t) , (6.2.5)
dt dt
d dθ (t)
sin θ (t) = cosθ (t) . (6.2.6)
dt dt
The calculation for d θ̂(t) / dt is similar:
d θ̂(t) d dθ (t) dθ (t)

= (− sin θ (t) î + cosθ (t ĵ) = (− cosθ (t) î − sin(t) ĵ)
dt dt dt dt . (6.2.7)
dθ (t) dθ (t)
= (− cosθ (t) î − sin θ (t) ĵ) = − r̂(t)
dt dt
The velocity vector is then

!
! dr(t) d r̂ dθ
v(t) = =r = r θ̂(t) = vθ θ̂(t) , (6.2.8)
dt dt dt
where the θ̂ -component of the velocity is given by
dθ
vθ = r , (6.2.9)
dt
a quantity we shall refer to as the tangential component of the velocity. Denote the
!
magnitude of the velocity by v ≡ v , The angular speed is the magnitude of the rate of
change of angle with respect to time, which we denote by the Greek letter ω ,
dθ
ω≡ . (6.2.10)
dt
3
6.2.1 Geometric Derivation of the Velocity for Circular Motion
Consider a particle undergoing circular motion. At time t , the position of the particle is
! !
r(t) . During the time interval Δt , the particle moves to the position r(t + Δt) with a
!
displacement Δr .
r
r(t + t) r(t)
Figure 6.2 Displacement vector for circular motion


The magnitude of the displacement, Δr , is represented by the length of the horizontal

vector Δr joining the heads of the displacement vectors in Figure 6.2 and is given by
!
Δr = 2r sin(Δθ / 2) . (6.2.11)
When the angle Δθ is small, we can approximate
sin(Δθ / 2) ≅ Δθ / 2 . (6.2.12)
This is called the small angle approximation, where the angle Δθ (and hence Δθ / 2 ) is
measured in radians. This fact follows from an infinite power series expansion for the
sine function given by
3 5
⎛ Δθ ⎞ Δθ 1 ⎛ Δθ ⎞ 1 ⎛ Δθ ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟= − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ − ⋅⋅⋅ . (6.2.13)
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 3! ⎝ 2 ⎠ 5! ⎝ 2 ⎠
When the angle Δθ / 2 is small, only the first term in the infinite series contributes, as
successive terms in the expansion become much smaller. For example, when
Δθ / 2 = π / 30 ≅ 0.1 , corresponding to 6o, (Δθ / 2)3 / 3! ≅ 1.9 ×10−4 ; this term in the power
series is three orders of magnitude smaller than the first and can be safely ignored for
small angles.
Using the small angle approximation, the magnitude of the displacement is
4

Δr ≅ r Δθ . (6.2.14)
This result should not be too surprising since in the limit as Δθ approaches zero, the
length of the chord approaches the arc length r Δθ .
The magnitude of the velocity, v , is proportional to the rate of change of the

magnitude of the angle with respect to time,
!
! Δr r Δθ Δθ dθ
v ≡ v(t) = lim = lim = r lim =r = rω . (6.2.15)
Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt dt
The direction of the velocity can be determined by considering that in the limit as

Δt → 0 (note that Δθ → 0 ), the direction of the displacement Δr approaches the
direction of the tangent to the circle at the position of the particle at time t (Figure 6.3).
ˆ (t) r̂(t)
r v(t) tangent line
r(t + t) r(t)
Figure 6.3 Direction of the displacement approaches the direction of the tangent line
  
Thus, in the limit Δt → 0 , Δr ⊥ r , and so the direction of the velocity v(t) at time t is

perpendicular to the position vector r(t) and tangent to the circular orbit in the +θ̂ -
direction for the case shown in Figure 6.3.
6.3 Circular Motion: Tangential and Radial Acceleration
When the motion of an object is described in polar coordinates, the acceleration has two
components, the tangential component aθ , and the radial component, ar . We can write
the acceleration vector as
!
a = ar r̂(t) + aθ θ̂(t) . (6.3.1)
5
Keep in mind that as the object moves in a circle, the unit vectors r̂(t) and θ̂(t) change
direction and hence are not constant in time.
We will begin by calculating the tangential component of the acceleration for

circular motion. Suppose that the tangential velocity vθ = r dθ / dt is changing in
magnitude due to the presence of some tangential force; we shall now consider that
dθ / dt is changing in time, (the magnitude of the velocity is changing in time). Recall
that in polar coordinates the velocity vector Eq. (6.2.8) can be written as
! dθ
v(t) = r θ̂(t) . (6.3.2)
dt
We now use the product rule to determine the acceleration.

!
! dv(t) d 2θ (t) dθ (t) d θ̂(t)
a(t) = =r 2
θ̂(t) + r . (6.3.3)
dt dt dt dt
Recall from Eq. (6.2.3) that θ̂(t) = − sin θ (t) î + cosθ (t) ĵ . So we can rewrite Eq. (6.3.3) as
! d 2θ (t) dθ (t) d
a(t) = r 2
θ̂(t) + r (− sin θ (t) î + cosθ (t) ĵ) . (6.3.4)
dt dt dt
We again use the chain rule (Eqs. (6.2.5) and (6.2.6)) and find that
! d 2θ (t) dθ (t) ⎛ dθ (t) dθ (t) ⎞

a(t) = r θ̂(t) + r ⎜⎝ − cosθ (t) î − sin θ (t) ĵ⎟ . (6.3.5)
dt 2
dt dt dt ⎠
Recall that ω ≡ dθ / dt , and from Eq. (6.2.2), r̂(t) = cosθ (t) î + sin θ (t) ĵ , therefore the
acceleration becomes
d 2θ (t) ⎛ dθ (t) ⎞
2
!
a(t) = r θ̂(t) − r ⎜ r̂(t) . (6.3.6)
dt 2 ⎝ dt ⎟⎠
The tangential component of the acceleration is then
d 2θ (t)
aθ = r . (6.3.7)
dt 2
The radial component of the acceleration is given by
6
2
⎛ dθ (t) ⎞
ar = −r ⎜ ⎟ = −r ω 2 < 0 . (6.3.8)
⎝ dt ⎠

Because ar < 0 , that radial vector component a r (t) = −r ω 2 r̂(t) is always directed
towards the center of the circular orbit.
Example 6.1 Circular Motion Kinematics
A particle is moving in a circle of radius R . At t = 0 , it is located on the x -axis. The

angle the particle makes with the positive x -axis is given by θ (t) = At 3 − Bt , where A
and B are positive constants. Determine (a) the velocity vector, and (b) the acceleration
vector. Express your answer in polar coordinates. At what time is the centripetal
acceleration zero?
Solution:
The derivatives of the angle function θ (t) = At 3 − Bt are dθ / dt = 3At 2 − B and

d 2θ / dt 2 = 6 At . Therefore the velocity vector is given by
! dθ (t)
v(t) = R θ̂(t) = R(3At 2 − Bt)θ̂(t) .
dt
The acceleration is given by
d 2θ (t) ⎛ dθ (t) ⎞
2

a(t) = R θ̂(t) − R ⎜
⎝ dt ⎟⎠
2
r̂(t)
dt .
(
= R(6At) θ̂(t) − R 3At 2 − B ) 2
r̂(t)
The centripetal acceleration is zero at time t = t1 when
3At12 − B = 0 ⇒ t1 = B / 3A .
6.4 Period and Frequency for Uniform Circular Motion
If the object is constrained to move in a circle and the total tangential force acting on the
object is zero, Fθ = 0 , then (Newton’s Second Law), the tangential acceleration is zero,
total
aθ = 0 . (6.4.1)
7
This means that the magnitude of the velocity (the speed) remains constant. This motion
is known as uniform circular motion. The acceleration is then given by only the
acceleration radial component vector

a r (t) = −rω 2 (t) r̂(t) uniform circular motion . (6.4.2)
Because the speed v = r ω is constant, the amount of time that the object takes to
complete one circular orbit of radius r is also constant. This time interval, T , is called
the period. In one period the object travels a distance s = vT equal to the circumference,
s = 2π r ; thus
s = 2π r = vT . (6.4.3)
The period T is then given by

2π r 2π r 2π
T= = = . (6.4.4)
v rω ω
The frequency f is defined to be the reciprocal of the period,
1 ω
f = = . (6.4.5)
T 2π
The SI unit of frequency is the inverse second, which is defined as the hertz, ⎡⎣s −1 ⎤⎦ ≡ [Hz] .
The magnitude of the radial component of the acceleration can be expressed in several
equivalent forms since both the magnitudes of the velocity and angular velocity are
related by v = rω . Thus we have several alternative forms for the magnitude of the
centripetal acceleration. The first is that in Equation (6.5.3). The second is in terms of the
radius and the angular velocity,
ar = r ω 2 . (6.4.6)
The third form expresses the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration in terms of the
speed and radius,
v2
ar = . (6.4.7)
r
Recall that the magnitude of the angular velocity is related to the frequency by
ω = 2π f , so we have a fourth alternate expression for the magnitude of the centripetal
acceleration in terms of the radius and frequency,
ar = 4π 2 r f 2 . (6.4.8)
8
A fifth form commonly encountered uses the fact that the frequency and period
are related by f = 1/ T = ω / 2π . Thus we have the fourth expression for the centripetal
acceleration in terms of radius and period,
4π 2 r
ar = 2 . (6.4.9)
T
Other forms, such as 4π 2 r 2 f / T or 2π rω f , while valid, are uncommon.
Often we decide which expression to use based on information that describes the
orbit. A convenient measure might be the orbit’s radius. We may also independently
know the period, or the frequency, or the angular velocity, or the speed. If we know one,
we can calculate the other three but it is important to understand the meaning of each
quantity.
6.4.1 Geometric Interpretation for Radial Acceleration for Uniform Circular

Motion
An object traveling in a circular orbit is always accelerating towards the center. Any
radial inward acceleration is called centripetal acceleration. Recall that the direction of
the velocity is always tangent to the circle. Therefore the direction of the velocity is
constantly changing because the object is moving in a circle, as can be seen in Figure 6.4.
Because the velocity changes direction, the object has a nonzero acceleration.
Figure 6.5 Change in velocity vector.

Figure 6.4 Direction of the velocity for
circular motion.
9
The calculation of the magnitude and direction of the acceleration is very similar to the
calculation for the magnitude and direction of the velocity for circular motion, but the

change in velocity vector, Δv , is more complicated to visualize. The change in velocity
  
Δv = v (t + Δt ) − v (t ) is depicted in Figure 6.5. The velocity vectors have been given a

common point for the tails, so that the change in velocity, Δv , can be visualized. The

length Δv of the vertical vector can be calculated in exactly the same way as the

displacement Δr . The magnitude of the change in velocity is

Δv = 2v sin(Δθ / 2) . (6.5.1)
We can use the small angle approximation sin (Δθ / 2 ) ≅ Δθ / 2 to approximate the
magnitude of the change of velocity,

Δv ≅ v Δθ . (6.5.2)
The magnitude of the radial acceleration is given by


Δv v Δθ Δθ dθ
ar = lim = lim = v lim =v =vω . (6.5.3)
Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt dt
The direction of the radial acceleration is determined by the same method as the direction
 
of the velocity; in the limit Δθ → 0 , Δv ⊥ v , and so the direction of the acceleration
 
radial component vector a r (t) at time t is perpendicular to position vector v (t ) and
directed inward, in the −rˆ -direction.
6.5 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration

6.5.1. Angular Velocity
We shall always choose a right-handed cylindrical coordinate system. If the positive z -

axis points up, then we choose θ to be increasing in the counterclockwise direction as
shown in Figures 6.6.
+z
.
+x k̂
r
ˆ +y
r̂
Figure 6.6 Right handed coordinate system
6-10
For a point
! object undergoing circular motion about the z -axis, the angular velocity
vector ω is directed along the z -axis with z -component equal to the time derivative of
the angle θ ,
! dθ
ω= k̂ = ω z k̂ . (6.5.4)
dt
The SI units of angular velocity are [rad ⋅ s −1 ] . Note that the angular speed is just the
magnitude of the z -component of the angular velocity,
dθ
ω ≡ ωz = . (6.5.5)
dt
If the velocity of the object is in the + θ̂ -direction, (rotating in the counterclockwise

direction in Figure 6.7(a)), then the z -component of the angular velocity is positive,
ω z = dθ / dt > 0 . The angular velocity vector then points in the +k̂ -direction as shown in
Figure 6.7(a). If the velocity of the object is in the − θ̂ -direction, (rotating in the
clockwise direction in Figure 6.7(b)), then the z -component of the angular velocity
angular velocity is negative, ω z = dθ / dt < 0 . The angular velocity vector then points in
the −k̂ -direction as shown in Figure 6.7(b).
+z d +z d
z
= >0 = <0
dt z
dt
O O
. .
+x k̂ +x k̂
r v r
ˆ +y v ˆ +y
r̂ r̂
Figure 6.7(a) Angular velocity vector Figure 6.7(b) Angular velocity

vector for motion with dθ / dt > 0 . for motion with dθ / dt < 0 .
The velocity and angular velocity are related by
! ! ! dθ dθ
v = ω×r = k̂ × r r̂ = r θ̂ . (6.5.6)
dt dt
6-11
Example 6.2 Angular Velocity
A particle is moving in a circle of radius R . At t = 0 , it is located on the x -axis. The
angle the particle makes with the positive x -axis is given by θ (t) = At − Bt 3 , where A
and B are positive constants. Determine (a) the angular velocity vector, and (b) the
velocity vector. Express your answer in polar coordinates. (c) At what time, t = t1 , is the
angular velocity zero? (d) What is the direction of the angular velocity for (i) t < t1 , and
(ii) t > t1 ?
Solution: The derivative of θ (t) = At − Bt 3 is
dθ (t)
= A − 3Bt 2 .
dt
Therefore the angular velocity vector is given by
! dθ (t)
ω(t) = k̂ = (A − 3Bt 2 )k̂ .
dt
The velocity is given by
! dθ (t)
v(t) = R θ̂(t) = R(A − 3Bt 2 )θ̂(t) .
dt
The angular velocity is zero at time t = t1 when
A − 3Bt12 = 0 ⇒ t1 = A / 3B .
dθ (t) !
For t < t1 , = A − 3Bt12 > 0 hence ω(t) points in the positive k̂ -direction.
dt
dθ (t) !
For t > t1 , = A − 3Bt12 < 0 hence ω(t) points in the negative k̂ -direction.
dt
6.5.2 Angular Acceleration
In a similar fashion, for a point object undergoing circular motion about the fixed z -axis,
the angular acceleration is defined as
! d 2θ
α = 2 k̂ = α z k̂ . (6.5.7)
dt
The SI units of angular acceleration are [rad ⋅s −2 ] . The magnitude of the angular
acceleration is denoted by the Greek symbol alpha,
6-12
! d 2θ
α≡α = 2 . (6.5.8)
dt
There are four special cases to consider for the direction of the angular velocity. Let’s
!
first consider the two types of motion with α pointing in the +k̂ -direction: (i) if the
object is rotating counterclockwise and speeding up then both dθ / dt > 0 and
d 2θ / dt 2 > 0 (Figure 6.8(a), (ii) if the object is rotating clockwise and slowing down then
dθ / dt < 0 but d 2θ / dt 2 > 0 (Figure 6.8(b). There are two corresponding cases in which
!
α pointing in the −k̂ -direction: (iii) if the object is rotating counterclockwise and
slowing down then dθ / dt > 0 but d 2θ / dt 2 < 0 (Figure 6.9(a), (iv) if the object is
rotating clockwise and speeding up then both dθ / dt < 0 and d 2θ / dt 2 < 0 (Figure 6.9(b).
d2 +z d d2 +z d
= >0 z
= >0 = >0 z
= <0
z
dt 2 dt z
dt 2 dt
O O
. .
+x k̂ +x k̂
r r
v
ˆ +y v ˆ +y
r̂ r̂
Figure 6.8(a) Angular acceleration vector Figure 6.8(b) Angular velocity

vector for motion with dθ / dt > 0 , for motion with dθ / dt < 0 , and
and d 2θ / dt 2 > 0 . d 2θ / dt 2 > 0 .
d2 +z d d2 +z d
= <0 z
= >0 = <0 z
= <0
z
dt 2 dt z
dt 2 dt
O O
. .
+x k̂ +x k̂
r r
v
ˆ +y v ˆ +y
r̂ r̂
Figure 6.9(a) Angular acceleration vector Figure 6.9(b) Angular velocity

vector for motion with dθ / dt > 0 , for motion with dθ / dt < 0 , and
and d 2θ / dt 2 < 0 . d 2θ / dt 2 < 0 .
6-13
Example 6.3 Integration and Circular Motion Kinematics
A point-like object is constrained to travel in a circle. The z -component of the angular

acceleration of the object for the time interval [0, t1 ] is given by the function
⎧ ⎛ t⎞
⎪b ⎜ 1− ⎟ ; 0 ≤ t ≤ t1
α z (t) = ⎨ ⎝ t1 ⎠ ,
⎪
⎩0; t > t1
where b is a positive constant with units rad ⋅s −2 .
a) Determine an expression for the angular velocity of the object at t = t1 .

b) Through what angle has the object rotated at time t = t1 ?
Solution:
a) The angular velocity at time t = t1 is given by
t ′ =t1 t ′ =t1
⎛ t′ ⎞ ⎛ t12 ⎞ bt1
ω z (t1 ) − ω z (t = 0) = ∫ α z (t ′ ) dt ′ = ∫ b ⎜ 1− ⎟ dt ′ = b ⎜ t1 − ⎟ =
t ′ =0 ⎝
t ′ =0
t1 ⎠ ⎝ 2t1 ⎠ 2
b) In order to find the angle θ (t1 ) − θ (t = 0) that the object has rotated through at time
t = t1 , you first need to find ω z (t) by integrating the z-component of the angular
acceleration
t ′ =t t ′ =t
⎛ t′ ⎞ ⎛ t2 ⎞
ω z (t) − ω z (t = 0) = ∫ α z (t ′ ) dt ′ = ∫ b ⎜ 1− ⎟ dt ′ = b ⎜ t − ⎟ .
t ′ =0 ⎝
t ′ =0
t1 ⎠ ⎝ 2t1 ⎠
⎛ t2 ⎞
Because it started from rest, ω z (t = 0) = 0 , hence ω z (t) = b ⎜ t − ⎟ ; 0 ≤ t ≤ t1 .
⎝ 2t1 ⎠
Then integrate ω z (t) between t = 0 and t = t1 to find that
t ′ =t1 t ′ =t1
⎛ t′2 ⎞ ⎛ t12 t13 ⎞ bt12
θ (t1 ) − θ (t = 0) = ∫
t ′ =0
ω z ( t ′ ) dt ′ = ∫ ⎜ 2t1 ⎟⎠
b
t ′ =0 ⎝
t ′ − d t ′ = b ⎜ 2 − 6t ⎟ = 3 .
⎝ 1⎠
6-14
6.6 Non-circular Central Planar Motion
Let’s now consider central motion in a plane that is non-circular. In Figure 6.10, we show
the spiral motion of a moving particle.
ˆ
r̂
r
Figure 6.10 Spiral motion of a moving particle
In polar coordinates, the key point is that the time derivative of the position function r is
no longer zero. The second derivative d 2 r / dt 2 also may or may not be zero. In the
following calculation we will drop all explicit references to the time dependence of the
various quantities. The position vector is still given by Eq. (6.2.1), which we shall repeat
below
!
r = r r̂ . (6.5.9)
Because dr / dt ≠ 0 , when we differentiate Eq. (6.5.9), we need to use the product rule
!
! d r dr d r̂
v= = r̂ + r . (6.5.10)
dt dt dt
Substituting Eq. (6.2.4) into Eq. (6.5.10)

!
! dr dr dθ
v= = r̂ + r θ̂ = vr r̂ + vθ θ̂ . (6.5.11)
dt dt dt
The velocity is no longer tangential but now has a radial component as well
dr
vr = . (6.5.12)
dt
In order to determine the acceleration, we now differentiate Eq. (6.5.11), again using the
product rule, which is now a little more involved:
6-15
!
! d v d 2r dr d r̂ dr dθ d 2θ dθ d θ̂
a= = 2 r̂ + + θ̂ + r 2 θ̂ + r . (6.5.13)
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
Now substitute Eqs. (6.2.4) and (6.2.7) for the time derivatives of the unit vectors in Eq.
(6.5.13), and after collecting terms yields
! ⎛ d 2r ⎛ dθ ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ dr dθ d 2θ ⎞
2
a = ⎜ 2 − r ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ r̂ + ⎜ 2 + r 2 ⎟ θ̂
⎝ dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ dt dt dt ⎠ . (6.5.14)
= ar r̂ + aθ θ̂
The radial and tangential components of the acceleration are now more complicated than
then in the case of circular motion due to the non-zero derivatives of dr / dt and d 2 r / dt 2 .
The radial component is
⎛ dθ ⎞
2
d 2r
ar = 2 − r ⎜ ⎟ . (6.5.15)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
and the tangential component is
dr dθ d 2θ
aθ = 2 +r 2 . (6.5.16)
dt dt dt
The firs term in the tangential component of the acceleration, 2(dr / dt)(dθ / dt) has a
special name, the coriolis acceleration,
dr dθ
acor = 2 . (6.5.17)
dt dt
Example 6.4 Spiral Motion
A particle moves outward along a spiral starting from the origin at t = 0 (Figure 6.10). Its
trajectory is given by r = bθ , where b is a positive constant with units [m ⋅ rad -1 ] . θ
increases in time according to θ = ct 2 , where c > 0 is a positive constant (with units
[rad ⋅s −2 ] ).
a) Determine the acceleration as a function of time.

b) Determine the time at which the radial acceleration is zero.
c) What is the angle when the radial acceleration is zero?
d) Determine the time at which the radial and tangential accelerations have equal
magnitude.
Solution:
a) The position coordinate as a function of time is given by r = bθ = bct 2 . The

acceleration is given by Eq. (6.5.14). In order to calculate the acceleration, we need to
6-16
calculate the four derivatives dr / dt = 2bct , d 2 r / dt 2 = 2bc , dθ / dt = 2ct , and
d 2θ / dt 2 = 2c . The acceleration is then
!
( ) ( ) ( )
a = 2bc − 4bc 3t 4 r̂ + 8bc 2t 2 + 2bc 2t 2 θ̂ = 2bc − 4bc 3t 4 r̂ + 10bc 2t 2 θ̂ .
b) The radial acceleration is zero when

1/4
⎛ 1 ⎞
t1 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ .
⎝ 2c ⎠
c) The angle when the radial acceleration is zero is
θ1 = ct12 = 2 / 2 .
d) The radial and tangential accelerations have equal magnitude when after some
algebra
(2bc − 4bc 3t 4 ) = 10bc 2t 2 ⇒ 0 = t 4 + (5 / 2c)t 2 − (1 / 2c 2 ) .
This equation has as only positive solution for t 2 :
−(5 / 2c) ± ((5 / 2c)2 + 2c 2 )1/2 33 − 5

t2 2 = = .
2 4c
Therefore the magnitudes of the two components are equal when
33 − 5
t2 = .
4c
6-17
Chapter 7 Newton’s Laws of Motion
7.1 Force and Quantity of Matter ................................................................................ 1
Example 7.1 Vector Decomposition Solution .......................................................... 3
7.1.1 Mass Calibration............................................................................................... 4
7.2 Newton’s First Law ................................................................................................. 5
7.3 Momentum, Newton’s Second Law and Third Law ............................................ 6
7.4 Newton’s Third Law: Action-Reaction Pairs........................................................ 7
© Peter Dourmashkin 2012

Chapter 7 Newton’s Laws of Motion
I have not as yet been able to discover the reason for these properties of
gravity from phenomena, and I do not feign hypotheses. For whatever is
not deduced from the phenomena must be called a hypothesis; and
hypotheses, whether metaphysical or physical, or based on occult
qualities, or mechanical, have no place in experimental philosophy. In this
philosophy particular propositions are inferred from the phenomena, and
afterwards rendered general by induction. 1
Isaac Newton
7.1 Force and Quantity of Matter
In our daily experience, we can cause a body to move by either pushing or pulling that
body. Ordinary language use describes this action as the effect of a person’s strength or
force. However, bodies placed on inclined planes, or when released at rest and undergo
free fall, will move without any push or pull. Galileo referred to a force acting on these
bodies, a description of which he published in Mechanics in 1623. In 1687, Isaac Newton
published his three laws of motion in the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
(“Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”), which extended Galileo’s
observations. The First Law expresses the idea that when no force acts on a body, it will
remain at rest or maintain uniform motion; when a force is applied to a body, it will
change its state of motion.
Many scientists, especially Galileo, recognized the idea that force produces motion
before Newton but Newton extended the concept of force to any circumstance that
produces acceleration. When a body is initially at rest, the direction of our push or pull
corresponds to the direction of motion of the body. If the body is moving, the direction of
the applied force may change both the direction of motion of the body and how fast it is
moving. Newton defined the force acting on an object as proportional to the acceleration
of the object.
An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body, in order to change

its state, either of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line.2
In order to define the magnitude of the force, he introduced a constant of

proportionality, the inertial mass, which Newton called “quantity of matter”.
1
Isaac Newton (1726). Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, General
Scholium. Third edition, page 943 of I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman's 1999
translation, University of California Press.
2
Isaac Newton. Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Translated by Andrew
Motte (1729). Revised by Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1934.
p. 2.
7-1
The quantity of matter is the measure of the same, arising from its density
and bulk conjointly.
Thus air of double density, in a double space, is quadruple in quantity; in a

triple space, sextuple in quantity. The same thing is to be understood of
snow, and fine dust or powders, that are condensed by compression or
liquefaction, and of all bodies that are by any causes whatever differently
condensed. I have no regard in this place to a medium, if any such there is,
that freely pervades the interstices between the parts of bodies. It is this
quantity that I mean hereafter everywhere under the name of body or mass.
And the same is known by the weight of each body, for it is proportional to
the weight, as I have found by experiment on pendulums, very accurately
made, which shall be shown hereafter.3
Suppose we apply a force to a body that is an identical copy of the standard mass, (we
shall refer to this body as a standard body). The force will induce the standard body to

accelerate with magnitude a that can be measured by an accelerometer (any device that

measures acceleration). The magnitude of the force F acting on the standard body is
defined to be the product of the standard mass ms with the magnitude of the acceleration

a . Force is a vector quantity. The direction of the force on the standard body is defined
to be the direction of the acceleration of the body. Thus
 
F ≡ ms a (7.1.1)
In order to justify
 the statement that force is a vector quantity, we need to apply two
forces F1 and F2 simultaneously to our standard body and show that the resultant force

FT is the vector sum of the two forces when the forces are applied one at a time.
Figure 7.1 Acceleration add as vectors Figure 7.2 Force adds as vectors.
 
We apply each force separately and measure the accelerations a1 and a 2. , noting that
 
F1 = ms a1 (7.1.2)
3
Ibid. p. 1.
7-2
 
F2 = ms a 2 . (7.1.3)

When we apply the two forces simultaneously, we measure the acceleration a . The force
by definition is now
 
FT ≡ ms a . (7.1.4)
We then compare the accelerations. The results of these three measurements, and for that
matter any similar experiment, confirms that the accelerations add as vectors (Figure 7.1)
  
a = a1 + a 2 . (7.1.5)
Therefore the forces add as vectors as well (Figure 7.2),

  
FT = F1 + F2 . (7.1.6)
This last statement is not a definition but a consequence of the experimental result
described by Equation (7.1.5) and our definition of force.
Example 7.1 Vector Decomposition Solution
Two horizontal ropes are attached to a post that is stuck in the ground. The ropes pull the
 
post producing the vector forces F1 = 70 N î + 20 N ĵ and F2 = −30 N î + 40 N ĵ as
shown in Figure 7.3. Find the direction and magnitude of the horizontal component of a
contact force of the ground on the post.

Figure 7.4 Vector sum of the horizontal
forces
7-3
Solution: Because the ropes are pulling the post horizontally, the contact force must have
a horizontal component that is equal to the negative of the sum of the two horizontal
forces exerted by the rope on the post (Figure 7.4). There is an additional vertical
component of the contact force that balances the gravitational force exerted on the post
by the earth. We restrict our attention to the horizontal component of the contact force.
 
Let F3 denote the sum of the forces due to the ropes. Then we can write the vector F3 as

F3 = (F1x + F2x ) î + (F1y + F2 y ) ĵ = (70 N + − 30 N) î + (20 N + 40 N) ĵ
= (40 N) î + (60 N) ĵ
Therefore the horizontal component of the contact force satisfies the condition that
   
Fhor = −F3 = −(F1 + F2 ) = (−40 N) î + (−60 N) ĵ .

The magnitude is Fhor = (−40 N)2 + (−60 N)2 = 72 N . The horizontal component of
the contact force makes an angle
⎡ 60 N ⎤
θ = tan −1 ⎢ ⎥ = 56.3°
⎣ 40 N ⎦
as shown in the figure above.
7.1.1 Mass Calibration
So far, we have only used the standard body to measure force. Instead of performing
experiments on the standard body, we can calibrate the masses of all other bodies in
terms of the standard mass by the following experimental procedure. We shall refer to the
mass measured in this way as the inertial mass and denote it by min .
We apply a force of magnitude F to the standard body and measure the

magnitude of the acceleration as . Then we apply the same force to a second body of
unknown mass min and measure the magnitude of the acceleration ain . Because the same
force is applied to both bodies,
F = min ain = ms as , (1.7)
the ratio of the inertial mass to the standard mass is equal to the inverse ratio of the
magnitudes of the accelerations,
min as
= . (1.8)
ms ain
Therefore the second body has inertial mass equal to
7-4
as
min = ms . (1.9)
ain
This method is justified by the fact that we can repeat the experiment using a different
force and still find that the ratios of the acceleration are the same. For simplicity we shall
denote the inertial mass by m .
7.2 Newton’s First Law
The First Law of Motion, commonly called the “Principle of Inertia,” was first realized
by Galileo. (Newton did not acknowledge Galileo’s contribution.) Newton was
particularly concerned with how to phrase the First Law in Latin, but after many rewrites
Newton choose the following expression for the First Law (in English translation):
Law 1: Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a

right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed
upon it.
Projectiles continue in their motions, so far as they are not retarded by the
resistance of air, or impelled downwards by the force of gravity. A top,
whose parts by their cohesion are continually drawn aside from
rectilinear motions, does not cease its rotation, otherwise than as it is
retarded by air. The greater bodies of planets and comets, meeting with
less resistance in freer spaces, preserve their motions both progressive
and circular for a much longer time.4
The first law is an experimental statement about the motions of bodies. When a
body moves with constant velocity, there are either no forces present or the sum of all the
forces acting on the body is zero. If the body changes its velocity, it has non-zero
acceleration, and hence the sum of all the forces acting on the body must be non-zero as
well. If the velocity of a body changes in time, then either the direction or magnitude
changes, or both can change.
After a bus or train starts, the acceleration is often so small we can barely perceive
it. We are often startled because it seems as if the station is moving in the opposite
direction while we seem to be at rest. Newton’s First Law states that there is no physical
way to distinguish between whether we are moving or the station is moving, because
there is nearly zero total force acting on the body. Once we reach a constant velocity, our
minds dismiss the idea that the ground is moving backwards because we think it is
impossible, but there is no actual way for us to distinguish whether the train is moving or
the ground is moving.
4
Ibid. p. 13.
7-5
7.3 Momentum, Newton’s Second Law and Third Law
Newton began his analysis of the cause of motion by introducing the quantity of motion:
Definition: Quantity of Motion
The quantity of motion is the measure of the same, arising from the
velocity and quantity of matter conjointly.
The motion of the whole is the sum of the motion of all its parts; and
therefore in a body double in quantity, with equal velocity, the motion is
double, with twice the velocity, it is quadruple.5
Our modern term for quantity of motion is momentum and it is a vector quantity
 
p = mv , (7.3.1)

where m is the inertial mass and v is the velocity of the body. Newton’s Second Law
states that
Law II: The change of motion is proportional to the motive force

impressed, and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force
is impressed.
If any force generates a motion, a double force will generate double the
motion, a triple force triple the motion, whether that force is impressed
altogether and at once or gradually and successively. And this motion
(being always directed the same way with the generating force), if the
body moved before, is added or subtracted from the former motion,
according as they directly conspire with or are directly contrary to each
other; or obliquely joined, when they are oblique, so as to produce a new
motion compounded from the determination of both.6
 to a body for a time interval Δt . The impressed force or

Suppose that a force is applied
impulse (a vector quantity I ) produces a change in the momentum of the body,
  
I = FΔt = Δp . (7.3.2)
From the commentary to the second law, Newton also considered forces that were
applied continually to a body instead of impulsively. The instantaneous action of the total
5
Ibid. p. 1.
6
Ibid. p. 13.
7-6
force acting on a body at a time t is defined by taking the mathematical limit as the time
interval Δt becomes smaller and smaller,
  
Δp dp
F = lim ≡ . (7.3.3)
Δt→0 Δt dt
When the mass remains constant in time, the Second Law can be recast in its more
familiar form,
 
dv
F=m . (7.3.4)
dt
Because the derivative of velocity is the acceleration, the force is the product of mass and
acceleration,  
F = ma . (7.3.5)
Because we defined force in terms of change in motion, the Second Law appears to
be a restatement of this definition, and devoid of predictive power since force is only
determined by measuring acceleration. What transforms the Second Law from just a
definition is the additional input that comes from force laws that are based on
experimental observations on the interactions between bodies. Throughout this book, we
shall investigate these force laws and learn to use them in order to determine the forces
and accelerations acting on a body (left-hand-side of Newton’s Second Law). When a
physical body is constrained to move along a surface, or inside a container (for example
gas molecules in a container), there are constraint forces that are not determined
beforehand by any force law but are only determined by their effect on the motion of the
body. For any given constrained motion, these constraint forces are unknown and must be
determined by the particular motion of the body that we are studying, for example the
contact force of the surface on the body, or the force of the wall on the gas particles.
The right-hand-side of Newton’s Second Law is the product of mass with

acceleration. Acceleration is a mathematical description of how the velocity of a body
changes. Knowledge of all the forces acting on the body enables us to predict the
acceleration. Eq. (7.3.5) is known as the equation of motion. Once we know this equation
we may be able to determine the velocity and position of that body at all future times by
integration techniques, or computational techniques. For constrained motion, if we know
the acceleration of the body, we can also determine the constraint forces acting on the
body.
7.4 Newton’s Third Law: Action-Reaction Pairs
Newton realized that when two bodies interact via a force, then the force on one body is
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force acting on the other body.
7-7
Law III: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or,
the mutual action of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and
directed to contrary parts.
Whatever draws or presses another is as much drawn or pressed by that

other. If you press on a stone with your finger, the finger is also pressed
by the stone.7
The Third Law, commonly known as the “action-reaction” law, is the most
surprising of the three laws. Newton’s great discovery was that when two objects interact,
they each exert the same magnitude of force on each other but in opposite directions. We
shall refer to the pair of forces between two interacting bodies as an interaction pair of
force, or more briefly as an interaction pair.
Consider two
 bodies engaged in a mutual interaction. Label the bodies 1 and 2
respectively. Let F1, 2 be the force on body 2 due to the interaction with body 1, and F2,1
be the force on body 1 due to the interaction with body 2. These forces are depicted in
Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5 Interaction pair of forces
These two vector forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction,
 
F1, 2 = −F2,1 . (7.4.1)
We shall employ these definitions, Newton’s three laws, and force laws to
describe the motion of bodies, a subject known as classical mechanics or Newtonian
Mechanics, and hence explain a vast range of phenomena. Newtonian mechanics has
important limits. It does not satisfactorily explain systems of objects moving at speeds
comparable to the speed of light ( v > 0.1 c ) where we need the theory of special
relativity, nor does it adequately explain the motion of electrons in atoms, where we need
quantum mechanics. We also need general relativity and cosmology to explain the large-
scale structure of the universe.
7
Ibid p. 13.
7-8
Chapter 8 Applications of Newton’s Second Law
8.1 Force Laws 2
8.1.1 Hooke’s Law ..................................................................................................... 2
8.2.2 Principle of Equivalence: ................................................................................ 6
8.2.3 Gravitational Force near the Surface of the Earth ....................................... 7
8.2.4 Electric Charge and Coulomb’s Law ............................................................. 7
Example 8.1 Coulomb’s Law and the Universal Law of Gravitation .................. 8
8.3 Constraint Forces .................................................................................................... 9
8.3.1 Contact Forces ................................................................................................ 10
Example 8.2 Normal Component of the Contact Force and Weight ................. 11
8.3.2 Kinetic and Static Friction ............................................................................ 13
8.4 Free-body Force Diagram .................................................................................... 16
8.4.1 System ............................................................................................................. 16
8.4.5 Modeling ......................................................................................................... 16
8.5 Tension in a Rope .................................................................................................. 17
8.5.1 Definition of Tension in a Rope .................................................................... 17
Example 8.3 Tension in a Massive Rope ............................................................... 19
Example 8.4 Tension in a Suspended Rope .......................................................... 22
8.5.2 Continuous Systems and Newton’s Second Law as a Differential
Equations ................................................................................................................. 24
8.6 Drag Forces in Fluids ........................................................................................... 26
Example 8.5 Drag Force at Low Speeds ............................................................... 28
Example 8.6 Drag Forces at High Speeds ............................................................. 31
8.7 Worked Examples ................................................................................................. 32
Example 8.7 Staircase ............................................................................................. 32
Example 8.8 Cart Moving on a Track ................................................................... 34
Example 8.9 Pulleys and Ropes Constraint Conditions ...................................... 38
Example 8.10 Accelerating Wedge ........................................................................ 42
Example 8.11: Capstan ........................................................................................... 45
Example 8.12 Free Fall with Air Drag .................................................................. 48
8-1
Chapter 8 Applications of Newton’s Second Law
Those who are in love with practice without knowledge are like the sailor
who gets into a ship without rudder or compass and who never can be
certain whether he is going. Practice must always be founded on sound
theory…1
Leonardo da Vinci
8.1 Force Laws

There are forces that don't change appreciably from one instant to another, which we
refer to as constant in time, and forces that don't change appreciably from one point to
another, which we refer to as constant in space. The gravitational force on an object near
the surface of the earth is an example of a force that is constant in space.
There are forces that depend on the configuration of a system. When a mass is
attached to one end of a spring, the spring force acting on the object increases in strength
whether the spring is extended or compressed.
There are forces that spread out in space such that their influence becomes less
with distance. Common examples are the gravitational and electrical forces. The
gravitational force between two objects falls off as the inverse square of the distance
separating the objects provided the objects are of a small dimension compared to the
distance between them. More complicated arrangements of attracting and repelling
interactions give rise to forces that fall off with other powers of r : constant, 1/ r , 1 / r 2 ,
1 / r 3 , …,.
A force may remain constant in magnitude but change direction; for example the
gravitational force acting on a planet undergoing circular motion about a star is directed
towards the center of the circle. This type of attractive central force is called a centripetal
force.
A force law describes the relationship between the force and some measurable
property of the objects involved. We shall see that some interactions are describable by
force laws and other interactions cannot be so simply described.
8.1.1 Hooke’s Law
In order to stretch or compress a spring from its equilibrium length, a force must be
exerted on the spring. Consider an object of mass m that is lying on a horizontal surface.
Attach one end of a spring to the object and fix the other end of the spring to a wall. Let
l0 denote the equilibrium length of the spring (neither stretched or compressed). Assume
1
Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci Complete, tr. Jean Paul Richter, 1888, Vol.1.
8-2
that the contact surface is smooth and hence frictionless in order to consider only the
effect of the spring force. If the object is pulled to stretch the spring or pushed to
compress the spring, then by Newton’s Third Law the force of the spring on the object is
equal and opposite to the force that the object exerts on the spring. We shall refer to the
force of the spring on the object as the spring force and experimentally determine a
relationship between that force and the amount of stretch or compress of the spring.
Choose a coordinate system with the origin located at the point of contact of the spring
and the object when the spring-object system is in the equilibrium configuration. Choose
the î unit vector to point in the direction the object moves when the spring is being
stretched. Choose the coordinate function x to denote the position of the object with
respect to the origin (Figure 8.1).
wall l0 î
m equilibrium configuration
frictionless x=0
surface
x
l0 î
m stretched: x > 0
x=0
x î
m compressed: x < 0
x=0
Figure 8.1 Spring attached to a wall and an object
Initially stretch the spring until the object is at position x . Then release the object
and measure the acceleration of the object the instant the object is released. The
 
magnitude of the spring force acting on the object is F = m a . Now repeat the
experiment for a range of stretches (or compressions). Experiments show that for each
spring, there is a range of maximum values xmax > 0 for stretching and minimum values
xmin < 0 for compressing such that the magnitude of the measured force is proportional to
the stretched or compressed length and is given by the formula
!
F =k x , (8.1.1)
8-3
where the spring constant k has units N ⋅ m −1 . The free-body force diagram is shown in
Figure 8.2.
x
î
F = Fx î = kxî
x=0
Figure 8.2 Spring force acting on object
The constant k is equal to the negative of the slope of the graph of the force vs. the
compression or stretch (Figure 8.3).
Fx
slope = -k
xmax
xmin x
.
Figure 8.3 Plot of x -component of the spring force Fx vs. x
The direction of the acceleration is always towards the equilibrium position whether the
spring is stretched or compressed. This type of force is called a restoring force. Let Fx
denote the x -component of the spring force. Then
Fx = −kx . (8.1.2)
Now perform similar experiments on other springs. For a range of stretched

lengths, each spring exhibits the same proportionality between force and stretched length,
although the spring constant may differ for each spring.
It would be extremely impractical to experimentally determine whether this

proportionality holds for all springs, and because a modest sampling of springs has
confirmed the relation, we shall infer that all ideal springs will produce a restoring force,
which is linearly proportional to the stretched (or compressed) length. This experimental
relation regarding force and stretched (or compressed) lengths for a finite set of springs
has now been inductively generalized into the above mathematical model for ideal springs,
a force law known as a Hooke’s Law.
This inductive step, referred to as Newtonian induction, is the critical step that
makes physics a predictive science. Suppose a spring, attached to an object of mass m , is
8-4
stretched by an amount Δx . Use the force law to predict the magnitude of the force

between the rubber band and the object, F = k Δx , without having to experimentally
measure the acceleration. Now use Newton’s Second Law to predict the magnitude of the
acceleration of the object

 F k Δx
a = = . (8.1.3)
m m
Carry out the experiment, and measure the acceleration within some error bounds.
If the magnitude of the predicted acceleration disagrees with the measured result, then the
model for the force law needs modification. The ability to adjust, correct or even reject
models based on new experimental results enables a description of forces between objects
to cover larger and larger experimental domains.
Many real springs have been wound such that a force of magnitude F0 must be applied
before the spring begins to stretch. The value of F0 is referred to as the pre-tension of the
spring. Under these circumstances, Hooke’s law must be modified to account for this
pretension,
⎧⎪ Fx = − F0 − kx, x > 0
⎨ . (8.1.4)
⎩⎪ Fx = + F1 − kx, x < 0
Note the value of the pre-tension F0 and F1 may differ for compressing or stretching a
spring.
8.2 Fundamental Laws of Nature
Force laws are mathematical models of physical processes. They arise from observation
and experimentation, and they have limited ranges of applicability. Does the linear force
law for the spring hold for all springs? Each spring will most likely have a different range
of linear behavior. So the model for stretching springs still lacks a universal character. As
such, there should be some hesitation to generalize this observation to all springs unless
some property of the spring, universal to all springs, is responsible for the force law.
Perhaps springs are made up of very small components, which when pulled apart
tend to contract back together. This would suggest that there is some type of force that
contracts spring molecules when they are pulled apart. What holds molecules together?
Can we find some fundamental property of the interaction between atoms that will suffice
to explain the macroscopic force law? This search for fundamental forces is a central
task of physics.
In the case of springs, this could lead into an investigation of the composition and
structural properties of the atoms that compose the steel in the spring. We would
investigate the geometric properties of the lattice of atoms and determine whether there is
some fundamental property of the atoms that create this lattice. Then we ask how stable is
8-5
this lattice under deformations. This may lead to an investigation into the electron
configurations associated with each atom and how they overlap to form bonds between
atoms. These particles carry charges, which obey Coulomb’s Law, but also the Laws of
Quantum Mechanics. So in order to arrive at a satisfactory explanation of the elastic
restoring properties of the spring, we need models that describe the fundamental physics
that underline Hooke’s Law.
8.2.1 Universal Law of Gravitation
At points significantly far away from the surface of Earth, the gravitational force is no
longer constant with respect to the distance to the center of Earth. Newton’s Universal
Law of Gravitation describes the gravitational force between two objects with masses,
m1 and m2 . This force points along the line connecting the objects, is attractive, and its
magnitude is proportional to the inverse square of the distance, r1,2 , between the two
point-like objects (Figure 8.4a). The force on object 2 due to the gravitational interaction
between the two objects is given by
G mm
F1,2 = −G 1 2 2 r̂1,2 , (8.2.1)
r1,2
   
where r1,2 = r2 − r1 is a vector directed from object 1 to object 2, r1,2 = r1,2 , and
 
r̂1,2 = r1,2 / r1,2 is a unit vector directed from object 1 to object 2 (Figure 8.4b). The
constant of proportionality in SI units is G = 6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg −2 .
Figure 8.4 (a) Gravitational force between two point-like objects. Figure 8.4 (b)
Coordinate system for the two-body problem.
8.2.2 Principle of Equivalence:
The Principle of Equivalence states that the mass that appears in the Universal Law of
Gravity is identical to the inertial mass that is determined with respect to the standard
8-6
kilogram. From this point on, the equivalence of inertial and gravitational mass will be
assumed and the mass will be denoted by the symbol m .
8.2.3 Gravitational Force near the Surface of the Earth
Near the surface of Earth, the gravitational interaction between an object and Earth is
mutually attractive and has a magnitude of

FGearth,object = m g (8.2.2)
where g is a positive constant.
The International Committee on Weights and Measures has adopted as a standard

value for the acceleration of an object freely falling in a vacuum g = 9.80665 m ⋅ s −2 . The
actual value of g varies as a function of elevation and latitude. If φ is the latitude and h
the elevation in meters then the acceleration of gravity in SI units is
g = (9.80616− 0.025928cos(2φ ) + 0.000069cos 2 (2φ ) − 3.086 × 10−4 h) m ⋅s −2 . (8.2.3)
This is known as Helmert’s equation. The strength of the gravitational force on the
standard kilogram at 42 latitude is 9.80345 N ⋅ kg −1 , and the acceleration due to gravity
at sea level is therefore g = 9.80345 m ⋅ s −2 for all objects. At the equator,
−2 −2
g = 9.78 m ⋅ s and at the poles g = 9.83 m ⋅ s . This difference is primarily due to the
earth’s rotation, which introduces an apparent (fictitious) repulsive force that affects the
determination of g as given in Equation (8.2.2) and also flattens the spherical shape of
Earth (the distance from the center of Earth is larger at the equator than it is at the poles
by about 26.5 km ). Both the magnitude and the direction of the gravitational force also
show variations that depend on local features to an extent that's useful in prospecting for
oil, investigating the water table, navigating submerged submarines, and as well as many
other practical uses. Such variations in g can be measured with a sensitive spring
balance. Local variations have been much studied over the past two decades in attempts
to discover a proposed “fifth force” which would fall off faster than the gravitational
force that falls off as the inverse square of the distance between the objects.
8.2.4 Electric Charge and Coulomb’s Law
Matter has properties other than mass. Matter can also carry one of two types of observed
electric charge, positive and negative. Like charges repel, and opposite charges attract
each other. The unit of charge in the SI system of units is called the coulomb [C] .
The smallest unit of “free” charge known in nature is the charge of an electron or
proton, which has a magnitude of
e = 1.602 × 10−19 C . (8.2.4)
8-7
It has been shown experimentally that charge carried by ordinary objects is quantized in
integral multiples of the magnitude of this free charge. The electron carries one unit of
negative charge ( qe = −e ) and the proton carries one unit of positive charge ( q p = +e ). In
an isolated system, the charge stays constant; in a closed system, an amount of
unbalanced charge can neither be created nor destroyed. Charge can only be transferred
from one object to another.
Consider two point-like objects with charges q1 and q2 , separated by a distance

r1, 2 in vacuum. By experimental observation, the two objects repel each other if they are
both positively or negatively charged (Figure 8.4a). They attract each other if they are
oppositely charged (Figure 8.5b). The force exerted on object 2 due to the interaction
between objects 1 and 2 is given by Coulomb's Law,
 qq
F1,E 2 = ke 1 2 2 r̂1, 2 (8.2.5)
r1, 2
 
where r̂1,2 = r1,2 / r1,2 is a unit vector directed from object 1 to object 2, and in SI units,
ke = 8.9875 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ C−2 , as illustrated in the Figure 8.5a. This law was derived
empirically by Charles Augustin de Coulomb in the late 18th century.
Figure 8.5 (a) and 8.5 (b) Coulomb interaction between two charges
Example 8.1 Coulomb’s Law and the Universal Law of Gravitation
Show that both Coulomb’s Law and the Universal Law of Gravitation satisfy Newton’s
Third Law.
Solution: To see this, interchange 1 and 2 in the Universal Law of Gravitation to find the
force on object 1 due to the interaction between the objects. The only quantity to change
sign is the unit vector
8-8
r̂2,1 = −r̂1, 2 . (8.2.6)
Then
 m m mm 
FG2,1 = −G 2 2 1 r̂2,1 = G 1 2 2 r̂1, 2 = −F1,G 2 . (8.2.7)
r2,1 r1, 2
Coulomb’s Law also satisfies Newton’s Third Law since the only quantity to change sign
is the unit vector, just as in the case of the Universal Law of Gravitation.
8.3 Constraint Forces

Knowledge of all the external and internal forces acting on each of the objects in a system
and applying Newton’s Second Law to each of the objects determine a set of equations of
motion. These equations of motion are not necessarily independent due to the fact that the
motion of the objects may be limited by equations of constraint. In addition there are
forces of constraint that are determined by their effect on the motion of the objects and
are not known beforehand or describable by some force law. For example: an object
sliding down an inclined plane is constrained to move along the surface of the inclined
plane (Figure 8.6a) and the surface exerts a contact force on the object; an object that
slides down the surface of a sphere until it falls off experiences a contact force until it
loses contact with the surface (Figure 8.6b); gas particles in a sealed vessel are
constrained to remain inside the vessel and therefore the wall must exert force on the gas
molecules to keep them inside the vessel (8.6c); and a bead constrained to slide outward
along a rotating rod is acting on by time dependent forces of the rod on the bead (Figure
8.6d). We shall develop methods to determine these constraint forces although there are
many examples in which the constraint forces cannot be determined.
.
inclined plane
(a) (b)
bead
rotating rod
(c) (d)
8-9
Figure 8.6 Constrained motions: (a) particle sliding down inclined plane, (b) particles
sliding down surface of sphere, (c) gas molecules in a sealed vessel, and (d) bead sliding
on a rotating rod
8.3.1 Contact Forces
Pushing, lifting and pulling are contact forces that we experience in the everyday world.
Rest your hand on a table; the atoms that form the molecules that make up the table and
your hand are in contact with each other. If you press harder, the atoms are also pressed
closer together. The electrons in the atoms begin to repel each other and your hand is
pushed in the opposite direction by the table.
According to Newton’s Third Law, the force of your hand on the table is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the force of the table on your hand. Clearly, if you
push harder the force increases. Try it! If you push your hand straight down on the table,
the table pushes back in a direction perpendicular (normal) to the surface. Slide your
hand gently forward along the surface of the table. You barely feel the table pushing
upward, but you do feel the friction acting as a resistive force to the motion of your hand.
This force acts tangential to the surface and opposite to the motion of your hand. Push
downward and forward. Try to estimate the magnitude of the force acting on your hand.
! !
The force of the table acting on your hand, FC ≡ ! , is
C called the contact force.
!
This force has both a normal component to the surface, C ⊥ ≡ N , called the normal force,
! !
and a tangential component to the surface, C" ≡ f , called the friction force (Figure 8.6).
C N
C
C f
Figure 8.6 Normal and tangential components of the contact force
The contact force, written in terms of its component forces, is therefore

! ! ! ! !
C = C ⊥ + C" ≡ N + f . (8.3.1)

Any force can be decomposed! into component vectors so the normal component, N , and
the tangential component, f , are not independent forces but the vector components of the
contact force, perpendicular and parallel to the surface of contact. The contact force is a
distributed force acting over all the points of contact between your hand and the surface.
8-10
For most applications we shall treat the contact force as acting at single point but
precaution must be taken when the distributed nature of the contact force plays a key role
in constraining the motion of a rigid body.
In Figure
 8.7, the forces acting on your hand are shown. These forces include
! the
contact force, C , of the table acting on your hand, the force of your forearm, Fforearm ,
acting on your hand (which is drawn at an angle indicating that you are pushing down on
!
your hand as well as forward), and the gravitational interaction, F g , between the earth
and your hand.
Fforearm
Fg
Figure 8.7 Forces on hand when moving towards the left
One point to keep in mind is that the magnitudes of the two components of the contact
force depend on how hard you push or pull your hand and in what direction, a
characteristic of constraint forces, in which the components are not specified by a force
law but dependent on the particular motion of the hand.
Example 8.2 Normal Component of the Contact Force and Weight
Hold a block in your hand such that your hand is at rest (Figure 8.8). You can feel the
“weight” of the block against your palm. But what exactly do we mean by “weight”?
F g = mg
Figure 8.8 Block resting in hand Figure 8.9 Forces on block
8-11
There are two forces acting on the block as shown in Figure 8.9. One force is the
! !
gravitational force between the earth and the block, and is denoted by F g = m g . The
other force acting on the block is the contact force between your hand and the block.
Because our hand is at rest, this contact force on !the block points perpendicular to the
surface, and hence has only a normal component, N . Let N denote the magnitude of the
normal force. Because the object is at rest in your hand, the vertical acceleration is zero.
Therefore Newton’s Second Law states that
! ! !
N + Fg = 0 . (8.3.2)
Choose the positive direction to be upwards and then in terms of vertical components we
have that
N − mg = 0 . (8.3.3)
which can be solved for the magnitude of the normal force
N = mg . (8.3.4)
When we talk about the “weight” of the block, we often are referring to the effect
the block has on a scale or on the feeling we have when we hold the block. These effects
are actually effects of the normal force. We say that a block “feels lighter” if there is an
additional force holding the block up. For example, you can rest the block in your hand,
but use your other hand to apply a force upwards on the block to make it feel lighter in
your supporting hand.
The word “weight,” is often used to describe the gravitational force that Earth
exerts on an object. We shall always refer to this force as the gravitational force instead
of “weight.” When you jump in the air, you feel “weightless” because there is no normal
force acting on you, even though Earth is still exerting a gravitational force on you;
clearly, when you jump, you do not turn gravity off!
This example may also give rise to a misconception that the normal force is
always equal to the mass of the object times the magnitude of the gravitational
acceleration at the surface of the earth. The normal force and the gravitational force are
two completely different forces. In this particular example, the normal force is equal in
magnitude to the gravitational force and directed in the opposite direction because the
object is at rest. The normal force and the gravitational force do not form a Third Law
interaction pair of forces. In this example, our system is just the block and the normal
force and gravitational force are external forces acting on the block.
Let’s redefine our system as the block, your hand, and Earth. Then the normal
force and gravitational force are now internal forces in the system and we can now
identify the various interaction pairs of forces. We explicitly introduce our interaction
!
pair notation to enable us to identify these interaction pairs: for example, let FEg,B denote
the gravitational force on the block due to the interaction with Earth. The gravitational
8-12
!g
force on Earth due to the interaction with the block is denoted by FB,E , and these two
!g !g
forces form an interaction pair. By Newton’s Third Law, FE ,B = −FB,E . Note that these
two forces are acting on different objects, the block and Earth. The contact force on
! the
block due to the interaction between the hand and the block is then denoted by N H ,B .
! ! !
The force of the block on the hand, which we denote by N B,H , satisfies N B,H = − N H ,B .
Because we are including your hand as part of the system, there are two additional forces
!
acting on the hand. There is the gravitational force on your hand FEg,H , satisfying
! ! !
FEg,H = −FHg ,E , where FHg ,E is the gravitational force on Earth due to your hand. Finally
!
there is the force of your forearm holding your hand up, which we denote FF ,H . Because
we are not including the forearm in our system, this force is an external force to the
system. The forces acting on your hand are shown in diagram on your hand is shown in
Figure 8.10, and the just the interaction pairing of forces acting on Earth is shown in
Figure 8.11 (we are not representing all other external forces acting on the Earth).
FF ,H
FHg ,E g
FB,E
N B,H
FEg,H
Figure 8.10 Free-body force diagram on Figure 8.11 Gravitational forces on

hand earth due to object and hand
8.3.2 Kinetic and Static Friction
When a block is pulled along a horizontal surface or sliding down an inclined plane there
is a lateral force resisting the motion. If the block is at rest on the inclined plane, there is
still a lateral force resisting the motion. This resistive force is known as dry friction, and
there are two distinguishing types when surfaces are in contact with each other. The first
type is when the two objects are moving relative to each other; the friction in that case is
called kinetic friction or sliding friction. When the two surfaces are non-moving but
there is still a lateral force as in the example of the block at rest on an inclined plane, the
force is called, static friction.
8-13
Leonardo da Vinci was the first to record the results of measurements on kinetic
friction over a twenty-year period between 1493–4 and about 1515. Based on his

measurements, the force of kinetic friction, f k , between two surfaces, he identified two
key properties of kinetic friction. The magnitude of kinetic friction is proportional to the
normal force between the two surfaces,
fk = µk N , (8.3.5)
where µk is called the coefficient of kinetic friction. The second result is rather
surprising in that the magnitude of the force is independent of the contact surface.
Consider two blocks of the same mass, but different surface areas. The force necessary to
move the blocks at a constant speed is the same. The block in Figure 8.12a has twice the
contact area as the block shown in Figure 8.12b, but when the same external force is
applied to either block, the blocks move at constant speed. These results of da Vinci were
rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons and published in 1699. The third property that
kinetic friction is independent of the speed of moving objects (for ordinary sliding
speeds) was discovered by Charles Augustin Coulomb.
F F
fk fk
(a) (b)
Figure 8.12 (a) and (b): kinetic friction is independent of the contact area
!
The kinetic friction on surface 2 moving relative to surface 1 is denoted by, f1,2k . The
direction of the force is always opposed to the relative direction of motion of surface 2
relative to the surface 1. When one surface is at rest relative to our choice of reference
!
frame we will denote the friction force on the moving object by f k .
The second type of dry friction, static friction occurs when two surfaces are static
relative to each other. Because the static friction force between two surfaces forms a third
!s
law interaction pair, will use the notation f1,2 to denote the static friction force on surface
2 due to the interaction between surfaces 1 and 2. Push your hand forward along a
surface; as you increase your pushing force, the frictional force feels stronger and
stronger. Try this! Your hand will at first stick until you push hard enough, then your
hand slides forward. The magnitude of the static frictional force, fs , depends on how
hard you push.
If you rest your hand on a table without pushing horizontally, the static friction is
zero. As you increase your push, the static friction increases until you push hard enough
that your hand slips and starts to slide along the surface. Thus the magnitude of static
8-14
friction can vary from zero to some maximum value, ( fs )max , when the pushed object
begins to slip,
0 ≤ fs ≤ ( fs )max . (8.3.6)
Is there a mathematical model for the magnitude of the maximum value of static
friction between two surfaces? Through experimentation, we find that this magnitude is,
like kinetic friction, proportional to the magnitude of the normal force
( fs )max = µs N . (8.3.7)
Here the constant of proportionality is µs , the coefficient of static friction. This constant
is slightly greater than the constant µk associated with kinetic friction, µs > µk . This
small difference accounts for the slipping and catching of chalk on a blackboard,
fingernails on glass, or a violin bow on a string.
The direction of static friction on an object is always opposed to the direction of

the applied force (as long as the two surfaces are not accelerating). In Figure 8.13a, an
! 
external force, F , is applied the left and the static friction, f s , is shown
! pointing to the
right opposing the external force. In Figure 8.13b, the external force, F , is directed to the
!
right and the static friction, f s , is now pointing to the left.
F F
fs fs
(a) (b)
Figure 8.13 (a) and (b): External forces and the direction of static friction.
Although the force law for the maximum magnitude of static friction resembles
the force law for sliding friction, there are important differences:
1. The direction and magnitude of static friction on an object always depends on the
direction and magnitude of the applied forces acting on the object, where the magnitude
of kinetic friction for a sliding object is fixed.
2. The magnitude of static friction has a maximum possible value. If the magnitude of the
applied force along the direction of the contact surface exceeds the magnitude of the
maximum value of static friction, then the object will start to slip (and be subject to
kinetic friction.) We call this the just slipping condition.
8-15
8.4 Free-body Force Diagram
8.4.1 System
When we try to describe forces acting on a collection of objects we must first take care to
specifically define the collection of objects that we are interested in, which define our
system. Often the system is a single isolated object but it can consist of multiple objects.
Because force is a vector, the force acting on the system is a vector sum of the individual
forces acting on the system   
F = F1 + F2 +⋅⋅⋅ (8.4.1)
A free-body force diagram is a representation of the sum of all the forces that act
on a single system. We denote the system by a large circular dot, a “point”. (Later on in
the course we shall see that the “point” represents the center of mass of the system.) We
represent each force that acts on the system by an arrow (indicating the direction of that
force). We draw the arrow at the “point” representing the system. For example, the forces
that regularly appear in free-body diagram are contact forces, tension, gravitation,
friction, pressure forces, spring forces, electric and magnetic forces, which we shall
introduce below. Sometimes we will draw the arrow representing the actual point in the
system where the force is acting. When we do that, we will not represent the system by a
“point” in the free-body diagram.
Suppose we choose a Cartesian coordinate system, then we can resolve the force
into its component vectors

F = Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂ (8.4.2)
Each one of the component vectors is itself a vector sum of the individual
component vectors from each contributing force. We can use the free-body force diagram
to make these vector decompositions of the individual forces. For example, the x -
component of the force is
Fx = F1,x + F2,x + ⋅⋅⋅ . (8.4.3)
8.4.5 Modeling
One of the most central and yet most difficult tasks in analyzing a physical interaction is
developing a physical model. A physical model for the interaction consists of a
description of the forces acting on all the objects. The difficulty arises in deciding which
forces to include. For example in describing almost all planetary motions, the Universal
Law of Gravitation was the only force law that was needed. There were anomalies, for
example the small shift in Mercury’s orbit. These anomalies are interesting because they
may lead to new physics. Einstein corrected Newton’s Law of Gravitation by introducing
General Relativity and one of the first successful predictions of the new theory was the
perihelion precession of Mercury’s orbit. On the other hand, the anomalies may simply
8-16
be due to the complications introduced by forces that are well understood but
complicated to model. When objects are in motion there is always some type of friction
present. Air friction is often neglected because the mathematical models for air resistance
are fairly complicated even though the force of air resistance substantially changes the
motion. Static or kinetic friction between surfaces is sometimes ignored but not always.
The mathematical description of the friction between surfaces has a simple expression so
it can be included without making the description mathematically intractable. A good
way to start thinking about the problem is to make a simple model, excluding
complications that are small order effects. Then we can check the predictions of the
model. Once we are satisfied that we are on the right track, we can include more
complicated effects.
8.5 Tension in a Rope
8.5.1 Definition of Tension in a Rope
Let’s return to our example of the very light rope (object 2 with m2 ! 0 ) that is attached
!
to a block (object 1) at the point B , and pulled by an applied force at point A , FA,2
(Figure 8.18a).
1 .
B
2 .
A FA,2
Figure 8.18a Massless rope pulling a block
Choose a coordinate system with the ĵ -unit vector pointing upward in the normal
direction to the surface, and the î -unit vector pointing in the positive x -direction,
(Figure 8.18b). The force diagrams for the system consisting of the rope and block ! is
shown in Figure 8.19, and for the rope and block separately in Figure 8.20, where F2,1 is
!
the force on the block (object 1) due to the rope (object 2), and F1,2 is the force on the
rope due to the block.
N ĵ î
f
1
.. B
2 . .
A FA,2
m2g 0 +x
m1g
Figure 8.18b Forces acting on system consisting of block and rope
8-17
The forces on the rope and the block must each sum to zero. Because the rope is not
accelerating, Newton’s Second Law applied to the rope requires that FA,2 − F1,2 = m2 a
(where we are using magnitudes for all the forces).
N ĵ î
f
1
.. F2,1 F1,2 B
. 2 . .
A F
A,2
m1g m2g 0
Figure 8.19 Separate force diagrams for rope and block
Because we are assuming the mass of the rope is negligible therefore
FA,2 − F1,2 = 0; (massless rope) (8.5.1)

.
If we consider the case that the rope is very light, then the forces acting at the ends of the
rope are nearly horizontal. Then if the rope-block system is moving at constant speed or
at rest, Newton’s Second Law is now
FA,2 − F1,2 = 0; (constant speed or at rest) . (8.5.2)
Newton’s Second Law applied to the block in the + î -direction requires that F2,1 − f = 0 .
Newton’s Third Law, applied to the block-rope interaction pair requires that F1,2 = F2,1 .
Therefore
FA,2 = F1,2 = F2,1 = f . (8.5.3)
Thus the applied pulling force is transmitted through the rope to the block since it has the
same magnitude as the force of the rope on the block. In addition, the applied pulling
force is also equal to the friction force on the block.
How do we define “tension” at some point in a rope? Suppose make an imaginary slice of
the rope at a point P , a distance x P from point B , where the rope is attached to the
block. The imaginary slice divides the rope into two sections, labeled L (left) and R
(right), as shown in Figure 8.20.
. B
L
P
. R .
A
xP imaginary slice
Figure 8.20 Imaginary slice through the rope
8-18
There is now a Third Law pair of forces acting between! the left and right sections of the
rope. Denote the force acting on the left section by FR,L (x P ) , and the force acting on the
!
right section by FL,R (x P ) . Newton’s Third Law requires that the forces in this interaction
pair are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
! !
FR,L (x P ) = −FL,R (x P ) (8.5.4)
!
The force diagram for the left and right sections are shown in Figure 8.21 where F1,L is
the force on the left section of the
! rope due to the block-rope interaction. (We had
previously denoted that force by F1,2 ). Now denote the force on the right section of the
!
rope side due to the pulling force at the point A by FA,R , (which we had previously
!
denoted by FA,2 ).
F1,L B
. L .
P F (x )
R,L P
FL,R (x P )
.
P
R .
A FA,R
xP
Figure 8.21 Force diagram for the left and right sections of rope
The tension T (x P ) at a point P in rope lying a distance x from one the left end of the
rope, is the magnitude of the action -reaction pair of forces acting at the point P ,
! !
T (x P ) = FR,L (x P ) = FL,R (x P ) . (8.5.5)
For a rope of negligible mass, under tension, as in the above case, (even if the rope is
accelerating) the sum of the horizontal forces applied to the left section and the right
section of the rope are zero, and therefore the tension is uniform and is equal to the
applied pulling force,
T = FA,R . (8.5.6)
Example 8.3 Tension in a Massive Rope
1 .B
2
.
A FA,R
Figure 8.22a Massive rope pulling a block
8-19
Consider a block of mass m1 that is lying on a horizontal surface. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between the block and the surface is µ k . A uniform rope of mass m2 and
length d is attached to the block. The rope is pulled from the side opposite the block
!
with an applied force of magnitude FA,2 = FA,2 . Because the rope is now massive, the
pulling force makes an angle φ with respect to the horizontal in order to balance the
gravitational force on the rope, (Figure 8.22a). Determine the tension in the rope as a
function of distance x from the block.
Solution: In the following analysis, we shall assume that the angle φ is very small and
depict the pulling and tension forces as essentially acting in the horizontal direction even
though there must be some small vertical component to balance the gravitational forces.
The key point to realize is that the rope is now massive and we must take in to account
the inertia of the rope when applying Newton’s Second Law. Consider an imaginary slice
through the rope at a distance x from the block (Figure 8.22b), dividing the rope into two
sections. The right section has length d − x and mass mR = (m2 / d)(d − x) . The left
section has length x and mass mL = (m2 / d)(x) .
x d x
B . L R . A
imaginary slice +x
O
Figure 8.22b Imaginary slice through the rope
The free body force diagrams for the two sections of the rope are shown in Figure 8.22c,
where T (x) is the tension in the rope at a distance x from the block, and
! !
F1,L = F1,L ≡ F1,2 is the magnitude of the force on the left-section of the rope due to the
rope-block interaction.
ĵ î
.
F1,L B
L . .
T (x) T (x)
. . .
R
A FA, R
mL g x mR g
Figure 8.22c Force diagram for the left and right sections of rope
Apply Newton’s Second Law to the right section of the rope yielding
8-20
m2
FA,R − T (x) = mR aR = (d − x)aR , (8.5.7)
d
where aR is the x -component of the acceleration of the right section of the rope. Apply
Newton’s Second Law to the left slice of the rope yielding
T (x) − F1,L = mL aL = (m2 / d)x aL , (8.5.8)
where aL is the x -component of the acceleration of the left piece of the rope.
. FL,1 ĵ î
1
fk
m1g
Figure 8.23 Force diagram on sliding block
The force diagram on the block is shown in Figure 8.23. Newton’s Second Law on the
block in the + î -direction is FL,1 − f k = m1a1 and in the + ĵ -direction is N − m1g = 0 . The
kinetic friction force acting on the block is f k = µ k N = µ k m1g . Newton’s Second Law on
the block in the + î -direction becomes
FL,1 − µ k m1g = m1a1 , (8.5.9)
Newton’s Third Law for the block-rope interaction is given by FL,1 = F1,L . Eq. (8.5.8)
then becomes
T (x) − ( µ k m1g + m1a1 ) = (m2 / d)xaL . (8.5.10)
Because the rope and block move together, the accelerations are equal which we denote
by the symbol a ≡ a1 = aL . Then Eq. (8.5.10) becomes
T (x) = µ k m1g + (m1 + (m2 / d)x)a . (8.5.11)
This result is not unexpected because the tension is accelerating both the block and the
left section and is opposed by the frictional force.
Alternatively, the force diagram on the system consisting of the rope and block is shown
in Figure 8.24.
8-21
N
fk
1
.. B
2 . .
A FA, R
m1g m2 g
Figure 8.24 Force diagram on block-rope system
Newton’s Second Law becomes

FA,R − µ k m1g = (m2 + m1 )a (8.5.12)
Solve Eq. (8.5.12) for FA,R and substitute into Eq. (8.5.7), and solve for the tension
yielding Eq. (8.5.11).
Example 8.4 Tension in a Suspended Rope
A uniform rope of mass M and length L is suspended from a ceiling (Figure 8.25). The
magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity is g . (a) Find the tension in the rope at the
upper end where the rope is fixed to the ceiling. (b) Find the tension in the rope as a
function of the distance from the ceiling. (c) Find an equation for the rate of change of the
tension with respect to distance from the ceiling in terms of M , L , and g .
L ĵ
rope of
mass M
+y
Figure 8.25 Rope suspended from ceiling Figure 8.26 Coordinate system for
suspended rope
Solution: (a) Begin by choosing a coordinate system with the origin at the ceiling and the
positive y -direction pointing downward (Figure 8.26). In order to find the tension at the
upper end of the rope, choose as a system the entire rope. The forces acting on the rope
are the force at y = 0 holding the rope up, T ( y = 0) , and the gravitational force on the
entire rope. The free-body force diagram is shown in Figure 8.27.
8-22
T ( y = 0)
ĵ
Mg
Figure 8.27 Force diagram on rope
Because the acceleration is zero, Newton’s Second Law on the rope is Mg − T ( y = 0) = 0 .

Therefore the tension at the upper end is T ( y = 0) = Mg .
(b) Recall that the tension at a point is the magnitude of the action-reaction pair of forces
acting at that point. Make an imaginary slice in the rope a distance y from the ceiling
separating the rope into an upper segment 1, and lower segment 2 (Figure 8.28a). Choose
the upper segment as a system with mass m1 = ( M / L) y . The forces acting on the upper
segment are the gravitational force, the force T ( y = 0) holding the rope up, and the
tension T ( y) at the point y , that is pulling the upper segment down. The free-body force
diagram is shown in Figure 8.28b.
T ( y = 0)
(a) (b)
y 1 y 1 ĵ
m1g
ĵ
T ( y)
L y 2
Figure 8.28 (a) Imaginary slice separates rope into two pieces. (b) Free-body force
diagram on upper piece of rope
Apply Newton’s Second Law to the upper segment: m1g + T ( y) − T ( y = 0) = 0 . Therefore

the tension at a distance y from the ceiling is T ( y) = T ( y = 0) − m1g . Because
m1 = ( M / L) y is the mass of the segment piece and Mg is the tension at the upper end,
Newton’s Second Law becomes
8-23
T ( y) = Mg(1 − y / L) (8.5.13)
As a check, we note that when y = L , the tension T ( y = L) = 0 , which is what we expect

because there is no force acting at the lower end of the rope.
(c) Differentiate Eq. (8.5.13) with respect to y yielding
dT
= −( M / L)g . (8.5.14)
dy
The rate that the tension is changing at a constant rate with respect to distance from the
top of the rope.
8.5.2 Continuous Systems and Newton’s Second Law as a Differential Equations
We can determine the tension at a distance y from the ceiling in Example 8.4, by an
alternative method, a technique that will generalize to many types of “continuous
systems”. Choose a coordinate system with the origin at the ceiling and the positive y -
direction pointing downward as in Figure 8.25. Consider as the system a small element of
the rope between the points y and y + Δy . This small element has length Δy , The small
element has mass Δm = ( M / L)Δy and is shown in Figure 8.29.
ĵ
y
m y
y+ y
y=L
Figure 8.29 Small mass element of the rope
The forces acting on the small element are the tension, T ( y) at y directed upward, the
tension T ( y + Δy) at y + Δy directed downward, and the gravitational force Δmg
directed downward. The tension T ( y + Δy) is equal to the tension T ( y) plus a small
difference ΔT ,
T ( y + Δy) = T ( y) + ΔT . (8.5.15)
8-24
The small difference in general can be positive, zero, or negative. The free body force
diagram is shown in Figure 8.30.
T ( y)
ĵ y
y
mg y+ y
T ( y) + T
Figure 8.30 Free body force diagram on small mass element
Now apply Newton’s Second Law to the small element
Δmg + T ( y) − (T ( y) + ΔT ) = 0 (8.5.16)
The difference in the tension is then ΔT = −Δmg . We now substitute our result for the
mass of the element Δm = ( M / L)Δy , and find that that
ΔT = −( M / L)Δyg . (8.5.17)
Divide through by Δy , yielding ΔT / Δy = −( M / L)g . Now take the limit in which the
length of the small element goes to zero, Δy → 0 ,
ΔT
lim = −( M / L)g . (8.5.18)
Δy→0 Δy
Recall that the left hand side of Eq. (8.5.18) is the definition of the derivative of the
tension with respect to y , and so we arrive at Eq. (8.5.14),
dT
= −( M / L)g .
dy
We can solve the differential equation, Eq. (8.5.14), by a technique called separation of
variables. We rewrite the equation as dT = −( M / L)gdy and integrate both sides. Our
integral will be a definite integral in which we integrate a ‘dummy’ integration variable
y ′ from y ′ = 0 to y ′ = y and the corresponding T ′ from T ′ = T ( y = 0) to T ′ = T ( y) :
T ′ =T ( y )
y ′= y
∫
T '=T ( y=0)
dT ′ = −( M / L)g ∫
y ′ =0
dy ′ . (8.5.19)
8-25
After integration and substitution of the limits, we have that
T ( y) − T ( y = 0) = −( M / L)gy . (8.5.20)
Us the fact that tension at the top of the rope is T ( y = 0) = Mg and find that
T ( y) = Mg(1− y / L)
in agreement with our earlier result, Eq. (8.5.13).
8.6 Drag Forces in Fluids
When a solid object moves through a fluid it will experience a resistive force, called the
drag force, opposing its motion. The fluid may be a liquid or a gas. This force is a very
complicated force that depends on both the properties of the object and the properties of
the fluid. The force depends on the speed, size, and shape of the object. It also depends
on the density, viscosity and compressibility of the fluid.
For objects moving in air, the air drag is

still quite complicated but for rapidly Table 8.1 Drag Coefficients
moving objects the resistive force is
roughly proportional to the square of the Shape Drag coefficient
speed v , the cross-sectional area A of
Sphere 0.47
the object in a plane perpendicular to the
motion, the density ρ of the air, and Half-sphere 0.42
independent of the viscosity of the air.
Traditional the magnitude of the air drag Cone 0.50
for rapidly moving objects is written as Cube 1.05
1 Angled cube 0.80

Fdrag = C D Aρ v 2 . (8.6.1)
2 Long cylinder 0.82
The coefficient C D is called the drag
Short cylinder 1.15
coefficient, a dimensionless number that
is a property of the object. Table 8.1 Streamlined 0.04
body
lists the drag coefficient for some simple
Streamlined
shapes, (each of these objects has a half-body
0.09
Reynolds number of order 104 ).
The above model for air drag does not extend to all fluids. An object dropped in
oil, molasses, honey, or water will fall at different rates due to the different viscosities of
the fluid. For very low speeds, the drag force depends linearly on the speed and is also
proportional to the viscosity η of the fluid. For the special case of a sphere of radius R ,
8-26
the drag force law can be exactly deduced from the principles of fluid mechanics and is
given by ! !
Fdrag = −6πη Rv (sphere) . (8.6.2)
This force law is known as Stokes’ Law. The coefficient of viscosity η has SI units of
[N ⋅ m −2 ⋅s] = [Pa ⋅s] = [kg ⋅ m −1 ⋅s −1 ] ; a cgs unit called the poise is often encountered .
Some typical coefficients of viscosity are listed in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Coefficients of viscosity
fluid Temperature, Coefficient of viscosity η ; [kg ⋅ m −1 ⋅s −1 ]

0
C
Acetone 25 3.06 × 10−4
Air 15 1.81× 10−5
Benzene 25 6.04 × 10−4
Blood 37 (3− 4) × 10−3
Castor oil 25 0.985
Corn Syrup 25 1.3806
Ethanol 25 1.074 × 10−3
Glycerol 20 1.2
Methanol 25 5.44 × 10−4
Motor oil (SAE 10W) 20 6.5 × 10−2
Olive Oil 25 8.1× 10−2
Water 10 1.308 × 10−3
Water 20 1.002 × 10−3
Water 60 0.467 × 10−3
Water 100 0.28 × 10−3
This law can be applied to the motion of slow moving objects in a fluid, for example:
very small water droplets falling in a gravitational field, grains of sand settling in water,
or the sedimentation rate of molecules in a fluid. In the later case, If we model a molecule
as a sphere of radius R , the mass of the molecule is proportional to R3 and the drag force
is proportion to R , therefore different sized molecules will have different rates of
acceleration. This is the basis for the design of measuring devices that separate
molecules of different molecular weights.
In many physical situations the force on an object will be modeled as depending on the
object’s velocity. We have already seen static and kinetic friction between surfaces
modeled as being independent of the surfaces’ relative velocity. Common experience
(swimming, throwing a Frisbee) tells us that the frictional force between an object and a
8-27
fluid can be a complicated function of velocity. Indeed, these complicated relations are
an important part of such topics as aircraft design.
Example 8.5 Drag Force at Low Speeds
marble:
mass m and
radius R
olive oil h
g
A spherical marble of radius R and mass m is released from rest and falls under the
influence of gravity through a jar of olive oil of viscosity η . The marble is released from
rest just below the surface of the olive oil, a height h from the bottom of the jar. The
gravitational acceleration is g (Figure 8.31). Neglect any force due to the buoyancy of
the olive oil. (i) Determine the velocity of the marble as a function of time, (ii) what is the
! !
maximum possible velocity v ∞ = v(t = ∞) (terminal velocity), that the marble can obtain,
(iii) determine an expression for the viscosity of olive oil η in terms of g , m , R , and
!
v∞ = v ∞ , (iv) determine an expression for the position of the marble from just below the
surface of the olive oil as a function of time.
Solution: Choose positive y -direction downwards with the origin at the initial position of
the marble as shown in Figure 8.32(a).
O O
Fdrag
.
y(t)
ĵ h ĵ
v(t)
mg
+y (a) +y (b)
Figure 8.32 (a) Coordinate system for marble; (b) free body force diagram on marble
There are two forces acting on the marble: the gravitational force, and the drag force
which is given by Eq. (8.6.2). The free body diagram is shown in the Figure 8.32(b).
Newton’s Second Law is then
dv
mg − 6πη Rv = m , (8.6.3)
dt
8-28
where v is the y -component of the velocity of the marble. Let γ = 6πη R / m ; the SI
units γ are [s −1 ] . Then Eq. (8.6.3) becomes
dv
g −γ v = , (8.6.4)
dt
Suppose the object has an initial y -component of velocity v(t = 0) = 0 . We shall solve
Eq. (8.6.3) using the method of separation of variables. The differential equation may be
rewritten as
dv
= −γ dt . (8.6.5)
(v − g / γ )
The integral version of Eq. (8.6.5) is then
v ′ =v(t ) t ′ =t
dv ′
∫
v ′ =0
v′ − g / γ
= −γ ∫ dt ′
t ′ =0
. (8.6.6)
Integrating both sides of Eq. (8.6.6) yields
⎛ v(t) − g / γ ⎞
ln ⎜ = −γ t
⎝ −g / γ ⎟⎠ . (8.6.7)
Recall that eln x = x , therefore upon exponentiation of Eq. (8.6.7) yields
v(t) − g / γ
= e− γ t . (8.6.8)
−g / γ
Thus the y -component of the velocity as a function of time is given by

g mg
v(t) = (1− e−γ t ) = (1− e−(6πη R/m)t ) (8.6.9)
γ 6πη R .
A plot of v(t) vs. t is shown in Figure 8.31 with parameters R = 5.00 × 10−3 m ,
η = 8.10 × 10−2 kg ⋅ m −1 ⋅s −1 , m = 4.08 × 10−3 kg , and g / γ = 1.87 m ⋅s −1 .
8-29
5
v(t)
[m s 1 ]
t
1 [s] 2 [s]
Figure 8.33 Plot of y -component of the velocity v(t) vs. t for marble falling through
oil with g / γ = 1.87 m ⋅s −1 .
For large values of t , the term e−(6πη R/m)t approaches zero, and the marble reaches a
terminal velocity
mg
v∞ = v(t = ∞) = (8.6.10)
6πη R .
The coefficient of viscosity can then be determined from the terminal velocity by the
condition that
mg
η= (8.6.11)
6π Rv . ter
Let ρ m denote the density of the marble. The mass of the spherical marble is
m = (4 / 3) ρ m R3 . The terminal velocity is then
2ρ m R2 g
v∞ = (8.6.12)
9η .
The terminal velocity depends on the square of the radius of the marble, indicating that
larger marbles will reach faster terminal speeds.
The position of the marble as a function of time is given by the integral expression
t ′ =t
y(t) − y(t = 0) = ∫ v(t ′) dt ′ ,

t ′ =0
(8.6.13)
which after substitution of Eq. (8.6.9) and integration using the initial condition that
y(t = 0) = 0 , becomes
y(t) =
g
γ
g
(
t + 2 e− γ t − 1 .
γ
) (8.6.14)
8-30
Example 8.6 Drag Forces at High Speeds
!
An object of mass m at time t = 0 is moving rapidly with velocity v 0 through a fluid of
density ρ . Let A denote the cross-sectional area of the object in a plane perpendicular
to the motion. The object experiences a retarding drag force whose magnitude is given by
Eq. (8.6.1). Determine an expression for the velocity of the object as a function of time.
Solution: Choose a coordinate system such that the object is moving in the positive x -
!
direction, v = vî . Set β = (1/ 2)C D Aρ . Newton’s Second Law can then be written as
dv
−β v2 = . (8.6.15)
dt
An integral version of Eq. (8.6.15) is then
v ′ =v(t ) t ′ =t
dv ′
∫
v ′ =v0 v′2
= − β ∫ dt ′ .
t ′ =0
(8.6.16)
Integration yields
⎛ 1 1⎞
−⎜ − ⎟ = −βt . (8.6.17)
⎝ v(t) v0 ⎠
After some algebraic rearrangement the x -component of the velocity as a function of

time is given by
v0 1
v(t) = = v , (8.6.18)
1+ v0 β t 1+ t / τ 0
where τ = 1/ v0 β . A plot of v(t) vs. t is shown in Figure 8.34 with initial conditions
v0 = 20 m ⋅s −1 and β = 0.5 s −1 .
v(t) 20
m s 1]
5 t
[s]
1
Figure 8.34 Plot of v(t) vs. t for damping force Fdrag = C D Aρ v 2
2
8-31
8.7 Worked Examples
Example 8.7 Staircase
An object of mass m at time t = 0 has speed v0 . It slides a distance s along a horizontal

floor and then off the top of a staircase (Figure 8.35). The coefficient of kinetic friction
between the object and the floor is µ k . The object strikes at the far end of the third stair.
Each stair has a rise of h and a run of d . Neglect air resistance and use g for the
gravitational constant. (a) What is the distance s that the object slides along the floor?
Figure 8.35 Object falling down a staircase
Solution: There are two distinct stages to the object’s motion, the initial horizontal
motion and then free fall. The given final position of the object, at the far end of the third
stair, will determine the horizontal component of the velocity at the instant the object left
the top of the stairs. This in turn can be used to determine the time the object decelerated
along the floor, and hence the distance traveled on the floor. The given quantities are m ,
v0 , µ k , g , h and d .
For the horizontal motion, choose coordinates with the origin at the initial position of the
block. Choose the positive î -direction to be horizontal, directed to the left in Figure 8.35,
and the positive ĵ -direction to be vertical (up). The forces on the object are gravity
  
m g = −mg ˆj , the normal force N = N ˆj and the kinetic frictional force fk = − f k î . The
 
components of the vectors in Newton’s Second Law, F = ma , are
− f k = m ax
(8.6.19)
N − m g = m ay .
8-32
The object does not move in the y -direction; a y = 0 and thus from the second expression
in (8.6.19), N = m g . The magnitude of the frictional force is then f k = µ k N = µ k mg , and
the first expression in (8.6.19) gives the x -component of acceleration as ax = − µ k g .
Becasue the acceleration is constant the x -component of the velocity is given by
vx (t ) = v0 + ax t , (8.6.20)
where v0 is the x -component of the velocity of the object when it just started sliding.
The displacement is given by
1
x(t) − x0 = v0 t + ax t 2 . (8.6.21)
2
Denote the time the block just leaves the landing by t1 , where x(t1 ) = s , and the speed
just when it reaches the landing vx (t1 ) = vx,1 . The initial speed is v0 and x0 = 0 . Using the
initial and final conditions, and the value of the acceleration, Eq. (8.6.21) becomes
1
s = v0 t1 − µ k g t12 . (8.6.22)
2
Solve Eq. (8.6.20) for the time the block reaches the edge of the landing,
vx,1 − v0 v0 − vx,1
t1 = = . (8.6.23)
− µk g µk g
Substituting Eq. (8.6.23) into Eq. (8.6.22) yields
2
⎛v −v ⎞ 1 ⎛v −v ⎞
s = v0 ⎜ 0 x,1 ⎟ − µ k g ⎜ 0 x,1 ⎟ (8.6.24)
⎝ µk g ⎠ 2 ⎝ µk g ⎠
and after some algebra, we can rewrite Eq. (8.6.24) as
v0 2 − vx,12
s= . (8.6.25)
2 µk g
From the top of the stair to the far end of the third stair, the object is in free fall. Choose
the positive î -direction to be horizontal, directed to the left in Figure 8.35, and the
positive ĵ -direction to be vertical (up) and now choose the origin at the top of the stairs,
where the object first goes into free fall. The components of acceleration are ax = 0 ,
8-33
a y = − g , the initial x -component of velocity is vx,1 , the initial y -component of velocity
is v y ,0 = 0 , the initial x -position is x0 = 0 and the initial y -position is y0 = 0 . Reset
t = 0 when the object just leaves the landing. Let t2 denote the instant the object hits the
stair, where y(t2 ) = −3h and x(t2 ) = 3d . The equations describing the object’s position
and speed at time t = t2 are
x(t2 ) = 3d = vx,1 t2 (8.6.26)

1
y(t2 ) = −3h = − gt2 2 . (8.6.27)
2
Solve Eq. (8.6.26) for t2 to yield
3d
t2 = . (8.6.28)
vx,1
Substitute Eq. (8.6.28) into Eq. (8.6.27) and eliminate the variable t2 ,
1 9d 2
3h = g . (8.6.29)
2 vx,12
Eq. (8.6.29) can now be solved for the square of the horizontal component of the velocity,
3gd 2
vx,12 = . (8.6.30)
2h
Now substitute Eq. (8.6.30) into Eq. (8.6.25) to determine the distance the object traveled
on the landing,
v 2 − (3gd 2 / 2h)
s= 0 . (8.6.31)
2 µk g
Example 8.8 Cart Moving on a Track
Figure 8.36 A falling block will accelerate a cart on a track via the pulling force of the
string. The force sensor measures the tension in the string.
8-34
Consider a cart that is free to slide along a horizontal track (Figure 8.36). A force is
applied to the cart via a string that is attached to a force sensor mounted on the cart,
wrapped around a pulley and attached to a block on the other end. When the block is
released the cart will begin to accelerate. The force sensor and cart together have a mass
mC , and the suspended block has mass mB . Neglect the small mass of the string and
pulley, and assume the string is inextensible. The coefficient of kinetic friction between
the cart and the track is µk . Determine (i) the acceleration of the cart, and (ii) the tension
in the string.
Solution: In general, we would like to draw free-body diagrams on all the individual
objects (cart, sensor, pulley, rope, and block) but we can also choose a system consisting
of two (or more) objects knowing that the forces of interaction between any two objects
will cancel in pairs by Newton’s Third Law. In this example, we shall choose the
sensor/cart as one free-body, and the block as the other free-body. The free-body force
diagram for the sensor/cart is shown in Figure 8.37.
.
TR,C
ĵ
fk C î
mC g
Figure 8.37 Force diagram on sensor/cart with a vector decomposition of the contact
force into horizontal and vertical components
!
There are three forces acting on the sensor/cart: the gravitational force mC g , the pulling
!
force TR,C of the rope on the force sensor, and the contact force between the track and the
cart. In Figure 8.34, we decompose the contact force into its two components, the kinetic
! !
frictional force fk = − f k î and the normal force, N = N ĵ .

The cart is only accelerating in the horizontal direction with a C = aC,x î , so the
component of the force in the vertical direction must be zero, aC,y = 0 . We can now apply
Newton’s Second Law in the horizontal and vertical directions and find that
î : TR,C − f k = mC aC,x (8.6.32)

ĵ : N − mC g = 0 . (8.6.33)
From Eq. (8.6.33), we conclude that the normal component is
N = mC g . (8.6.34)
8-35
We use Equation (8.6.34) for the normal force to find that the magnitude of the kinetic
frictional force is
f k = µk N = µk mC g . (8.6.35)
Then Equation (8.6.32) becomes
TR,C − µk mC g = mC aC,x . (8.6.36)
The force diagram for the

! block is shown in Figure 8.38. The two forces acting on
!
the block are the pulling force TR,B of the string and the gravitational force mBg . We now
apply Newton’s Second Law to the block and find that
ĵB : mB g − TR,B = mB aB,y . (8.6.37)
.
TR,B
B ĵB
mBg
Figure 8.38 Forces acting on the block
In Equation (8.6.37), the symbol aB, y represents the component of the acceleration with
sign determined by our choice of downward direction for the unit vector ĵB . Note that we
made a different choice of direction for the unit vector in the vertical direction in the free-
body diagram for the block shown in Figure 8.37. Each free-body diagram has an
independent set of unit vectors that define a sign convention for vector decomposition of
the forces acting on the free-body and the acceleration of the free-body. In our example,
with the unit vector pointing downwards in Figure 8.38, if we solve for the component of
the acceleration and it is positive, then we know that the direction of the acceleration is
downwards.
There is a second subtle way that signs are introduced with respect to the forces
acting on a free-body. In our example, the force between the string and the block acting
on the block points upwards, so in the vector decomposition of the forces acting on the
block that appears on the left-hand side of Equation (8.6.37), this force has a minus sign
!
and the quantity TR,B = −TR,B ĵB where TR,B is assumed positive.
Our assumption that the mass of the rope and the mass of the pulley are negligible
enables us to assert that the tension in the rope is uniform and equal in magnitude to the
forces at each end of the rope,
8-36
TR,B = TR,C ≡ T . (8.6.38)
We also assumed that the string is inextensible (does not stretch). This implies that the
rope, block, and sensor/cart all have the same magnitude of acceleration,
aC,x = aB, y ≡ a . (8.6.39)
Using Equations (8.6.38) and (8.6.39), we can now rewrite the equation of motion for the
sensor/cart, Equation (8.6.36), as
T − µk mC g = mC a , (8.6.40)
and the equation of motion (8.6.37) for the block as
mB g − T = mB a . (8.6.41)
We have only two unknowns T and a , so we can now solve the two equations (8.6.40)
and (8.6.41) simultaneously for the acceleration of the sensor/cart and the tension in the
rope. We first solve Equation (8.6.40) for the tension
T = µk mC g + mC a (8.6.42)
and then substitute Equation (8.6.42) into Equation (8.6.41) and find that
mB g − ( µk mC g + mC a) = mB a . (8.6.43)
We can now solve Equation (8.6.43) for the acceleration,
mB g − µk mC g
a= . (8.6.44)
mC + mB
Substitution of Equation (8.6.44) into Equation (8.6.42) gives the tension in the string,
T = µk mC g + mC a
mB g − µk mC g
= µk mC g + mC (8.6.45)
mC + mB
mC mB
= ( µk + 1) g.
mC + mB
In this example, we applied Newton’s Second Law to two objects, one a

composite object consisting of the sensor and the cart, and the other the block. We
analyzed the forces acting on each object and also any constraints imposed on the
8-37
acceleration of each object. We used the force laws for kinetic friction and gravitation on
each free-body system. The three equations of motion enable us to determine the forces
that depend on the parameters in the example: the tension in the rope, the acceleration of
the objects, and normal force between the cart and the table.
Example 8.9 Pulleys and Ropes Constraint Conditions
Consider the arrangement of pulleys and blocks shown in Figure 8.39. The pulleys are
assumed massless and frictionless and the connecting strings are massless and
inextensible. Denote the respective masses of the blocks as m1 , m2 and m3 . The upper
pulley in the figure is free to rotate but its center of mass does not move. Both pulleys
have the same radius R . (a) How are the accelerations of the objects related? (b) Draw
force diagrams on each moving object. (c) Solve for the accelerations of the objects and
the tensions in the ropes.
1 P
3
2
Figure 8.39 Constrained pulley system
Solution: (a) Choose an origin at the center of the upper pulley. Introduce coordinate
functions for the three moving blocks, y1 , y2 and y3 . Introduce a coordinate function
yP for the moving pulley (the pulley on the lower right in Figure 8.40). Choose
downward for positive direction; the coordinate system is shown in the figure below then.
string A
y1 yP y3 y2
1
P . ĵ
3
string B 2
Figure 8.40 Coordinated system for pulley system
The length of string A is given by
8-38
l A = y1 + yP + π R (8.6.46)
where π R is the arc length of the rope that is in contact with the pulley. This length is
constant, and so the second derivative with respect to time is zero,
d 2l A d 2 y1 d 2 yP
0= = 2 + 2 = a y ,1 + a y , P . (8.6.47)
dt 2 dt dt
Thus block 1 and the moving pulley’s components of acceleration are equal in magnitude
but opposite in sign,
a y , P = −a y ,1 . (8.6.48)
The length of string B is given by
lB = ( y3 − yP ) + ( y2 − yP ) + π R = y3 + y2 − 2 yP + π R (8.6.49)
where π R is the arc length of the rope that is in contact with the pulley. This length is
also constant so the second derivative with respect to time is zero,
d 2lB d 2 y2 d 2 y3 d 2 yP
0= = + − 2 = a y ,2 + a y ,3 − 2a y , P . (8.6.50)
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 dt 2
We can substitute Equation (8.6.48) for the pulley acceleration into Equation (8.6.50)
yielding the constraint relation between the components of the acceleration of the three
blocks,
0 = a y ,2 + a y ,3 + 2a y ,1 . (8.6.51)
b) Free-body Force diagrams:

! the forces acting on block 1 are: the gravitational force
!
m1g and the pulling force TA,1 of string A acting on the block 1. Denote the magnitude
of this force by TA . Because the string is assumed to be massless and the pulley is
assumed to be massless and frictionless, the tension TA in the string is uniform and equal
in magnitude to the pulling force of the string on the block. The free-body diagram on
block 1 is shown in Figure 8.41(a).
TA,1 TB,2 TB,3 TA,P

ĵ
1 . 2 . 3 . P .
m1g m2g m3g TB,P TB,P
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 8.41 Free-body force diagram on (a) block 1; (b) block 2; (c) block 3; (d) pulley
8-39
Newton’s Second Law applied to block 1 is then
ĵ : m1g − TA = m1 a y,1 . (8.6.52)
!
The forces on the block 2 are the gravitational force m2g and string B holding the block,
!
TB,2 , with magnitude TB . The free-body diagram for the forces acting on block 2 is
shown in Figure 8.41(b). Newton’s second Law applied to block 2 is
ĵ : m2 g − TB = m2 a y,2 . (8.6.53)
!
The forces on the block 3 are the gravitational force m3g and string holding the block,
!
TB,3 , with magnitude equal to TB because pulley P has been assumed to be both
frictionless and massless. The free-body diagram for the forces acting on block 3 is
shown in Figure 8.41(c). Newton’s second Law applied to block 3 is
ĵ : m3 g − TB = m3 a y,3 . (8.6.54)
 
The forces on the moving pulley P are the gravitational force mP g = 0 (the pulley is
!
assumed massless); string B pulls down on the pulley on each side with a force, TB,P ,
!
which has magnitude TB . String A holds the pulley up with a force TA,P with the
magnitude TA equal to the tension in string A . The free-body diagram for the forces
acting on the moving pulley is shown in Figure 8.41(d). Newton’s second Law applied to
the pulley is
ˆj : 2T − T = m a = 0 . (8.6.55)
B A P y, P
Because the pulley is assumed to be massless, we can use this last equation to determine
the condition that the tension in the two strings must satisfy,
2TB = TA (8.6.56)
We are now in position to determine the accelerations of the blocks and the tension in the
two strings. We record the relevant equations as a summary.
0 = a y ,2 + a y ,3 + 2a y ,1 (8.6.57)
m1 g − TA = m1 a y ,1 (8.6.58)
m2 g − TB = m2 a y ,2 (8.6.59)
m3 g − TB = m3 a y ,3 (8.6.60)
2TB = TA . (8.6.61)
8-40
There are five equations with five unknowns, so we can solve this system. We shall first
use Equation (8.6.61) to eliminate the tension TA in Equation (8.6.58), yielding
m1 g − 2TB = m1 a y ,1 . (8.6.62)
We now solve Equations (8.6.59), (8.6.60) and (8.6.62) for the accelerations,
TB
a y ,2 = g − (8.6.63)
m2
T
a y ,3 = g − B (8.6.64)
m3
2TB
a y,1 = g − . (8.6.65)
m1
We now substitute these results for the accelerations into the constraint equation,
Equation (8.6.57),
TB T 4T ⎛ 1 1 4 ⎞
0=g− + g − B + 2 g − B = 4 g − TB ⎜ + + ⎟. (8.6.66)
m2 m3 m1 ⎝ m2 m3 m1 ⎠
We can now solve this last equation for the tension in string B ,
4g 4 g m1 m2 m3
TB = = . (8.6.67)
⎛ 1 1 4 ⎞ m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3
⎜ + + ⎟
⎝ m2 m3 m1 ⎠
From Equation (8.6.61), the tension in string A is
8 g m1 m2 m3
TA = 2TB = . (8.6.68)
m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3
We find the acceleration of block 1 from Equation (8.6.65), using Equation (8.6.67) for
the tension in string B,
2TB 8 g m2 m3 m m + m1 m2 − 4 m2 m3
a y ,1 = g − =g− =g 1 3 . (8.6.69)
m1 m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3 m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3
We find the acceleration of block 2 from Equation (8.6.63), using Equation (8.6.67) for
the tension in string B,
8-41
TB 4 g m1 m3 −3 m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3
a y ,2 = g − =g− =g . (8.6.70)
m2 m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3 m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3
Similarly, we find the acceleration of block 3 from Equation (8.6.64), using Equation
(8.6.67) for the tension in string B,
TB 4 g m1 m2 m m − 3 m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3
a y ,3 = g − =g− =g 1 3 . (8.6.71)
m3 m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3 m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3
As a check on our algebra we note that
2 a1, y + a2, y + a3, y =

m1 m3 + m1 m2 − 4 m2 m3 −3 m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3 m m − 3 m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3
2g +g +g 1 3
m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3 m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3 m1 m3 + m1 m2 + 4 m2 m3
= 0.
Example 8.10 Accelerating Wedge
wedge block of mass m
Figure 8.42 Block on accelerating wedge

!
A 45o wedge is pushed along a table with constant acceleration A according to an
observer at rest with respect to the table. A block of mass m slides without friction down
the wedge (Figure 8.42). Find its acceleration with respect to an observer at rest with
respect to the table. Write down a plan for finding the magnitude of the acceleration of
the block. Make sure you clearly state which concepts you plan to use to calculate any
relevant physical quantities. Also clearly state any assumptions you make. Be sure you
include any free-body force diagrams or sketches that you plan to use.
Solution: Choose a coordinate system for the block and wedge as shown in Figure 8.43.

Then A = Ax,w î where Ax,w is the x-component of the acceleration of the wedge.
8-42
wedge block of mass m
ĵ
xb î
xw A
yb
Figure 8.43 Coordinate system for block on accelerating wedge
We shall apply Newton’s Second Law to the block sliding down the wedge. Because the
wedge is accelerating, there is a constraint relation between the x - and y - components
of the acceleration of the block. In order to find that constraint we choose a coordinate
system for the wedge and block sliding down the wedge shown in the figure below. We
shall find the constraint relationship between the components of the accelerations of the
block and wedge by a geometric argument. From the figure above, we see that
yb
tan φ = . (8.6.72)
l − (xb − xw )
Therefore
yb = (l − (xb − xw )) tan φ . (8.6.73)
If we differentiate Eq. (8.6.73) twice with respect to time noting that
d 2l
=0 (8.6.74)
dt 2
we have that
d 2 yb ⎛ d 2x d 2 xw ⎞
= − ⎜ 2b − ⎟ tan φ . (8.6.75)
dt 2 ⎝ dt dt 2 ⎠
Therefore
ab, y = −(ab,x − Ax,w ) tan φ (8.6.76)
where
d 2 xw
Ax,w = . (8.6.77)
dt 2
We now draw a free-body force diagram for the block (Figure 8.44). Newton’s Second
Law in the î - direction becomes
N sin φ = mab,x . (8.6.78)
8-43
and the ĵ -direction becomes
N cos φ − mg = mab,y (8.6.79)
N
ĵ
. î
mg
Figure 8.44 Free-body force diagram on block
We can solve for the normal force from Eq. (8.6.78):
mab,x
N= (8.6.80)
sin φ
We now substitute Eq. (8.6.76) and Eq. (8.6.80) into Eq. (8.6.79) yielding
mab,x
cos φ − mg = m(−(ab,x − Aw,x ) tan φ ) . (8.6.81)
sin φ
We now clean this up yielding
mab,x (cotan φ + tan φ ) = m(g + Aw,x tan φ ) (8.6.82)
Thus the x-component of the acceleration is then
g + Aw,x tan φ
ab,x = (8.6.83)
cotan φ + tan φ
From Eq. (8.6.76), the y -component of the acceleration is then
⎛ g + Aw,x tan φ ⎞
ab, y = −(ab,x − Aw,x ) tan φ = − ⎜ − Aw,x ⎟ tan φ . (8.6.84)
⎝ cotan φ + tan φ ⎠
This simplifies to
A − g tan φ
ab, y = w,x (8.6.85)
cotan φ + tan φ
8-44
When φ = 45 , cotan 45 = tan 45 = 1 , and so Eq. (8.6.83) becomes
g + Aw,x
ab,x = (8.6.86)
2
and Eq. (8.6.85) becomes
A− g
ab, y = . (8.6.87)
2
The magnitude of the acceleration is then
2 2
⎛ g + Aw,x ⎞ ⎛ Aw,x − g ⎞
a = ab,x 2 + ab,y 2 = ⎜ + (8.6.88)
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
⎛ g 2 + Aw,x
2
⎞
a= ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 2 ⎠
Example 8.11: Capstan
A device called a capstan is used aboard ships in order to control a rope that is under
great tension. The rope is wrapped around a fixed drum of radius R , usually for several
turns (Figure 8.45 shows about three fourths turn as seen from overhead). The load on the
rope pulls it with a force TA , and the sailor holds the other end of the rope with a much
smaller force TB . The coefficient of static friction between the rope and the drum is µs .
− µsθ BA
The sailor is holding the rope so that it is just about to slip. Show that TB = TAe ,
where θ BA is the angle subtended by the rope on the drum.
Figure 8.45 Capstan

Figure 8.46 Small slice of rope
8-45
Solution: We begin by considering a small slice of rope of arc length R Δθ , shown in the
Figure 8.46. We choose unit vectors for the force diagram on this section of the rope and
indicate them on Figure 8.47. The right edge of the slice is at angle θ and the left edge of
the slice is at θ + Δθ . The angle edge end of the slice makes with the horizontal is Δθ / 2 .
There are four forces acting on this section of the rope. The forces are the normal force
between the capstan and the rope pointing outward, a static frictional force and the
tensions at either end of the slice. The rope is held at the just slipping point, so if the load
exerts a greater force the rope will slip to the right. Therefore the direction of the static
frictional force between the capstan and the rope, acting on the rope, points to the left.
The tension on the right side of the slice is denoted by T (θ ) ≡ T , while the tension on the
left side of the slice is denoted by T (θ + Δθ ) ≡ T + ΔT . Does the tension in this slice
from the right side to the left, increase, remain the same, or decrease? The tension
decreases because the load on the left side is less than the load on the right side. Note that
ΔT < 0 .
Figure 8.47 Free-body force diagram on small slice of rope
The vector decomposition of the forces is given by
î : T cos(Δθ / 2) − f s − (T + ΔT )cos(Δθ / 2) (8.6.89)

ˆj : −T sin(Δθ / 2) + N − (T + ΔT ) sin(Δθ / 2) . (8.6.90)
For small angles Δθ , cos(Δθ / 2) ≅ 1 and sin(Δθ / 2) ≅ Δθ / 2 . Using the small angle
approximations, the vector decomposition of the forces in the x -direction (the +iˆ -
direction) becomes
T cos(Δθ / 2) − f s − (T + ΔT )cos(Δθ / 2)  T − f s − (T + ΔT )
(8.6.91)
= − f s − ΔT .
By the static equilibrium condition the sum of the x -components of the forces is zero,
− fs − ΔT = 0 . (8.6.92)
8-46
The vector decomposition of the forces in the y -direction (the +jˆ -direction) is
approximately
−T sin(Δθ / 2) + N − (T + ΔT )sin(Δθ / 2)  −T Δθ / 2 + N − (T + ΔT )Δθ / 2

(8.6.93)
= −T Δθ + N − ΔT Δθ / 2 .
In the last equation above we can ignore the terms proportional to ΔT Δθ because these
are the product of two small quantities and hence are much smaller than the terms
proportional to either ΔT or Δθ . The vector decomposition in the y -direction becomes
−T Δθ + N . (8.6.94)
Static equilibrium implies that this sum of the y -components of the forces is zero,
−T Δθ + N = 0 . (8.6.95)
We can solve this equation for the magnitude of the normal force
N = T Δθ . (8.6.96)
The just slipping condition is that the magnitude of the static friction attains its maximum
value
fs = ( fs ) max = µs N . (8.6.97)
We can now combine the Equations (8.6.92) and (8.6.97) to yield
ΔT = − µ s N . (8.6.98)
Now substitute the magnitude of the normal force, Equation (8.6.96), into Equation
(8.6.98), yielding
− µ sT Δθ − ΔT = 0 . (8.6.99)
Finally, solve this equation for the ratio of the change in tension to the change in angle,
ΔT
= − µsT . (8.6.100)
Δθ
The derivative of tension with respect to the angle θ is defined to be the limit
dT ΔT
≡ lim , (8.6.101)
dθ Δθ →0 Δθ
and Equation (8.6.100) becomes
8-47
dT
= − µ sT . (8.6.102)
dθ
This is an example of a first order linear differential equation that shows that the rate of
change of tension with respect to the angle θ is proportional to the negative of the
tension at that angle θ . This equation can be solved by integration using the technique of
separation of variables. We first rewrite Equation (8.6.102) as
dT
= − µ s dθ . (8.6.103)
T
Integrate both sides, noting that when θ = 0 , the tension is equal to force of the load TA ,
and when angle θ = θ A, B the tension is equal to the force TB the sailor applies to the rope,
T =TB θ = θ BA
dT
∫ T
=− ∫ µs dθ . (8.6.104)
T =TA θ =0
The result of the integration is

⎛T ⎞
ln ⎜ B ⎟ = − µsθ BA . (8.6.105)
⎝ TA ⎠
Note that the exponential of the natural logarithm
⎛ ⎛ T ⎞⎞ T
exp ⎜⎜ ln ⎜ B ⎟ ⎟⎟ = B , (8.6.106)
⎝ ⎝ TA ⎠ ⎠ TA
so exponentiating both sides of Equation (8.6.105) yields
TB − µs θ BA
=e ; (8.6.107)
TA
the tension decreases exponentially,
− µsθ BA
TB = TA e , (8.6.108)
Because the tension decreases exponentially, the sailor need only apply a small force to
prevent the rope from slipping.
Example 8.12 Free Fall with Air Drag
Consider an object of mass m that is in free fall but experiencing air resistance. The
magnitude of the drag force is given by Eq. (8.6.1), where ρ is the density of air, A is
8-48
the cross-sectional area of the object in a plane perpendicular to the motion, and C D is
the drag coefficient. Assume that the object is released from rest and very quickly attains
speeds in which Eq. (8.6.1) applies. Determine (i) the terminal velocity, and (ii) the
velocity of the object as a function of time.
Solution: Choose positive y -direction downwards with the origin at the initial position
of the object as shown in Figure 8.48(a).
O O
Fdrag
.
y(t)
ĵ h ĵ
v(t)
mg
+y (a) +y (b)
Figure 8.48 (a) Coordinate system for marble; (b) free body force diagram on marble
There are two forces acting on the object: the gravitational force, and the drag force
which is given by Eq. (8.6.1). The free body diagram is shown in the Figure 8.48(b).
Newton’s Second Law is then
dv
mg − (1/ 2)C D Aρ v 2 = m , (8.6.109)
dt
Set β = (1/ 2)C D Aρ . Newton’s Second Law can then be written as
dv
mg − β v 2 = m . (8.6.110)
dt
Initially when the object is just released with v = 0 , the air drag is zero and the
acceleration dv / dt is maximum. As the object increases its velocity, the air drag
becomes larger and dv / dt decreases until the object reaches terminal velocity and
dv / dt = 0 . Set dv / dt = 0 in Eq. (8.6.15) and solve for the terminal velocity yielding.
mg 2mg
v∞ = = . (8.6.111)
β C D Aρ
Values for the magnitude of the terminal velocity is shown in Table 8.3 for a variety of
objects with the same drag coefficient C D = 0.5 .
8-49
Table 8.3 Terminal Velocities for Different Sized Objects with C D = 0.5
Object Mass m (kg) Area A (m 2 ) Terminal Velocity v∞ (m ⋅s −1 )

Rain drop 4 × 10−6 3× 10−6 6.5
Hailstone 4 × 10−3 3× 10−4 20
Osprey 20 2.5 × 10−1 50
Human Being 7.5 × 101 6 × 10−1 60
In order to integrate Eq. (8.6.15), we shall apply the technique of separation of variables
and integration by partial fractions. First rewrite Eq. (8.6.15) as
−β dv dv ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
dt = = 2 2 = ⎜− + dv . (8.6.112)
m ⎛ 2 mg ⎞
⎜⎝ v − β ⎟⎠
v − v∞ ( )
⎝ 2v∞ (v + v∞ ) 2v∞ (v − v∞ ) ⎟⎠
An integral expression of Eq. (8.6.112) is then
v ′ =v(t ) v ′ =v(t ) t ′ =t
dv ′ dv ′ β
− ∫
v ′ =0
2v∞ ( v ′ + v∞ )
+ ∫
v ′ =0
2v∞ ( v ′ − v∞ )
= − ∫ dt ′ .
m t ′=0
(8.6.113)
Integration yields
v ′ =v(t ) v ′ =v(t ) t ′ =t
dv ′ dv ′ β
− ∫
v ′ =0
2v∞ ( v ′ + v∞ )
+ ∫
v ′ =0
2v∞ ( v ′ − v∞ )
= − ∫ dt ′
m t ′=0
. (8.6.114)
1 ⎛ ⎛ v(t) + v∞ ⎞ ⎛ v∞ − v(t) ⎞ ⎞ β
⎜ − ln ⎜ ⎟ + ln ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ =− t
2v∞ ⎝ ⎝ v∞ ⎠ ⎝ v∞ ⎠ ⎠ m
After some algebraic manipulations, Eq. (8.6.114) can be rewritten as
⎛ v − v(t) ⎞ 2v∞ β
ln ⎜ ∞ = − t (8.6.115)
⎝ v(t) + v∞ ⎟⎠ m
Exponentiate Eq. (8.6.115) yields
⎛ v∞ − v(t) ⎞ 2v β
− ∞ t
⎜⎝ v(t) + v ⎟⎠ = e . (8.6.116)
m
After some algebraic rearrangement the y -component of the velocity as a function of

time is given by
8-50
⎛ − ∞ t⎞
2v β
1− e ⎟ = v tan h ⎛ v∞ β t ⎞ .
m
v(t) = v∞ ⎜ ⎜⎝ m ⎟⎠ (8.6.117)
⎜ −
2v∞ β
t⎟
∞
⎝ 1+ e m
⎠
v∞ β β mg βg (1/ 2)C D Aρ g
where = = = .
m m β m m
8-51
Chapter 9 Circular Motion Dynamics
9.1 Introduction Newton’s Second Law and Circular Motion ................................. 2

9.2 Universal Law of Gravitation and the Circular Orbit of the Moon .................. 2
9.2.1 Universal Law of Gravitation ......................................................................... 3
9.2.2 Kepler’s Third Law and Circular Motion ..................................................... 5
9.3 Worked Examples Circular Motion ...................................................................... 6
Example 9.1 Geosynchronous Orbit ....................................................................... 6
Example 9.2 Double Star System ............................................................................. 7
Example 9.3 Rotating Objects ............................................................................... 10
Example 9.4 Tension in a Rope .............................................................................. 12
Example 9.5 Object Sliding in a Circular Orbit on the Inside of a Cone .......... 13
Example 9.6 Coin on a Rotating Turntable .......................................................... 15
Appendix 9A The Gravitational Field of a Spherical Shell of Matter ....................... 17
9-1
Chapter 9 Equation Chapter 9 Section 1Circular Motion
Dynamics
I shall now recall to mind that the motion of the heavenly bodies is
circular, since the motion appropriate to a sphere is rotation in a circle.1
Nicholas Copernicus
9.1 Introduction Newton’s Second Law and Circular Motion
We have already shown

 that when an object moves in a circular orbit of radius r with
angular velocity ω , it is most convenient to choose polar coordinates to describe the
position, velocity and acceleration vectors. In particular, the acceleration vector is given
by
2
 ⎛ dθ ⎞ d 2θ
a(t) = −r ⎜ ⎟ r̂(t) + r 2 θ̂(t) . (9.1.1)
⎝ dt ⎠ dt
 
Then Newton’s Second Law, F = ma , can be decomposed into radial ( r̂ -) and tangential
( θ̂ -) components
2
⎛ dθ ⎞
Fr = −mr ⎜ ⎟ (circular motion) , (9.1.2)
⎝ dt ⎠
d 2θ
Fθ = mr 2 (circular motion) . (9.1.3)
dt
For the special case of uniform circular motion, d 2θ / dt 2 = 0 , and so the sum of the
tangential components of the force acting on the object must therefore be zero,
Fθ = 0 (uniform circular motion) . (9.1.4)
9.2 Universal Law of Gravitation and the Circular Orbit of the Moon
An important example of (approximate) circular motion is the orbit of the Moon around
the Earth. We can approximately calculate the time T the Moon takes to complete one
circle around the earth (a calculation of great importance to early lunar calendar systems,
which became the basis for our current model.) Denote the distance from the moon to the
center of the earth by Re, m .
1
Dedicatory Letter to Pope Paul III.
9-2
Because the Moon moves nearly in a circular orbit with angular speed ω = 2π / T
it is accelerating towards the Earth. The radial component of the acceleration (centripetal
acceleration) is
4π 2 Re, m
ar = − . (9.2.1)
T2
According to Newton’s Second Law, there must be a centripetal force acting on the
Moon directed towards the center of the Earth that accounts for this inward acceleration.
9.2.1 Universal Law of Gravitation
Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation describes the gravitational force between two
bodies 1 and 2 with masses m1 and m2 respectively. This force is a radial force (always
pointing along the radial line connecting the masses) and the magnitude is proportional to
the inverse square of the distance that separates the bodies. Then the force on object 2
due to the gravitational interaction between the bodies is given by,
 mm
F1, 2 = −G 1 2 2 r̂1, 2 , (9.2.2)
r1, 2
where r1,2 is the distance between the two bodies and r̂1, 2 is the unit vector located at the
position of object 2 and pointing from object 1 towards object 2. The Universal
Gravitation Constant is G = 6.67 ×10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg −2 . Figure 9.1 shows the direction of the
forces on bodies 1 and 2 along with the unit vector r̂1, 2 .
Figure 9.1 Gravitational force of interaction between two bodies
Newton realized that there were still some subtleties involved. First, why should
the mass of the Earth act as if it were all placed at the center? Newton showed that for a
perfect sphere with uniform mass distribution, all the mass may be assumed to be located
at the center. (This calculation is difficult and can be found in Appendix 9A to this
9-3
chapter.) We assume for the present calculation that the Earth and the Moon are perfect
spheres with uniform mass distribution.
Second, does this gravitational force between the Earth and the Moon form an
action-reaction Third Law pair? When Newton first explained the Moon’s motion in
1666, he had still not formulated the Third Law, which accounted for the long delay in
the publication of the Principia. The link between the concept of force and the concept of
an action-reaction pair of forces was the last piece needed to solve the puzzle of the effect
of gravity on planetary orbits. Once Newton realized that the gravitational force between
any two bodies forms an action-reaction pair, and satisfies both the Universal Law of
Gravitation and his newly formulated Third Law, he was able to solve the oldest and
most important physics problem of his time, the motion of the planets.
The test for the Universal Law of Gravitation was performed through
experimental observation of the motion of planets, which turned out to be resoundingly
successful. For almost 200 years, Newton’s Universal Law was in excellent agreement
with observation. A sign of more complicated physics ahead, the first discrepancy only
occurred when a slight deviation of the motion of Mercury was experimentally confirmed
in 1882. The prediction of this deviation was the first success of Einstein’s Theory of
General Relativity (formulated in 1915).
We can apply this Universal Law of Gravitation to calculate the period of the
Moon’s orbit around the Earth. The mass of the Moon is m1 = 7.36 ×1022 kg and the mass
of the Earth is m2 = 5.98 ×1024 kg . The distance from the Earth to the Moon is
Re, m = 3.82 × 108 m . We show the force diagram in Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2 Gravitational force of moon
Newton’s Second Law of motion for the radial direction becomes
m1 m2 4π 2 Re, m
−G = −m1 . (9.2.3)
Re,2 m T2
We can solve this equation for the period of the orbit,
9-4
4π 2 Re,3 m
T= . (9.2.4)
G m2
Substitute the given values for the radius of the orbit, the mass of the earth, and the
universal gravitational constant. The period of the orbit is
4π 2 (3.82 × 108 m)3

T= −11 −2
= 2.35 × 106 s . (9.2.5)
(6.67 × 10 N ⋅ m ⋅ kg )(5.98 × 10 kg)
2 24
This period is given in days by
⎛ 1 day ⎞
T = (2.35 × 106 s) ⎜ = 27.2 days. (9.2.6)
⎝ 8.64 × 104 s ⎟⎠
This period is called the sidereal month because it is the time that it takes for the Moon to
return to a given position with respect to the stars.
The actual time T1 between full moons, called the synodic month (the average
period of the Moon’s revolution with respect to the earth and is 29.53 days, it may range
between 29.27 days and 29.83 days), is longer than the sidereal month because the Earth
is traveling around the Sun. So for the next full moon, the Moon must travel a little
farther than one full circle around the Earth in order to be on the other side of the Earth
from the Sun (Figure 9.3).
Figure 9.3: Orbital motion between full moons
Therefore the time T1 between consecutive full moons is approximately T1  T + ΔT

where ΔT  T / 12 = 2.3 days . So T1  29.5 days .
9.2.2 Kepler’s Third Law and Circular Motion
The first thing that we notice from the above solution is that the period does not depend
on the mass of the Moon. We also notice that the square of the period is proportional to
the cube of the distance between the Earth and the Moon,
9-5
4π 2 Re,3 m
T =
2
. (9.2.7)
G m2
This is an example of Kepler’s Third Law, of which Newton was aware. This
confirmation was convincing evidence to Newton that his Universal Law of Gravitation
was the correct mathematical description of the gravitational force law, even though he
still could not explain what “caused” gravity.
9.3 Worked Examples Circular Motion
Example 9.1 Geosynchronous Orbit
A geostationary satellite goes around the earth once every 23 hours 56 minutes and 4
seconds, (a sidereal day, shorter than the noon-to-noon solar day of 24 hours) so that its
position appears stationary with respect to a ground station. The mass of the earth is
me = 5.98 × 1024 kg . The mean radius of the earth is Re = 6.37 × 106 m . The universal
constant of gravitation is G = 6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg −2 . What is the radius of the orbit of a
geostationary satellite? Approximately how many earth radii is this distance?
Solution: The satellite’s motion can be modeled as uniform circular motion. The
gravitational force between the earth and the satellite keeps the satellite moving in a
circle (In Figure 9.4, the orbit is close to a scale drawing of the orbit). The acceleration of
the satellite is directed towards the center of the circle, that is, along the radially inward
direction.
Figure 9.4 Geostationary satellite orbit (close to a scale drawing of orbit).
Choose the origin at the center of the earth, and the unit vector r̂ along the radial
direction. This choice of coordinates makes sense in this problem since the direction of
acceleration is along the radial direction.
9-6
 
Let r be the position vector of the satellite. The magnitude of r (we denote it as rs ) is
the distance of the satellite from the center of the earth, and hence the radius of its
circular orbit. Let ω be the angular velocity of the satellite, and the period is T = 2π / ω .
The acceleration is directed inward, with magnitude rsω 2 ; in vector form,

a = −rsω 2ˆr . (9.3.1)
Apply Newton’s Second Law to the satellite for the radial component. The only force in
this direction is the gravitational force due to the Earth,

Fgrav = −msω 2 rs rˆ . (9.3.2)
The inward radial force on the satellite is the gravitational attraction of the earth,
ms me
−G rˆ = −msω 2 rs rˆ . (9.3.3)
rs 2
Equating the r̂ components,
ms me
G 2
= msω 2 rs . (9.3.4)
rs
Solving for the radius of orbit of the satellite rs ,
1/ 3
⎛Gm ⎞
rs = ⎜ 2 e ⎟ . (9.3.5)
⎝ ω ⎠
The period T of the satellite’s orbit in seconds is 86164 s and so the angular speed is
2π 2π
ω= = = 7.2921×10−5 s −1 . (9.3.6)
T 86164 s
Using the values of ω , G and me in Equation (9.3.5), we determine rs ,
rs = 4.22 ×107 m = 6.62 Re . (9.3.7)
Example 9.2 Double Star System
Consider a double star system under the influence of gravitational force between the
stars. Star 1 has mass m1 and star 2 has mass m2 . Assume that each star undergoes
uniform circular motion such that the stars are always a fixed distance s apart (rotating
counterclockwise in Figure 9.5). What is the period of the orbit?
9-7
Figure 9.5 Two stars undergoing circular orbits about each other
Solution: Because the distance between the two stars doesn’t change as they orbit about
each other, there is a central point where the lines connecting the two objects intersect as
the objects move, as can be seen in the figure above. (We will see later on in the course
that central point is the center of mass of the system.) Choose radial coordinates for each
star with origin at that central point. Let r̂1 be a unit vector at Star 1 pointing radially

away from the center of mass. The position of object 1 is then r1 = r1 r̂1 , where r1 is the
distance from the central point. Let r̂2 be a unit vector at Star 2 pointing radially away

from the center of mass. The position of object 2 is then r2 = r2 r̂2 , where r2 is the
distance from the central point. Because the distance between the two stars is fixed we
have that
s = r1 + r2 .
The coordinate system is shown in Figure 9.6
9-8
Figure 9.6 Coordinate system for double star orbits
The gravitational force on object 1 is then
 Gm1m2
F2,1 = − r̂1 .
s2
The gravitational force on object 2 is then
 Gm1m2
F1,2 = − r̂2 .
s2
The force diagrams on the two stars are shown in Figure 9.7.
Figure 9.7 Force diagrams on objects 1 and 2
Let ω denote the magnitude of the angular velocity of each star about the central point.
 
Then Newton’s Second Law, F1 = m 1 a1 , for Star 1 in the radial direction r̂1 is
m1 m2
−G 2
= −m1 r1 ω 2 .
s
We can solve this for r1 ,
m2
r1 = G .
ω 2s2
 
Newton’s Second Law, F2 = m 2 a 2 , for Star 2 in the radial direction r̂2 is
9-9
m1 m2
−G = −m2 r2 ω 2 .
s2
We can solve this for r2 ,
m1
r2 = G .
ω 2s2
Because s , the distance between the stars, is constant
m2 m (m + m )
s = r1 + r2 = G + G 21 2 = G 2 2 2 1
ω s
2 2
ω s ω s .
Thus the magnitude of the angular velocity is
12
⎛ (m + m ) ⎞
ω = ⎜G 2 3 1 ⎟ ,
⎝ s ⎠
and the period is then

12
2π ⎛ 4π 2 s3 ⎞
T= = . (9.3.8)
ω ⎜⎝ G(m2 + m1 ) ⎟⎠
Note that both masses appear in the above expression for the period unlike the expression
for Kepler’s Law for circular orbits. Eq. (9.2.7). The reason is that in the argument
leading up to Eq. (9.2.7), we assumed that m1 << m2 , this was equivalent to assuming that
the central point was located at the center of the Earth. If we used Eq. (9.3.8) instead we
would find that the orbital period for the circular motion of the Earth and moon about
each other is
4π 2 (3.82 × 108 m)3

T= = 2.33× 106 s ,
(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg −2 )(5.98 × 1024 kg +7.36 × 1022 kg)
which is 1.43 × 104 s = 0.17 d shorter than our previous calculation.
Example 9.3 Rotating Objects
Two objects 1 and 2 of mass m1 and m2 are whirling around a shaft with a constant
angular velocity ω . The first object is a distance d from the central axis, and the second
object is a distance 2d from the axis (Figure 9.8). You may ignore the mass of the strings
and neglect the effect of gravity. (a) What is the tension in the string between the inner
9-10
object and the outer object? (b) What is the tension in the string between the shaft and the
inner object?
Figure 9.8 Objects attached to a rotating shaft
Solution: We begin by drawing separate force diagrams, Figure 9.9a for object 1 and
Figure 9.9b for object 2.
(a) (b)
Figure 9.9 (a) and 9.9 (b) Free-body force diagrams for objects 1 and 2
 
Newton’s Second Law, F1 = m 1 a1 , for the inner object in the radial direction is
r̂ : T2 − T1 = −m1 d ω 2 .
 
Newton’s Second Law, F2 = m 2 a 2 , for the outer object in the radial direction is
r̂ : − T2 = −m2 2d ω 2 .
The tension in the string between the inner object and the outer object is therefore
T2 = m2 2d ω 2 .
9-11
Using this result for T2 in the force equation for the inner object yields
m2 2d ω 2 − T1 = −m1 d ω 2 ,
which can be solved for the tension in the string between the shaft and the inner object
T1 = d ω 2 (m1 + 2m2 ) .
Example 9.4 Tension in a Rope
A uniform rope of mass m and length L is attached to shaft that is rotating at constant
angular velocity ω . Find the tension in the rope as a function of distance from the shaft.
You may ignore the effect of gravitation.
Solution: Divide the rope into small pieces of length Δr , each of mass Δm = (m / L)Δr .
Consider the piece located a distance r from the shaft (Figure 9.10).
Figure 9.10 Small slice of rotating rope
The radial component of the force on that piece is the difference between the tensions
evaluated at the sides of the piece, Fr = T (r + Δr) − T (r) , (Figure 9.11).
Figure 9.11 Free-body force diagram on small slice of rope
The piece is accelerating inward with a radial component ar = −r ω 2 . Thus Newton’s

Second Law becomes
Fr = −Δmω 2 r
(9.3.9)
T (r + Δr) − T (r) = −(m / L)Δr rω 2 .
Denote the difference in the tension by ΔT = T (r + Δr) − T (r) . After dividing through by
Δr , Eq. (9.3.9) becomes
9-12
ΔT
= −(m / L) rω 2 . (9.3.10)
Δr
In the limit as Δr → 0 , Eq. (9.3.10) becomes a differential equation,
dT
= −(m / L)ω 2 r . (9.3.11)
dr
From this, we see immediately that the tension decreases with increasing radius. We
shall solve this equation by integration
r′=r
dT r
T (r) − T (L) = ∫ dr ′ ′ = −(mω ∫L r ′ dr ′
2
d r / L)
r′= L
= −(mω 2 / 2L)(r 2 − L2 ) (9.3.12)

= (mω 2 / 2L)(L2 − r 2 ).
We use the fact that the tension, in the ideal case, will vanish at the end of the rope,
r = L . Thus,
T (r) = (mω 2 / 2L)(L2 − r 2 ). (9.3.13)
This last expression shows the expected functional form, in that the tension is largest
closest to the shaft, and vanishes at the end of the rope.
Example 9.5 Object Sliding in a Circular Orbit on the Inside of a Cone
Consider an object of mass m that slides without friction on the inside of a cone moving
in a circular orbit with constant speed v0 . The cone makes an angle θ with respect to a
vertical axis. The axis of the cone is vertical and gravity is directed downwards. The apex
half-angle of the cone is θ as shown in Figure 9.12. Find the radius of the circular path
and the time it takes to complete one circular orbit in terms of the given quantities and g .
Figure 9.12 Object in a circular orbit on inside of a cone
9-13
Solution: Choose cylindrical coordinates as shown in the above figure. Choose unit
vectors r̂ pointing in the radial outward direction and k̂ pointing upwards. The force
diagram on the object is shown in Figure 9.13.
Figure 9.13 Free-body force diagram on object
The two forces acting on the object are the normal force of the wall on the object and the
gravitational force. Then Newton’s Second Law in the r̂ -direction becomes
−mv 2
− N cosθ =
r
and in the k̂ -direction becomes
N sin θ − m g = 0 .
These equations can be re-expressed as
v2
N cosθ = m
r
N sin θ = m g .
We can divide these two equations,
N sin θ mg
=
N cosθ mv 2 / r
yielding
rg
tan θ = .
v2
This can be solved for the radius,
v2
r = tan θ .
g
The centripetal force in this problem is the vector component of the contact force that is
pointing radially inwards,
Fcent = N cosθ = m g cot θ ,
9-14
where N sin θ = m g has been used to eliminate N in terms of m , g and θ . The radius
is independent of the mass because the component of the normal force in the vertical
direction must balance the gravitational force, and so the normal force is proportional to
the mass.
Example 9.6 Coin on a Rotating Turntable
A coin of mass m (which you may treat as a point object) lies on a turntable, exactly at
the rim, a distance R from the center. The turntable turns at constant angular speed ω
and the coin rides without slipping. Suppose the coefficient of static friction between the
turntable and the coin is given by µ . Let g be the gravitational constant. What is the
maximum angular speed ω max such that the coin does not slip?
Figure 9.14 Coin on Rotating Turntable
Solution: The coin undergoes circular motion at constant speed so it is accelerating

inward. The force inward is static friction and at the just slipping point it has reached its
maximum value. We can use Newton’s Second Law to find the maximum angular speed
ω max . We choose a polar coordinate system and the free-body force diagram is shown in
the figure below.
Figure 9.15 Free-body force diagram on coin
The contact force is given by

  
C = N + fs = N k̂ − fsr̂ . (9.3.14)
The gravitational force is given by


Fgrav = −mgk̂ . (9.3.15)
Newton’s Second Law in the radial direction is given by
9-15
− fs = −m Rω 2 . (9.3.16)
Newton’s Second Law, Fz = maz , in the z-direction, noting that the disc is static hence
az = 0 , is given by
N − mg = 0 . (9.3.17)
Thus the normal force is
N = mg . (9.3.18)
As ω increases, the static friction increases in magnitude until at ω = ωmax and static
friction reaches its maximum value (noting Eq. (9.3.18)).
( fs ) max = µ N = µ mg . (9.3.19)
At this value the disc slips. Thus substituting this value for the maximum static friction
into Eq. (9.3.16) yields
µ mg = mRωmax 2
. (9.3.20)
We can now solve Eq. (9.3.20) for maximum angular speed ω max such that the coin does
not slip
µg
ωmax = . (9.3.21)
R
9-16
Appendix 9A The Gravitational Field of a Spherical Shell of
Matter
When analyzing gravitational interactions between uniform spherical bodies we assumed
we could treat each sphere as a point-like mass located at the center of the sphere and
then use the Universal Law of Gravitation to determine the force between the two point-
like objects. We shall now justify that assumption. For simplicity we only need to
consider the interaction between a spherical object and a point-like mass. We would like
to determine the gravitational force on the point-like object of mass m1 due to the
gravitational interaction with a solid uniform sphere of mass m2 and radius R . In order
to determine the force law we shall first consider the interaction between the point-like
object and a uniform spherical shell of mass ms and radius R . We will show that:
1) The gravitational force acting on a point-like object of mass m1 located a distance

r > R from the center of a uniform spherical shell of mass ms and radius R is the
same force that would arise if all the mass of the shell were placed at the center of
the shell.
2) The gravitational force on an object of mass m1 placed inside a spherical shell of

matter is zero.
The force law summarizes these results:
⎧ mm
 ⎪−G s 2 1 r̂, r>R
Fs,1 (r) = ⎨ r ,
⎪ 0, r<R
⎩
where r̂ is the unit vector located at the position of the object and pointing radially away
from the center of the shell.
For a uniform spherical distribution of matter, we can divide the sphere into thin shells.
Then the force between the point-like object and each shell is the same as if all the mass
of the shell were placed at the center of the shell. Then we add up all the contributions of
the shells (integration), the spherical distribution can be treated as point-like object
located at the center of the sphere justifying our assumption.
Thus it suffices to analyze the case of the spherical shell. We shall first divide the shell
into small area elements and calculate the gravitational force on the point-like object due
to one element of the shell and then add the forces due to all these elements via
integration.
9-17
We begin by choosing a coordinate system. Choose our z -axis to be directed from the

center of the sphere to the position of the object, at position r = z k̂ , so that z ≥ 0 .
(Figure 9A.1 shows the object lying outside the shell with z > R ).
Figure 9A.1 Object lying outside shell with z > R .
Choose spherical coordinates as shown in Figure 9A.2.
Figure 9A.2 Spherical coordinates
For a point on the surface of a sphere of radius r = R , the Cartesian coordinates are
related to the spherical coordinates by
x = Rsin θ cosφ ,
y = Rsin θ sin φ , (9.A.1)
z = Rcosθ ,
9-18
where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π .
Note that the angle θ in Figure 9A.2 and Equations (9.A.1) is not the same as that in
plane polar coordinates or cylindrical coordinates. The angle θ is known as the co-
latitude, the complement of the latitude. We now choose a small area element shown in
Figure 9A.3.
Figure 9A.3 Infinitesimal area element
The infinitesimal area element on the surface of the shell is given by
da = R 2 sin θ dθ dφ .
Then the mass dm contained in that element is
dm = σ da = σ R 2 sin θ dθ dφ .
where σ is the surface mass density given by
σ = ms / 4π R 2 .

The gravitational force Fdm, m on the object of mass m1 that lies outside the shell due to
1
the infinitesimal piece of the shell (with mass dm ) is shown in Figure 9A.4.
9-19
Figure 9A.4 Force on a point-like object due to piece of shell
The contribution from the piece with mass dm to the gravitational force on the object of
mass m1 that lies outside the shell has a component pointing in the negative k̂ -direction
and a component pointing radially away from the z -axis. By symmetry there is another
mass element with the same differential mass dm′ = dm on the other side of the shell
with same co-latitude θ but with φ replaced by φ ± π ; this replacement changes the sign
of x and y in Equations (9.A.1) but leaves z unchanged. This other mass element
produces a gravitational force that exactly cancels the radial component of the force
pointing away from the z -axis. Therefore the sum of the forces of these differential mass
elements on the object has only a component in the negative k̂ -direction (Figure 9A.5)
Figure 9A.5 Symmetric cancellation of components of force
9-20
Therefore we need only the z -component vector of the force due to the piece of the shell
on the point-like object.
Figure 9A.6 Geometry for calculating the force due to piece of shell.
From the geometry of the set-up (Figure 9A.6) we see that
 m dm
(dFs,1 ) z ≡ dFz k̂ = −G 1 2 cos α k̂ .
rs1
Thus
m1dm Gms m1 cos α sin θ dθ dφ
dFz = −G cos α = − . (9.A.2)
rs12 4π rs12
The integral of the force over the surface is then
θ = π φ = 2π θ = π φ = 2π
dmcos α Gms m1 cos α sin θ dθ dφ
Fz = −Gm1 ∫ ∫ 2
rs1
=−
4π θ ∫=0 ∫ rs12
. (9.A.3)
θ =0 φ =0 φ =0
The φ -integral is straightforward yielding
Gms m1 θ =π cos α sin θ dθ

2 θ∫=0
Fz = − . (9.A.4)
rs12
From Figure 9A.6 we can use the law of cosines in two different ways
9-21
rs12 = R 2 + z 2 − 2 R z cosθ
(9.A.5)
R 2 = z 2 + rs12 − 2 rs,1 z cos α .
Differentiating the first expression in (9.A.5), with R and z constant yields,
2 rs,1 drs,1 = 2 R z sin θ dθ . (9.A.6)

Hence
rs,1
sin θ dθ = drs,1 . (9.A.7)
Rz
and from the second expression in (9.A.5) we have that
1
cos α = ⎡(z 2 − R 2 ) + rs12 ⎤ . (9.A.8)
2 zrs,1 ⎣ ⎦
We now have everything we need in terms of rs,1 .
For the case when z > R , rs,1 varies from z − R to z + R . Substituting Equations (9.A.7)
and (9.A.8) into Eq. (9.A.3) and using the limits for the definite integral yields
Gms m1 θ =π cos α sin θ

2 θ∫=0 r 2 s,1
Fz = − dθ
r dr
=−
Gms m1 1 z+ R 1
∫
2 2 z z− R rs,1 ⎣ ( ⎦)
⎡ z 2 − R 2 + r 2 s,1 ⎤ 1 s,1 s,1
2
r s,1 R z
(9.A.9)
Gms m1 1 ⎡ 2 drs,1 ⎤
( )∫
z+ R z+ R
=− 2 ⎢
z − R2 2
+∫ drs,1 ⎥ .
2 2 R z ⎢⎣ z− R r s,1
z− R
⎥⎦
No tables should be needed for these; the result is
( )
z+ R
Gms m1 1 ⎡ z − R ⎤
2 2
Fz = − ⎢ − + rs,1
⎥
2 2 R z2 ⎢ rs,1 ⎥⎦
⎣ z− R
Gms m1 1
=− ⎡ − ( z − R ) + ( z + R ) + 2 R ⎤⎦ (9.A.10)
2 2 R z2 ⎣
Gms m1
=− .
z2
9-22
For the case when z < R , rs,1 varies from R − z to R + z . Then the integral is
( )
R+z
Gms m1 1 ⎡ z − R ⎤
2 2
Fz = − ⎢ − + rs,1 ⎥
2 2 R z2 ⎢ rs,1 ⎥⎦
⎣ R−z
Gms m1 1
=− ⎡ − ( z − R ) − ( z + R ) + 2 z ⎤⎦ (9.A.11)
2 2 R z2 ⎣
= 0.
So we have demonstrated the proposition that for a point-like object located on the z -
axis a distance z from the center of a spherical shell, the gravitational force on the point
like object is given by
⎧ mm
 ⎪−G s 2 1 k̂, z>R
Fs,1 (r) = ⎨ z .
⎪ 0, z<R
⎩
This proves the result that the gravitational force inside the shell is zero and the
gravitational force outside the shell is equivalent to putting all the mass at the center of
the shell.
9-23
Chapter 10 Momentum, System of Particles, and Conservation of
Momentum
10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

10.2 Momentum (Quantity of Motion) and Average Impulse .................................. 1
Example 10.1 Impulse for a Non-Constant Force .................................................. 3
10.3 External and Internal Forces and the Change in Momentum of a System ..... 4
10.4 System of Particles ................................................................................................ 5
10.5 Center of Mass ...................................................................................................... 6
Example 10.2 Center of Mass of the Earth-Moon System .................................... 7
Example 10.3 Center of Mass of a Rod ................................................................... 8
10.6 Translational Motion of the Center of Mass .................................................... 10
Example 10.4 Forces on a Baseball Bat ................................................................ 10
10.7 Constancy of Momentum and Isolated Systems .............................................. 11
10.8 Momentum Changes and Non-isolated Systems .............................................. 12
10.9 Worked Examples ............................................................................................... 12
10.9.1 Problem Solving Strategies ......................................................................... 12
Example 10.5 Exploding Projectile ....................................................................... 14
Example 10.6 Landing Plane and Sandbag .......................................................... 17
Chapter 10 Momentum, System of Particles, and Conservation
of Momentum
Law II: The change of motion is proportional to the motive force
impressed, and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force
is impressed.
If any force generates a motion, a double force will generate double the
motion, a triple force triple the motion, whether that force is impressed
altogether and at once or gradually and successively. And this motion
(being always directed the same way with the generating force), if the body
moved before, is added or subtracted from the former motion, according as
they directly conspire with or are directly contrary to each other; or
obliquely joined, when they are oblique, so as to produce a new motion
compounded from the determination of both. 1
Isaac Newton Principia

10.1 Introduction
When we apply a force to an object, through pushing, pulling, hitting or otherwise, we

are applying that force over a discrete interval of time, Δt . During this time interval, the
applied force may be constant, or it may vary in magnitude or direction. Forces may also
be applied continuously without interruption, such as the gravitational interaction
between the earth and the moon. In this chapter we will investigate the relationship
between forces and the time during which they are applied, and in the process learn about
the quantity of momentum, the principle of conservation of momentum, and its use in
solving a new set of problems involving systems of particles.
10.2 Momentum (Quantity of Motion) and Average Impulse

!
Consider a point-like object (particle) of mass m that is moving with velocity v with

respect to some fixed reference frame. The quantity of motion or the momentum, p , of
the object is defined to be the product of the mass and velocity
! !
p = mv . (10.2.1)
Momentum is a reference frame dependent vector quantity, with direction and magnitude.
The direction of momentum is the same as the direction of the velocity. The magnitude of
the momentum is the product of the mass and the instantaneous speed.
Units: In the SI system of units, momentum has units of [kg⋅ m⋅ s −1 ] . There is no special
name for this combination of units.
1
Isaac Newton. Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Translated by Andrew Motte (1729).
Revised by Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1934. p. 13.
10-1
!
During a time interval Δt , a non-uniform force F is applied to the particle. Because we
are assuming that the mass of the point-like object does not change, Newton’s Second
Law is then
! ! !
! dv d(mv)
F = ma = m = . (10.2.2)
dt dt
Because we are assuming that the mass of the point-like object does not change, the
Second Law can be written as
! dp!
F= . (10.2.3)
dt
The impulse of a force acting on a particle during a time interval [t,t + Δt] is defined as
the definite integral of the force from t to t + Δt ,
! t ′=t+Δt !
I = ∫ F(t ′ ) dt ′ . (10.2.4)
t ′ =t
The SI units of impulse are [N ⋅ m] = [kg⋅ m⋅s −1 ] which are the same units as the units of
momentum.
Apply Newton’s Second Law in Eq. (10.2.4) yielding
t ′ =t+Δt !
! !
p′ =p(t+Δt )
! t ′=t+Δt ! dp ! ! ! !
I = ∫ F(t ′ ) dt ′ = ∫ dt ′ = ∫ d p′ = p(t + Δt) − p(t) = Δp . (10.2.5)
t ′ =t t ′ =t
dt ′ ! !
p′ =p(t )
Eq. (10.2.5) represents the integral version of Newton’s Second Law: the impulse applied
by a force during the time interval [t,t + Δt] is equal to the change in momentum of the
particle during that time interval.
The average value of that force during the time interval Δt is given by the integral
expression
t ′ =t+Δt
! 1 !
Fave = ∫
Δt t ′=t
F(t ′ ) dt ′ . (10.2.6)
The product of the average force acting on an object and the time interval over which it is
applied is called the average impulse,
! !
Iave = Fave Δt . (10.2.7)
10-2
Multiply each side of Eq. (10.2.6) by Δt resulting in the statement that the average
impulse applied to a particle during the time interval [t,t + Δt] is equal to the change in
momentum of the particle during that time interval,
! !
Iave = Δp. (10.2.8)
Example 10.1 Impulse for a Non-Constant Force
Suppose you push an object for a time Δt = 1.0 s in the + x -direction. For the first half of
the interval, you push with a force that increases linearly with time according to
!
F(t) = bt î, 0 ≤ t ≤ 0.5s with b = 2.0 × 101 N ⋅s −1 . (10.2.9)
Then for the second half of the interval, you push with a linearly decreasing force,
!
F(t) = (d − bt) î, 0.5s ≤ t ≤ 1.0s with d = 2.0 × 101 N (10.2.10)
The force vs. time graph is shown in Figure 10.3. What is the impulse applied to the
object?
Figure 10.3 Graph of force vs. time
Solution: We can find the impulse by calculating the area under the force vs. time curve.
Since the force vs. time graph consists of two triangles, the area under the curve is easy to
calculate and is given by
 ⎡1 1 ⎤
I = ⎢ (bΔt / 2)(Δt / 2) + (bΔt / 2)(Δt / 2) ⎥ î
⎣2 2 ⎦ (10.2.11)
1 1
= b(Δt)2 î = (2.0 × 101 N ⋅s −1 )(1.0s)2 î = (5.0 N ⋅s)î.
4 4
10-3
10.3 External and Internal Forces and the Change in Momentum of a
System
So far we have restricted ourselves to considering how the momentum of an object

changes under the action of a force. For example, if we analyze in detail the forces acting
on the cart rolling down the inclined plane(Figure 10.4), we determine that there are
three forces acting on the cart: the force Fspring, cart the spring applies to the cart; the

gravitational interaction Fearth, cart between the cart and the earth; and the contact force

Fplane, cart between the inclined plane and the cart. If we define the cart as our system, then
everything else acts as the surroundings. We illustrate this division of system and
surroundings in Figure 10.4.
Figure 10.4 A diagram of a cart as a system and its surroundings
The forces acting on the cart are external forces. We refer to the vector sum of these
external forces that are applied to the system (the cart) as the external force,
   
Fext = Fspring, cart + Fearth, cart + Fplane, cart . (10.3.1)
Then Newton’s Second Law applied to the cart, in terms of impulse, is
 tf  
Δpsys = ∫ Fext dt ≡ Isys . (10.3.2)
t0
Let’s extend our system to two interacting objects, for example the cart and the spring.
The forces between the spring and cart are now internal forces. Both objects, the cart and
the spring, experience these internal forces, which by Newton’s Third Law are equal in
magnitude and applied in opposite directions. So when we sum up the internal forces for
the whole system, they cancel. Thus the sum of all the internal forces is always zero,
 
F int = 0. (10.3.3)
External forces are still acting on our system; the gravitational force, the contact force
between the inclined plane and the cart, and also a new external force, the force between
the spring and the force sensor. The force acting on the system is the sum of the internal
and the external forces. However, as we have shown, the internal forces cancel, so we
have that
10-4
   
F = Fext + F int = Fext . (10.3.4)
10.4 System of Particles

Suppose we have a system of N particles labeled by the index i = 1, 2, 3,  , N . The
force on the i th particle is
  j= N 
Fi = Fiext + ∑ Fi, j . (10.4.1)
j=1, j≠i

In this expression Fj,i is the force on the i th particle due to the interaction between the i th
and j th particles. We sum over all j particles with j ≠ i since a particle cannot exert a
 
force on itself (equivalently, we could define Fi , i = 0 ), yielding the internal force acting
on the i th particle,
 j= N 
Fiint = ∑ Fj,i . (10.4.2)
j=1, j≠i
The force acting on the system is the sum over all i particles of the force acting on each
particle,
 i= N  i= N  ext i= N j= N  
F = ∑ Fi = ∑ Fi + ∑ ∑ Fj,i = Fext . (10.4.3)
i=1 i=1 i=1 j=1, j≠i
Note that the double sum vanishes,

i= N j= N
 
∑ ∑ Fj,i = 0 , (10.4.4)
i=1 j =1, j ≠ i
because all internal forces cancel in pairs,

  
Fj,i + Fi, j = 0 . (10.4.5)
The force on the i th particle is equal to the rate of change in momentum of the i th
particle,
 d p i
Fi = . (10.4.6)
dt
When can now substitute Equation (10.4.6) into Equation (10.4.3) and determine that that
the external force is equal to the sum over all particles of the momentum change of each
particle,
 ext i= N d p i
F =∑ . (10.4.7)
i=1 dt
10-5
The momentum of the system is given by the sum
i= N
 
psys = ∑ p i ; (10.4.8)
i=1
momenta add as vectors. We conclude that the external force causes the momentum of
the system to change, and we thus restate and generalize Newton’s Second Law for a
system of objects as

 ext d psys
F = . (10.4.9)
dt
In terms of impulse, this becomes the statement
 tf  
Δpsys = ∫ Fext dt ≡ I. (10.4.10)
t0
10.5 Center of Mass
Consider two point-like particles with masses m1 and m2 . Choose a coordinate system
 
with a choice of origin such that body 1 has position r1 and body 2 has position r2
(Figure 10.5).
Figure 10.5 Center of mass coordinate system.


The center of mass vector, R cm , of the two-body system is defined as
  
m r + m2 r2
R cm = 1 1 . (10.5.1)
m1 + m2
We shall now extend the concept of the center of mass to more general systems. Suppose
we have a system of N particles labeled by the index i = 1, 2, 3, , N . Choose a

coordinate system and denote the position of the i th particle as ri . The mass of the system
is given by the sum
10-6
i= N
msys = ∑ mi (10.5.2)
i=1
and the position of the center of mass of the system of particles is given by
 1 i= N 
R cm = ∑m r .
msys i=1 i i
(10.5.3)
(For a continuous rigid body, each point-like particle has mass dm and is located at the

position r′ . The center of mass is then defined as an integral over the body,

 ∫ dm r′
R cm = body
. (10.5.4)
∫
body
dm
Example 10.2 Center of Mass of the Earth-Moon System
The mean distance from the center of the earth to the center of the moon is
rem = 3.84 ×108 m . The mass of the earth is me = 5.98 × 1024 kg and the mass of the moon
is mm = 7.34 ×1022 kg . The mean radius of the earth is re = 6.37 × 106 m . The mean radius
of the moon is rm = 1.74 ×106 m . Where is the location of the center of mass of the earth-
moon system? Is it inside the earth’s radius or outside?
Solution: The center of mass of the earth-moon system is defined to be
 1 i= N  1  
R cm = ∑ miri = (mere + mmrm ) . (10.5.5)
msys i=1 me + mm
Choose an origin at the center of the earth and a unit vector î pointing towards the moon,
 
then re = 0 . The center of mass of the earth-moon system is then
 
1   mm rem m r
R cm = (me re + mm rm ) = = m em î (10.5.6)
me + mm me + mm me + mm
 (7.34 ×1022 kg)(3.84 ×108 m) ˆ

R cm = i = 4.66 ×106 m î (10.5.7)
(5.98 ×10 kg + 7.34 ×10 kg)
24 22
The earth’s mean radius is re = 6.37 × 106 m so the center of mass of the earth-moon
system lies within the earth.
10-7
Example 10.3 Center of Mass of a Rod
A thin rod has length L and mass M .
=M/L (x) = 0
2
x2
M L M
L L
a) uniform rod b) non-uniform rod
Figure 10.6 a) Uniform rod and b) non-uniform rod
(a) Suppose the rod is uniform (Figure 10.6a). Find the position of the center of mass
with respect to the left end of the rod. (b) Now suppose the rod is not uniform (Figure
10.6b) with a linear mass density that varies with the distance x from the left end
according to
λ
λ (x) = 20 x 2 (10.5.8)
L
where λ0 is a constant and has SI units [kg ⋅ m -1 ] . Find λ0 and the position of the center
of mass with respect to the left end of the rod.
Solution: (a) Choose a coordinate system with the rod aligned along the x -axis and the
origin located at the left end of the rod. The center of mass of the rod can be found using
the definition given in Eq. (10.5.4). In that expression dm is an infinitesimal mass
element and r is the vector from the origin to the mass element dm (Figure 10.6c).
=M/L
x
+x
x=0 x=L
dm = dx
Figure 10.6c Infinitesimal mass element for rod
Choose an infinitesimal mass element dm located a distance x ′ from the origin. In this
problem x ′ will be the integration variable. Let the length of the mass element be dx ′ .
Then
dm = λ dx ′ (10.5.9)

The vector r = x′ î . The center of mass is found by integration
10-8
 1  1 x 1 2
R cm = ∫ r dm = ∫ x′dx′ î = x′
x′= L
î = 1 ( L2 − 0) î = L î . (10.5.10)
M body L x′=0 2L x′= 0 2L 2
(b) For a non-uniform rod (Figure 10.6d),
(x ) =
2
0
2
x
x L
+x
x=0 x=L
dm = (x ) dx
Figure 10.6d Non-uniform rod
the mass element is found using Eq. (10.5.8)
λ0 2
dm = λ ( x′)dx′ = λ = x′ dx′ . (10.5.11)
L2

The vector r = x′ î . The mass is found by integrating the mass element over the length of
the rod
x=L λ0 x = L 2 λ x′= L λ λ
M = ∫ dm = ∫ λ ( x′)dx′ = 2 ∫
x′ dx′ = 02 x′3 ′= = 02 ( L3 − 0) = 0 L . (10.5.12)
body x′ = 0 L x′ = 0 3L x 0 3L 3
Therefore
3M
λ0 = (10.5.13)
L
The center of mass is again found by integration
 1  3 x 3 x 3
R cm = ∫ r dm = ∫ λ ( x′ ) x′ dx′ î = 3 ∫ x′ dx′ î
M body λ0 L x′=0 L x′=0
(10.5.14)
 3 x′= L 3 3
R cm = 3 x′ 4 î = 3 (L4 − 0) î = L î.
4L x ′ =0 4L 4
.
10-9
10.6 Translational Motion of the Center of Mass
The velocity of the center of mass is found by differentiation,


 1 i= N  psys
Vcm = ∑m v = .
msys i=1 i i msys
(10.6.1)
The momentum is then expressed in terms of the velocity of the center of mass by
 
psys = msys Vcm . (10.6.2)
We have already determined that the external force is equal to the change of the
momentum of the system (Equation (10.4.9)). If we now substitute Equation (10.6.2) into
Equation (10.4.9), and continue with our assumption of constant masses mi , we have that
 
 ext d psys d Vcm 
F = = msys = msys A cm , (10.6.3)
dt dt
 
where A cm , the derivative with respect to time of Vcm , is the acceleration of the center of
mass. From Equation (10.6.3) we can conclude that in considering the linear motion of
the center of mass, the sum of the external forces may be regarded as acting at the center
of mass.
Example 10.4 Forces on a Baseball Bat
Suppose you push a baseball

! bat lying on a nearly frictionless table at the center of mass,
position 2, with a force F (Figure 10.7). Will the acceleration of the center of mass be
greater than, equal to, or less than if you push the bat with the same force at either end,
positions 1 and 3
1 2 3
cm
F F F
Figure 10.7 Forces acting on a baseball bat
Solution: The acceleration of the center of mass will be equal in the three cases. From
our previous discussion, (Equation (10.6.3)), the acceleration of the center of mass is
independent of where the force is applied. However, the bat undergoes a very different
motion if we apply the force at one end or at the center of mass. When we apply the force
10-10
at the center of mass all the particles in the baseball bat will undergo linear motion
(Figure 10.7a).
cm
F cm translates,
no rotation about cm
Figure 10.7a Force applied at center of mass
When we push the bat at one end, the particles that make up the baseball bat will no
longer undergo a linear motion even though the center of mass undergoes linear motion.
In fact, each particle will rotate about the center of mass of the bat while the center of
mass of the bat accelerates in the direction of the applied force (Figure 10.7b).
cm
F
cm translates and rotates
Figure 10.7b Force applied at end of bat
10.7 Constancy of Momentum and Isolated Systems
Suppose we now completely isolate our system from the surroundings. When the external
force acting on the system is zero,
 
Fext = 0 . (10.7.1)
the system is called an isolated system. For an isolated system, the change in the
momentum of the system is zero,
 
Δpsys = 0 (isolated system) , (10.7.2)
therefore the momentum of the isolated system is constant. The initial momentum of our
system is the sum of the initial momentum of the individual particles,
  
psys,i = m1v1,i + m2 v 2,i + ⋅⋅⋅ . (10.7.3)
The final momentum is the sum of the final momentum of the individual particles,
  
psys, f = m1v1, f + m2 v 2, f + ⋅⋅⋅ . (10.7.4)
Note that the right-hand-sides of Equations. (10.7.3) and (10.7.4) are vector sums.
10-11
When the external force on a system is zero, then the initial momentum of the
system equals the final momentum of the system,
 
psys,i = psys, f . (10.7.5)
10.8 Momentum Changes and Non-isolated Systems
Suppose the external force acting on the system is not zero,

 
Fext ≠ 0. (10.8.1)
and hence the system is not isolated. By Newton’s Third Law, the sum of the force on the
surroundings is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the external force acting
on the system,
 
Fsur = −Fext . (10.8.2)
It’s important to note that in Equation (10.8.2), all internal forces in the surroundings sum
to zero. Thus the sum of the external force acting on the system and the force acting on
the surroundings is zero,
  
Fsur + Fext = 0 . (10.8.3)

We have already found (Equation (10.4.9)) that the external force Fext acting on a system
is equal to the rate of change of the momentum of the system. Similarly, the force on the
surrounding is equal to the rate of change of the momentum of the surroundings.
Therefore the momentum of both the system and surroundings is always conserved.
For a system and all of the surroundings that undergo any change of state, the
change in the momentum of the system and its surroundings is zero,
  
Δpsys + Δpsur = 0. (10.8.4)
Equation (10.8.4) is referred to as the Principle of Conservation of Momentum.
10.9 Worked Examples

10.9.1 Problem Solving Strategies
When solving problems involving changing momentum in a system, we shall employ our
general problem solving strategy involving four basic steps:
1. Understand – get a conceptual grasp of the problem.

2. Devise a Plan - set up a procedure to obtain the desired solution.
3. Carry our your plan – solve the problem!
10-12
4. Look Back – check your solution and method of solution.
We shall develop a set of guiding ideas for the first two steps.
1. Understand – get a conceptual grasp of the problem
The first question you should ask is whether or not momentum is constant in some
system that is changing its state after undergoing an interaction. First you must identify
the objects that compose the system and how they are changing their state due to the
interaction. As a guide, try to determine which objects change their momentum in the
course of interaction. You must keep track of the momentum of these objects before and
after any interaction. Second, momentum is a vector quantity so the question of whether
momentum is constant or not must be answered in each relevant direction. In order to
determine this, there are two important considerations. You should identify any external
forces acting on the system. Remember that a non-zero external force will cause the
momentum of the system to change, (Equation (10.4.9) above),

 ext d psys
F = . (10.9.1)
dt
Equation (10.9.1) is a vector equation; if the external force in some direction is zero, then
the change of momentum in that direction is zero. In some cases, external forces may act
but the time interval during which the interaction takes place is so small that the impulse
is small in magnitude compared to the momentum and might be negligible. Recall that
the average external impulse changes the momentum of the system
  ext 
I = F Δtint = Δpsys . (10.9.2)
 
If the interaction time is small enough, the momentum of the system is constant, Δp → 0 .
If the momentum is not constant then you must apply either Equation (10.9.1) or
Equation (10.9.2). If the momentum of the system is constant, then you can apply
Equation (10.7.5),
 
psys, i = psys, f . (10.9.3)
If there is no net external force in some direction, for example the x -direction, the
component of momentum is constant in that direction, and you must apply
psys, x,i = psys, x, f (10.9.4)
2. Devise a Plan - set up a procedure to obtain the desired solution
Draw diagrams of all the elements of your system for the two states immediately before
and after the system changes its state. Choose symbols to identify each mass and velocity
in the system. Identify a set of positive directions and unit vectors for each state. Choose
10-13
your symbols to correspond to the state and motion (this facilitates an easy interpretation,
for example (vx,i )1 represents the x -component of the velocity of object 1 in the initial
state and (vx, f )1 represents the x -component of the velocity of object 1 in the final state).
Decide whether you are using components or magnitudes for your velocity symbols.
Since momentum is a vector quantity, identify the initial and final vector components of
the momentum. We shall refer to these diagrams as momentum flow diagrams. Based on
your model you can now write expressions for the initial and final momentum of your
system. As an example in which two objects are moving only in the x -direction, the
initial x -component of the momentum is
psys, x,i = m1 (vx,i )1 + m2 (vx,i )2 + . (10.9.5)
The final x -component of the momentum is
psys, x, f = m1 (vx, f )1 + m2 (vx, f )2 + . (10.9.6)
If the x -component of the momentum is constant then
psys, x,i = psys, x, f . (10.9.7)
We can now substitute Equations (10.9.5) and (10.9.6) into Equation (10.9.7), yielding
m1 (vx,i )1 + m2 (vx,i )2 + = m1 (vx, f )1 + m2 (vx, f )2 + . (10.9.8)
Equation (10.9.8) can now be used for any further analysis required by a particular
problem. For example, you may have enough information to calculate the final velocities
of the objects after the interaction. If so then carry out your plan and check your solution,
especially dimensions or units and any relevant vector directions.
Example 10.5 Exploding Projectile
An instrument-carrying projectile of mass m1 accidentally explodes at the top of its

trajectory. The horizontal distance between launch point and the explosion is xi . The
projectile breaks into two pieces that fly apart horizontally. The larger piece, m3 , has
three times the mass of the smaller piece, m2 . To the surprise of the scientist in charge,
the smaller piece returns to earth at the launching station. Neglect air resistance and
effects due to the earth’s curvature. How far away, x3, f , from the original launching point
does the larger piece land?
10-14
v1
m1 parabolic orbit
î
x=0 xi
v2 v3
m2 m3
x=0 xi
x=0 xi x3, f
Figure 10.8 Exploding projectile trajectories
Solution: We can solve this problem two different ways. The easiest approach is utilizes
the fact that the external force is the gravitational force and therefore the center of mass
of the system follows a parabolic trajectory. From the information given in the problem
m2 = m1 / 4 and m3 = 3m1 / 4 . Thus when the two objects return to the ground the center
of mass of the system has traveled a distance Rcm = 2xi . We now use the definition of
center of mass to find where the object with the greater mass hits the ground. Choose an
origin at the starting point. The center of mass of the system is given by
  
m r + m3r3
R cm = 2 2 .
m2 + m3
!
So when the objects hit the ground R cm = 2xi î , the object with the smaller mass returns
  !
to the origin, r2 = 0 , and the position vector of the other object is r3 = x3, f î . So using
the definition of the center of mass,
(3m1 / 4)x3, f î (3m1 / 4)x3, f î 3

2xi î = = = x î .
m1 / 4 + 3m1 / 4 m1 4 3, f
Therefore
8
x3, f = xi .
3
10-15
Note that the neither the vertical height above ground nor the gravitational acceleration g
entered into our solution.
Alternatively, we can use conservation of momentum and kinematics to find the distance
traveled. Because the smaller piece returns to the starting point after the collision, the
velocity of the smaller piece immediately after the explosion is equal to the negative of
the velocity of original object immediately before the explosion. Because the collision is
instantaneous, the horizontal component of the momentum is constant during the
collision. We can use this to determine the speed of the larger piece after the collision.
The larger piece takes the same amount of time to return to the ground as the projectile
originally takes to reach the top of the flight. We can therefore determine how far the
larger piece traveled horizontally.
We begin by identifying various states in the problem.
Initial state, time t0 = 0 : the projectile is launched.
State 1 time t1 : the projectile is at the top of its flight trajectory immediately before the
!
explosion. The mass is m1 and the velocity of the projectile is v1 = v1î .
State 2 time t2 : immediately after the explosion, the projectile has broken into two
pieces, one of mass m2 moving backwards (in the negative x -direction) with velocity
! !
v 2 = − v1 . The other piece of mass m3 is moving in the positive x -direction with velocity
!
v 3 = v3î , (Figure 10.8).
State 3: the two pieces strike the ground at time t f = 2t1 , one at the original launch site
and the other at a distance x3, f from the launch site, as indicated in Figure 10.8. The
pieces take the same amount of time to reach the ground Δt = t1 because both pieces are
falling from the same height as the original piece reached at time t1 , and each has no
component of velocity in the vertical direction immediately after the explosion. The
momentum flow diagram with state 1 as the initial state and state 2 as the final state are
shown in the upper two diagrams in Figure 10.8.
The initial momentum at time t1 immediately before the explosion is
! !
p sys (t1 ) = m1 v1 . (10.9.9)
The momentum at time t2 immediately after the explosion is
10-16
! ! ! 1 ! 3 !
p sys (t2 ) = m2 v 2 + m3 v 3 = − m1v1 + m1v 3 (10.9.10)
4 4
During the duration of the instantaneous explosion, impulse due to the external
gravitational force may be neglected and therefore the momentum of the system is
constant. In the horizontal direction, we have that
! 1 ! 3 !
m1 v1 = − m1v1 + m1v 3 . (10.9.11)
4 4
Equation (10.9.11) can now be solved for the velocity of the larger piece immediately
after the collision,
! 5!
v 3 = v1 . (10.9.12)
3
The larger piece travels a distance
5 5
x3, f = v3 t1 = v1 t1 = xi . (10.9.13)
3 3
Therefore the total distance the larger piece traveled from the launching station is
5 8
x f = xi + xi = xi , (10.9.14)
3 3
in agreement with our previous approach.
Example 10.6 Landing Plane and Sandbag
Figure 10.9 Plane and sandbag
A light plane of mass 1000 kg makes an emergency landing on a short runway. With its
engine off, it lands on the runway at a speed of 40 m ⋅ s -1 . A hook on the plane snags a
cable attached to a 120 kg sandbag and drags the sandbag along. If the coefficient of
friction between the sandbag and the runway is µk = 0.4 , and if the plane’s brakes give
an additional retarding force of magnitude 1400 N , how far does the plane go before it
comes to a stop?
10-17
Solution: We shall assume that when the plane snags the sandbag, the collision is
instantaneous so the momentum in the horizontal direction remains constant,
px,i = px,1 . (10.9.15)
We then know the speed of the plane and the sandbag immediately after the collision.
After the collision, there are two external forces acting on the system of the plane and
sandbag, the friction between the sandbag and the ground and the braking force of the
runway on the plane. So we can use the Newton’s Second Law to determine the
acceleration and then one-dimensional kinematics to find the distance the plane traveled
since we can determine the change in kinetic energy.
The momentum of the plane immediately before the collision is


p i = mp v p,i î (10.9.16)
The momentum of the plane and sandbag immediately after the collision is

p1 = (mp + ms )v p,1 î (10.9.17)
Because the x - component of the momentum is constant, we can substitute Eqs.

(10.9.16) and (10.9.17) into Eq. (10.9.15) yielding
mp v p,i = (mp + ms )v p,1 . (10.9.18)
The speed of the plane and sandbag immediately after the collision is
mp v p,i
v p,1 = (10.9.19)
mp + ms
The forces acting on the system consisting of the plane and the sandbag are the normal
force on the sandbag,

N g ,s = N g ,s ĵ , (10.9.20)
the frictional force between the sandbag and the ground


fk = − f k î = − µ k N g ,s î , (10.9.21)
the braking force on the plane

Fg , p = − Fg , p î , (10.9.22)
and the gravitational force on the system,
10-18

(mp + ms )g = −(mp + ms )gĵ . (10.9.23)
Newton’s Second Law in the î -direction becomes
− Fg , p − f k = (mp + ms )ax . (10.9.24)
If we just look at the vertical forces on the sandbag alone then Newton’s Second Law in
the ĵ -direction becomes
N − ms g = 0 .
The frictional force on the sandbag is then


fk = − µ k N g ,s î = − µ k ms gî . (10.9.25)
Newton’s Second Law in the î -direction becomes
− Fg , p − µ k ms g = (mp + ms )ax .
The x -component of the acceleration of the plane and the sand bag is then
− Fg , p − µ k ms g
ax = (10.9.26)
mp + ms
We choose our origin at the location of the plane immediately after the collision,
x p (0) = 0 . Set t = 0 immediately after the collision. The x -component of the velocity of
the plane immediately after the collision is vx,0 = v p,1 . Set t = t f when the plane just
comes to a stop. Because the acceleration is constant, the kinematic equations for the
change in velocity is
vx, f (t f ) − v p,1 = ax t f .
We can solve this equation for t = t f , where vx, f (t f ) = 0
t f = −v p,1 / ax t .
Then the position of the plane when it first comes to rest is
2
1 2 1 v p,1
x p (t f ) − x p (0) = v p,1t f + ax t f = − . (10.9.27)
2 2 ax
10-19
Then using x p (0) = 0 and substituting Eq. (10.9.26) into Eq. (10.9.27) yields
1 (mp + ms )v p,1
2
x p (t f ) = . (10.9.28)
2 (Fg , p + µ k ms g)
We now use the condition from conservation of the momentum law during the collision,
Eq. (10.9.19) in Eq. (10.9.28) yielding
m2pv 2p,i
x p (t f ) = . (10.9.29)
2(mp + ms )(Fg , p + µ k ms g)
Substituting the given values into Eq. (10.9.28) yields
(1000 kg)2 (40 m ⋅ s-1 )2

x p (t f ) = = 3.8 × 102 m . (10.9.30)
2(1000 kg + 120 kg)(1400 N + (0.4)(120 kg)(9.8m ⋅ s ))
-2
10-20
Chapter 11 Reference Frames
11.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

11.2 Galilean Coordinate Transformations ................................................................ 1
11.2.1 Relatively Inertial Reference Frames and the Principle of Relativity ...... 2
11.3 Law of Addition of Velocities: Newtonian Mechanics ....................................... 3
11.4 Worked Examples ................................................................................................. 3
Example 11.1 Relative Velocities of Two Moving Planes ...................................... 3
Example 11.2 Relative Motion and Polar Coordinates ......................................... 5
Example 11.3 Recoil in Different Frames ............................................................... 7
Chapter 11 Reference Frames
Examples of this sort, together with the unsuccessful attempts to discover any
motion of the earth relatively to the “light medium” suggest that the phenomena
of electromagnetism as well as mechanics possess no properties corresponding to
the idea of absolute rest. They suggest rather that, …, the same laws of
electrodynamics and optics will be valid for all frames of reference for which the
equations of mechanics hold good. We will raise this conjecture (the purport of
which will hereafter be called the “Principle of Relativity”) to the status of a
postulate, and also introduce another postulate, …, namely that light is always
propagated in empty space with a definite velocity c, which is independent of the
state of motion of the emitting body. 1
Albert Einstein
11.1 Introduction
In order to describe physical events that occur in space and time such as the motion of
bodies, we introduced a coordinate system. Its spatial and temporal coordinates can now
specify a space-time event. In particular, the position of a moving body can be described
by space-time events specified by its space-time coordinates. You can place an observer
at the origin of coordinate system. The coordinate system with your observer acts as a
reference frame for describing the position, velocity, and acceleration of bodies. The
position vector of the body depends on the choice of origin (location of your observer)
but the displacement, velocity, and acceleration vectors are independent of the location of
the observer.
You can always choose a second reference frame that is moving with respect to
the first reference frame. Then the position, velocity and acceleration of bodies as seen by
the different observers do depend on the relative motion of the two reference frames. The
relative motion can be described in terms of the relative position, velocity, and
acceleration of the observer at the origin, O , in reference frame S with respect to a
second observer located at the origin, O′ , in reference frame S ′ .
11.2 Galilean Coordinate Transformations


Let the vector R point from the origin of frame S to the origin of reference
frame S ′ . Suppose an object is located at a point 1. Denote the position vector of the

object with respect to origin of reference frame S by r . Denote the position vector of the

object with respect to origin of reference frame S ′ by r′ (Figure 11.1).
1 A. Einstein, Zur Elektrodynamik begetter Körper, (On the Electrodynamics of Moving
Bodies), Ann. Physik, 17, 891 (1905); translated by W. Perrett and G.B. Jeffrey,
19223, in The Principle of Relativity, Dover, New York.
11-1
path of moving object in referenece frame S
r r
R
S
S
Figure 11.1 Two reference frames S and S ′ .
The position vectors are related by

! ! !
r′ = r − R (11.2.1)
These coordinate transformations are called the Galilean Coordinate

Transformations. They enable the observer in frame S to predict the position vector in
frame S ′ , based only on the position vector in frame S and the relative position of the
origins of the two frames.
The relative velocity between the two reference frames is given by the time

derivative of the vector R , defined as the limit as of the displacement of the two origins
divided by an interval of time, as the interval of time becomes infinitesimally small,
 
V = dR . (11.2.2)
dt
11.2.1 Relatively Inertial Reference Frames and the Principle of Relativity
If the relative velocity between the two reference frames is constant, then the relative
acceleration between the two reference frames is zero,
 dV 
A= = 0. (11.2.3)
dt
When two reference frames are moving with a constant velocity relative to each other as
above, the reference frames are called relatively inertial reference frames.
We can reinterpret Newton’s First Law
Law 1: Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right
line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.
as the Principle of Relativity:
11-2
In relatively inertial reference frames, if there is no net force impressed on an
object at rest in frame S, then there is also no net force impressed on the object in
frame S ′ .
11.3 Law of Addition of Velocities: Newtonian Mechanics
Suppose the object in Figure 11.1 is moving; then observers in different reference
frames will measure different velocities. Denote the velocity of the object in frame S by
   
v = dr dt , and the velocity of the object in frame S ′ by v′ = dr′ dt ′ . Since the derivative
of the position is velocity, the velocities of the object in two different reference frames
are related according to 
 
dr′ dr dR
= − , (11.3.1)
dt ′ dt dt
 
v ′ = v − V. (11.3.2)
This is called the Law of Addition of Velocities.

Example 11.1 Relative Velocities of Two Moving Planes
An airplane A is traveling northeast with a speed of vA = 160 m ⋅ s-1 . A second airplane

B is traveling southeast with a speed of vB = 200 m ⋅ s-1 . (a) Choose a coordinate system
 
and write down an expression for the velocity of each airplane as vectors, v A and v B .
 
Carefully use unit vectors to express your answer. (b) Sketch the vectors v A and v B on
your coordinate system. (c) Find a vector expression that expresses the velocity of aircraft
A as seen from an observer flying in aircraft B. Calculate this vector. What is its
magnitude and direction? Sketch it on your coordinate system.
Solution: From the information given in the problem we draw the velocity vectors of the
airplanes as shown in Figure 11.2a.
(a) (b)
Figure 11.2 (a): Motion of two planes Figure 11.2 (b): Coordinate System
11-3
An observer at rest with respect to the ground defines a reference frame S . Choose a
coordinate system shown in Figure 11.2b. According to this observer, airplane A is

moving with velocity v A = vA cosθ A î + vA sin θ A ĵ , and airplane B is moving with

velocity v B = vB cosθ B î + vB sin θ B ĵ . According to the information given in the problem
airplane A flies northeast so θ A = π / 4 and airplane B flies southeast east so θ B = −π / 4 .
 
Thus v A = (80 2 m ⋅ s-1 ) î + (80 2 m ⋅ s-1 ) ĵ and v B = (100 2 m ⋅ s-1 ) î − (100 2 m ⋅ s-1 ) ĵ
Consider a second observer moving along with airplane B, defining reference frame S ′ .
What is the velocity of airplane A according to this observer moving in airplane B ? The
velocity of the observer moving along in airplane B with respect to an observer at rest on
the ground is just the velocity of airplane B and is given by
 
V = v B = vB cosθ B î + vB sin θ B ĵ . Using the Law of Addition of Velocities, Equation
(11.3.2), the velocity of airplane A with respect to an observer moving along with
Airplane B is given by
  
v ′A = v A − V = (vA cosθ A î + vA sin θ A ĵ) − (vB cosθ B î + vB sin θ B ĵ)
= (vA cosθ A − vB cosθ B ) î + (vA sin θ A − vB sin θ B ) ĵ
= ((80 2 m ⋅ s-1 ) − (100 2 m ⋅ s-1 )) î + ((80 2 m ⋅ s-1 ) + (100 2 m ⋅ s-1 )) ĵ . (11.4.1)
= −(20 2 m ⋅ s ) î + (180 2 m ⋅ s ) ĵ
-1 -1
= v ′Ax î + v ′Ay ĵ
Figure 11.3 shows the velocity of airplane A with respect to airplane B in reference frame
S′ .
Figure 11.3 Airplane A as seen from observer in airplane B
The magnitude of velocity of airplane A as seen by an observer moving with airplane B

is given by
11-4

vA′ = ( v ′Ax 2 + v ′Ay 2 )1/ 2 = ((−20 2 m ⋅ s-1 )2 + (180 2 m ⋅ s-1 )2 )1/ 2 = 256 m ⋅ s-1 . (11.4.2)
The angle of velocity of airplane A as seen by an observer moving with airplane B is

given by,
θ ′A = tan −1 ( v ′Ay / v ′Ax ) = tan −1 ((180 2 m ⋅ s-1 ) / (−20 2 m ⋅ s-1 ))

. (11.4.3)
= tan −1 (−9) = 180 − 83.7 = 96.3
Example 11.2 Relative Motion and Polar Coordinates
By relative velocity we mean velocity with respect to a specified coordinate system. (The
term velocity, alone, is understood to be relative to the observer’s coordinate system.) (a)

A point is observed to have velocity v A relative to coordinate system A . What is its
 relative to coordinate system B , which is displaced from system A by distance
velocity

R ? ( R can change in time.) (b) Particles a and b move in opposite directions around a
circle with the magnitude of the angular velocity ω , as shown in Figure 11.4. At t = 0

they are both at the point r = lĵ , where l is the radius of the circle. Find the velocity of
a relative to b .
Figure 11.5 Particles a and b

Figure 11.4 Particles a and b moving relative to each other
moving relative to each other
11-5
Solution: (a) The position vectors are related by
  
rB = rA − R . (11.4.4)
The velocities are related by the taking derivatives, (law of addition of velocities Eq.
(11.3.2)) 
 
vB = vA − V . (11.4.5)
(b) Let’s choose two reference frames; frame B is centered at particle b, and frame A is
centered at the center of the circle in Figure 11.5. Then the relative position vector
between the origins of the two frames is given by

R = l r̂ . (11.4.6)
The position vector of particle a relative to frame A is given by


rA = l rˆ ′ . (11.4.7)
The position vector of particle b in frame B can be found by substituting Eqs. (11.4.7)
and (11.4.6) into Eq. (11.4.4), 
 
rB = rA − R = l rˆ ′ − l r̂ . (11.4.8)
We can decompose each of the unit vectors r̂ and rˆ ′ with respect to the Cartesian unit
vectors î and ĵ (see Figure 11.5),
r̂ = − sin θ î + cosθ ĵ (11.4.9)

rˆ ′ = sin θ î + cosθ ĵ . (11.4.10)
Then Eq. (11.4.8) giving the position vector of particle b in frame B becomes

rB = l rˆ ′ − l r̂ = l (sin θ î + cosθ ĵ) − l (− sin θ î + cosθ ĵ) = 2l sin θ î . (11.4.11)
In order to find the velocity vector of particle a in frame B (i.e. with respect to particle b),
differentiate Eq. (11.4.11)
 d dθ
v B = (2l sin θ ) î = (2l cosθ ) î = 2ω l cosθ î . (11.4.12)
dt dt
11-6
Example 11.3 Recoil in Different Frames
A person of mass m1 is standing on a cart of mass m2 . Assume that the cart is free to
move on its wheels without friction. The person throws a ball of mass m3 at an angle of
θ with respect to the horizontal as measured by the person in the cart. The ball is thrown
with a speed v0 with respect to the cart (Figure 11.6). (a) What is the final velocity of the
ball as seen by an observer fixed to the ground? (b) What is the final velocity of the cart
as seen by an observer fixed to the ground? (c) With respect to the horizontal, what angle
the fixed observer see the ball leave the cart?
Figure 11.6 Recoil of a person on cart due to thrown ball
Solution: a), b) Our reference frame will be that fixed to the ground. We shall take as our
initial state that before the ball is thrown (cart, ball, throwing person stationary) and our
final state that after the ball is thrown. We are assuming that there is no friction, and so
there are no external forces acting in the horizontal direction. The initial x -component of
the total momentum is zero,
total
px,0 =0. (11.4.13)
After the ball is thrown, the cart and person have a final momentum

p f ,cart = −(m2 + m1 )v f ,cart î (11.4.14)
as measured by the person on the ground, where v f ,cart is the speed of the person and cart.
(The person’s center of mass will move with respect to the cart while the ball is being
thrown, but since we’re interested in velocities, not positions, we need only assume that
the person is at rest with respect to the cart after the ball is thrown.)
The ball is thrown with a speed v0 and at an angle θ with respect to the horizontal as
measured by the person in the cart. Therefore the person in the cart throws the ball with
velocity

v′f , ball = v0 cosθ î + v0 sin θ ˆj . (11.4.15).
11-7
Because the cart is moving in the negative x -direction with speed v f ,cart just as the ball
leaves the person’s hand, the x -component of the velocity of the ball as measured by an
observer on the ground is given by
vxf , ball = v0 cosθ − v f , cart . (11.4.16)
The ball appears to have a smaller x -component of the velocity according to the observer
on the ground. The velocity of the ball as measured by an observer on the ground is

v f , ball = (v0 cosθ − v f , cart ) î + v0 sin θ ĵ . (11.4.17)
The final momentum of the ball according to an observer on the ground is

p f , ball = m3 ⎡⎣(v0 cosθ − v f , cart ) î + v0 sin θ ĵ⎤⎦ . (11.4.18)
The momentum flow diagram is shown in (Figure 11.7).
Figure 11.7 Momentum flow diagram for recoil
Because the x -component of the momentum of the system is constant, we have that
0 = ( px, f )cart + ( px, f ) ball

(11.4.19)
= −(m2 + m1 )v f , cart + m3 (v0 cosθ − v f , cart ).
We can solve Equation (11.4.19) for the final speed and velocity of the cart as measured
by an observer on the ground,
m v cosθ
v f ,cart = 3 0 , (11.4.20)
m2 + m1 + m3
 m v cosθ ˆ
v f , cart = v f , cart î = 3 0 i. (11.4.21)
m2 + m1 + m3
11-8
Note that the y -component of the momentum is not constant because as the person is
throwing the ball he or she is pushing off the cart and the normal force with the ground
exceeds the gravitational force so the net external force in the y -direction is non-zero.
Substituting Equation (11.4.20) into Equation (11.4.17) gives

v f ,ball = (v0 cosθ − v f ,cart ) î + v0 sin θ ĵ
m1 + m2 (11.4.22)
= (v cosθ ) î + (v0 sin θ ) ĵ.
m1 + m2 + m3 0

As a check, note that in the limit m3 << m1 + m2 , v f , ball has speed v0 and is directed at an
angle θ above the horizontal; the fact that the much more massive person-cart
combination is free to move doesn’t affect the flight of the ball as seen by the fixed
observer. Also note that in the unrealistic limit m >> m1 + m2 the ball is moving at a
speed much smaller than v0 as it leaves the cart.
c) The angle φ at which the ball is thrown as seen by the observer on the ground is given
by
(v ) v0 sin θ
φ = tan −1 f ,ball y = tan −1
(v f ,ball ) x ⎡⎣(m1 + m2 ) / (m1 + m2 + m3 ) ⎤⎦ v0 cosθ
(11.4.23)
−1
⎡ ⎛ m1 + m2 + m3 ⎞ ⎤
= tan ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ tan θ ⎥ .
⎢⎣ ⎝ m1 + m2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
For arbitrary values for the masses, the above expression will not reduce to a simplified
form. However, we can see that tan φ > tan θ for arbitrary masses, and that in the limit
m3 << m1 + m2 , φ → θ and in the unrealistic limit m3 >> m1 + m2 , φ → π / 2 . Can you
explain this last odd prediction?
11-9
Chapter 12 Momentum and the Flow of Mass
Preface: The Challenger Flight .................................................................................... 1

12.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 2
12.1.1 Transfer of Material into an Object, but no Transfer of Momentum ...... 3
12.1.2 Transfer of Material Out of an Object, but no Transfer of Momentum .. 3
12.1.3 Transfer of Material Impulses Object Via Transfer of Momentum ......... 4
12.1.4 Material Continually Ejected From Object results in Recoil of Object ... 4
12.2 Worked Examples ................................................................................................. 5
Example 12.1 Filling a Coal Car .............................................................................. 5
Example 12.2 Emptying a Freight Car ................................................................... 6
Example 12.3 Filling a Freight Car ......................................................................... 9
Example 12.4 Boat and Fire Hose ......................................................................... 12
12.3 Rocket Propulsion ............................................................................................... 18
12.3.1 Rocket Equation in Gravity-free Space ..................................................... 21
Example 12.4 Single-Stage Rocket ........................................................................ 23
Example 12.5 Two-Stage Rocket ........................................................................... 23
12.3.2 Rocket in a Constant Gravitational Field:................................................. 24
Chapter 12 Momentum and the Flow of Mass
Even though the release was pulled, the rocket did not rise at first, but the
flame came out, and there was a steady roar. After a number of seconds it
rose, slowly until it cleared the flame, and then at express-train speed,
curving over to the left, and striking the ice and snow, still going at a
rapid rate. It looked almost magical as it rose, without any appreciably
greater noise or flame, as if it said, “I've been here long enough; I think
I'll be going somewhere else, if you don't mind.” 1
Robert Goddard
Preface: The Challenger Flight
When the Rogers Commission in 1986 investigated the Challenger disaster, a

commission member, physicist Richard Feynman, made an extraordinary demonstration
during the hearings.
“He (Feynman) also learned that rubber used to seal the solid rocket booster joints using
O-rings, failed to expand when the temperature was at or below 32 degrees F (0 degrees
C). The temperature at the time of the Challenger liftoff was 32 degrees F. Feynman
now believed that he had the solution, but to test it, he dropped a piece of the O-ring
material, squeezed with a C-clamp to simulate the actual conditions of the shuttle, into a
glass of ice water. Ice, of course, is 32 degrees F. At this point one needs to understand
exactly what role the O-rings play in the solid rocket booster (SRB) joints. When the
material in the SRB start to heat up, it expands and pushes against the sides of the SRB.
If there is an opening in a joint in the SRB, the gas tries to escape through that opening
(think of it like water in a tea kettle escaping through the spout.) This leak in the
Challenger's SRB was easily visible as a small flicker in a launch photo. This flicker
turned into a flame and began heating the fuel tank, which then ruptured. When this
happened, the fuel tank released liquid hydrogen into the atmosphere where it exploded.
As Feynman explained, because the O-rings cannot expand in 32 degree weather, the gas
finds gaps in the joints, which led to the explosion of the booster and then the shuttle
itself.”2
In the Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident
(1986), Appendix F - Personal observations on the reliability of the Shuttle, Feynman
wrote
The Challenger flight is an excellent example. … The O-rings of the Solid Rocket
Boosters were not designed to erode. Erosion was a clue that something was wrong.
Erosion was not something from which safety can be inferred. There was no way, without
1
describing the first rocket flight using liquid propellants at Aunt Effie's farm, 17 March 1926.
2
http://www.fotuva.org/online/frameload.htm?/online/challenger.htm.
12-1
full understanding, that one could have confidence that conditions the next time might not
produce erosion three times more severe than the time before. Nevertheless, officials
fooled themselves into thinking they had such understanding and confidence, in spite of
the peculiar variations from case to case. A mathematical model was made to calculate
erosion. This was a model based not on physical understanding but on empirical curve
fitting. To be more detailed, it was supposed a stream of hot gas impinged on the O-ring
material, and the heat was determined at the point of stagnation (so far, with reasonable
physical, thermodynamic laws). But to determine how much rubber eroded it was
assumed this depended only on this heat by a formula suggested by data on a similar
material. A logarithmic plot suggested a straight line, so it was supposed that the erosion
varied as the .58 power of the heat, the .58 being determined by a nearest fit. At any rate,
adjusting some other numbers, it was determined that the model agreed with the erosion
(to depth of one-third the radius of the ring). There is nothing much so wrong with this as
believing the answer! Uncertainties appear everywhere. How strong the gas stream might
be was unpredictable, it depended on holes formed in the putty. Blow-by showed that the
ring might fail even though not, or only partially eroded through. The empirical formula
was known to be uncertain, for it did not go directly through the very data points by
which it was determined. There were a cloud of points some twice above, and some twice
below the fitted curve, so erosions twice predicted were reasonable from that cause alone.
Similar uncertainties surrounded the other constants in the formula, etc., etc. When using
a mathematical model careful attention must be given to uncertainties in the model. …
In any event this has had very unfortunate consequences, the most serious of which is to
encourage ordinary citizens to fly in such a dangerous machine, as if it had attained the
safety of an ordinary airliner. The astronauts, like test pilots, should know their risks, and
we honor them for their courage. Who can doubt that McAuliffe was equally a person of
great courage, who was closer to an awareness of the true risk than NASA management
would have us believe? Let us make recommendations to ensure that NASA officials deal
in a world of reality in understanding technological weaknesses and imperfections well
enough to be actively trying to eliminate them. …. For a successful technology, reality
must take precedence over public relations, for nature cannot be fooled.3
12.1 Introduction
So far we have restricted ourselves to considering systems consisting of discrete objects

or point-like objects that have fixed amounts of mass. We shall now consider systems in
which material flows between the objects in the system, for example we shall consider
coal falling from a hopper into a moving railroad car, sand leaking from railroad car fuel,
grain moving forward into a railroad car, and fuel ejected from the back of a rocket, In
each of these examples material is continuously flows into or out of an object. We have
already shown that the total external force causes the momentum of a system to change,
3
R. P. Feynman, Appendix F - Personal observations on the reliability of the Shuttle, Report of the
PRESIDENTIAL COMMISSION on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident (1986),
http://history.nasa.gov/rogersrep/genindex.htm.
12-2

 total d psystem
Fext = . (12.2.1)
dt
We shall analyze how the momentum of the constituent elements our system change over
a time interval [t,t + Δt] , and then consider the limit as Δt → 0 . We can then explicit
calculate the derivative on the right hand side of Eq. (12.2.1) and Eq. (12.2.1) becomes
   
 total dpsystem Δpsystem psystem (t + Δt) − psystem (t)
Fext = = lim = lim . (12.2.2)
dt Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt
We need to be very careful how we apply this generalized version of Newton’s Second
Law to systems in which mass flows between constituent objects. In particular, when we
isolate elements as part of our system we must be careful to identify the mass Δm of the
material that continuous flows in or out of an object that is part of our system during the
time interval Δt under consideration.
We shall consider four categories of mass flow problems that are characterized by the
momentum transfer of the material of mass Δm .
12.1.1 Transfer of Material into an Object, but no Transfer of Momentum
Consider for example rain falling vertically downward with speed u into car of mass m
moving forward with speed v . A small amount of falling rain Δmr has no component of
momentum in the direction of motion of the car. There is a transfer of rain into the car but
no transfer of momentum in the direction of motion of the car (Figure 12.1).
u
rain mr
u
frictionless frictionless
v v
Figure 12.1 Transfer of rain mass into the car but no transfer of momentum in direction
of motion
12.1.2 Transfer of Material Out of an Object, but no Transfer of Momentum
The material continually leaves the object but it does not transport any momentum away
from the object in the direction of motion of the object (Figure 12.2). Consider an ice
skater gliding on ice at speed v holding a bag of sand that is leaking straight down with
respect to the moving skater. The sand continually leaves the bag but it does not transport
any momentum away from the bag in the direction of motion of the object. In Figure
12.2, sand of mass Δms leaves the bag.
12-3
Figure 12.2 Transfer of mass out of object but no transfer of momentum in direction of
motion
12.1.3 Transfer of Material Impulses Object Via Transfer of Momentum
Suppose a fire hose is used to put out a fire on a boat of mass mb . Assume the column of
water moves horizontally with speed u . The incoming water continually hits the boat
propelling it forward. During the time interval Δt , a column of water of mass Δms will
hit the boat that is moving forward with speed v increasing it’s speed (Figure 12.3).
Figure 12.3 Transfer of mass of water increases speed of boat
12.1.4 Material Continually Ejected From Object results in Recoil of Object
When fuel of mass Δm f is ejected from the back of a rocket with speed u relative to the
rocket, the rocket of mass mr recoils forward. Figure 12.4a shows the recoil of the rocket
in the reference frame of the rocket. The rocket recoils forward with speed Δvr . In a
reference frame in which the rocket is moving forward with speed vr , then the speed after
recoil is vr + Δvr . The speed of the backwardly ejected fuel is u − vr (Figure 12.4b).
(a) (b)
12-4
Figure 12.4 Transfer of mass out of rocket provides impulse on rocket in (a) reference
frame of rocket, (b) reference frame in which rocket moves with speed vr
We must carefully identify the momentum of the object and the material transferred at

time t in order to determine psystem (t) . We must also identify the momentum of the object

and the material transferred at time t + Δt in order to determine psystem (t + Δt) as well.
Recall that when we defined the momentum of a system, we assumed that the mass of the
system remain constant. Therefore we cannot ignore the momentum of the transferred
material at time t + Δt even though it may have left the object; it is still part of our
system (or at time t even though it has not flowed into the object yet).

Example 12.1 Filling a Coal Car
An empty coal car of mass m0 starts from rest under an applied force of magnitude F .
At the same time coal begins to run into the car at a steady rate b from a coal hopper at
rest along the track (Figure 12.5). Find the speed when a mass mc of coal has been
transferred.
Figure 12.5 Filling a coal car
Solution: We shall analyze the momentum changes in the horizontal direction, which we
call the x -direction. Because the falling coal does not have any horizontal velocity, the
falling coal is not transferring any momentum in the x -direction to the coal car. So we
shall take as our system the empty coal car and a mass mc of coal that has been
transferred. Our initial state at t = 0 is when the coal car is empty and at rest before any
coal has been transferred. The x -component of the momentum of this initial state is zero,
px (0) = 0 . (12.3.1)
12-5
Our final state at t = t f is when all the coal of mass mc = bt f has been transferred into the
car that is now moving at speed v f . The x -component of the momentum of this final
state is
px (t f ) = (m0 + mc )v f = (m0 + bt f )v f . (12.3.2)
There is an external constant force Fx = F applied through the transfer. The momentum
principle applied to the x -direction is
tf
∫ F dt = Δp
x x
= px (t f ) − px (0) . (12.3.3)
0
Because the force is constant, the integral is simple and the momentum principle becomes
Ft f = (m0 + bt f )v f . (12.3.4)
So the final speed is
Ft f
vf = . (12.3.5)
(m0 + bt f )
Example 12.2 Emptying a Freight Car
A freight car of mass mc contains sand of mass ms . At t = 0 a constant horizontal force

of magnitude F is applied in the direction of rolling and at the same time a port in the
bottom is opened to let the sand flow out at the constant rate b = dms / dt . Find the speed
of the freight car when all the sand is gone (Figure 12.6). Assume that the freight car is at
rest at t = 0 .
Figure 12.6 Emptying a freight car
Solution: Choose the positive x -direction to point in the direction that the car is moving.
Choose for the system the amount of sand in the fright car at time t , mc (t) . At time t ,
12-6
!
the car is moving with velocity v c (t) = vc (t) î . The momentum diagram for the system at
time t is shown in the diagram on the left in Figure 12.7.
v c (t) v c (t) + v c
mc (t) mc (t) + mc
v c (t) + v c
ms
time t time t + t
Figure 12.7 Momentum diagram at time t and at time t + Δt
The momentum of the system at time t is given by

! !
p sys (t) = mc (t) v c (t) . (12.3.6)
During the time interval [t , t + Δt ] , an amount of sand of mass Δms leaves the freight car
and the mass of the freight car changes by mc (t + Δt) = mc (t) + Δmc , where Δmc = −Δms .
At the end of the interval the car is moving with velocity
! ! !
v c (t + Δt) = v c (t) + Δv c = (vc (t) + Δvc ) î . The momentum diagram for the system at time
t + Δt is shown in the diagram on the right in Figure 12.7. The momentum of the system
at time t + Δt is given by
! ! ! ! !
p sys (t + Δt) = (Δms + mc (t) + Δmc )( v c (t) + Δv c ) = mc (t)( v c (t) + Δv c ) .(12.3.7)
! !
Note that the sand that leaves the car is shown with velocity v c (t) + Δv c . This implies
that all the sand leaves the car with the velocity of the car at the end of the interval. This
is an approximation. Because the sand leaves continuous, the velocity will vary from
! ! !
v c (t) to v c (t) + Δv c but so does the change in mass of the car and these two
contributions to the system’s moment exactly cancel. The change in momentum of the
system is then
! ! ! ! ! ! !
Δp sys = p sys (t + Δt) − p sys (t) = mc (t)( v c (t) + Δv c ) − mc (t) v c (t) = mc (t)Δv c .(12.3.8)
!
Throughout the interval a constant force F = Fî is applied to the system so the
momentum principle becomes
12-7
! ! ! !
! p sys (t + Δt) − p sys (t) Δv c dv c
F = lim = lim mc (t) = mc (t) . (12.3.9)
Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt dt
Because the motion is one-dimensional, Eq. (12.3.9) written in terms of x -components

becomes
dv
F = mc (t) c . (12.3.10)
dt
Denote by initial mass of the car by mc ,0 = mc + ms where mc is the mass of the car and
ms is the mass of the sand in the car at t = 0 . The mass of the sand that has left the car at
time t is given by
t t
dms
ms (t) = ∫ dt = ∫ bdt = bt . (12.3.11)
0
dt 0
Thus
mc (t) = mc,0 − bt = mc + ms − bt . (12.3.12)
Therefore Eq. (12.3.10) becomes
dvc
F = (mc + ms − bt) . (12.3.13)
dt
This equation can be solved for the x -component of the velocity at time t , vc (t) , (which
in this case is the speed) by the method of separation of variables. Rewrite Eq. (12.3.13)
as
Fdt
dvc = . (12.3.14)
(mc + ms − bt)
Then integrate both sides of Eq. (12.3.14) with the limits as shown
vc′ =vc (t ) t ′ =t
Fdt ′
∫
vc′ =0
dvc′ = ∫
t ′ =0
mc + ms − bt ′
. (12.3.15)
Integration yields the speed of the car as a function of time
F t ′= t F ⎛ m + ms − bt ⎞ F ⎛ mc + ms ⎞
vc (t) = − ln(mc + ms − bt ′ ) t ′= 0 = − ln ⎜ c = ln . (12.3.16)
b b ⎝ mc + ms ⎟⎠ b ⎜⎝ mc + ms − bt ⎟⎠
12-8
In writing Eq. (12.3.16), we used the property that ln(a) − ln(b) = ln(a / b) and therefore
ln(a / b) = − ln(b / a) . Note that mc + ms ≥ mc + ms − bt , so the term
⎛ mc + ms ⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟ ≥ 0 , and the speed of the car increases as we expect.
⎝ mc + ms − bt ⎠
Example 12.3 Filling a Freight Car
Grain is blown into car A from car B at a rate of b kilograms per second. The grain
leaves the chute vertically downward, so that it has the same horizontal velocity, u as car
B , (Figure 12.8). Car A is initially at rest before any grain is transferred in and has mass
mA,0 . At the moment of interest, car A has mass mA and speed v . Determine an
expression for the speed car A as a function of time t .
Figure 12.8 Filling a freight car
Solution: Choose positive x -direction to the right in the direction the cars are moving.
Define the system at time t to be the car and grain that is already in it, which together has
mass mA (t) , and the small amount of material of mass Δmg that is blown into car A
during the time interval [t,t + Δt] . At time that is moving with x -component of the
!
velocity v A . At time t , car A is moving with velocity v A (t) = v A (t) î , and the material
!
blown into car is moving with velocity u = uî At time t + Δt , car A is moving with
! !
velocity v A (t) + Δv A = (v A (t) + Δv A ) î , and the mass of car A is mA (t + Δt) = mA (t) + ΔmA ,
where ΔmA = Δmg . The momentum diagram for times t and for t + Δt is shown in
Figure 12.9.
u
î
mg
v A (t) v A (t) + v A
A mA (t) A mA (t) + mA
time t time t + t
Figure 12.9 Momentum diagram at times t and t + Δt
12-9
The momentum at time t is ! ! !
Psys (t) = mA (t) v A (t) + Δmg u . (12.3.17)
The momentum at time t + Δt is
! ! !
Psys (t + Δt) = (mA (t) + ΔmA )( v A (t) + Δv A ) . (12.3.18)
There are no external forces acting on the system in the x -direction and the external
forces acting on the system perpendicular to the motion sum to zero, so the momentum
principle becomes ! !
! Psys (t + Δt) − Psys (t)
0 = lim . (12.3.19)
Δt→0 Δt
Using the results above (Eqs. (12.3.17) and (12.3.18), the momentum principle becomes
! ! ! !
! (mA (t) + ΔmA )( v A (t) + Δv A ) − (mA (t) v A (t) + Δmg u)
0 = lim . (12.3.20)
Δt→0 Δt
which after using the condition that ΔmA = Δmg and some rearrangement becomes
! ! ! ! !
mA (t)Δv A ΔmA ( v A (t) − u) ΔmA Δv A
0 = lim + lim + lim . (12.3.21)
Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt
!
In the limit as , the product ΔmA Δv A is a second order differential (the product of two
!
first order differentials) and the term ΔmA Δv A / Δt approaches zero, therefore the
momentum principle yields the differential equation
! !
dv A dmA ! !
0 = mA (t) + ( v A (t) − u) . (12.3.22)
dt dt
The x -component of Eq. (12.3.22) is then
dv A dmA
0 = mA (t) + (v (t) − u) . (12.3.23)
dt dt A
Rearranging terms and using the fact that the material is blown into car A at a constant
rate b ≡ dmA / dt , we have that the rate of change of the x -component of the velocity of
car A is given by
dv A (t) b(u − v A (t))
= . (12.3.24)
dt mA (t)
12-10
We cannot directly integrate Eq. (12.3.24) with respect to dt because the mass of the car
A is a function of time. In order to find the x -component of the velocity of car A we
need to know the relationship between the mass of car A and the x -component of the
velocity of the car A . There are two approaches. In the first approach we separate
variables in Eq. (12.3.24) where we have suppressed the dependence on t in the
expressions for mA and v A yielding
dv A dmA
= , (12.3.25)
u − v A mA
which becomes the integral equation
v ′A= v A (t ) m′A= mA (t )
dv′A dm′A
∫ u − v′A
= ∫ m′A
, (12.3.26)
v′A=0 m′A= mA,0
where mA,0 is the mass of the car before any material has been blown in. After integration
we have that
u m (t)
ln = ln A . (12.3.27)
u − v A (t) mA,0
Exponentiate both side yields
u m (t)
= A . (12.3.28)
u − v A (t) mA,0
We can solve this equation for the x -component of the velocity of the car
mA (t) − mA,0
v A (t) = u. (12.3.29)
mA (t)
Because the material is blown into the car at a constant rate b ≡ dmA / dt , the mass of the
car as a function of time is given by
mA (t) = mA,0 + bt . (12.3.30)
Therefore substituting Eq. (12.3.30) into Eq. (12.3.29) yields the x -component of the
velocity of the car as a function of time
bt
v A (t) = u. (12.3.31)
mA,0 + bt
In a second approach, we substitute Eq. (12.3.30) into Eq. (12.3.24) yielding
12-11
dv A b(u − v A )
= . (12.3.32)
dt mA,0 + bt
Separate variables in Eq. (12.3.32):
dv A bdt
= , (12.3.33)
u − vA mA,0 + bt
which then becomes the integral equation
v A′ = v A (t )
dv A′ t ′ =t
dt ′
∫ u − v A′
= ∫ ′
. (12.3.34)
v A′ =0 t ′ =0 mA,0 + bt
Integration yields
u m + bt
ln = ln A,0 . (12.3.35)
u − v A (t) mA,0
Again exponentiate both sides resulting in

u m + bt
= A,0 . (12.3.36)
u − v A (t) mA,0
After some algebraic manipulation we can find the speed of the car as a function of time
bt
v A (t) = u. (12.3.37)
mA,0 + bt
in agreement with Eq. (12.3.31).
Check result:
We can rewrite Eq. (12.3.37) as

(mA,0 + bt)v A (t) = btu , (12.3.38)
which illustrates the point that the momentum of the system at time t is equal to the
momentum of the grain that has been transferred to the system during the interval [0,t] .
Example 12.4 Boat and Fire Hose
A burning boat of mass m0 is initially at rest. A fire fighter stands on a bridge and sprays
water onto the boat. The water leaves the fire hose with a speed u at a rate α (measured
in kg ⋅ s -1 ). Assume that the motion of the boat and the water jet are horizontal, that
gravity does not play any role, and that the river can be treated as a frictionless surface.
Also assume that the change in the mass of the boat is only due to the water jet and that
all the water from the jet is added to the boat, (Figure 12.10).
12-12
a) In a time interval [t , t + Δt ] , an amount of water Δm hits the boat. Choose a

system. Is the total momentum constant in your system? Write down a differential
equation that results from the analysis of the momentum changes inside your
system.
b) Integrate the differential equation you found in part a), to find the velocity v(m)
as a function of the increasing mass m of the boat, m0 , and u .
Solution: Let’s take as our system the boat, the amount of water of mass Δmw that enters
the boat during the time interval [t , t + Δt ] and whatever water is in the boat at time t .
The water from the fire hose has a speed u . Denote the mass of the boat (including some
water) at time t by mb ≡ mb (t) , and the speed of the boat by v ≡ vb (t) . At time t + Δt the
speed of the boat is v + Δv . Choose the positive x - direction in the direction that the boat
is moving. Then the x -components of the momentum of the system at time t and t + Δt
are shown in Figure 12.11.
u v
t
mw mb
v+ v
mw t+ t
mb
Figure 12.11 Momentum diagrams for burning boat
Because we are assuming that the burning boat slides with negligible resistance and that
gravity has a negligible effect on the arc of the water jet, there are no external forces
acting on the system in the x -direction. Therefore the x -component of the momentum of
the system is constant during the interval [t , t + Δt ] and so
12-13
px (t + Δt ) − px (t )
0 = lim . (12.3.39)
Δt →0 Δt
Using the information from the figure above, Eq. (12.3.39) becomes
(mb + Δmw )(v + Δv) − (Δmwu + mb v)

0 = lim . (12.3.40)
Δt →0 Δt
Δv Δmw Δmw Δv Δmw
0 = lim mb + lim v + lim − lim u. (12.3.41)
Δt →0 Δt Δt → 0 Δt Δt → 0 Δt Δt → 0 Δt
The third term vanishes when we take the limit Δt → 0 because it is of second order in
the infinitesimal quantities (in this case Δmw Δv ) and so when dividing by Δt the
quantity is of first order and hence vanishes since both Δmw → 0 and Δv → 0 . Eq.
(12.3.41) becomes
Δv Δmw Δmw
0 = lim mb + lim v − lim u. (12.3.42)
Δt →0 Δt Δt →0 Δt Δt →0 Δt
We now use the definition of the derivatives:
Δv dv Δmw dmw
lim = ; lim = . (12.3.43)
Δt →0 Δt dt Δt →0 Δt dt
in Eq. (12.3.42) to fund the differential equation describing the relation between the
acceleration of the boat and the time rate of change of the mass of water entering the
boat
dv dmw
0 = mb + (v − u ) . (12.3.44)
dt dt
The mass of the boat is increasing due to the addition of the water. Let mw (t ) denote the
mass of the water that is in the boat at time t . Then the mass of the boat can be written as
mb (t) = m0 + mw (t) , (12.3.45)
where m0 is the mass of the boat before any water entered. Note we are neglecting the
effect of the fire on the mass of the boat. Differentiating Eq. (12.3.45) with respect to
time yields
dmb dmw
= , (12.3.46)
dt dt
Then Eq. (12.3.44) becomes
dv dmb
0 = mb + (v − u ) . (12.3.47)
dt dt
12-14
(b) We can integrate this equation through the separation of variable technique. Rewrite
Eq. (12.3.47) as (cancel the common factor dt )
dv dm
=− b. (12.3.48)
v −u mb
We can then integrate both sides of Eq. (12.3.48) with the limits as shown
v(t ) mb (t )
dv dmb
∫v=0 v − u = − ∫
m0
mb
(12.3.49)
Integration yields
⎛ v(t) − u ⎞ ⎛ m (t) ⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟ = − ln ⎜ b ⎟ (12.3.50)
⎝ −u ⎠ ⎝ m0 ⎠
Recall that ln(a / b) = − ln(b / a) so Eq. (12.3.50) becomes

⎛ v(t) − u ⎞ ⎛ m0 ⎞
ln ⎜ = ln (12.3.51)
⎝ −u ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ m (t) ⎟⎠
b
Also recall that exp(ln(a / b)) = a / b and so exponentiating both sides of Eq. (12.3.51)
yields
v(t) − u m0
= (12.3.52)
−u mb (t)
So the speed of the boat at time t can be expressed as
⎛ m ⎞
v(t) = u ⎜ 1− 0 ⎟ (12.3.53)
⎝ mb (t) ⎠
Check result:
mb (t)(v(t) − u) = −m0u ⇒ mb (t)v(t) = (mb (t) − m0 )u . (12.3.54)
Recall that the mass of the water that enters the car during the interval [0,t] is
mw (t) = mb (t) − m0 . Therefore Eq. (12.3.54) becomes
mb (t)v(t) = mw (t)u . (12.3.55)
12-15
During the interaction between the jet of water and the boat, the water transfers an
amount of momentum mw (t)u to the boat and car producing a momentum mb (t)v(t) .
Because all the water that collides with the boat ends up in the boat, all the interaction
forces between the jet of water and the boat are internal forces. The boat recoils forward
and the water recoils backward and through collisions with the boat stays in the boat.
Therefore if we choose as our system, all of the water that eventually ends up in the boat
and the boat then the momentum principle states
psys (t) = psys (0) , (12.3.56)
where psys (0) = mw (t)u is the momentum of all of the water that eventually ends up in the
boat.
Note that the problem didn’t ask to find the speed of the boat as a function t . We shall
now show how to find that. We begin by observing that
dmb dmw
= ≠α (12.3.57)
dt dt
where the constant α is measured in kg ⋅ s-1 and is specified as a given constant

according to the information in the problem statement. The reason is that α is the rate
that the water is ejected from the hose but not the rate that the water enters the boat.
u t
m= u t
Figure 12.12 Mass per unit length of water jet
Consider a small amount of water that is moving with speed u that, in a time interval Δt ,
flows through a cross sectional area oriented perpendicular to the flow (see Figure 12.12).
The area is larger than the cross sectional area of the jet of water. The amount of water
that floes through the area element Δm = λ uΔt , where λ is the mass per unit length of
the jet and uΔt is the length of the jet that flows through the area in the interval Δt . The
mass rate of water that flows through the cross sectional area element is then
Δm
α= = λu . (12.3.58)
Δt
12-16
In the Figure 12.13 we consider a small length uΔt of the water jet that is just behind the
boat at time t . During the time interval [t , t + Δt ] , the boat moves a distance vΔt .
u t v
t
(u v) t
v t t+ t
Figure 12.13 Amount of water that enter boat in time interval [t,t + Δt]
Only a fraction of the length uΔt of water enters the boat and is given by
α
Δmw = λ (u − v)Δt = (u − v)Δt (12.3.59)
u
Dividing Eq. (12.3.59) through by Δt and taking limits we have that
dmw Δmw α v
= lim = (u − v) = α (1− ) . (12.3.60)
dt Δt→0 Δt u u
Substituting Eq. (12.3.53) and Eq. (12.3.46) into Eq. (12.3.60) yields
dmb v m
= α (1− ) = α 0 . (12.3.61)
dt u mb (t)
We can integrate this equation by separating variables to find an integral expression for
the mass of the boat as a function of time
mb (t ) t
∫
m0
mb dmb = α m0 ∫ dt .
t=0
(12.3.62)
We can easily integrate both sides of Eq. (12.3.62) yielding
12-17
1
2
( )
mb (t)2 − m0 2 = α mb,0t . (12.3.63)
The mass of the boat as a function of time is then
αt
mb (t) = m0 1+ 2 . (12.3.64)
m0
We now substitute Eq. (12.3.64) into Eq. (12.3.65)yielding the speed of the burning boat
as a function of time
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 ⎟
v(t ) = u 1 − (12.3.66)
⎜ αt ⎟
⎜ 1+ 2 ⎟
⎜ mb ,0 ⎟⎠
⎝
12.3 Rocket Propulsion

!
A rocket at time t = ti is moving with velocity v r ,i with respect to a fixed reference
frame. During the time interval [ti ,t f ] the rocket continuously burns fuel that is
!
continuously ejected backwards with velocity u relative to the rocket. This exhaust
velocity is independent of the velocity of the rocket. The rocket must exert a force to
accelerate the ejected fuel backwards and therefore by Newton’s Third law, the fuel
exerts a force that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction accelerating the rocket
forward. The rocket velocity is a function of time, v! r (t) . Because fuel is leaving the
rocket, the mass of the rocket is also a function of time, mr (t) , and is decreasing at a rate
!
dmr / dt . Let Fext denote the total external force acting on the rocket. We shall use the
!
momentum principle, to determine a differential equation that relates dv r / dt , dmr / dt ,
! !
u , v! r (t) , and Fext , an equation known as the rocket equation.
We shall apply the momentum principle during the time interval [t,t + Δt] with Δt taken
to be a small interval (we shall eventually consider the limit that Δt → 0 ), and ti < t < t f .
During this interval, choose as our system the mass of the rocket at time t ,
msys = mr (t) = mr ,d + m f (t) , (12.3.67)
where mr ,d is the dry mass of the rocket and m f (t) is the mass of the fuel in the rocket at
time t . During the time interval [t,t + Δt] , a small amount of fuel of mass Δm f (in the
12-18
!
limit that Δt → 0 , Δm f → 0 ) is ejected backwards with velocity u to the rocket. Before
the fuel is ejected, it is traveling at the velocity of the rocket and so during the time
interval [t,t + Δt] , the elected fuel undergoes a change in momentum and the rocket
!
recoils forward. At time t + Δt the rocket has velocity v r (t + Δt) . Although the ejected
fuel continually changes its velocity, we shall assume that the fuel is all ejected at the
instant t + Δt and then consider the limit as Δt → 0 . Therefore the velocity of the ejected
fuel with respect to the fixed reference frame is the vector sum of the relative velocity of
! !
the fuel with respect to the rocket and the velocity of the rocket, u + v r (t + Δt) . Figure
12.14 represents momentum diagrams for our system at time t and t + Δt relative to a
fixed inertial reference frame in which velocity of the rocket at time t is v! r (t) .
v r (t)
mr (t)
time t
u + v r (t + t) v r (t + t)
mf mr (t) + mr
time t + t
Figure 12.14 Momentum diagrams for system at time t and t + Δt
The momentum of the system at time t is
! !
p sys (t) = mr (t) v r (t) . (12.3.68)
Note that the mass of the system at time t is

msys = mr (t) . (12.3.69)
The momentum of the system at time t + Δt is
! ! ! !
p sys (t + Δt) = mr (t + Δt)v r (t + Δt) + Δm f (u + v r (t + Δt)) , (12.3.70)
where mr (t + Δt) = mr (t) + Δmr . With this notation the mass of the system at time t + Δt
is given by
msys = mr (t + Δt) + Δm f = mr (t) + Δmr + Δm f . (12.3.71)
Because the mass of the system is constant, setting Eq. (12.3.69) equal to Eq. (12.3.71)
requires that
12-19
Δmr = −Δm f . (12.3.72)
The momentum of the system at time t + Δt (Eq. (12.3.70)) can be rewritten as
! ! ! !
p sys (t + Δt) = (mr (t) + Δmr )v r (t + Δt) − Δmr (u + v r (t + Δt))
! ! ! , (12.3.73)
p sys (t + Δt) = mr (t)v r (t + Δt) − Δmr u
We can now apply Newton’s Second Law in the form of the momentum principle,
! ! ! !
(mr (t) v r (t + Δt) − Δmr u) − mr (t) v r (t)
Fext = lim
Δt→0 Δt .. (12.3.74)
! !
v r (t + Δt) − v r (t) Δmr !
= mr (t) lim − lim u
We now take the limit as

! !
dv r dmr !
Fext = mr (t) − u. (12.3.75)
dt dt
Eq. (12.3.75) is known as the rocket equation.
Suppose the rocket is moving in the positive x -direction with an external force given by
! !
Fext = Fext ,x î Then u = −u î , where u > 0 is the relative speed of the fuel and it is moving
!
in the negative x -direction, v r = vr ,x î . Then the rocket equation (Eq. (12.3.75)) becomes
dvr ,x dmr
Fext ,x = mr (t) + u. (12.3.76)
dt dt
Note that the rate of decrease of the mass of the rocket, dmr / dt , is equal to the negative
of the rate of increase of the exhaust fuel
dmr dm f
=− . (12.3.77)
dt dt
dm dv
Fext ,x − r u = mr (t) r ,x . (12.3.78)
dt dt
The second term on the left-hand-side of Eq. (12.3.78) is called the thrust
12-20
dmr dm f
Fthrust ,x = − u= u. (12.3.79)
dt dt
Note that this is not an extra force but the result of the forward recoil due to the ejection
of the fuel. Because we are burning fuel at a positive rate dm f / dt > 0 and the speed
u > 0 , the direction of the thrust is in the positive x -direction.
12.3.1 Rocket Equation in Gravity-free Space
We shall first consider the case in which there are no external forces acting on the
system, then Eq. (12.3.78) becomes
dmr dv
− u = mr (t) r ,x . (12.3.80)
dt dt
In order to solve this equation, we separate the variable quantities vr ,x (t) and mr (t) and
multiply both sides by dt yielding
dmr
dvr ,x = −u . (12.3.81)
mr (t)
We now integrate both sides of Eq. (12.3.81) with limits corresponding to the values of
the x -component of the velocity and mass of the rocket at times ti when the ejection of
the burned fuel began and the time t f when the process stopped,
vr′ ,x = vr ,x , f mr′ = mr , f
u
∫ dvr′,x = − ∫ dm′ .
mr′ r
(12.3.82)
vr′ ,x = vr ,x ,i mr′ = mr ,i
Performing the integration and substituting in the values at the endpoints yields
⎛ mr , f ⎞
vr ,x, f − vr ,x,i = −u ln ⎜ ⎟. (12.3.83)
⎝ mr ,i ⎠
Because the rocket is losing fuel, mr , f < mr ,i , we can rewrite Eq. (12.3.83) as
⎛m ⎞
vr ,x, f − vr ,x,i = u ln ⎜ r ,i ⎟ . (12.3.84)
⎝ mr , f ⎠
12-21
We note ln(mr ,i / mr , f ) > 1 . Therefore vr ,x, f > vr ,x,i , as we expect. After a slight
rearrangement of Eq. (12.3.84), we have an expression for the x -component of the
velocity of the rocket as a function of the mass mr of the rocket
⎛m ⎞
vr ,x, f = vr ,x,i + u ln ⎜ r ,i ⎟ . (12.3.85)
⎝ mr , f ⎠
Let’s examine our result. First, let’s suppose that all the fuel was burned and ejected.
Then mr , f ≡ mr ,d is the final dry mass of the rocket (empty of fuel). The ratio
mr ,i
R= (12.3.86)
mr ,d
is the ratio of the initial mass of the rocket (including the mass of the fuel) to the final dry
mass of the rocket (empty of fuel). The final velocity of the rocket is then
vr ,x, f = vr ,x,i + u ln R . (12.3.87)
This is why multistage rockets are used. You need a big container to store the fuel. Once
all the fuel is burned in the first stage, the stage is disconnected from the rocket. During
the next stage the dry mass of the rocket is much less and so R is larger than the single
stage, so the next burn stage will produce a larger final speed then if the same amount of
fuel were burned with just one stage (more dry mass of the rocket). In general rockets do
not burn fuel at a constant rate but if we assume that the burning rate is constant where
dm f dmr
b= =− (12.3.88)
dt dt
then we can integrate Eq. (12.3.88)
mr′ = mr (t ) t ′ =t
∫ dmr′ = −b ∫ dt ′ (12.3.89)
mr′ = mr ,i t ′ =ti
and find an equation that describes how the mass of the rocket changes in time
mr (t) = mr ,i − b(t − ti ) . (12.3.90)
For this special case, if we set t f = t in Eq. (12.3.85), then the velocity of the rocket as a
function of time is given by
⎛ mr ,i ⎞
vr ,x, f = vr ,x,i + u ln ⎜ ⎟. (12.3.91)
⎝ mr ,i − bt ⎠
12-22
Example 12.4 Single-Stage Rocket
Before a rocket begins to burn fuel, the rocket has a mass of mr ,i = 2.81 × 107 kg , of
which the mass of the fuel is m f ,i = 2.46 × 107 kg . The fuel is burned at a constant rate
with total burn time is 510 s and ejected at a speed u = 3000 m/s relative to the rocket. If
the rocket starts from rest in empty space, what is the final speed of the rocket after all
the fuel has been burned?
Solution: The dry mass of the rocket is mr ,d ≡ mr ,i − m f ,i = 0.35 × 107 kg , hence

R = mr ,i / mr ,d = 8.03 . The final speed of the rocket after all the fuel has burned is
vr , f = Δvr = u ln R = 6250 m/s . (12.3.92)
Example 12.5 Two-Stage Rocket
Now suppose that the same rocket in Example 12.4 burns the fuel in two stages ejecting
the fuel in each stage at the same relative speed. In stage one, the available fuel to burn is
m f ,1,i = 2.03 × 107 kg with burn time 150 s . Then the empty fuel tank and accessories
from stage one are disconnected from the rest of the rocket. These disconnected parts
have a mass m = 1.4 × 106 kg . All the remaining fuel with mass is burned during the
second stage with burn time of 360 s . What is the final speed of the rocket after all the
fuel has been burned?
Solution: The mass of the rocket after all the fuel in the first stage is burned is
mr ,1,d = mr ,1,i − m f ,1,i = 0.78 × 107 kg and R1 = mr ,1,i / mr ,1,d = 3.60 . The change in speed
after the first stage is complete is
Δvr ,1 = u ln R1 = 3840 m/s . (12.3.93)
After the empty fuel tank and accessories from stage one are disconnected from the rest
of the rocket, the remaining mass of the rocket is mr ,2,d = 2.1 × 106 kg . The remaining fuel
has mass m f ,2,i = 4.3 × 106 kg . The mass of the rocket plus the unburned fuel at the
beginning of the second stage is mr ,2,i = 6.4 × 106 kg . Then R2 = mr ,2,i / mr ,2,d = 3.05 .
Therefore the rocket increases its speed during the second stage by an amount
Δvr ,2 = u ln R2 = 3340 m/s . (12.3.94)
The final speed of the rocket is the sum of the change in speeds due to each stage,
12-23
v f = Δvr = u ln R1 + u ln R2 = u ln(R1 R2 ) = 7190 m/s , (12.3.95)
which is greater than if the fuel were burned in one stage. Plots of the speed of the rocket
as a function time for both one-stage and two-stage burns are shown Figure 12.15.
Figure 12.15 Plots of speed of rocket for both one-stage burn and two-stage burn
12.3.2 Rocket in a Constant Gravitational Field:
Now suppose that the rocket takes off from rest at time t = 0 in a constant gravitational
field then the external force is
 total 
Fext = mr g . (12.3.96)
Choose the positive x -axis in the upward direction then Fext , x (t) = −mr (t)g . Then the
rocket equation (Eq. (12.3.75) becomes
dmr dv
−mr (t)g − u = mr (t) r ,x . (12.3.97)
dt dt
Multiply both sides of Eq. (12.3.97) by dt , and divide both sides by mr (t) . Then Eq.
(12.3.97) can be written as
dmr
dvr ,x = −gdt − u. (12.3.98)
mr (t)
We now integrate both sides
12-24
vr ,x (t ) mr (t )
dmr′ t
∫ dvr′,x = −u ∫ mr′
− g ∫ dt ′ , (12.3.99)
vr ,x ,i =0 mr ,i 0
where mr ,i is the initial mass of the rocket and the fuel. Integration yields
⎛ m (t) ⎞ ⎛ m ⎞
vr ,x (t) = −u ln ⎜ r ⎟ − gt = u ln ⎜ r ,i ⎟ − gt . (12.3.100)
⎝ mr ,i ⎠ ⎝ mr (t) ⎠
After all the fuel is burned at t = t f , the mass of the rocket is equal to the dry mass
mr , f = mr ,d and so
vr ,x (t f ) = u ln R − gt f . (12.3.101)
The first term on the right hand side is independent of the burn time. However the second
term depends on the burn time. The shorter the burn time, the smaller the negative
contribution from the third turn, and hence the rocket ends up with a larger final speed.
So the rocket engine should burn the fuel as fast as possible in order to obtain the
maximum possible speed.
12-25
Chapter 13 The Concept of Energy and Conservation of Energy
13.1 The Concept of Energy and Conservation of Energy....................................... 2

13.2 Kinetic Energy ................................................................................................... 5
Example 13.1 Change in Kinetic Energy of a Car ................................................ 5
13.3 Kinematics and Kinetic Energy in One Dimension .......................................... 6
13.3.1 Constant Accelerated Motion ..................................................................... 6
13.3.2 Non-constant Accelerated Motion .............................................................. 7
13.4 Work done by Constant Forces......................................................................... 9
Example 13.2 Work Done by Static Fiction ........................................................ 10
Example 13.3 Work Done by Force Applied in the Direction of Displacement 11
Example 13.5 Work done by Gravity Near the Surface of the Earth ................ 12
13.5 Work done by Non-Constant Forces............................................................... 13
Example 13.6 Work done by the Spring Force ................................................... 14
13.6 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem ...................................................................... 15
Example 13.7 Gravity and the Work-Energy Theorem ..................................... 16
Example 13.7 Final Kinetic Energy of Moving Cup........................................... 17
13.7 Power Applied by a Constant Force ............................................................... 17
Example 13.8 Gravitational Power for a Falling Object .................................... 18
Example 13.9 Power Pushing a Cup ................................................................... 20
13.8 Work and the Scalar Product ......................................................................... 21
13.8.1 Scalar Product........................................................................................... 21
13.8.2 Kinetic Energy and the Scalar Product.................................................... 23
13.8.2 Work and the Scalar Product ................................................................... 24
13.9 Work done by a Non-Constant Force Along an Arbitrary Path.................... 27
13.9.1 Work Integral in Cartesian Coordinates ................................................. 28
13.9.2 Work Integral in Cylindrical Coordinates ............................................... 29
13.10 Worked Examples.......................................................................................... 30
Example 13.11 Work Done in a Constant Gravitation Field ............................. 30
Example 13.12 Hooke’s Law Spring-Body System ............................................ 31
Example 13.13 Work done by the Inverse Square Gravitation Force ............... 32
Example 13.14 Work Done by the Inverse Square Electrical Force.................. 33
13.11 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem in Three Dimensions ................................. 34
13.11.1 Instantaneous Power Applied by a Non-Constant Force for Three
Dimensional Motion ............................................................................................ 35
Appendix 13A Work Done on a System of Two Particles...................................... 36
13-1
Chapter 13 Energy, Kinetic Energy, and Work
Acceleration of the expansion of the universe is one of the most exciting
and significant discoveries in physics, with implications that could
revolutionize theories of quantum physics, gravitation, and cosmology.
With its revelation that close to the three-quarters of the energy density of
the universe, given the name dark energy, is of a new, unknown origin and
that its exotic gravitational “repulsion” will govern the fate of the
universe, dark energy and the accelerating universe becomes a topic not
just of great interest to research physicists but to science students at all
levels. 1
Eric Linder
13.1 The Concept of Energy and Conservation of Energy
The transformation of energy is a powerful concept that enables us to describe a vast

number of processes:
Falling water releases stored gravitational potential energy, which can become the
kinetic energy associated with a coherent motion of matter. The harnessed mechanical
energy can be used to spin turbines and alternators, doing work to generate electrical
energy, transmitted to consumers along power lines. When you use any electrical
device, the electrical energy is transformed into other forms of energy. In a
refrigerator, electrical energy is used to compress a gas into a liquid. During the
compression, some of the internal energy of the gas is transferred to the random
motion of molecules in the outside environment. The liquid flows from a high-
pressure region into a low-pressure region where the liquid evaporates. During the
evaporation, the liquid absorbs energy from the random motion of molecules inside of
the refrigerator. The gas returns to the compressor.
“Human beings transform the stored chemical energy of food into various forms
necessary for the maintenance of the functions of the various organ system, tissues
2
and cells in the body.” A person can do work on their surroundings – for example, by
pedaling a bicycle – and transfer energy to the surroundings in the form of increasing
random motion of air molecules, by using this catabolic energy.
Burning gasoline in car engines converts chemical energy, stored in the molecular
bonds of the constituent molecules of gasoline, into coherent (ordered) motion of the
molecules that constitute a piston. With the use of gearing and tire/road friction, this
motion is converted into kinetic energy of the car; the automobile moves.
1
Eric Linder, Resource Letter: Dark Energy and the Accelerating Universe, Am.J.Phys.76: 197-
204, 2008; p. 197.
2 George B. Benedek and Felix M.H. Villars, Physics with Illustrative Examples from Medicine and
Biology, Volume 1: Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1973, p. 115-6.
13-2
Stretching or compressing a spring stores elastic potential energy that can be released
as kinetic energy.
The process of vision begins with stored atomic energy released as electromagnetic
radiation (light), which is detected by exciting photoreceptors in the eye, releasing
chemical energy.
When a proton fuses with deuterium (a hydrogen atom with a neutron and proton for
a nucleus), helium-three is formed (with a nucleus of two protons and one neutron)
along with radiant energy in the form of photons. The combined internal energy of
the proton and deuterium are greater than the internal energy of the helium-three. This
difference in internal energy is carried away by the photons as light energy.
There are many such processes involving different forms of energy: kinetic energy,
gravitational energy, thermal energy, elastic energy, electrical energy, chemical energy,
electromagnetic energy, nuclear energy and more. The total energy is always conserved
in these processes, although different forms of energy are converted into others.
Any physical process can be characterized by two states, initial and final, between
which energy transformations can occur. Each form of energy E j , where “ j ” is an
arbitrary label identifying one of the N forms of energy, may undergo a change during
this transformation,
ΔE j ≡ Efinal, j − Einitial, j . (13.1.1)
Conservation of energy means that the sum of these changes is zero,
N
ΔE1 + ΔE2 + ⋅⋅⋅+ ΔE N = ∑ ΔE j = 0 . (13.1.2)
j=1
Two important points emerge from this idea. First, we are interested primarily in
changes in energy and so we search for relations that describe how each form of energy
changes. Second, we must account for all the ways energy can change. If we observe a
process, and the sum of the changes in energy is not zero, either our expressions for
energy are incorrect, or there is a new type of change of energy that we had not
previously discovered. This is our first example of the importance of conservation laws in
describing physical processes, as energy is a key quantity conserved in all physical
processes. If we can quantify the changes of different forms of energy, we have a very
powerful tool to understand nature.
We will begin our analysis of conservation of energy by considering processes

involving only a few forms of changing energy. We will make assumptions that greatly
simplify our description of these processes. At first we shall only consider processes
acting on bodies in which the atoms move in a coherent fashion, ignoring processes in
which energy is transferred into the random motion of atoms. Thus we will initially
ignore the effects of friction. We shall then treat processes involving friction between
13-3
consider rigid bodies. We will later return to processes in which there is an energy
transfer resulting in an increase or decrease in random motion when we study the First
Law of Thermodynamics.
Energy is always conserved but we often prefer to restrict our attention to a set of
objects that we define to be our system. The rest of the universe acts as the surroundings.
We illustrate this division of system and surroundings in Figure 13.1.
Figure 13.1 A diagram of a system and its surroundings with boundary
Because energy is conserved, any energy that leaves the system must cross
through the boundary and enter the surroundings. Consider any physical process in which
energy transformations occur between initial and final states. We assert that
when a system and its surroundings undergo a transition from an initial

state to a final state, the change in energy is zero,
ΔE = ΔEsystem + ΔEsurroundings = 0 . (13.1.3)
Eq. (13.1.3) is called conservation of energy and is our operating definition for energy.
We will sometime refer to Eq. (13.1.3) as the energy principle. In any physical
application, we first identify our system and surroundings, and then attempt to quantify
changes in energy. In order to do this, we need to identify every type of change of energy
in every possible physical process. When there is no change in energy in the surroundings
then the system is called a closed system, and consequently the energy of a closed system
is constant.
ΔEsystem = 0, (closed system) . (13.1.4)
If we add up all known changes in energy in the system and surroundings and do
not arrive at a zero sum, we have an open scientific problem. By searching for the
missing changes in energy, we may uncover some new physical phenomenon. Recently,
one of the most exciting open problems in cosmology is the apparent acceleration of the
expansion of the universe, which has been attributed to dark energy that resides in space
itself, an energy type without a clearly known source.3
3
http://www-supernova.lbl.gov/~evlinder/sci.html
13-4
13.2 Kinetic Energy
The first form of energy that we will study is an energy associated with the coherent
motion of molecules that constitute a body of mass m ; this energy is called the kinetic
energy (from the Greek word kinetikos which translates as moving). Let us consider a car
moving along a straight road (along which we will place the x -axis). For an observer at

rest with respect to the ground, the car has velocity v = vx î . The speed of the car is the
magnitude of the velocity, v ≡ vx .
The kinetic energy K of a non-rotating body of mass m moving with speed

v is defined to be the positive scalar quantity
1
K≡ mv 2 (13.2.1)
2
The kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the speed. The SI units for kinetic
energy are [kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −2 ] . This combination of units is defined to be a joule and is denoted
by [J] , thus 1 J ≡ 1 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −2 . (The SI unit of energy is named for James Prescott
Joule.) The above definition of kinetic energy does not refer to any direction of motion,
just the speed of the body.
Let’s consider a case in which our car changes velocity. For our initial state, the
!
car moves with an initial velocity v i = vx,i î along the x -axis. For the final state (at some
later time), the car has changed its velocity and now moves with a final velocity

v f = vx , f î . Therefore the change in the kinetic energy is
1 1
ΔK = mv f 2 − mvi 2 . (13.2.2)
2 2
Example 13.1 Change in Kinetic Energy of a Car
Suppose car A increases its speed from 10 to 20 mph and car B increases its speed from
50 to 60 mph. Both cars have the same mass m . (a) What is the ratio of the change of
kinetic energy of car B to the change of kinetic energy of car A? In particular, which car
has a greater change in kinetic energy? (b) What is the ratio of the change in kinetic
energy of car B to car A as seen by an observer moving with the initial velocity of car A?
Solution: (a) The ratio of the change in kinetic energy of car B to car A is
13-5
1 1
ΔK B 2 m(v B, f ) − 2 m(v B,i )
2 2
(v B, f )2 − (v B,i )2
= =
ΔK A 1 1 (v A, f )2 − (v A,i )2
m(v A, f ) − m(v A,i )
2 2
2 2
(60 mph) − (50 mph)2
2
= = 11/ 3.
(20 mph)2 − (10 mph)2
Thus car B has a much greater increase in its kinetic energy than car A.
(b) In a reference moving with the speed of car A , car A increases its speed from rest to
10 mph and car B increases its speed from 40 to 50 mph. The ratio is now
1 1
ΔK B 2 m(v B, f ) − 2 m(v B,0 )
2 2
(v B, f )2 − (v B,0 )2
= =
ΔK A 1 1 (v A, f )2 − (v A,0 )2
m(v A, f ) − m(v A,0 )
2 2
2 2
(50 mph) − (40 mph)2
2
= = 9.
(10 mph)2
The ratio is greater than that found in part a). Note that from the new reference frame
both car A and car B have smaller increases in kinetic energy.
13.3 Kinematics and Kinetic Energy in One Dimension
13.3.1 Constant Accelerated Motion
Let’s consider a constant accelerated motion of a rigid body in one dimension in which
we treat the rigid body as a point mass. Suppose at t = 0 the body has an initial x -
component of the velocity given by vx,i . If the acceleration is in the direction of the
displacement of the body then the body will increase its speed. If the acceleration is
opposite the direction of the displacement then the acceleration will decrease the body’s
speed. The displacement of the body is given by
1
Δx = vx,i t + a t2 . (13.3.1)
2 x
The product of acceleration and the displacement is
1
ax Δx = ax (vx,i t + ax t 2 ) . (13.3.2)
2
The acceleration is given by
13-6
Δvx (vx, f − vx,i )
ax = = . (13.3.3)
Δt t
Therefore
(vx, f − vx,i ) ⎛ 1 (vx, f − vx,i ) 2 ⎞
ax Δx = v
⎜ x,i t + t ⎟. (13.3.4)
t ⎝ 2 t ⎠
Equation (13.3.4) becomes
1 1 1 2
ax Δx = (vx, f − vx,i )(vx,i ) + (vx, f − vx,i )(vx, f − vx,i ) = vx, f 2 − vx,i . (13.3.5)
2 2 2
If we multiply each side of Equation (13.3.5) by the mass m of the object this
kinematical result takes on an interesting interpretation for the motion of the object. We
have
1 1 2
m ax Δx = mvx,2 f− m vx,i = K f − Ki . (13.3.6)
2 2
Recall that for one-dimensional motion, Newton’s Second Law is Fx = m ax , for the
motion considered here, Equation (13.3.6) becomes
Fx Δx = K f − K i . (13.3.7)
13.3.2 Non-constant Accelerated Motion
If the acceleration is not constant, then we can divide the displacement into N intervals
indexed by j = 1 to N . It will be convenient to denote the displacement intervals by Δx j ,
the corresponding time intervals by Δt j and the x -components of the velocities at the
beginning and end of each interval as vx , j −1 and vx , j . Note that the x -component of the
velocity at the beginning and end of the first interval j = 1 is then vx,1 = vx,i and the
velocity at the end of the last interval, j = N is vx , N = vx , j . Consider the sum of the
products of the average acceleration (ax , j ) ave and displacement Δx j in each interval,
j= N
∑ (a ) Δx j .
x, j ave
(13.3.8)
j=1
The average acceleration over each interval is equal to
Δvx, j (vx, j+1 − vx, j )

(ax, j )ave = = , (13.3.9)
Δt j Δt j
13-7
and so the contribution in each integral can be calculated as above and we have that
1 1
(ax, j )ave Δx j = vx, j 2 − vx, j−12 . (13.3.10)
2 2
When we sum over all the terms only the last and first terms survive, all the other terms
cancel in pairs, and we have that
j= N
1 1 2
∑ (a )
x, j ave
Δx j = vx,2 f − vx,i
2 2
. (13.3.11)
j=1
In the limit as N → ∞ and Δx j → 0 for all j (both conditions must be met!), the limit of
the sum is the definition of the definite integral of the acceleration with respect to the
position,
j= N x=x f
lim
N→∞
∑ (a )
x, j ave
Δx j ≡ ∫ ax ( x) dx . (13.3.12)
Δx j →0 j=1 x=xi
Therefore In the limit as N → ∞ and Δx j → 0 for all j , with vx, N → vx, f , Eq. (13.3.11)
becomes
x=x f
1
∫ ax ( x) dx = (vx,2 f − vx,i
2
) (13.3.13)
x=xi
2
This integral result is consequence of the definition that ax ≡ dvx / dt . The integral in Eq.
(13.3.13) is an integral with respect to space, while our previous integral
t =t f
∫ ax (t) dt = vx, f − vx,i . (13.3.14)

t =ti
requires integrating acceleration with respect to time. Multiplying both sides of Eq.
(13.3.13) by the mass m yields
x=x f
1
∫ max ( x) dx = m(vx,2 f − vx,i ) = K f − Ki .
2
(13.3.15)
x=xi
2
When we introduce Newton’s Second Law in the form Fx = m ax , then Eq. (13.3.15)
becomes
x=xf
∫ Fx (x) dx = K f − K i . (13.3.16)
x = xi
13-8
The integral of the x -component of the force with respect to displacement in Eq.
(13.3.16) applies to the motion of a point-like object. For extended bodies, Eq. (13.3.16)
applies to the center of mass motion because the external force on a rigid body causes the
center of mass to accelerate.
13.4 Work done by Constant Forces
We will begin our discussion of the concept of work by analyzing the motion of an object
in one dimension acted on by constant forces. Let’s consider the following example: push
a cup forward with a constant force along a desktop. When the cup changes velocity (and
hence kinetic energy), the sum of the forces acting on the cup must be non-zero according
to Newton’s Second Law. There are three forces involved in this motion: the applied
     
pushing force F a ; the contact force C ≡ N + fk ; and gravity F g = mg . The force diagram
on the cup is shown in Figure 13.2.
Figure 13.2 Force diagram for cup.
Let’s choose our coordinate system so that the + x -direction is the direction of the
forward motion of the cup. The pushing force can then be described by

F a = Fxa î . (13.4.1)
Suppose a body moves from an initial point xi to a final point x f so that the
displacement of the point the force acts on is Δx ≡ x f − xi . The work done by a

constant force F a = Fxa î acting on the body is the product of the component of
the force Fxa and the displacement Δx ,
W a = Fxa Δx . (13.4.2)
Work is a scalar quantity; it is not a vector quantity. The SI unit for work is
[1 N ⋅ m] = [1 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s-2 ][1 m] = [1 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s-2 ] = [1 J] . (13.4.3)
13-9
Note that work has the same dimension and the same SI unit as kinetic energy. Because
our applied force is along the direction of motion, both Fxa > 0 and Δx > 0 . In this
example, the work done is just the product of the magnitude of the applied force and the
distance through which that force acts and is positive. In the definition of work done by a
force, the force can act at any point on the body. The displacement that appears in
Equation (13.4.2) is not the displacement of the body but the displacement of the point of
application of the force. For point-like objects, the displacement of the point of
application of the force is equal to the displacement of the body. However for an
extended body, we need to focus on where the force acts and whether or not that point of
application undergoes any displacement in the direction of the force as the following
example illustrates.
Example 13.2 Work Done by Static Fiction
Suppose you are initially standing and you start walking by pushing against the ground
with your feet and your feet do not slip. What is the work done by the static friction force
acting on you?
Solution: When you apply a contact force against the ground, the ground applies an
equal and opposite contact force on you. The tangential component of this constant force
is the force of static friction acting on you. Since your foot is at rest while you are
pushing against the ground, there is no displacement of the point of application of this
static friction force. Therefore static friction does zero work on you while you are
accelerating. You may be surprised by this result but if you think about energy
transformation, chemical energy stored in your muscle cells is being transformed into
kinetic energy of motion and thermal energy.
When forces are opposing the motion, as in our example of pushing the cup, the
kinetic friction force is given by
!
F f = f k ,x î = − µ k N î = − µ k mg î . (13.4.4)
Here the component of the force is in the opposite direction as the displacement. The
work done by the kinetic friction force is negative,
W f = − µ k mgΔx . (13.4.5)
Since the gravitation force is perpendicular to the motion of the cup, the gravitational
force has no component along the line of motion. Therefore the gravitation force does
zero work on the cup when the cup is slid forward in the horizontal direction. The
normal force is also perpendicular to the motion, and hence does no work.
13-10
We see that the pushing force does positive work, the kinetic friction force does
negative work, and the gravitation and normal force does zero work.
Example 13.3 Work Done by Force Applied in the Direction of Displacement
Push a cup of mass 0.2 kg along a horizontal table with a force of magnitude 2.0 N for a
distance of 0.5 m. The coefficient of friction between the table and the cup is µ k = 0.10 .
Calculate the work done by the pushing force and the work done by the friction force.
Solution: The work done by the pushing force is
W a = Fxa Δx = (2.0 N)(0.5 m) = 1.0 J . (13.4.6)
The work done by the friction force is
W f = − µ k mgΔx = −(0.1)(0.2 kg)(9.8 m ⋅s-2 )(0.5 m)= − 0.10 J . (13.4.7)
Example 13.4 Work Done by Force Applied at an Angle to the Direction of

Displacement
Suppose we push the cup in the previous example with a force of the same magnitude but
at an angle θ = 30o upwards with respect to the table. Calculate the work done by the
pushing force. Calculate the work done by the kinetic friction force.
Solution: The force diagram on the cup and coordinate system is shown in Figure 13.3.
Figure 13.3 Force diagram on cup.
The x -component of the pushing force is now
Fxa = F a cos(θ ) = (2.0 N)(cos(30 )) = 1.7 N . (13.4.8)
The work done by the pushing force is
13-11
W a = Fxa Δx = (1.7 N)(0.5 m) = 8.7 × 10−1 J . (13.4.9)
The kinetic friction force is


F f = − µ k N î . (13.4.10)
In this case, the magnitude of the normal force is not simply the same as the weight of the
cup. We need to find the y -component of the applied force,
Fya = F a sin(θ ) = (2.0 N)(sin(30o ) = 1.0 N . (13.4.11)
To find the normal force, we apply Newton’s Second Law in the y -direction,
Fya + N − mg = 0 . (13.4.12)
Then the normal force is
N = mg − Fya = (0.2 kg)(9.8 m ⋅s −2 ) − (1.0 N) = 9.6 × 10−1 N . (13.4.13)
The work done by the kinetic friction force is
W f = − µ k N Δx = −(0.1)(9.6 × 10−1 N)(0.5 m) = 4.8 × 10−2 J . (13.4.14)
Example 13.5 Work done by Gravity Near the Surface of the Earth
Consider a point-like body of mass m near the surface of the earth falling directly
towards the center of the earth. The gravitation force between the body and the earth is
 
nearly constant, Fgrav = mg . Let’s choose a coordinate system with the origin at the
surface of the earth and the + y -direction pointing away from the center of the earth
Suppose the body starts from an initial point yi and falls to a final point y f closer to the
earth. How much work does the gravitation force do on the body as it falls?
Solution: The displacement of the body is negative, Δy ≡ y f − yi < 0 . The gravitation

force is given by
 
F g = mg = Fyg ĵ = −mg ĵ . (13.4.15)
The work done on the body is then
W g = Fyg Δy = −mgΔy . (13.4.16)
13-12
For a falling body, the displacement of the body is negative, Δy ≡ y f − yi < 0 ; therefore
the work done by gravity is positive, W g > 0 . The gravitation force is pointing in the
same direction as the displacement of the falling object so the work should be positive.
When an object is rising while under the influence of a gravitation force,

Δy ≡ y f − yi > 0 . The work done by the gravitation force for a rising body is negative,
W g < 0 , because the gravitation force is pointing in the opposite direction from that in
which the object is displaced.
It’s important to note that the choice of the positive direction as being away from the
center of the earth (“up”) does not make a difference. If the downward direction were
chosen positive, the falling body would have a positive displacement and the
gravitational force as given in Equation (13.4.15) would have a positive downward
component; the product Fyg Δy would still be positive.
13.5 Work done by Non-Constant Forces
Consider a body moving in the x -direction under the influence of a non-constant force in

the x -direction, F = Fx î . The body moves from an initial position xi to a final position
x f . In order to calculate the work done by a non-constant force, we will divide up the
displacement of the point of application of the force into a large number N of small
displacements Δx j where the index j marks the j th displacement and takes integer
values from 1 to N . Let ( Fx , j ) ave denote the average value of the x -component of the
force in the displacement interval [ x j −1 , x j ] . For the j th displacement interval we
calculate the contribution to the work
W j = ( Fx, j )ave Δx j (13.5.1)
This contribution is a scalar so we add up these scalar quantities to get the total work
j= N j= N
WN = ∑ W j = ∑ (Fx, j )ave Δx j . (13.5.2)
j=1 j=1
The sum in Equation (13.5.2) depends on the number of divisions N and the width of the
intervals Δx j . In order to define a quantity that is independent of the divisions, we take
the limit as N → ∞ and Δx j → 0 for all j . The work is then
13-13
j= N x=x f
W = lim
N→∞
∑ (F ) Δx j =
x, j ave ∫ Fx (x) dx (13.5.3)
j=1 x=xi
Δx j →0
This last expression is the definite integral of the x -component of the force with respect
to the parameter x . In Figure 13.5 we graph the x -component of the force as a function
of the parameter x . The work integral is the area under this curve between x = xi and
x = xf .
Figure 13.5 Plot of x -component of a sample force Fx (x) as a function of x .
Example 13.6 Work done by the Spring Force
Connect one end of an unstretched spring of length l0 with spring constant k to an object
resting on a smooth frictionless table and fix the other end of the spring to a wall. Choose
an origin as shown in the figure. Stretch the spring by an amount xi and release the
object. How much work does the spring do on the object when the spring is stretched by
an amount x f ?
xi xf
l0 î l0 î l0 î
x=0 x=0 x=0

Figure 13.6 Equilibrium, initial and final states for a spring
Solution: We first begin by choosing a coordinate system with our origin located at the
position of the object when the spring is unstretched (or uncompressed). We choose the î
unit vector to point in the direction the object moves when the spring is being stretched.
We choose the coordinate function x to denote the position of the object with respect to
the origin. We show the coordinate function and free-body force diagram in the figure
below.
13-14
x x
l0 î î
F = Fx î = kxî
x=0 x=0
Figure 13.6a Spring force
The spring force on the object is given by (Figure 13.6a)

!
F = Fx î = −k xî (13.5.4)
In Figure 13.7 we show the graph of the x -component of the spring force, Fx (x) , as a
function of x .
Fx (x)
xf xi +x
Fx (x) = k x
Figure 13.7 Plot of spring force Fx (x) vs. displacement x
The work done is just the area under the curve for the interval xi to x f ,
x ′ =x f x ′ =x f
1
W= ∫
x ′ =xi
Fx (x ′ ) dx ′ = ∫
x ′ =xi
−kx ′ dx ′ = − k(x 2f − xi2 )
2
(13.5.5)
This result is independent of the sign of xi and x f because both quantities appear as
squares. If the spring is less stretched or compressed in the final state than in the initial
state, then the absolute value, x f < xi , and the work done by the spring force is positive.
The spring force does positive work on the body when the spring goes from a state of
“greater tension” to a state of “lesser tension.”
13.6 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
13-15
There is a direct connection between the work done on a point-like object and the change
in kinetic energy the point-like object undergoes. If the work done on the object is non-
zero, this implies that an unbalanced force has acted on the object, and the object will
have undergone acceleration. For an object undergoing one-dimensional motion the left
hand side of Equation (13.3.16) is the work done on the object by the component of the
sum of the forces in the direction of displacement,
x=x f
1 1
W= ∫
x=xi
Fx dx =
2
mv f 2 − mvi 2 = K f − K i = ΔK
2
(13.6.1)
When the work done on an object is positive, the object will increase its speed, and
negative work done on an object causes a decrease in speed. When the work done is zero,
the object will maintain a constant speed. In fact, the work-energy relationship is quite
precise; the work done by the applied force on an object is identically equal to the change
in kinetic energy of the object.
Example 13.7 Gravity and the Work-Energy Theorem
Suppose a ball of mass m = 0.2 kg starts from rest at a height y0 = 15 m above the
surface of the earth and falls down to a height y f = 5.0 m above the surface of the earth.
What is the change in the kinetic energy? Find the final velocity using the work-energy
theorem.
Solution: As only one force acts on the ball, the change in kinetic energy is the work
done by gravity,
W g = −mg( y f − y0 )
(13.6.2)
= (−2.0 × 10−1 kg)(9.8 m ⋅s-2 )(5 m − 15 m) = 2.0 × 101 J.
The ball started from rest, v y,0 = 0 . So the change in kinetic energy is
1 1 1
ΔK = mv y, f 2 − mv y,0 2 = mv y, f 2 . (13.6.3)
2 2 2
We can solve Equation (13.6.3) for the final velocity using Equation (13.6.2)
2ΔK 2W g 2(2.0 × 101 J)

v y, f = = = = 1.4 × 101 m ⋅s-1 . (13.6.4)
m m 0.2 kg
For the falling ball in a constant gravitation field, the positive work of the gravitation
force on the body corresponds to an increasing kinetic energy and speed. For a rising
13-16
body in the same field, the kinetic energy and hence the speed decrease since the work
done is negative.
Example 13.7 Final Kinetic Energy of Moving Cup
A person pushes a cup of mass 0.2 kg along a horizontal table with a force of magnitude
2.0 N at an angle of 30o with respect to the horizontal for a distance of 0.5 m as in
Example 13.4. The coefficient of friction between the table and the cup is µ k = 0.1. If the
cup was initially at rest, what is the final kinetic energy of the cup after being pushed 0.5
m? What is the final speed of the cup?
Solution: The total work done on the cup is the sum of the work done by the pushing
force and the work done by the friction force, as given in Equations (13.4.9) and
(13.4.14),
W = W a + W f = (Fxa − µ k N )(x f − xi )
. (13.6.5)
= (1.7 N − 9.6 × 10−2 N)(0.5 m) = 8.0 × 10−1 J
The initial velocity is zero so the change in kinetic energy is just
1 1 1
ΔK = mv y, f 2 − mv y,0 2 = mv y, f 2 . (13.6.6)
2 2 2
Thus the work-kinetic energy theorem, Eq.(13.6.1)), enables us to solve for the final
kinetic energy,
1
K f = mv f 2 = ΔK = W = 8.0 × 10−1 J . (13.6.7)
2
We can solve for the final speed,
2K f 2W 2(8.0 × 10−1 J)
v y, f = = = = 2.9 m ⋅s-1 . (13.6.8)
m m 0.2 kg
13.7 Power Applied by a Constant Force


Suppose that an applied force F a acts on a body during a time interval Δt , and the
displacement of the point of application of the force is in the x -direction by an amount
Δx . The work done, ΔW a , during this interval is
ΔW a = Fxa Δx . (13.7.1)
where Fxa is the x -component of the applied force. (Equation (13.7.1) is the same as
Equation (13.4.2).)
13-17
The average power of an applied force is defined to be the rate at which work is
done,
ΔW a Fxa Δx
P =
a
= = Fxa vave,x . (13.7.2)
ave
Δt Δt
The average power delivered to the body is equal to the component of the force in the
direction of motion times the component of the average velocity of the body. Power is a
scalar quantity and can be positive, zero, or negative depending on the sign of work. The
SI units of power are called watts [W] and [1 W] = [1 J ⋅ s-1 ] .
The instantaneous power at time t is defined to be the limit of the average power
as the time interval [t,t + Δt] approaches zero,
ΔW a F a Δx ⎛ Δx ⎞
P a = lim = lim x = Fxa ⎜ lim ⎟ = Fxa vx . (13.7.3)
Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt ⎝ Δt→0 Δt ⎠
The instantaneous power of a constant applied force is the product of the component of
the force in the direction of motion and the instantaneous velocity of the moving object.
Example 13.8 Gravitational Power for a Falling Object
Suppose a ball of mass m = 0.2 kg starts from rest at a height y0 = 15 m above the
surface of the earth and falls down to a height y f = 5.0 m above the surface of the earth.
What is the average power exerted by the gravitation force? What is the instantaneous
power when the ball is at a height y f = 5.0 m above the surface of the Earth? Make a
graph of power vs. time. You may ignore the effects of air resistance.
Solution: There are two ways to solve this problem. Both approaches require calculating
the time interval Δt for the ball to fall. Set t0 = 0 for the time the ball was released. We
can solve for the time interval Δt = t f that it takes the ball to fall using the equation for a
freely falling object that starts from rest,
1 2
y f = y0 − gt . (13.7.4)
2 f
Thus the time interval for falling is
2 2
tf = (y − yf ) = (15 m − 5 m) = 1.4 s . (13.7.5)
g 0 9.8 m ⋅ s-2
13-18
First approach: we can calculate the work done by gravity,
W g = −mg( y f − y0 )
(13.7.6)
= (−2.0 × 10−1 kg)(9.8 m ⋅s-2 )(5 m − 15 m) = 2.0 × 101 J.
Then the average power is

ΔW 2.0 × 101 J
P =g
= = 1.4 × 101 W . (13.7.7)
ave
Δt 1.4 s
Second Approach. We calculate the gravitation force and the average velocity. The
gravitation force is
Fyg = −mg = −(2.0 × 10−1 kg)(9.8 m ⋅s-2 ) = −2.0 N . (13.7.8)
The average velocity is

Δy 5 m − 15 m
vave,y = = = −7.0 m ⋅s-1 . (13.7.9)
Δt 1.4 s
The average power is therefore
g
Pave = Fyg vave,y = (−mg)vave,y
(13.7.10)
= (−2.0 N)(−7.0 m ⋅s-1 ) = 1.4 × 101 W.
In order to find the instantaneous power at any time, we need to find the instantaneous
velocity at that time. The ball takes a time t f = 1.4 s to reach the height y f = 5.0 m . The
velocity at that height is given by
v y = −gt f = −(9.8 m ⋅ s-2 )(1.4 s) = −1.4 × 101 m ⋅ s-1 . (13.7.11)
So the instantaneous power at time t f = 1.4 s is
P g = Fyg v y = (−mg)(−gt f ) = mg 2t f
(13.7.12)
= (0.2 kg)(9.8 m ⋅s-2 )2 (1.4 s) = 2.7 × 101 W
If this problem were done symbolically, the answers given in Equation (13.7.11) and
Equation (13.7.12) would differ by a factor of two; the answers have been rounded to two
significant figures.
13-19
The instantaneous power grows linearly with time. The graph of power vs. time is shown
in Figure 13.8. From the figure, it should be seen that the instantaneous power at any
time is twice the average power between t = 0 and that time.
Figure 13.8 Graph of power vs. time
Example 13.9 Power Pushing a Cup
A person pushes a cup of mass 0.2 kg along a horizontal table with a force of magnitude
2.0 N at an angle of 30o with respect to the horizontal for a distance of 0.5 m , as in
Example 13.4. The coefficient of friction between the table and the cup is µ k = 0.1. What
is the average power of the pushing force? What is the average power of the kinetic
friction force?
Solution: We will use the results from Examples 13.4 and 13.7 but keeping extra
significant figures in the intermediate calculations. The work done by the pushing force
is
W a = Fxa (x f − x0 ) = (1.732 N)(0.50 m) = 8.660 × 10−1 J . (13.7.13)
The final speed of the cup is vx , f = 2.860 m ⋅ s -1 . Assuming constant acceleration, the
time during which the cup was pushed is
2(x f − x0 )
tf = = 0.3496 s . (13.7.14)
vx, f
The average power of the pushing force is then, with Δt = t f ,
ΔW a 8.660 × 10−1 J
a
Pave = = = 2.340 W , (13.7.15)
Δt 0.3496 s
or 2.3W to two significant figures. The work done by the friction force is
W f = f k (x f − x0 )
(13.7.16)
= − µk N (x f − x0 ) = −(9.6 × 10−2 N)(0.50 m) = −(4.8 × 10−2 J).
13-20
The average power of kinetic friction is
ΔW f −4.8 × 10−2 J
Pavef = = = −1.4 × 10−1 W. (13.7.17)
Δt 0.3496 s
The time rate of change of the kinetic energy for a body of mass m moving in the x -
direction is
dK d ⎛ 1 ⎞ dv
= ⎜ m vx 2 ⎟ = m x vx = m a x vx . (13.7.18)
dt dt ⎝ 2 ⎠ dt
By Newton’s Second Law, Fx = m ax , and so Equation (13.7.18) becomes
dK
= Fx vx = P . (13.7.19)
dt
The instantaneous power delivered to the body is equal to the time rate of change of the
kinetic energy of the body.
13.8 Work and the Scalar Product
We shall introduce a vector operation, called the scalar product or “dot product” that
takes any two vectors and generates a scalar quantity (a number). We shall see that the
physical concept of work can be mathematically described by the scalar product between
the force and the displacement vectors.
13.8.1 Scalar Product

 
Let A and B be two vectors. Because any two non-collinear vectors form a plane, we
 
define the angle θ to be the angle between the vectors A and B as shown in Figure
13.9. Note that θ can vary from 0 to π .
Figure 13.9 Scalar product geometry.

   
The scalar product A ⋅ B of the vectors A and B is defined to be product of the
 
magnitude of the vectors A and B with the cosine of the angle θ between the
two vectors:
13-21
 
A ⋅ B = ABcos(θ ) , (13.8.1)
   
where A = | A | and B = | B | represent the magnitude of A and B respectively.
The scalar product can be positive, zero, or negative, depending on the value of
cosθ . The scalar product is always a scalar quantity.
The angle formed by two vectors is therefore
 
⎛ A ⋅B ⎞
θ = cos −1 ⎜   ⎟ . (13.8.2)
⎜⎝ A B ⎟⎠

The magnitude
 of a vector A is given by the square root of the scalar product of the
vector A with itself.
  
A = ( A ⋅ A)1/ 2 . (13.8.3)
We can give a geometric interpretation to the scalar product by writing the definition as
 
A ⋅ B = ( Acos(θ )) B . (13.8.4)

In this formulation, the term A cosθ is the projection of the vector B in the direction of

the vector B . This projection is shown in Figure 13.10a. So the scalar product is the
  
product of the projection of the length of A in the direction of B with the length of B .
Note that we could also write the scalar product as
 
A ⋅ B = A(Bcos(θ )) . (13.8.5)
 
Now the term Bcos(θ ) is the projection of the vector B in the direction of the vector A
as shown in Figure 13.10b. From this perspective, the scalar product is the product of the
  
projection of the length of B in the direction of A with the length of A .
(a) (b)
13-22
Figure 13.10 (a) and (b) Projection of vectors and the scalar product
From our definition of the scalar product we see that the scalar product of two vectors
that are perpendicular to each other is zero since the angle between the vectors is π / 2
and cos(π / 2) = 0 .
We can calculate the scalar product between two vectors in a Cartesian coordinates

system as follows. Consider two vectors A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ and

B = Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂ . Recall that
î ⋅ î = ĵ⋅ ĵ = k̂ ⋅ k̂ = 1
(13.8.6)
î ⋅ ĵ = ĵ⋅ k̂ = î ⋅ k̂ = 0.
 
The scalar product between A and B is then
 
A ⋅ B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz . (13.8.7)
The time derivative of the scalar product of two vectors is given by
d   d
(A ⋅ B) = (Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz )
dt dt
d d d d d d
= (Ax )Bx + (Ay )By + ( Az )Bz + Ax ( Bx ) + Ay ( By ) + Az ( Bz ) (13.8.8)
dt dt dt dt dt dt
⎛ d ⎞   ⎛ d ⎞
= ⎜ A ⎟ ⋅ B + A ⋅ ⎜ B⎟ .
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
 
In particular
 when A = B , then the time derivative of the square of the magnitude of the
vector A is given by
d 2 d   ⎛ d ⎞   ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞ 
A = (A ⋅ A) = ⎜ A ⎟ ⋅ A + A ⋅ ⎜ A ⎟ = 2 ⎜ A ⎟ ⋅ A . (13.8.9)
dt dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
13.8.2 Kinetic Energy and the Scalar Product
For an object undergoing three-dimensional motion, the velocity of the object in


Cartesian components is given by v = vx î + v y ĵ + vz k̂ . Recall that the magnitude of a
vector is given by the square root of the scalar product of the vector with itself,
  
A ≡ A ≡ ( A ⋅ A)1/ 2 = ( Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 )1/ 2 . (13.8.10)
Therefore the square of the magnitude of the velocity is given by the expression
13-23
 
v 2 ≡ ( v ⋅ v) = vx2 + v 2y + vz2 . (13.8.11)
Hence the kinetic energy of the object is given by
1   1
K= m( v ⋅ v) = m(vx2 + v 2y + vz2 ) . (13.8.12)
2 2
13.8.2 Work and the Scalar Product
Work is an important physical example of the mathematical operation of taking the scalar
product between two vectors. Recall that when a constant force acts on a body and the
point of application of the force undergoes a displacement along the x -axis, only the
component of the force along that direction contributes to the work,
W = Fx Δx . (13.8.13)

Suppose we are pulling a body along a horizontal surface with a force F . Choose

coordinates such that horizontal direction is the x -axis and the force F forms an angle
β with the positive x -direction. In Figure 13.11 we show the force vector

F = Fx î + Fy ˆj and the displacement vector of the point of application of the force
 
Δx = Δx î . Note that Δx = Δx î is the component of the displacement and hence can be
greater, equal, or less than zero (but is shown as greater than zero in the figure for
 
clarity). The scalar product between the force vector F and the displacement vector Δx
is
 
F ⋅ Δx = ( Fx î + Fy ˆj) ⋅ (Δx î ) = Fx Δx . (13.8.14)
Figure 13.11 Force and displacement vectors
The work done by the force is then ! !

W = F ⋅ Δx . (13.8.15)
13-24
In general, the angle β takes values within the range −π ≤ β ≤ π (in Figure 13.11,

0 ≤ β ≤ π / 2 ). Because the x -component of the force is Fx = F cos(β ) where F = | F |

denotes the magnitude of F , the work done by the force is
 
W = F ⋅ Δx = ( F cos( β ))Δx . (13.8.16)
Example 13.10 Object Sliding Down an Inclined Plane
An object of mass m = 4.0 kg , starting from rest, slides down an inclined plane of length
l = 3.0 m . The plane is inclined by an angle of θ = 300 to the ground. The coefficient of
kinetic friction is µ k = 0.2 . (a) What is the work done by each of the three forces while
the object is sliding down the inclined plane? (b) For each force, is the work done by the
force positive or negative? (c) What is the sum of the work done by the three forces? Is
this positive or negative?
Solution: (a) and (b) Choose a coordinate system with the origin at the top of the inclined
plane and the positive x -direction pointing down the inclined plane, and the positive y -
direction pointing towards the upper right as shown in Figure 13.12. While the object is
sliding down the inclined plane, three uniform forces act on the object, the gravitational
force which points downward and has magnitude Fg = mg , the normal force N which is
perpendicular to the surface of the inclined plane, and the friction force which opposes
the motion and is equal in magnitude to f k = µ k N . A force diagram on the object is
shown in Figure 13.13.
Figure 13.12 Coordinate system for Figure 13.13 Free-body force diagram
object sliding down inclined plane for object
In order to calculate the work we need to determine which forces have a component in
the direction of the displacement. Only the component of the gravitational force along the
positive x -direction Fgx = mg sin θ and the friction force are directed along the
displacement and therefore contribute to the work. We need to use Newton’s Second Law
13-25
to determine the magnitudes of the normal force. Because the object is constrained to
move along the positive x -direction, a y = 0 , Newton’s Second Law in the ˆj -direction
N − mg cosθ = 0 . Therefore N = mg cosθ and the magnitude of the friction force is
f k = µ k mg cosθ .
With our choice of coordinate system with the origin at the top of the inclined plane and
the positive x -direction pointing down the inclined plane, the displacement of the object

is given by the vector Δr = Δx î (Figure 13.14).
Figure 13.14 Force vectors and displacement vector for object


The vector decomposition of the three forces are F g = mgsinθ î − mgcosθˆj ,
 
F f = − µ k mgcosθ î , and F N = mgcosθˆj . The work done by the normal force is zero
because the normal force is perpendicular the displacement
 
W N = F N ⋅ Δr = mgcosθ ĵ⋅ l î = 0 .
Then the work done by the friction force is negative and given by
 
W f = F f ⋅ Δr = − µ k mgcosθ î ⋅ l î = − µ k mgcosθ l < 0 .
Substituting in the appropriate values yields
W f = − µ k mg cosθ l = −(0.2)(4.0kg)(9.8m ⋅s-2 )(3.0m)(cos(30o )(3.0m) = −20.4 J .
The work done by the gravitational force is positive and given by

 
W g = F g ⋅ Δr = (mgsinθ î − mgcosθ ĵ) ⋅ l î = mglsinθ > 0 .
Substituting in the appropriate values yields
W g = mglsinθ = (4.0kg)(9.8 m ⋅s-2 )(3.0m)(sin(30o ) = 58.8 J .
13-26
(c) The scalar sum of the work done by the three forces is then
W = W g + W f = mgl(sin θ − µ k cosθ )
W = (4.0kg)(9.8m ⋅s-2 )(3.0m)(sin(30o ) − (0.2)(cos(30o )) = 38.4 J.
13.9 Work done by a Non-Constant Force Along an Arbitrary Path


Suppose that a non-constant force F acts on a point-like body of mass m while the body
is moving on a three dimensional curved path. The position vector of the body at time t

with respect to a choice of origin is r (t ) . In Figure 13.15 we show the orbit of the body
 
for a time interval [ti ,t f ] moving from an initial position ri ≡ r(t = ti ) at time t = ti to a
 
final position r f ≡ r(t = t f ) at time t = t f .
Figure 13.15 Path traced by the motion of a body.
We divide the time interval [ti ,t f ] into N smaller intervals with [t j −1 , t j ] , j = 1,⋅⋅⋅, N
   
with t N = t f . Consider two position vectors r j ≡ r(t = t j ) and r j −1 ≡ r(t = t j −1 ) the
   
displacement vector during the corresponding time interval as Δr j = r j − r j −1 . Let F
denote the force acting on the body during the interval [t j −1 , t j ] . The average force in this

interval is (Fj )ave and the average work ΔW j done by the force during the time interval
[t j −1 , t j ] is the scalar product between the average force vector and the displacement
vector,  
ΔW j = (Fj )ave ⋅ Δr j . (13.8.17)
The force and the displacement vectors for the time interval [t j −1 , t j ] are shown in Figure

13.16 (note that the subscript “ave” on (Fj )ave has been suppressed).
13-27
Figure 13.16 An infinitesimal work element.
We calculate the work by adding these scalar contributions to the work for each
interval [t j −1 , t j ] , for j = 1 to N ,
j= N j= N
 
WN = ∑ ΔW = ∑ (F )
j j ave
⋅ Δr j . (13.8.18)
j =1 j =1
We would like to define work in a manner that is independent of the way we


divide the interval, so we take the limit as N → ∞ and Δr j → 0 for all j . In this limit,
as the intervals become smaller and smaller, the distinction between the average force
and the actual force vanishes. Thus if this limit exists and is well defined, then the work
done by the force is
j= N
  f  
W = lim ∑ (Fj )ave ⋅ Δr j = ∫ F ⋅ d r . (13.8.19)
N →∞ i
 j =1
Δr j →0
Notice that this summation involves adding scalar quantities. This limit is called the line
 
integral of the force F . The symbol dr is called the infinitesimal vector line element.

At time t , dr is tangent to the orbit of the body and is the limit of the displacement
  
vector Δr = r (t + Δt ) − r (t ) as Δt approaches zero. In this limit, the parameter t does not
appear in the expression in Equation (13.8.19).
In general this line integral depends on the particular path the body takes between
  
the initial position ri and the final position r f , which matters when the force F is non-
constant in space, and when the contribution to the work can vary over different paths in
space. We can represent the integral in Equation (13.8.19) explicitly in a coordinate

system by specifying the infinitesimal vector line element dr and then explicitly
computing the scalar product.
13.9.1 Work Integral in Cartesian Coordinates
In Cartesian coordinates the line element is
13-28

dr = dx î + dy ˆj + dz kˆ , (13.8.20)
where dx , dy , and dz represent arbitrary displacements in the î -, ˆj -, and k̂ -directions

respectively as seen in Figure 13.17.
Figure 13.17 A line element in Cartesian coordinates.
The force vector can be represented in vector notation by


F = Fx î + Fy ˆj + Fz k
ˆ. (13.8.21)
The infinitesimal work is the sum of the work done by the component of the force times
the component of the displacement in each direction,
dW = Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz . (13.8.22)
Eq. (13.8.22) is just the scalar product

 
dW = F ⋅ dr = (Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂) ⋅(dx î + dy ĵ + dz k̂)
, (13.8.23)
= Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz
The work is
         
r = rf r = rf r = rf r = rf r = rf
 
W= ∫
 
F ⋅ dr = ∫
 
(Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz) = ∫
 
Fx dx + ∫
 
Fy dy + ∫
 
Fz dz . (13.8.24)
r = r0 r = r0 r = r0 r = r0 r = r0
13.9.2 Work Integral in Cylindrical Coordinates
In cylindrical coordinates the line element is


dr = dr r̂ + rdθ θ̂ + dz k̂ , (13.8.25)
where dr , rdθ , and dz represent arbitrary displacements in the r̂ -, θ̂ -, and k̂ -directions

respectively as seen in Figure 13.18.
13-29

Figure 13.18 Displacement vector d s between two points
The force vector can be represented in vector notation by


F = Fr r̂ + Fθ θ̂ + Fz k̂ . (13.8.26)
The infinitesimal work is the scalar product

 
dW = F ⋅ dr = (Fr r̂ + Fθ θ̂ + Fz k̂) ⋅(dr r̂ + rdθ θ̂ + dz k̂)
(13.8.27)
= Fr dr + Fθ rdθ + Fz dz.
The work is
         
r = rf r = rf r = rf r = rf r = rf
 
W= ∫
 
F ⋅ dr = ∫
 
(Fr dr + Fθ rdθ + Fz dz) = ∫
 
Fr dr + ∫
 
Fθ rdθ + ∫
 
Fz dz . (13.8.28)
r = r0 r = r0 r = r0 r = r0 r = r0
Example 13.11 Work Done in a Constant Gravitation Field
The work done in a uniform gravitation field is a fairly straightforward calculation when
the body moves in the direction of the field. Suppose the body is moving under the

influence of gravity, F = −mg ˆj along a parabolic curve. The body begins at the point
(x0 , y0 ) and ends at the point (x f , y f ) . What is the work done by the gravitation force on
the body?

Solution: The infinitesimal line element dr is therefore

dr = dx î + dy ˆj . (13.9.1)
13-30
The scalar product that appears in the line integral can now be calculated,
 
F ⋅ d r = −mg ĵ ⋅[dx î + dy ĵ] = −mgdy . (13.9.2)
This result is not surprising since the force is only in the y -direction. Therefore the only
non-zero contribution to the work integral is in the y -direction, with the result that
  y= y f
rf y= y f
W = ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ Fy dy = ∫ −mgdy = −mg ( y f − y0 ) . (13.9.3)

r0 y = y0 y = y0
In this case of a constant force, the work integral is independent of path.
Example 13.12 Hooke’s Law Spring-Body System
Consider a spring-body system lying on a frictionless horizontal surface with one end of
the spring fixed to a wall and the other end attached to a body of mass m (Figure 13.19).
Calculate the work done by the spring force on body as the body moves from some initial
position to some final position.
Figure 13.19 A spring-body system.
Solution: Choose the origin at the position of the center of the body when the spring is
relaxed (the equilibrium position). Let x be the displacement of the body from the origin.
We choose the +iˆ unit vector to point in the direction the body moves when the spring is
being stretched (to the right of x = 0 in the figure). The spring force on the body is then
given by

F = Fx î = −kx î . (13.9.4)
The work done by the spring force on the mass is
x=xf
1
Wspring = ∫ (−kx) dx = − k(x f 2 − x0 2 ) .
2
(13.9.5)
x = x0
13-31
Example 13.13 Work done by the Inverse Square Gravitation Force
Consider a body of mass m in moving in a fixed orbital plane about the sun. The mass of
the sun is ms . How much work does the gravitation interaction between the sun and the
body done on the body during this motion?
Solution: Let’s assume that the sun is fixed and choose a polar coordinate system with
the origin at the center of the sun. Initially the body is at a distance r0 from the center of
the sun. In the final configuration the body has moved to a distance rf < r0 from the
center of the sun. The infinitesimal displacement of the body is given by

dr = dr r̂ + rdθ θ̂ . The gravitation force between the sun and the body is given by
 Gm m
Fgrav = Fgrav ˆr = − 2s ˆr . (13.9.6)
r
The infinitesimal work done work done by this gravitation force on the body is given by
 
dW = Fgrav ⋅ dr = (Fgrav,r r̂) ⋅(dr r̂ + rdθ θ̂) = Fgrav,r dr . (13.9.7)
Therefore the work done on the object as the object moves from ri to r f is given by the
integral
rf r r
 
f f
⎛ Gmsun m ⎞
W = ∫ Fgrav ⋅ d r = ∫ Fgrav,r dr = ∫ ⎜ − dr . (13.9.8)
ri ri ri ⎝ r 2 ⎟⎠
Upon evaluation of this integral, we have for the work
r
rf
⎛ Gmsun m ⎞ Gmsun m
f
⎛ 1 1⎞
W = ∫⎜− 2 ⎟ dr = = Gm m
sun ⎜
− ⎟. (13.9.9)
ri ⎝ r ⎠ r ri ⎝ r f
ri ⎠
Because the body has moved closer to the sun, r f < ri , hence 1 / rf > 1 / ri . Thus the work
done by gravitation force between the sun and the body, on the body is positive,
⎛ 1 1⎞
W = Gmsun m ⎜ − ⎟ > 0 (13.9.10)
⎝ r f ri ⎠
We expect this result because the gravitation force points along the inward radial
direction, so the scalar product and hence work of the force and the displacement is
positive when the body moves closer to the sun. Also we expect that the sign of the work
13-32
is the same for a body moving closer to the sun as a body falling towards the earth in a
constant gravitation field, as seen in Example 4.7.1 above.
Example 13.14 Work Done by the Inverse Square Electrical Force
Let’s consider two point-like bodies, body 1 and body 2, with charges q1 and q2
respectively interacting via the electric force alone. Body 1 is fixed in place while body 2
is free to move in an orbital plane. How much work does the electric force do on the body
2 during this motion?
Solution: The calculation in nearly identical to the calculation of work done by the
gravitational inverse square force in Example 13.13. The most significant difference is
that the electric force can be either attractive or repulsive while the gravitation force is
always attractive. Once again we choose polar coordinates centered on body 2 in the
plane of the orbit. Initially a distance r0 separates the bodies and in the final state a
distance r f separates the bodies. The electric force between the bodies is given by
 1 q1q2
Felec = Felec r̂ = Felec,r r̂ = r̂ . (13.9.11)
4πε 0 r 2
The work done by this electric force on the body 2 is given by the integral
rf r rf
 
f
1 q1q2
W = ∫ Felec ⋅ d r = ∫ Felec ,r dr = ∫ dr . (13.9.12)
r r
4πε 0 ri r2
i i
Evaluating this integral, we have for the work done by the electric force
rf
rf
1 q1q2 1 q1q2 1 ⎛ 1 1⎞
W=∫ dr = − =− q1q2 ⎜ − ⎟ . (13.9.13)
ri
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2 ri
4πε 0 ⎝ r f ri ⎠
If the charges have opposite signs, q1q2 < 0 , we expect that the body 2 will move closer
to body 1 so rf < ri , and 1 / rf > 1 / ri . From our result for the work, the work done by
electrical force in moving body 2 is positive,
1 1 1
W =− q1q2 ( − ) > 0 . (13.9.14)
4πε 0 rf ri
Once again we see that bodies under the influence of electric forces only will naturally
move in the directions in which the force does positive work. If the charges have the
same sign, then q1q2 > 0 . They will repel with rf > ri and 1 / rf < 1 / ri . Thus the work is
once again positive:
13-33
1 ⎛ 1 1⎞
W =− q1q2 ⎜ − ⎟ > 0 . (13.9.15)
4πε 0 ⎝ rf ri ⎠
13.11 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem in Three Dimensions
Recall our mathematical result that for one-dimensional motion
f f f f
dvx dx 1 1
m ∫ ax dx = m ∫ dx = m ∫ dvx = m ∫ vx dvx = mvx,2 f − mvx,2 i . (13.11.1)
i i
dt i
dt i
2 2
Using Newton’s Second Law in the form Fx = m ax , we concluded that
f
1 1 2
∫ F dx = 2 mv − mvx,i
2
x x, f
. (13.11.2)
i
2
Eq. (13.11.2) generalizes to the y - and z -directions:
f
1 2 1
∫F
i
y
dy =
2
mv y, f − mv 2y, i ,
2
(13.11.3)
f
1 1
∫ F dz = 2 mv − mvz,2 i .
2
z z, f
(13.11.4)
i
2
Adding Eqs. (13.11.2), (13.11.3), and (13.11.4) yields
f
1 1
∫ (F dx + F
i
x y
dy + Fz dz) =
2
m(vx,2 f + v 2y, f + vz,2 f ) − m(vx,2 i + v 2y, i + vz,2 i ) .
2
(13.11.5)
Recall(Eq. (13.8.24)) that the left hand side of Eq. (13.11.5) is the work done by the
force F on the object
f f f
 
W = ∫ dW = ∫ (Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz) = ∫ F ⋅ d r (13.11.6)
i i i
The right hand side of Eq. (13.11.5) is the change in kinetic energy of the object
1 1 1 1
ΔK ≡ K f − K i = mv f 2 − mv0 2 = m(vx,2 f + v 2y, f + vz,2 f ) − m(vx,2 i + v 2y, i + vz,2 i ) . (13.11.7)
2 2 2 2
Therefore Eq. (13.11.5) is the three dimensional generalization of the work-kinetic

energy theorem
13-34
f
 
∫ F ⋅ dr = K
i
f
− Ki . (13.11.8)
When the work done on an object is positive, the object will increase its speed, and
negative work done on an object causes a decrease in speed. When the work done is zero,
the object will maintain a constant speed.
13.11.1 Instantaneous Power Applied by a Non-Constant Force for Three

Dimensional Motion
Recall that for one-dimensional motion, the instantaneous power at time t is defined to
be the limit of the average power as the time interval [t,t + Δt] approaches zero,
P(t) = Fxa (t)vx (t) . (13.11.9)
A more general result for the instantaneous power is found by using the expression for
dW as given in Equation (13.8.23),
 
dW F ⋅ d r  
P= = = F⋅v . (13.11.10)
dt dt
The time rate of change of the kinetic energy for a body of mass m is equal to the power,

dK 1 d   dv     
= m ( v ⋅ v) = m ⋅ v = m a ⋅ v = F ⋅ v = P . (13.11.11)
dt 2 dt dt
where the we used Eq. (13.8.9), Newton’s Second Law and Eq. (13.11.10).
13-35
Appendix 13A Work Done on a System of Two Particles
We shall show that the work done by an internal force in changing a system of two
particles of masses m1 and m2 respectively from an initial state A to a final state B is
equal to
1
Wc = µ (v B2 − v 2A ) (13.1.1)
2
where vB2 is the square of the relative velocity in state B , v A2 is the square of the relative
velocity in state A , and µ = m1m2 / (m1 + m2 ) .
Consider two bodies 1 and 2 and an interaction pair of forces shown in Figure 13A.1.
Figure 13A.1 System of two bodies interacting
We choose a coordinate system shown in Figure 13A.2.
Figure 13A.2 Coordinate system for two-body interaction
Newton’s Second Law applied to body 1 is


 d 2r1
F2,1 = m1 2 (13.1.2)
dt
and applied to body 2 is
13-36
 
d 2r2
F1,2 = m2 2 . (13.1.3)
dt
Divide each side of Equation (13.1.2) by m1 ,

 
F2,1 d 2r1
= 2 (13.1.4)
m1 dt
and divide each side of Equation (13.1.3) by m2 ,

 
F1,2 d 2r2
= . (13.1.5)
m2 dt 2
Subtract Equation (13.1.5) from Equation (13.1.4) yielding

    
F2,1 F1,2 d 2r1 d 2r2 d 2r2,1
− = − = , (13.1.6)
m1 m2 dt 2 dt 2 dt 2
    
where r2,1 = r1 − r2 . Use Newton’s Third Law, F2,1 = −F1, 2 on the left hand side of
Equation (13.1.6) to obtain
2 2 2
 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ d r1 d r2 d r2,1
F2,1 ⎜ + ⎟ = 2 − 2 = . (13.1.7)
⎝ m1 m2 ⎠ dt dt dt 2

The quantity d 2r1,2 / dt 2 is the relative acceleration of body 1 with respect to body 2.
Define
1 1 1
≡ + . (13.1.8)
µ m1 m2
The quantity µ is known as the reduced mass of the system. Equation (13.1.7) now
takes the form

 d 2r2,1
F2,1 = µ . (13.1.9)
dt 2
The work done in the system in displacing the two masses from an initial state A to a
final state B is given by
B
 
B
 
W = ∫ F2,1 ⋅ d r1 + ∫ F1,2 ⋅ d r2 . (13.1.10)
A A
13-37
Recall by the work energy theorem that the LHS is the work done on the system,
B
 
B
 
W = ∫ F2,1 ⋅ d r1 + ∫ F1,2 ⋅ d r2 = ΔK . (13.1.11)
A A
From Newton’s Third Law, the sum in Equation (13.1.10) becomes
B
 
B
 
B
  
B
 
W = ∫ F2,1 ⋅ d r1 − ∫ F2,1 ⋅ d r2 = ∫ F2,1 ⋅(d r1 − d r2 ) = ∫ F2,1 ⋅ d r2,1 , (13.1.12)
A A A A

where d r2,1 is the relative displacement of the two bodies. We can now substitute
Newton’s Second Law, Equation (13.1.9), for the relative acceleration into Equation
(13.1.12),
 B ⎛ 2 
 B

B
d 2r2,1  d r2,1 dr2,1 ⎞
W = ∫ F2,1 ⋅ d r2,1 = ∫ µ ⋅ d r2,1 = µ ∫ ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ dt , (13.1.13)
A A dt 2 A ⎝ dt
2
dt ⎠

 dr2,1
where we have used the relation between the differential elements dr2,1 = dt . The
dt
product rule for derivatives of the scalar product of a vector with itself is given for this
case by
  2 
1 d ⎛ dr2,1 dr2,1 ⎞ d r2,1 dr2,1
⎜ ⋅ ⎟= ⋅ . (13.1.14)
2 dt ⎝ dt dt ⎠ dt 2 dt
Substitute Equation (13.1.14) into Equation (13.1.13), which then becomes

 
1 d ⎛ dr2,1 dr2,1 ⎞
B
W = µ∫ ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ dt . (13.1.15)
A
2 dt ⎝ dt dt ⎠
Equation (13.1.15) is now the integral of an exact derivative, yielding
  B
1 ⎛ dr2,1 dr2,1 ⎞ 1   B 1
W = µ⎜ ⋅ ⎟ = µ ( v 2,1 ⋅ v 2,1 ) = µ (v B2 − v 2A ) , (13.1.16)
2 ⎝ dt dt ⎠ 2 A 2
A

where v 2,1 is the relative velocity between the two bodies. It’s important to note that in
the above derivation had we exchanged the roles of body 1 and 2 i.e. 1→ 2 and 2 → 1 ,
we would have obtained the identical result because
13-38
 
F1,2 = −F2,1
   
r1,2 = r2 − r1 = − r2,1
    (13.1.17)
d r1,2 = d(r2 − r1 ) = −d r2,1
 
v1,2 = − v 2,1.
Equation (13.1.16) implies that the work done is the change in the kinetic energy of the
system, which we can write in terms of the reduced mass and the change in the square of
relative speed of the two objects
1
ΔK = µ (v B2 − v 2A ) . (13.1.18)
2
13-39
Chapter 14 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
14.1 Conservation of Energy ........................................................................................ 1

14.2 Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces ...................................................... 2
14.3 Changes in Potential Energies of a System ......................................................... 5
14.3.1 Change in Potential Energy for Several Conservative Forces ................... 8
14.4 Change in Potential Energy and Zero Point for Potential Energy................... 9
14.4.1 Change in Gravitational Potential Energy Near Surface of the Earth ..... 9
14.4.2 Hooke’s Law Spring-Object System .......................................................... 11
14.4.3 Inverse Square Gravitation Force .............................................................. 12
14.5 Mechanical Energy and Conservation of Mechanical Energy ....................... 13
14.5.1 Change in Gravitational potential Energy Near Surface of the Earth ... 13
14.6 Spring Force Energy Diagram........................................................................... 14
Example 14.1 Energy Diagram .............................................................................. 17
14.7 Change of Mechanical Energy for Closed System with Internal Non-
conservative Forces ..................................................................................................... 19
14.7.1 Change of Mechanical Energy for a Non-closed System .......................... 20
14.8 Dissipative Forces: Friction ............................................................................... 21
14.8.1 Source Energy .............................................................................................. 22
14.9 Worked Examples ............................................................................................... 22
Example 14.2 Escape Velocity of Toro .................................................................. 22
Example 14.3 Spring-Block-Loop-the-Loop ......................................................... 24
Example 14.4 Mass-Spring on a Rough Surface .................................................. 26
Example 14.5 Cart-Spring on an Inclined Plane.................................................. 27
Example 14.6 Object Sliding on a Sphere ............................................................. 29
Equation Chapter 8 Section 1 Chapter 14 Potential Energy and
Conservation of Energy
There is a fact, or if you wish, a law, governing all natural phenomena

that are known to date. There is no exception to this law — it is exact as
far as we know. The law is called the conservation of energy. It states that
there is a certain quantity, which we call energy that does not change in
the manifold changes which nature undergoes. That is a most abstract
idea, because it is a mathematical principle; it says that there is a
numerical quantity, which does not change when something happens. It is
not a description of a mechanism, or anything concrete; it is just a strange
fact that we can calculate some number and when we finish watching
nature go through her tricks and calculate the number again, it is the
same. 1
Richard Feynman
So far we have analyzed the motion of point-like objects under the action of forces using
Newton’s Laws of Motion. We shall now introduce the Principle of Conservation of
Energy to study the change in energy of a system between its initial and final states. In
particular we shall introduce the concept of potential energy to describe the effect of
conservative internal forces acting on the constituent components of a system.
14.1 Conservation of Energy
Recall from Chapter 13.1, the principle of conservation of energy. When a system and its
surroundings undergo a transition from an initial state to a final state, the change in
energy is zero,
ΔE = ΔEsystem + ΔEsurroundings = 0 . (14.1.1)
Figure 14.1 Diagram of a system and its surroundings
We shall study types of energy transformations due to interactions both inside and across
the boundary of a system.
1
Richard P. Feynman, Robert B. Leighton, and Matthew Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics,
Vol. 1, p. 4.1.
14-1
14.2 Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces
Our first type of “energy accounting” involves mechanical energy. There are two types of
mechanical energy, kinetic energy and potential energy. Our first task is to define what
we mean by the change of the potential energy of a system.

We defined the work done by a force F , on an object, which moves along a path
 
from an initial position ri to a final position r f , as the integral of the component of the
force tangent to the path with respect to the displacement of the point of contact of the
force and the object,
 
W = ∫ F ⋅ dr . (14.2.1)
path
Does the work done on the object by the force depend on the path taken by the
object?
(a) (b)
Figure 14.2 (a) and (b) Two different paths connecting the same initial and final points
First consider the motion of an object under the influence of a gravitational force near the
surface of the earth. Let’s consider two paths 1 and 2 shown in Figure 14.2. Both paths
begin at the initial point (xi , yi ) = (0, yi ) and end at the final point (x f , y f ) = (x f ,0) . The
gravitational force always points downward, so with our choice of coordinates,

F = −mg ˆj . The infinitesimal displacement along path 1 (Figure 14.2a) is given by

dr1 = dx1 î + dy1 ĵ . The scalar product is then
 
F ⋅ dr1 = −mg ĵ ⋅ (dx1 î + dy1 ĵ) = −mgdy1 . (14.2.2)
The work done by gravity along path 1 is the integral
( x f ,0)
 
W1 = ∫
path 1
F ⋅ dr = ∫
(0, yi )
−mg dy1 = −mg(0 − yi ) = mgyi . (14.2.3)
14-2
Path 2 consists of two legs (Figure 14.2b), leg A goes from the initial point (0, yi )
to the origin (0,0) , and leg B goes from the origin (0,0) to the final point (x f ,0) . We
shall calculate the work done along the two legs and then sum them up. The infinitesimal

displacement along leg A is given by drA = dyA ĵ . The scalar product is then
 
F ⋅ drA = −mg ĵ ⋅ dy A ĵ = −mgdy A . (14.2.4)
The work done by gravity along leg A is the integral
  (0,0)
WA = ∫
leg A
F ⋅ d rA = ∫
(0, yi )
−mg dyA = −mg(0 − yi ) = mgyi . (14.2.5)

The infinitesimal displacement along leg B is given by drB = dx B î . The scalar product is
then
 
F ⋅ drB = −mg ĵ ⋅ dx B î = 0 . (14.2.6)
Therefore the work done by gravity along leg B is zero, WB = 0 , which is no surprise
because leg B is perpendicular to the direction of the gravitation force. Therefore the
work done along path 2 is equal to the work along path 1,
W2 = WA + WB = mgyi = W1 . (14.2.7)
Now consider the motion of an object on a surface with a kinetic frictional force
between the object and the surface and denote the coefficient of kinetic friction by µk .
Let’s compare two paths from an initial point xi to a final point x f . The first path is a
straight-line path. Along this path the work done is just
 
Wf = ∫
path 1
F ⋅ dr = ∫
path 1
Fx dx = − µk N s1 = − µk N Δx < 0 , (14.2.8)
where the length of the path is equal to the displacement, s1 = Δx . Note that the fact that
the kinetic frictional force is directed opposite to the displacement, which is reflected in
the minus sign in Equation (14.2.8). The second path goes past x f some distance and
them comes back to x f (Figure 14.3). Because the force of friction always opposes the
motion, the work done by friction is negative,
 
Wf = ∫
path 2
F ⋅ dr = ∫
path 2
Fx dx = − µk N s2 < 0 . (14.2.9)
14-3
The work depends on the total distance traveled s2 , and is greater than the displacement
s2 > Δx . The magnitude of the work done along the second path is greater than the
magnitude of the work done along the first path.
Figure 14.3 Two different paths from xi to x f .
These two examples typify two fundamentally different types of forces and their
contribution to work. The work done by the gravitational force near the surface of the
earth is independent of the path taken between the initial and final points. In the case of
sliding friction, the work done depends on the path taken.
Whenever the work done by a force in moving an object from an initial

point to a final point is independent of the path, the force is called a
conservative force.

The work done by a conservative force Fc in going around a closed path is zero. Consider
the two paths shown in Figure 14.4 that form a closed path starting and ending at the
point A with Cartesian coordinates (1, 0) .
Figure 14.4 Two paths in the presence of a conservative force.
The work done along path 1 (the upper path in the figure, blue if viewed in color) from
point A to point B with coordinates (0,1) is given by
14-4
B

W1 = ∫ Fc (1) ⋅ d r1 . (14.2.10)
A
The work done along path 2 (the lower path, green in color) from B to A is given by
 A

W2 = ∫ Fc (2) ⋅ d r2 . (14.2.11)
B
The work done around the closed path is just the sum of the work along paths 1 and 2,
 B

A
 
W = W1 + W2 = ∫ Fc (1) ⋅ d r1 + ∫ Fc (2) ⋅ d r2 . (14.2.12)
A B
If we reverse the endpoints of path 2, then the integral changes sign,
 A

B
 
W2 = ∫ Fc (2) ⋅ d r2 = − ∫ Fc (2) ⋅ d r2 . (14.2.13)
B A
We can then substitute Equation (14.2.13) into Equation (14.2.12) to find that the work
done around the closed path is
 B
  B

W = ∫ Fc (1) ⋅ d r1 − ∫ Fc (2) ⋅ d r2 . (14.2.14)
A A
Since the force is conservative, the work done between the points A to B is independent
of the path, so
B
 
B
 
∫A
F c (1) ⋅ d r1 = ∫ c (2) ⋅ dr2 .
F
A
(14.2.15)
We now use path independence of work for a conservative force (Equation (14.2.15) in
Equation (14.2.14)) to conclude that the work done by a conservative force around a
closed path is zero,
 
W=  ∫ c ⋅ dr = 0 .
F
closed
(14.2.16)
path
14.3 Changes in Potential Energies of a System
Consider an object near the surface of the earth as a system that is initially given a
velocity directed upwards. Once the object is released, the gravitation force, acting as an
external force, does a negative amount of work on the object, and the kinetic energy
decreases until the object reaches its highest point, at which its kinetic energy is zero. The
14-5
gravitational force then does positive work until the object returns to its initial starting
point with a velocity directed downward. If we ignore any effects of air resistance, the
descending object will then have the identical kinetic energy as when it was thrown. All
the kinetic energy was completely recovered.
Now consider both the earth and the object as a system and assume that there are
no other external forces acting on the system. Then the gravitational force is an internal
conservative force, and does work on both the object and the earth during the motion. As
the object moves upward, the kinetic energy of the system decreases, primarily because
the object slows down, but there is also an imperceptible increase in the kinetic energy of
the earth. The change in kinetic energy of the earth must also be included because the
earth is part of the system. When the object returns to its original height (vertical distance
from the surface of the earth), all the kinetic energy in the system is recovered, even
though a very small amount has been transferred to the Earth.
If we included the air as part of the system, and the air resistance as a non-
conservative internal force, then the kinetic energy lost due to the work done by the air
resistance is not recoverable. This lost kinetic energy, which we have called thermal
energy, is distributed as random kinetic energy in both the air molecules and the
molecules that compose the object (and, to a smaller extent, the earth).
We shall define a new quantity, the change in the internal potential energy of the
system, which measures the amount of lost kinetic energy that can be recovered during an
interaction.
When only internal conservative forces act in a closed system, the sum of
the changes of the kinetic and potential energies of the system is zero.
Consider a closed system, ΔEsys = 0 , that consists of two objects with masses m1
and m2 respectively. Assume that there is only one conservative force (internal force)
that is the source of the interaction between
 two objects. We denote the force on object 1
due to the interaction with object 2 by F2,1 and the force on object 2 due to the interaction

with object 1 by F1,2 . From Newton’s Third Law,
 
F2,1 = −F1, 2 . (14.3.1)
The forces acting on the objects are shown in Figure 14.5.
Figure 14.5 Internal forces acting on two objects
14-6
Choose a coordinate system (Figure 14.6) in which the position vector of object 1
 
is given by r1 and the position vector of object 2 is given by r2 . The relative position of
  
object 1 with respect to object 2 is given by r2,1 = r1 − r2 . During the course of the
 
interaction, object 1 is displaced by dr1 and object 2 is displaced by dr2 , so the relative
  
displacement of the two objects during the interaction is given by dr2,1 = dr1 − dr2 .
  
Figure 14.6 Coordinate system for two objects with relative position vector r2,1 = r1 − r2
Recall that the change in the kinetic energy of an object is equal to the work done by the
forces in displacing the object. For two objects displaced from an initial state A to a
final state B ,
B
 
B
 
ΔK sys = ΔK1 + ΔK 2 = Wc = ∫ F2,1 ⋅ d r1 + ∫ F1,2 ⋅ d r2 . (14.3.2)
A A
(In Equation (14.3.2), the labels “ A ” and “ B ” refer to initial and final states, not paths.)
From Newton’s Third Law, Equation (14.3.1), the sum in Equation (14.3.2) becomes

B

B
 
B
  
B
 
ΔK sys = Wc = ∫ F2,1 ⋅ d r1 − ∫ F2,1 ⋅ d r2 = ∫ F2,1 ⋅(d r1 − d r2 ) = ∫ F2,1 ⋅ d r2,1 (14.3.3)
A A A A
! ! !
where d r2,1 = d r1 − d r2 is the relative displacement of the two objects. Note that since
   
B
 
B
 
F2,1 = −F1, 2 and dr2,1 = −d r1,2 , ∫ 2,1 2,1 ∫ 1, 2 ⋅ d r1, 2 .
F ⋅ d r = F
A A
14-7
Consider a system consisting
 of two objects interacting through a
conservative force. Let F2,1 denote the force on object 1 due to the
  
interaction with object 2 and let d r2,1 = d r1 − d r2 be the relative
displacement of the two objects. The change in internal potential energy
of the system is defined to be the negative of the work done by the
conservative force when the objects undergo a relative displacement from
the initial state A to the final state B along any displacement that
changes the initial state A to the final state B ,
B

B
 
ΔU sys = −Wc = − ∫ F2,1 ⋅ d r2,1 = − ∫ F1,2 ⋅ d r1,2 . (14.3.4)
A A
Our definition of potential energy only holds for conservative forces, because the
work done by a conservative force does not depend on the path but only on the initial and
final positions. Because the work done by the conservative force is equal to the change in
kinetic energy, we have that
ΔU sys = −ΔK sys , (closed system with no non-conservative forces) . (14.3.5)
Recall that the work done by a conservative force in going around a closed path is
zero (Equation (14.2.16)); therefore the change in kinetic energy when a system returns
to its initial state is zero. This means that the kinetic energy is completely recoverable.
In the Appendix 13A: Work Done on a System of Two Particles, we showed that
the work done by an internal force in changing a system of two particles of masses m1
and m2 respectively from an initial state A to a final state B is equal to
1
W= µ (v B2 − v 2A ) = ΔK sys , (14.3.6)
2
where vB2 is the square of the relative velocity in state B , v A2 is the square of the relative
velocity in state A , and µ = m1m2 / (m1 + m2 ) is a quantity known as the reduced mass of
the system.
14.3.1 Change in Potential Energy for Several Conservative Forces
When there are several internal conservative forces acting on the system we define a
separate change in potential energy for the work done by each conservative force,
B

ΔU sys, i = −Wc,i = − ∫ Fc, i ⋅ d ri . (14.3.7)
A
14-8
 
where Fc, i is a conservative internal force and dri a change in the relative positions of

the objects on which Fc, i when the system is changed from state A to state B . The work
done is the sum of the work done by the individual conservative forces,
Wc = Wc,1 + Wc, 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ . (14.3.8)
Hence, the sum of the changes in potential energies for the system is the sum
ΔU sys = ΔU sys,1 + ΔU sys,2 + ⋅⋅⋅ . (14.3.9)
Therefore the change in potential energy of the system is equal to the negative of the
work done
B
 
ΔU sys = −Wc = − ∑ ∫ Fc, i ⋅ d ri . (14.3.10)
i A
If the system is closed (external forces do no work), and there are no non-conservative
internal forces then Eq. (14.3.5) holds.
14.4 Change in Potential Energy and Zero Point for Potential Energy
We already calculated the work done by different conservative forces: constant gravity
near the surface of the earth, the spring force, and the universal gravitation force. We
chose the system in each case so that the conservative force was an external force. In
each case, there was no change of potential energy and the work done was equal to the
change of kinetic energy,
Wext = ΔK sys . (14.4.1)
We now treat each of these conservative forces as internal forces and calculate the change
in potential energy of the system according to our definition
  B
ΔU sys = −Wc = − ∫ Fc ⋅ dr . (14.4.2)

A
We shall also choose a zero reference potential for the potential energy of the system, so
that we can consider all changes in potential energy relative to this reference potential.
14.4.1 Change in Gravitational Potential Energy Near Surface of the Earth
Let’s consider the example of an object falling near the surface of the earth. Choose our
system to consist of the earth and the object. The gravitational force is now an internal
conservative force acting inside the system. The distance separating the object and the
14-9
center of mass of the earth, and the velocities of the earth and the object specifies the
initial and final states.
Let’s choose a coordinate system with the origin on the surface of the earth and the + y -
direction pointing away from the center of the earth. Because the displacement of the
earth is negligible, we need only consider the displacement of the object in order to
calculate the change in potential energy of the system.
Suppose the object starts at an initial height yi above the surface of the earth and ends at

final height y f . The gravitational force on the object is given by F g = −mg ĵ , the

displacement is given by dr = dy ĵ , and the scalar product is given by
 
F g ⋅ dr = −mg ĵ ⋅ dyĵ = −mgdy . The work done by the gravitational force on the object is
then
yf y
g  f
W = ∫ F ⋅ d r = ∫ −mg dy = −mg(y f − yi ) .
g
(14.4.3)
yi ) yi )
The change in potential energy is then given by
ΔU g = −W g = mg Δy = mg y f − mg yi . (14.4.4)
We introduce a potential energy function U so that
ΔU g ≡ U gf − U ig . (14.4.5)
Only differences in the function U g have a physical meaning. We can choose a zero
reference point for the potential energy anywhere we like. We have some flexibility to
adapt our choice of zero for the potential energy to best fit a particular problem. Because
the change in potential energy only depended on the displacement, Δy . In the above
expression for the change of potential energy (Eq. (14.4.4)), let y f = y be an arbitrary
point and yi = 0 denote the surface of the earth. Choose the zero reference potential for
the potential energy to be at the surface of the earth corresponding to our origin y = 0 ,
with U g (0) = 0 . Then
ΔU g = U g ( y) − U g (0) = U g ( y) . (14.4.6)
Substitute yi = 0 , y f = y and Eq. (14.4.6) into Eq. (14.4.4) yielding a potential energy as
a function of the height y above the surface of the earth,
U g ( y) = mgy, with U g ( y = 0) = 0 . (14.4.7)
14-10
14.4.2 Hooke’s Law Spring-Object System
Consider a spring-object system lying on a frictionless horizontal surface with one end of
the spring fixed to a wall and the other end attached to an object of mass m (Figure
14.7). The spring force is an internal conservative force. The wall exerts an external force
on the spring-object system but since the point of contact of the wall with the spring
undergoes no displacement, this external force does no work.
Figure 14.7 A spring-object system.
Choose the origin at the position of the center of the object when the spring is
relaxed (the equilibrium position). Let x be the displacement of the object from the
origin. We choose the +iˆ unit vector to point in the direction the object moves when the
spring is being stretched (to the right of x = 0 in the figure). The spring force on a mass
 
is then given by F s = Fxs î = −kx î . The displacement is dr = dx î . The scalar product is
 
F⋅ dr = −kx î ⋅ dx î = −kx dx . The work done by the spring force on the mass is
x=x f x=x
  1
f
1 1
W = ∫ F⋅ d r = − ∫ − (−kx) dx = − k(x f 2 − xi 2 ) .
s
(14.4.8)
x=xi
2 x=x 2 2
i
We then define the change in potential energy in the spring-object system in moving the
object from an initial position xi from equilibrium to a final position x f from
equilibrium by
1
ΔU s ≡ U s (x f ) − U s (xi ) = −W s = k(x 2f − xi2 ) . (14.4.9)
2
Therefore an arbitrary stretch or compression of a spring-object system from equilibrium

xi = 0 to a final position x f = x changes the potential energy by
1 2
ΔU s = U s (x f ) − U s (0) = kx . (14.4.10)
2
14-11
For the spring-object system, there is an obvious choice of position where the potential
energy is zero, the equilibrium position of the spring- object,
U s (0) ≡ 0 . (14.4.11)
Then with this choice of zero reference potential, the potential energy as a function of the
displacement x from the equilibrium position is given by
1 2
U s (x) = k x , with U s (0) ≡ 0 . (14.4.12)
2
14.4.3 Inverse Square Gravitation Force
Consider a system consisting of two objects of masses m1 and m2 that are separated by a
center-to-center distance r2,1 . A coordinate system is shown in the Figure 14.8. The
internal gravitational force on object 1 due to the interaction between the two objects is
given by
G G m1 m2
F2,1 =− 2
r̂2,1 . (14.4.13)
r2,1

The displacement vector is given by dr2,1 = dr2,1 r̂2,1 . So the scalar product is
G  G m1 m2 G m1 m2
F2,1 ⋅ dr2,1 = − 2
r̂2,1 ⋅ dr2,1 r̂2,1 = − 2
dr2,1 . (14.4.14)
r2,1 r2,1
Figure 14.8 Gravitational interaction
Using our definition of potential energy (Eq. (14.3.4)), we have that the change in the
gravitational potential energy of the system in moving the two objects from an initial
position in which the center of mass of the two objects are a distance ri apart to a final
position in which the center of mass of the two objects are a distance r f apart is given by
14-12
rf
f
G 
B
G m1 m2 G m1 m2 G m1 m2 G m1 m2
ΔU = − ∫ F2,1
G
⋅ d r2,1 = − ∫ − 2
dr2,1
= − =− + . (14.4.15)
A ri r2,1 r2,1 rf ri
ri
We now choose our reference point for the zero of the potential energy to be at infinity,
ri = ∞ , with the choice that U G (∞) ≡ 0 . By making this choice, the term 1/ r in the
expression for the change in potential energy vanishes when ri = ∞ . The gravitational
potential energy as a function of the relative distance r between the two objects is given
by
G m1 m2
U G (r) = − , with U G (∞) ≡ 0 . (14.4.16)
r
14.5 Mechanical Energy and Conservation of Mechanical Energy

The total change in the mechanical energy of the system is defined to be
the sum of the changes of the kinetic and the potential energies,
ΔEm = ΔK sys + ΔU sys . (14.4.17)
For a closed system with only conservative internal forces, the total change in the
mechanical energy is zero,
ΔEm = ΔK sys + ΔU sys = 0 . (14.4.18)
Equation (14.4.18) is the symbolic statement of what is called conservation of

mechanical energy. Recall that the work done by a conservative force in going around a
closed path is zero (Equation (14.2.16)), therefore both the changes in kinetic energy and
potential energy are zero when a closed system with only conservative internal forces
returns to its initial state. Throughout the process, the kinetic energy may change into
internal potential energy but if the system returns to its initial state, the kinetic energy is
completely recoverable. We shall refer to a closed system in which processes take place
in which only conservative forces act as completely reversible processes.
14.5.1 Change in Gravitational potential Energy Near Surface of the Earth
Let’s consider the example of an object of mass mo falling near the surface of the earth
(mass me ). Choose our system to consist of the earth and the object. The gravitational
force is now an internal conservative force acting inside the system. The initial and final
states are specified by the distance separating the object and the center of mass of the
earth, and the velocities of the earth and the object. The change in kinetic energy between
the initial and final states for the system is
ΔK sys = ΔK e + ΔK o , (14.4.19)
14-13
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛1 1 ⎞
ΔK sys = ⎜ me (ve, f )2 − me (ve,i )2 ⎟ + ⎜ mo (vo, f )2 − mo (vo,i )2 ⎟ . (14.4.20)
⎝2 2 ⎠ ⎝2 2 ⎠
The change of kinetic energy of the earth due to the gravitational interaction between the
earth and the object is negligible. The change in kinetic energy of the system is
approximately equal to the change in kinetic energy of the object,
1 1
ΔK sys ≅ ΔK o = mo (vo, f )2 − mo (vo,i )2 . (14.4.21)
2 2
We now define the mechanical energy function for the system
1
Em = K + U g = mo (vb )2 + mo gy, with U g (0) = 0 , (14.4.22)
2
where K is the kinetic energy and U g is the potential energy. The change in mechanical
energy is then
ΔEm ≡ Em, f − Em, i = (K f + U gf ) − (K i + U ig ) . (14.4.23)
When the work done by the external forces is zero and there are no internal non-
conservative forces, the total mechanical energy of the system is constant,
Em, f = Em, i , (14.4.24)

or equivalently
(K f + U f ) = (K i + U i ) . (14.4.25)
14.6 Spring Force Energy Diagram


The spring force on an object is a restoring force F s = Fxs î = −k x î where we choose a
coordinate system with the equilibrium position at xi = 0 and x is the amount the spring
has been stretched ( x > 0) or compressed ( x < 0) from its equilibrium position. We
calculate the potential energy difference Eq. (14.4.9) and found that
x 1
U s (x) − U s (xi ) = − ∫ Fxs dx = k(x 2 − xi2 ) . (14.5.1)
xi 2
The first fundamental theorem of calculus states that
x′= x dU
U (x) − U (xi ) = ∫ x ′ = xi dx ′
dx ′ . (14.5.2)
14-14
Comparing Equation (14.5.1) with Equation (14.5.2) shows that the force is the negative
derivative (with respect to position) of the potential energy,
dU s (x)
Fxs = − . (14.5.3)
dx
Choose the zero reference point for the potential energy to be at the equilibrium position,
U s (0) ≡ 0 . Then the potential energy function becomes
1 2
U s (x) = kx . (14.5.4)
2
From this, we obtain the spring force law as
dU s (x) d ⎛1 ⎞
F =−
s
= − ⎜ k x 2 ⎟ = −k x . (14.5.5)
x
dx dx ⎝ 2 ⎠
In Figure 14.9 we plot the potential energy function U s (x) for the spring force as
function of x with U s (0) ≡ 0 (the units are arbitrary).
Figure 14.9 Graph of potential energy function as function of x for the spring.
The minimum of the potential energy function occurs at the point where the first
derivative vanishes
dU s (x)
= 0. (14.5.6)
dx
From Equation (14.5.4), the minimum occurs at x = 0 ,
dU s (x)
0= = kx. (14.5.7)
dx
14-15
Because the force is the negative derivative of the potential energy, and this derivative
vanishes at the minimum, we have that the spring force is zero at the minimum x = 0
agreeing with our force law, Fxs = −k x x =0 = 0 .
x =0
The potential energy function has positive curvature in the neighborhood of a

minimum equilibrium point. If the object is extended a small distance x > 0 away from
equilibrium, the slope of the potential energy function is positive, dU ( x) dx > 0 , hence
the component of the force is negative because Fx = − dU ( x) dx < 0 . Thus the object
experiences a restoring force towards the minimum point of the potential. If the object is
compresses with x < 0 then dU ( x) dx < 0 , hence the component of the force is positive,
Fx = − dU ( x) dx > 0 , and the object again experiences a restoring force back towards the
minimum of the potential energy as in Figure 14.10.
Figure 14.10 Stability diagram for the spring force.
The mechanical energy at any time is the sum of the kinetic energy K ( x) and the
potential energy U s (x)
Em = K(x) + U s (x) . (14.5.8)
Suppose our spring-object system has no loss of mechanical energy due to dissipative
forces such as friction or air resistance. Both the kinetic energy and the potential energy
are functions of the position of the object with respect to equilibrium. The energy is a
constant of the motion and with our choice of U s (0) ≡ 0 , the energy can be either a
positive value or zero. When the energy is zero, the object is at rest at the equilibrium
position.
In Figure 14.10, we draw a straight horizontal line corresponding to a non-zero

positive value for the energy Em on the graph of potential energy as a function of x . The
energy intersects the potential energy function at two points {− xmax , xmax } with xmax > 0 .
These points correspond to the maximum compression and maximum extension of the
spring, which are called the turning points. The kinetic energy is the difference between
the energy and the potential energy,
14-16
K(x) = Em − U s (x) . (14.5.9)
At the turning points, where Em = U s (x) , the kinetic energy is zero. Regions where the
kinetic energy is negative, x < − xmax or x > xmax are called the classically forbidden
regions, which the object can never reach if subject to the laws of classical mechanics. In
quantum mechanics, with similar energy diagrams for quantum systems, there is a very
small probability that the quantum object can be found in a classically forbidden region.
Example 14.1 Energy Diagram
The potential energy function for a particle of mass m , moving in the x -direction is
given by
⎛⎛ x ⎞3 ⎛ x ⎞2⎞
U (x) = −U1 ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ , (14.5.10)
⎜⎝ ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎟⎠
where U1 and x1 are positive constants and U (0) = 0 . (a) Sketch U ( x) / U1 as a function
of x / x1 . (b) Find the points where the force on the particle is zero. Classify them as
stable or unstable. Calculate the value of U (x) / U1 at these equilibrium points. (c) For
energies E that lies in 0 < E < (4 / 27)U1 find an equation whose solution yields the
turning points along the x-axis about which the particle will undergo periodic motion. (d)
Suppose E = (4 / 27)U1 and that the particle starts at x = 0 with speed v0 . Find v0 .
Solution: a) Figure 14.11 shows a graph of U (x) vs. x , with the choice of values x1 = 1.5 m ,
U1 = 27 / 4 J , and E = 0.2 J .
Figure 14.11 Energy diagram for Example 14.1
b) The force on the particle is zero at the minimum of the potential which occurs at
14-17
dU ⎛⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎞
Fx (x) = − (x) = U1 ⎜ ⎜ 3 ⎟ x 2 − ⎜ 2 ⎟ x ⎟ = 0 (14.5.11)
dx ⎝ ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎠
which becomes
x 2 = (2x1 / 3)x . (14.5.12)
We can solve Eq. (14.5.12) for the extrema. This has two solutions
x = (2x1 / 3) and x = 0 . (14.5.13)
The second derivative is given by
d 2U ⎛⎛ 6 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎞
(x) = −U 1 ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ x − ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ . (14.5.14)
dx 2 3
⎝ ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎠
Evaluating the second derivative at x = (2x1 / 3) yields a negative quantity
d 2U ⎛ ⎛ 6 ⎞ 2x ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎞ 2U
2
(x = (2x1
/ 3)) = −U 1⎜⎜ 3⎟
1
− ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟ = − 21 < 0 , (14.5.15)
dx ⎝ ⎝ x1 ⎠ 3 ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎠ x1
indicating the solution x = (2x1 / 3) represents a local maximum and hence is an unstable point.
At x = (2x1 / 3) , the potential energy is given by the value U ((2x1 / 3)) = (4 / 27)U1 . Evaluating
the second derivative at x = 0 yields a positive quantity
d 2U ⎛⎛ 6 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎞ 2U
2
(x = 0) = −U1 ⎜ ⎜ 3 ⎟ 0 − ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟ = 21 > 0 , (14.5.16)
dx ⎝ ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎠ x1
indicating the solution x = 0 represents a local minimum and is a stable point. At the local
minimum x = 0 , the potential energy U (0) = 0 .
c) Consider a fixed value of the energy of the particle within the range
4U1
U (0) = 0 < E < U (2x1 / 3) = . (14.5.17)
27
If the particle at any time is found in the region xa < x < xb < 2x1 / 3 , where xa and xb are the
turning points and are solutions to the equation
14-18
⎛⎛ x ⎞3 ⎛ x ⎞2⎞
E = U (x) = −U1 ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ . (14.5.18)
⎜⎝ ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎟⎠
then the particle will undergo periodic motion between the values xa < x < xb . Within
this region xa < x < xb , the kinetic energy is always positive because K(x) = E − U (x) .
There is another solution xc to Eq. (14.5.18) somewhere in the region xc > 2x1 / 3 . If the
particle at any time is in the region x > xc then it at any later time it is restricted to the
region xc < x < +∞ .
For E > U (2x1 / 3) = (4 / 27)U1 , Eq. (14.5.18) has only one solution xd . For all values of
x > xd , the kinetic energy is positive, which means that the particle can “escape” to
infinity but can never enter the region x < xd .
For E < U (0) = 0 , the kinetic energy is negative for the range −∞ < x < xe where xe
satisfies Eq. (14.5.18) and therefore this region of space is forbidden.
(d) If the particle has speed v0 at x = 0 where the potential energy is zero, U (0) = 0 , the
energy of the particle is constant and equal to kinetic energy
1
E = K(0) = mv 2 . (14.5.19)
2 0
Therefore
1
(4 / 27)U1 = mv02 , (14.5.20)
2
which we can solve for the speed

v0 = 8U1 / 27m . (14.5.21)
14.7 Change of Mechanical Energy for Closed System with Internal

Non-conservative Forces
Consider a closed system (energy of the system is constant) that undergoes a

transformation from an initial state to a final state by a prescribed set of changes.
Whenever the work done by a force in moving an object from an initial point to a
final point depends on the path, the force is called a non-conservative force.
14-19
Suppose the internal forces are both conservative and non-conservative. The work W
done by the forces is a sum of the conservative work Wc , which is path-independent, and
the non-conservative work Wnc , which is path-dependent,
W = Wc + Wnc . (14.6.1)
The work done by the conservative forces is equal to the negative of the change in the
potential energy
ΔU = −Wc . (14.6.2)
Substituting Equation (14.6.2) into Equation (14.6.1) yields
W = −ΔU + Wnc . (14.6.3)
The work done is equal to the change in the kinetic energy,
W = ΔK . (14.6.4)
Substituting Equation (14.6.4) into Equation (14.6.3) yields
ΔK = −ΔU + Wnc . (14.6.5)

which we can rearrange as
Wnc = ΔK + ΔU . (14.6.6)
We can now substitute Equation (14.6.4) into our expression for the change in the
mechanical energy, Equation (14.4.17), with the result
Wnc = ΔEm . (14.6.7)
The mechanical energy is no longer constant. The total change in energy of the system is
zero,
ΔEsystem = ΔEm − Wnc = 0 . (14.6.8)
Energy is conserved but some mechanical energy has been transferred into non-
recoverable energy Wnc . We shall refer to processes in which there is non-zero non-
recoverable energy as irreversible processes.
14.7.1 Change of Mechanical Energy for a Non-closed System
When the system is no longer closed but in contact with its surroundings, the change in
energy of the system is equal to the negative of the change in energy of the surroundings
(Eq. (14.1.1)),
14-20
ΔEsystem = −ΔEsurroundings (14.6.9)
If the system is not isolated, the change in energy of the system can be the result of
external work done by the surroundings on the system (which can be positive or negative)
B
 
Wext = ∫ Fext ⋅ dr . (14.6.10)
A
This work will result in the system undergoing coherent motion. Note that Wext > 0 if
work is done on the system ( ΔEsurroundings < 0 ) and Wext < 0 if the system does work on the
surroundings ( ΔEsurroundings > 0 ). If the system is in thermal contact with the surroundings,
then energy can flow into or out of the system. This energy flow due to thermal contact is
often denoted by Q with the convention that Q > 0 if the energy flows into the system
( ΔEsurroundings < 0 ) and Q < 0 if the energy flows out of the system ( ΔEsurroundings > 0 ). Then
Eq. (14.6.9) can be rewritten as
W ext + Q = ΔEsys (14.6.11)
Equation (14.6.11) is also called the first law of thermodynamics.
This will result in either an increase or decrease in random thermal motion of the
molecules inside the system, There may also be other forms of energy that enter the
system, for example radiative energy.
Several questions naturally arise from this set of definitions and physical
concepts. Is it possible to identify all the conservative forces and calculate the associated
changes in potential energies? How do we account for non-conservative forces such as
friction that act at the boundary of the system?
14.8 Dissipative Forces: Friction
Suppose we consider an object moving on a rough surface. As the object slides it slows
down and stops. While the sliding occurs both the object and the surface increase in
temperature. The increase in temperature is due to the molecules inside the materials
increasing their kinetic energy. This random kinetic energy is called thermal energy.
Kinetic energy associated with the coherent motion of the molecules of the object has
been dissipated into kinetic energy associated with random motion of the molecules
composing the object and surface.
If we define the system to be just the object, then the friction force acts as an
external force on the system and results in the dissipation of energy into both the block
and the surface. Without knowing further properties of the material we cannot determine
the exact changes in the energy of the system.
14-21
Friction introduces a problem in that the point of contact is not well defined
because the surface of contact is constantly deforming as the object moves along the
surface. If we considered the object and the surface as the system, then the friction force
is an internal force, and the decrease in the kinetic energy of the moving object ends up as
an increase in the internal random kinetic energy of the constituent parts of the system.
When there is dissipation at the boundary of the system, we need an additional model
(thermal equation of state) for how the dissipated energy distributes itself among the
constituent parts of the system.
14.8.1 Source Energy
Consider a person walking. The frictional force between the person and the ground does
no work because the point of contact between the person’s foot and the ground undergoes
no displacement as the person applies a force against the ground, (there may be some
slippage but that would be opposite the direction of motion of the person). However the
kinetic energy of the object increases. Have we disproved the work-energy theorem? The
answer is no! The chemical energy stored in the body tissue is converted to kinetic
energy and thermal energy. Because the person-air-ground can be treated as a closed
system, we have that
0 = ΔEsys = ΔEchemical + ΔEthermal + ΔEmechanical , (closed system) . (14.7.1)
If we assume that there is no change in the potential energy of the system, then
ΔEmechanical = ΔK . Therefore some of the internal chemical energy has been transformed
into thermal energy and the rest has changed into the kinetic energy of the system,
−ΔEchemical = ΔEthermal + ΔK . (14.7.2)

Example 14.2 Escape Velocity of Toro
The asteroid Toro, discovered in 1964, has a radius of about R = 5.0 km and a mass of
about mt = 2.0 × 1015 kg . Let’s assume that Toro is a perfectly uniform sphere. What is the
escape velocity for an object of mass m on the surface of Toro? Could a person reach
this speed (on earth) by running?
Solution: The only potential energy in this problem is the gravitational potential energy.
We choose the zero point for the potential energy to be when the object and Toro are an
infinite distance apart, U G (∞) ≡ 0 . With this choice, the potential energy when the object
and Toro are a finite distance r apart is given by
Gmt m
U G (r) = − (14.8.1)
r
14-22
with U G (∞) ≡ 0 . The expression escape velocity refers to the minimum speed necessary
for an object to escape the gravitational interaction of the asteroid and move off to an
infinite distance away. If the object has a speed less than the escape velocity, it will be
unable to escape the gravitational force and must return to Toro. If the object has a speed
greater than the escape velocity, it will have a non-zero kinetic energy at infinity. The
condition for the escape velocity is that the object will have exactly zero kinetic energy at
infinity.
We choose our initial state, at time ti , when the object is at the surface of the asteroid
with speed equal to the escape velocity. We choose our final state, at time t f , to occur
when the separation distance between the asteroid and the object is infinite.
The initial kinetic energy is K i = (1/ 2)mvesc 2 . The initial potential energy is
U i = −Gmt m / R , and so the initial mechanical energy is
1 2 Gmt m
Ei = K i + U i = mv − . (14.8.2)
2 esc R
The final kinetic energy is K f = 0 , because this is the condition that defines the escape
velocity. The final potential energy is zero, U f = 0 because we chose the zero point for
potential energy at infinity. The final mechanical energy is then
Ef = K f +U f = 0 . (14.8.3)
There is no non-conservative work, so the change in mechanical energy is zero
0 = Wnc = ΔEm = E f − Ei . (14.8.4)

Therefore
⎛1 Gmt m ⎞
0 = − ⎜ mvesc
2
− . (14.8.5)
⎝2 R ⎟⎠
This can be solved for the escape velocity,
2Gmt
vesc =
R
(14.8.6)
2(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg −2 )(2.0 × 1015 kg)
= = 7.3 m ⋅s −1.
(5.0 × 10 m)
3
14-23
Considering that Olympic sprinters typically reach velocities of 12 m ⋅ s −1 , this is an easy
speed to attain by running on earth. It may be harder on Toro to generate the acceleration
necessary to reach this speed by pushing off the ground, since any slight upward force
will raise the runner’s center of mass and it will take substantially more time than on
earth to come back down for another push off the ground.
Example 14.3 Spring-Block-Loop-the-Loop
A small block of mass m is pushed against a spring with spring constant k and held in
place with a catch. The spring is compressed an unknown distance x (Figure 14.12).
When the catch is removed, the block leaves the spring and slides along a frictionless
circular loop of radius r . When the block reaches the top of the loop, the force of the
loop on the block (the normal force) is equal to twice the gravitational force on the mass.
(a) Using conservation of energy, find the kinetic energy of the block at the top of
the loop. (b) Using Newton’s Second Law, derive the equation of motion for the block
when it is at the top of the loop. Specifically, find the speed vtop in terms of the
gravitation constant g and the loop radius r . (c) What distance was the spring
compressed?
Figure 14.12 Initial state for spring-block-loop-the-loop system
Solution: a) Choose for the initial state the instant before the catch is released. The initial
kinetic energy is K i = 0 . The initial potential energy is non-zero, U i = (1 / 2)k x 2 . The
initial mechanical energy is then
1 2
Ei = K i + U i = kx . (14.8.7)
2
Choose for the final state the instant the block is at the top of the loop. The final kinetic
energy is K f = (1/ 2)mvtop
2
; the block is in motion with speed vtop . The final potential
energy is non-zero, U f = (mg)(2R) . The final mechanical energy is then
1
E f = K f + U f = 2mgR + mvtop
2
. (14.8.8)
2
Because we are assuming the track is frictionless and neglecting air resistance, there is no
non- conservative work. The change in mechanical energy is therefore zero,
14-24
0 = Wnc = ΔEm = E f − Ei . (14.8.9)
Mechanical energy is conserved, E f = Ei , therefore
1 1
2mgR + 2
mvtop = k x2 . (14.8.10)
2 2
From Equation (14.8.10), the kinetic energy at the top of the loop is
1 1
2
mvtop = k x 2 − 2mgR . (14.8.11)
2 2
b) At the top of the loop, the forces on the block are the gravitational force of magnitude
mg and the normal force of magnitude N , both directed down. Newton’s Second Law
in the radial direction, which is the downward direction, is
2
m vtop
−mg − N = − . (14.8.12)
R
In this problem, we are given that when the block reaches the top of the loop, the force of
the loop on the block (the normal force, downward in this case) is equal to twice the
weight of the block, N = 2mg . The Second Law, Eq. (14.8.12), then becomes
2
m vtop
3 mg = . (14.8.13)
R
We can rewrite Equation (14.8.13) in terms of the kinetic energy as
3 1
mg R = m vtop
2
. (14.8.14)
2 2
The speed at the top is therefore

vtop = 3mg R . (14.8.15)
c) Combing Equations (14.8.11) and (14.8.14) yields
7 1
mg R = k x 2 . (14.8.16)
2 2
Thus the initial displacement of the spring from equilibrium is
14-25
7mg R
x= . (14.8.17)
k
Example 14.4 Mass-Spring on a Rough Surface
A block of mass m slides along a horizontal table with speed v0 . At x = 0 it hits a

spring with spring constant k and begins to experience a friction force. The coefficient of
friction is variable and is given by µ = bx , where b is a positive constant. Find the loss
in mechanical energy when the block first momentarily comes to rest.
Figure 14.13 Spring-block system
Solution: From the model given for the frictional force, we could find the non-
conservative work done, which is the same as the loss of mechanical energy, if we knew
the position x f where the block first comes to rest. The most direct (and easiest) way to
find x f is to use the work-energy theorem. The initial mechanical energy is Ei = mvi2 / 2
and the final mechanical energy is E f = k x 2f / 2 (note that there is no potential energy
term in Ei and no kinetic energy term in E f ). The difference between these two
mechanical energies is the non-conservative work done by the frictional force,
x= x f x= x f x= x f
Wnc = ∫ Fnc dx = ∫ − Ffriction dx = ∫ − µ N dx

x =0 x =0 x =0 (14.8.18)
xf 1
= −∫ b x mg dx = − bmg x 2f .
0 2
We then have that
Wnc = ΔEm
Wnc = E f − Ei (14.8.19)
1 1 1
− bmg x 2f = k x 2f − mvi2 .
2 2 2
Solving the last of these equations for x 2f yields
14-26
mv02
x 2f = . (14.8.20)
k + bmg
Substitute Eq. (14.8.20) into Eq. (14.8.18) gives the result that
−1
bmg mv02 mv 2 ⎛ k ⎞
Wnc = − = − 0 ⎜1 + ⎟ . (14.8.21)
2 k + bmg 2 ⎝ bmg ⎠
It is worth checking that the above result is dimensionally correct. From the model, the
parameter b must have dimensions of inverse length (the coefficient of friction µ must
be dimensionless), and so the product bmg has dimensions of force per length, as does
the spring constant k ; the result is dimensionally consistent.
Example 14.5 Cart-Spring on an Inclined Plane
An object of mass m slides down a plane that is inclined at an angle θ from the
horizontal (Figure 14.14). The object starts out at rest. The center of mass of the cart is a
distance d from an unstretched spring that lies at the bottom of the plane. Assume the
spring is massless, and has a spring constant k . Assume the inclined plane to be
frictionless. (a) How far will the spring compress when the mass first comes to rest? (b)
Now assume that the inclined plane has a coefficient of kinetic friction µk . How far will
the spring compress when the mass first comes to rest? The friction is primarily between
the wheels and the bearings, not between the cart and the plane, but the friction force may
be modeled by a coefficient of friction µk . (c) In case (b), how much energy has been
lost to friction?
Figure 14.14 Cart on inclined plane
Solution: Let x denote the displacement of the spring from the equilibrium position.
Choose the zero point for the gravitational potential energy U g (0) = 0 not at the very
bottom of the inclined plane, but at the location of the end of the unstretched spring.
Choose the zero point for the spring potential energy where the spring is at its
equilibrium position, U s (0) = 0 .
a) Choose for the initial state the instant the object is released (Figure 14.15). The initial
kinetic energy is K i = 0 . The initial potential energy is non-zero, U i = mg d sin θ . The
14-27
Ei = K i + U i = mg d sin θ (14.8.22)
Choose for the final state the instant when the object first comes to rest and the spring is
compressed a distance x at the bottom of the inclined plane (Figure 14.16). The final
kinetic energy is K f = 0 since the mass is not in motion. The final potential energy is
non-zero, U f = k x 2 / 2 − x mg sin θ . Notice that the gravitational potential energy is
negative because the object has dropped below the height of the zero point of
gravitational potential energy.
Figure 14.15 Initial state Figure 14.16 Final state
The final mechanical energy is then
1 2
Ef = K f +U f = k x − x mg sinθ . (14.8.23)
2
Because we are assuming the track is frictionless and neglecting air resistance, there is no
non- conservative work. The change in mechanical energy is therefore zero,
0 = Wnc = ΔEm = E f − Ei . (14.8.24)

Therefore
1 2
d mg sinθ = k x − x mg sinθ . (14.8.25)
2
This is a quadratic equation in x ,
2mg sinθ 2d mg sinθ

x2 − x− = 0. (14.8.26)
k k
In the quadratic formula, we want the positive choice of square root for the solution to
ensure a positive displacement of the spring from equilibrium,
14-28
12
mg sinθ ⎛ m2 g 2 sin 2θ 2d mg sinθ ⎞
x= +⎜ + ⎟⎠
k ⎝ k2 k (14.8.27)
mg
= (sinθ + 1+ 2(k d / mg)sinθ ).
k
(What would the solution with the negative root represent?)
b) The effect of kinetic friction is that there is now a non-zero non-conservative work
done on the object, which has moved a distance, d + x , given by
Wnc = − f k (d + x) = − µk N (d + x) = − µk mg cosθ (d + x) . (14.8.28)
Note the normal force is found by using Newton’s Second Law in the perpendicular direction
to the inclined plane,
N − mg cosθ = 0 . (14.8.29)
The change in mechanical energy is therefore
Wnc = ΔEm = E f − Ei , (14.8.30)

which becomes
⎛1 ⎞
− µk mg cosθ (d + x) = ⎜ k x 2 − x mg sin θ ⎟ − d mg sin θ . (14.8.31)
⎝2 ⎠
Equation (14.8.31) simplifies to
⎛1 ⎞
0 = ⎜ k x 2 − x mg(sin θ − µk cosθ )⎟ − d mg(sin θ − µk cosθ ) . (14.8.32)
⎝2 ⎠
This is the same as Equation (14.8.25) above, but with sin θ → sin θ − µ k cosθ . The
maximum displacement of the spring is when there is friction is then
mg
x= ((sinθ − µk cosθ ) + 1+ 2(k d / mg)(sinθ − µk cosθ )) . (14.8.33)
k
.
c) The energy lost to friction is given by Wnc = − µk mg cosθ (d + x) , where x is given in
part b).
Example 14.6 Object Sliding on a Sphere
A small point like object of mass m rests on top of a sphere of radius R . The object is
released from the top of the sphere with a negligible speed and it slowly starts to slide
(Figure 14.17). Let g denote the gravitation constant. (a) Determine the angle θ1 with
14-29
respect to the vertical at which the object will lose contact with the surface of the sphere.
(b) What is the speed v1 of the object at the instant it loses contact with the surface of the
sphere.
Figure 14.17 Object sliding on surface of sphere
Solution: We begin by identifying the forces acting on the object. There are two forces
acting on the object, the gravitation and radial normal force that the sphere exerts on the
particle that we denote by N . We draw a free-body force diagram for the object while it
is sliding on the sphere. We choose polar coordinates as shown in Figure 14.18.
Figure 14.18 Free-body force diagram on object
The key constraint is that when the particle just leaves the surface the normal force is
zero,
N (θ1 ) = 0 , (14.8.34)
where θ1 denotes the angle with respect to the vertical at which the object will just lose
contact with the surface of the sphere. Because the normal force is perpendicular to the
displacement of the object, it does no work on the object and hence conservation of
energy does not take into account the constraint on the motion imposed by the normal
force. In order to analyze the effect of the normal force we must use the radial component
of Newton’s Second Law,
v2
N − mg cosθ = −m . (14.8.35)
R
Then when the object just loses contact with the surface, Eqs. (14.8.34) and (14.8.35)
require that
14-30
v12
mg cosθ1 = m . (14.8.36)
R
where v1 denotes the speed of the object at the instant it loses contact with the surface of
the sphere. Note that the constrain condition Eq. (14.8.36) can be rewritten as
mgRcosθ1 = mv12 . (14.8.37)
We can now apply conservation of energy. Choose the zero reference point U = 0 for
potential energy to be the midpoint of the sphere.
Identify the initial state as the instant the object is released (Figure 14.19). We can
neglect the very small initial kinetic energy needed to move the object away from the top
of the sphere and so K i = 0 . The initial potential energy is non-zero, U i = mgR . The
Ei = K i + U i = mgR . (14.8.38)
Figure 14.19 Initial state Figure 14.20 Final state
Choose for the final state the instant the object leaves the sphere (Figure 14.20). The final
kinetic energy is K f = mv12 / 2 ; the object is in motion with speed v1 . The final potential
energy is non-zero, U f = mgRcosθ1 . The final mechanical energy is then
1
Ef = K f +U f = mv12 + mgRcosθ1 . (14.8.39)
2
Because we are assuming the contact surface is frictionless and neglecting air resistance,
there is no non-conservative work. The change in mechanical energy is therefore zero,
0 = Wnc = ΔEm = E f − Ei . (14.8.40)

Therefore
1
mv12 + mgRcosθ1 = mgR . (14.8.41)
2
14-31
We now solve the constraint condition Eq. (14.8.37) into Eq. (14.8.41) yielding
1
mgRcosθ1 + mgRcosθ1 = mgR . (14.8.42)
2
We can now solve for the angle at which the object just leaves the surface
θ1 = cos −1 (2 / 3) . (14.8.43)
We now substitute this result into Eq. (14.8.37) and solve for the speed
v1 = 2gR / 3 . (14.8.44)
14-32
Chapter 15 Collision Theory
15.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

15.2 Reference Frames and Relative Velocities.......................................................... 1
15.2.1 Relative Velocities .......................................................................................... 3
15.2.2 Center-of-mass Reference Frame ................................................................. 4
15.2.3 Kinetic Energy in the Center-of-Mass Reference Frame ........................... 5
15.2.4 Change of Kinetic Energy and Relatively Inertial Reference Frames ...... 5
15.3 Characterizing Collisions ..................................................................................... 7
15.4 One-Dimensional Collisions Between Two Objects ........................................... 7
15.4.1 One Dimensional Elastic Collision in Laboratory Reference Frame ........ 7
15.4.2 One-Dimensional Collision Between Two Objects – Center-of-Mass
Reference Frame ..................................................................................................... 11
15.5 Worked Examples ............................................................................................... 12
Example 15.1 Elastic One-Dimensional Collision Between Two Objects .......... 12
Example 15.2 The Dissipation of Kinetic Energy in a Completely Inelastic
Collision Between Two Objects ............................................................................. 13
Example 15.3 Bouncing Superballs ....................................................................... 14
15.6 Two Dimensional Elastic Collisions .................................................................. 17
15.6.1 Two-dimensional Elastic Collision in Laboratory Reference Frame ...... 17
Example 15.5 Elastic Two-dimensional collision of identical particles .............. 20
Example 15.6 Two-dimensional elastic collision between particles of equal mass
................................................................................................................................... 21
Example 15.7 Two dimensional collision between particles of unequal mass ... 22
15.7 Two-Dimensional Collisions in Center-of-Mass Reference Frame ................ 24
15.7.1 Two-Dimensional Collision in Center-of-Mass Reference Frame ........... 24
15.7.2 Scattering in the Center-of-Mass Reference Frame ................................. 25
Example 15.8 Scattering in the Lab and CM Frames ......................................... 26
Chapter 15 Collision Theory
Despite my resistance to hyperbole, the LHC [Large Hadron Collider]
belongs to a world that can only be described with superlatives. It is not
merely large: the LHC is the biggest machine ever built. It is not merely
cold: the 1.9 kelvin (1.9 degrees Celsius above absolute zero) temperature
necessary for the LHC’s supercomputing magnets to operate is the coldest
extended region that we know of in the universe—even colder than outer
space. The magnetic field is not merely big: the superconducting dipole
magnets generating a magnetic field more than 100,000 times stronger than
the Earth’s are the strongest magnets in industrial production ever made.
And the extremes don’t end there. The vacuum inside the proton-containing
tubes, a 10 trillionth of an atmosphere, is the most complete vacuum over
the largest region ever produced. The energy of the collisions are the highest
ever generated on Earth, allowing us to study the interactions that occurred
in the early universe the furthest back in time.1
Lisa Randall
15.1 Introduction
When discussing conservation of momentum, we considered examples in which two

objects collide and stick together, and either there are no external forces acting in some
direction (or the collision was nearly instantaneous) so the component of the momentum
of the system along that direction is constant. We shall now study collisions between
objects in more detail. In particular we shall consider cases in which the objects do not
stick together. The momentum along a certain direction may still be constant but the
mechanical energy of the system may change. We will begin our analysis by considering
two-particle collision. We introduce the concept of the relative velocity between two
particles and show that it is independent of the choice of reference frame. We then show
that the change in kinetic energy only depends on the change of the square of the relative
velocity and therefore is also independent of the choice of reference frame. We will then
study one- and two-dimensional collisions with zero change in potential energy. In
particular we will characterize the types of collisions by the change in kinetic energy and
analyze the possible outcomes of the collisions.
15.2 Reference Frames and Relative Velocities


We shall recall our definition of relative inertial reference frames. Let R be the
vector from the origin of frame S to the origin of reference frame S ′ . Denote the
1
Randall, Lisa, Knocking on Heaven's Door: How Physics and Scientific Thinking Illuminate the Universe
and the Modern World, Ecco, 2011.
15-1

position vector of the j th particle with respect to the origin of reference frame S by r j
and similarly, denote the position vector of the j th particle with respect to the origin of

reference frame S ′ by r′j (Figure 15.1).
j th particle
rj
rj
R
S
S
Figure 15.1 Position vector of j th particle in two reference frames.
The position vectors are related by

  
r j = r′j + R . (15.2.1)
The relative velocity (call this the boost velocity) between the two reference frames is
given by
 dR 
V= . (15.2.2)
dt
Assume the boost velocity between the two reference frames is constant. Then, the
relative acceleration between the two reference frames is zero,
 dV 
A= =0. (15.2.3)
dt
When Eq. (15.2.3) is satisfied, the reference frames S and S ′ are called relatively
inertial reference frames.
Suppose the j th particle in Figure 15.1 is moving; then observers in different

reference frames will measure different velocities. Denote the velocity of j th particle in
 
frame S by v j = dr j / dt , and the velocity of the same particle in frame S ′ by
 
v ′j = dr′j / dt . Taking derivative, the velocities of the particles in two different reference
frames are related according to 
 
v j = v ′j + V . (15.2.4)
15-2
15.2.1 Relative Velocities
Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2 interacting via some force (Figure 15.2).
Figure 15.2 Two interacting particles
Choose a coordinate system (Figure 15.3) in which the position vector of body 1 is given
 
by r1 and the position vector of body 2 is given by r2 . The relative position of body 1
  
with respect to body 2 is given by r1,2 = r1 − r2 .
Figure 15.3 Coordinate system for two bodies.


During the course of the interaction, body 1 is displaced by dr1 and body 2 is displaced

by dr2 , so the relative displacement of the two bodies during the interaction is given by
  
dr1,2 = dr1 − dr2 . The relative velocity between the particles is
  
 dr1,2 dr1 dr2  
v1,2 = = − = v1 − v 2 . (15.2.5)
dt dt dt
We shall now show that the relative velocity between the two particles is independent of
the choice of reference frame providing that the reference frames are relatively inertial.

The relative velocity v12 ′ in reference frame S ′ can be determined from using Eq.
(15.2.4) to express Eq. (15.2.5) in terms of the velocities in the reference frame S ′ ,
         
v1, 2 = v1 − v 2 = ( v1′ + V) − ( v ′2 + V) = v1′ − v ′2 = v1,′ 2 (15.2.6)
15-3
and is equal to the relative velocity in frame S .
For a two-particle interaction, the relative velocity between the two

vectors is independent of the choice of relatively inertial reference frames.
15.2.2 Center-of-mass Reference Frame


Let rcm be the vector from the origin of frame S to the center-of-mass of the
system of particles, a point that we will choose as the origin of reference frame Scm ,
called the center-of-mass reference frame. Denote the position vector of the j th particle

with respect to origin of reference frame S by r j and similarly, denote the position

vector of the j th particle with respect to origin of reference frame Scm by r′j (Figure
15.4).
j th particle
rj
rj
rcm
Scm
S
Figure 15.4 Position vector of j th particle in the center-of-mass reference frame.
The position vector of the j th particle in the center-of-mass frame is then given by
  
r′j = r j − rcm . (15.2.7)
The velocity of the j th particle in the center-of-mass reference frame is then given by
  
v ′j = v j − v cm . (15.2.8)
There are many collision problems in which the center-of-mass reference frame is the
most convenient reference frame to analyze the collision.
Consider a system consisting of two particles, which we shall refer to as particle 1 and
particle 2. We can use Eq. (15.2.8) to determine the velocities of particles 1 and 2 in the
center-of-mass,
 
    m1v1 + m2 v 2 m2   µ 
v1′ = v1 − v cm = v1 − = ( v1, − v 2 ) = v1, 2 . (15.2.9)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1
15-4
  
where v12 = v1 − v 2 is the relative velocity of particle 1 with respect to particle 2 . A
similar result holds for particle 2 :
 
    m1v1 + m2 v 2 m1   µ 
v ′2 = v 2 − v cm = v 2 − =− ( v1 − v 2 ) = − v1, 2 . (15.2.10)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m2
The momentum of the system the center-of-mass reference frame is zero as we expect,
    
m1v1′ + m2 v ′2 = µ v12 − µ v12 = 0 . (15.2.11)
15.2.3 Kinetic Energy in the Center-of-Mass Reference Frame
The kinetic energy in the center of mass reference frame is given by
1   1  
K cm = m v′ ⋅ v′ + m v′ ⋅ v′ . (15.2.12)
2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
We now use Eqs. (15.2.9) and (15.2.10) to rewrite the kinetic energy in terms of the
  
′ = v1′ − v ′2 ,
relative velocity v12
1 ⎛ µ  ⎞ ⎛ µ  ⎞ 1 ⎛ µ  ⎞ ⎛ µ  ⎞
K cm = m v ⋅ v + m − v ⋅ − v
2 1 ⎜⎝ m1 1, 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ m1 1, 2 ⎟⎠ 2 2 ⎜⎝ m2 1, 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ m2 1, 2 ⎟⎠
. (15.2.13)
1   ⎛ 1 1⎞ 1
= µ 2 v1, 2 ⋅ v1, 2 ⎜ + ⎟ = µv1, 2 2
2 ⎝ m1 m2 ⎠ 2
where we used the fact that we defined the reduced mass by
1 1 1
≡ + . (15.2.14)
µ m1 m2
15.2.4 Change of Kinetic Energy and Relatively Inertial Reference Frames
The kinetic energy of the two particles in reference frame S is given by
1 1
KS = m1v12 + m2 v2 2 . (15.2.15)
2 2
We can take the scalar product of Eq. (15.2.8) to rewrite Eq. (15.2.15) as
15-5
1     1    
KS = m1 ( v1′ + v cm ) ⋅( v1′ + v cm ) + m2 ( v ′2 + v cm ) ⋅( v ′2 + v cm )
2 2 . (15.2.16)
1 2 1 2 1   
= m1v1′ + m2 v2′ + (m1 + m2 )vcm + (m1v1′ + m2 v ′2 ) ⋅ v cm
2
2 2 2
The last term is zero due to the fact that the momentum of the system in the center of
mass reference frame is zero (Eq. (15.2.11)). Therefore Eq. (15.2.16) becomes
1 1 1
KS = m1v1′ 2 + m2 v2′ 2 + (m1 + m2 )vcm 2 . (15.2.17)
2 2 2
The first two terms correspond to the kinetic energy in the center of mass frame, thus the
kinetic energies in the two reference frames are related by
1
K S = K cm + (m1 + m2 )vcm 2 . (15.2.18)
2
We now use Eq. (15.2.13) to rewrite Eq. (15.2.18) as
1 1
KS = µv1, 2 2 + (m1 + m2 )vcm 2 (15.2.19)
2 2
Even though kinetic energy is a reference frame dependent quantity, because the second
term in Eq. (15.2.19) is a constant, the change in kinetic energy in either reference frame
is equal to
1
2 ((
f
) ( ))
ΔK = µ v1, 2 2 − v1, 2 2 .
i
(15.2.20)
This generalizes to any two relatively inertial reference frames because the relative
velocity is a reference frame independent quantity,
the change in kinetic energy is independent of the choice of relatively

inertial reference frames.
We showed in Appendix 13A that when two particles of masses m1 and m2 interact, the
work done by the interaction force is equal to
W=
1
2 ((
µ v1, 2 2 ) − (v ) ) .
f 1, 2
2
i
(15.2.21)
Hence we explicitly verified that for our two-particle system
W = ΔK sys . (15.2.22)
15-6
15.3 Characterizing Collisions
In a collision, the ratio of the magnitudes of the initial and final relative velocities is
called the coefficient of restitution and denoted by the symbol e ,
vB
e= . (15.2.23)
vA
If the magnitude of the relative velocity does not change during a collision, e = 1 , then
the change in kinetic energy is zero, (Eq. (15.2.21)). Collisions in which there is no
change in kinetic energy are called elastic collisions,
ΔK = 0, elastic collision . (15.2.24)
If the magnitude of the final relative velocity is less than the magnitude of the initial
relative velocity, e < 1 , then the change in kinetic energy is negative. Collisions in which
the kinetic energy decreases are called inelastic collisions,
ΔK < 0, inelastic collision . (15.2.25)
If the two objects stick together after the collision, then the relative final velocity is zero,
e = 0 . Such collisions are called totally inelastic. The change in kinetic energy can be
found from Eq. (15.2.21),
1 1 m1m2 2
ΔK = − µ v 2A = − v , totally inelastic collision . (15.2.26)
2 2 m1 + m2 A
If the magnitude of the final relative velocity is greater than the magnitude of the initial
relative velocity, e > 1 , then the change in kinetic energy is positive. Collisions in which
the kinetic energy increases are called superelastic collisions,
ΔK > 0, superelastic collision . (15.2.27)
15.4 One-Dimensional Collisions Between Two Objects

15.4.1 One Dimensional Elastic Collision in Laboratory Reference Frame
Consider a one-dimensional elastic collision between two objects moving in the x -

direction. One object, with mass m1 and initial x -component of the velocity v1x,i ,
collides with an object of mass m2 and initial x -component of the velocity v2 x,i . The
scalar components v1x,i and v1x,i can be positive, negative or zero. No forces other than
the interaction force between the objects act during the collision. After the collision, the
15-7
final x -component of the velocities are v1x, f and v2 x, f . We call this reference frame the
“laboratory reference frame”.
Figure 15.5 One-dimensional elastic collision, laboratory reference frame
For the collision depicted in Figure 15.5, v1x,i > 0 , v2 x,i < 0 , v1x, f < 0 , and v2 x, f > 0 .
Because there are no external forces in the x -direction, momentum is constant in the x -
direction. Equating the momentum components before and after the collision gives the
relation
m1v1x, i + m2 v2 x, i = m1v1x, f + m2 v2 x, f . (15.3.1)
Because the collision is elastic, kinetic energy is constant. Equating the kinetic energy
before and after the collision gives the relation
1 1 1 1
2
m1v1x,i + m2 v22x,i = m1v1x,
2
f
+ m2 v22x, f (15.3.2)
2 2 2 2
Rewrite these Eqs. (15.3.1) and (15.3.2) as
m1 (v1x,i − v1x, f ) = m2 (v2 x, f − v2 x,i ) (15.3.3)

2
m1 (v1x,i − v1x,
2
f
) = m2 (v22x, f − v22x,i ) . (15.3.4)
Eq. (15.3.4) can be written as
m1 (v1x,i − v1x, f )(v1x,i + v1x, f ) = m2 (v2 x, f − v2 x,i )(v2 x, f + v2 x,i ) . (15.3.5)
Divide Eq. (15.3.4) by Eq. (15.3.3), yielding
v1x,i + v1x, f = v2 x,i + v2 x, f . (15.3.6)

Eq. (15.3.6) may be rewritten as
v1x,i − v2 x,i = v2 x, f − v1x, f . (15.3.7)
Recall that the relative velocity between the two objects is defined to be
   
v rel ≡ v1,2 ≡ v1 − v 2 . (15.3.8)
15-8
where we used the superscript “rel” to remind ourselves that the velocity is a relative
rel
velocity (and to simplify our notation). Thus vx,i = v1x,i − v2 x,i is the initial x -component
of the relative velocity, and vx,relf = v1x, f − v2 x, f is the final x -component of the relative
velocity. Therefore Eq. (15.3.7) states that during the interaction the initial relative
velocity is equal to the negative of the final relative velocity
 
v rel
i
= − v relf , (1− dimensional energy-momentum prinicple) . (15.3.9)
Consequently the initial and final relative speeds are equal. We shall call this relationship
between the relative initial and final velocities the one-dimensional energy-momentum
principle because we have combined these two principles to realize this result. The
energy-momentum principle is independent of the masses of the colliding particles.
Although we derived this result explicitly, we have already shown that the change in
kinetic energy for a two-particle interaction (Eq. (15.2.20)), in our simplified notation is
given by
1
ΔK = µ ((v rel )2f − (v rel )2i ) (15.3.10)
2
Therefore for an elastic collision where ΔK = 0 , the square of the relative speed remains
constant
(v rel )2f = (v rel )2i . (15.3.11)
For a one-dimensional collision, the magnitude of the relative speed remains constant but
the direction changes by 180 .
We can now solve for the final x -component of the velocities, v1x, f and v2 x, f , as
follows. Eq. (15.3.7) may be rewritten as
v2 x, f = v1x, f + v1x,i − v2 x,i . (15.3.12)
Now substitute Eq. (15.3.12) into Eq. (15.3.1) yielding
m1v1x,i + m2 v2 x,i = m1v1x, f + m2 (v1x, f + v1x,i − v2 x,i ) . (15.3.13)
Solving Eq. (15.3.13) for v1x, f involves some algebra and yields
m1 − m2 2 m2
v1x, f = v1x,i + v . (15.3.14)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 2 x,i
15-9
To find v2 x, f , rewrite Eq. (15.3.7) as
v1x, f = v2 x, f − v1x,i + v2 x,i . (15.3.15)
Now substitute Eq. (15.3.15) into Eq. (15.3.1) yielding
m1v1x,i + m2 v2 x,i = m1 (v2 x, f − v1x,i + v2 x,i )v1x, f + m2 v2 x, f . (15.3.16)
We can solve Eq. (15.3.16) for v2 x, f and determine that
m2 − m1 2 m1
v2 x, f = v2 x,i + v1x,i . (15.3.17)
m2 + m1 m2 + m1
Consider what happens in the limits m1 >> m2 in Eq. (15.3.14). Then
2
v1x, f → v1x,i + mv ; (15.3.18)
m1 2 2 x,i
the more massive object’s velocity component is only slightly changed by an amount
proportional to the less massive object’s x -component of momentum. Similarly, the less
massive object’s final velocity approaches
v2 x, f → −v2 x,i + 2v1x,i = v1x,i + v1x,i − v2 x,i . (15.3.19)

We can rewrite this as
v2 x, f − v1x,i = v1x,i − v2 x,i = vx,i
rel
. (15.3.20)
i.e. the less massive object “rebounds” with the same speed relative to the more massive
object which barely changed its speed.
If the objects are identical, or have the same mass, Eqs. (15.3.14) and (15.3.17) become
v1x, f = v2 x,i , v2 x, f = v1x,i ; (15.3.21)
the objects have exchanged x -components of velocities, and unless we could somehow
distinguish the objects, we might not be able to tell if there was a collision at all.
15-10
15.4.2 One-Dimensional Collision Between Two Objects – Center-of-Mass Reference
Frame
We analyzed the one-dimensional elastic collision (Figure 15.5) in Section 15.4.1 in the
laboratory reference frame. Now let’s view the collision from the center-of-mass (CM)
frame. The x -component of velocity of the center-of-mass is
m1 v1x,i + m2 v2 x,i
vx,cm = . (15.3.22)
m1 + m2
With respect to the center-of-mass, the x -components of the velocities of the objects are
m2
′ = v1x,i − vx,cm = (v1x,i − v2 x,i )
v1x,i
m1 + m2
(15.3.23)
m1
v2′ x,i = v2 x,i − vx,cm = (v2 x,i − v1x,i ) .
m1 + m2
In the CM frame the momentum of the system is zero before the collision and hence the
momentum of the system is zero after the collision. For an elastic collision, the only way
for both momentum and kinetic energy to be the same before and after the collision is
either the objects have the same velocity (a miss) or to reverse the direction of the
velocities as shown in Figure 15.6.
Figure 15.6 One-dimensional elastic collision in center-of-mass reference frame
In the CM frame, the final x -components of the velocities are
m2
′ f = − v1x,i
v1x, ′ = (v2 x,i − v1x,i )
m1 + m2
(15.3.24)
m1
v2′ x, f = − v2′ x,i = (v2 x,i − v1x,i ) .
m1 + m2
The final x -components of the velocities in the “laboratory frame” are then given by
15-11
v1x, f = v1x,
′ f + vx,cm
m2 m v + m2 v2 x,i
= (v2 x,i − v1x,i ) + 1 1x,i (15.3.25)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
m1 − m2 2 m2
= v1x,i + v2 x,i
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
as in Eq. (15.3.14) and a similar calculation reproduces Eq. (15.3.17).

Example 15.1 Elastic One-Dimensional Collision Between Two Objects
î v1,i = v1,x,i î v 2,i = 0 initial state

1
m2 = 2m1
2
v1, f = v1,x, f î v 2, f = v2,x, f î final state

î m2 = 2m1
1 2
Figure 15.7 Elastic collision between two non-identical carts
Consider the elastic collision of two carts along a track; the incident cart 1 has mass m1
and moves with initial speed v1,i . The target cart has mass m2 = 2 m1 and is initially at
rest, v2,i = 0 , (Figure 15.7). Immediately after the collision, the incident cart has final
speed v1, f and the target cart has final speed v2, f . Calculate the final x -component of the
velocities of the carts as a function of the initial speed v1,i .
Solution The momentum flow diagram for the objects before (initial state) and after
(final state) the collision are shown in Figure 15.7. We can immediately use our results
above with m2 = 2 m1 and v2,i = 0 . The final x -component of velocity of cart 1 is given
by Eq. (15.3.14), where we use v1x,i = v1,i
15-12
1
v1x, f = − v1,i . (15.4.1)
3
The final x -component of velocity of cart 2 is given by Eq. (15.3.17)
2
v2 x, f = v . (15.4.2)
3 1,i
Example 15.2 The Dissipation of Kinetic Energy in a Completely Inelastic Collision

Between Two Objects
î v1,i v 2,i = 0
initial state
1 2
î final state vf
1 2
Figure 15.7b Inelastic collision between two non-identical carts
An incident cart of mass m1 and initial speed v1, i collides completely inelastically with a
cart of mass m2 that is initially at rest (Figure 15.7b). There are no external forces acting
on the objects in the direction of the collision. Find ΔK / K initial = (K final − K initial ) / K initial .
Solution: In the absence of any net force on the system consisting of the two carts, the
momentum after the collision will be the same as before the collision. After the collision
the carts will move in the direction of the initial velocity of the incident cart with a
common speed v f found from applying the momentum condition
m1v1, i = (m1 + m2 )v f ⇒
m1 (15.4.3)
vf = v1, i .
m1 + m2
The initial relative speed is virel = v1, i . The final relative velocity is zero because the carts
stick together so using Eq. (15.2.26), the change in kinetic energy is
1 1 m1m2 2
ΔK = − µ (virel )2 = − v1, i . (15.4.4)
2 2 m1 + m2
15-13
The ratio of the change in kinetic energy to the initial kinetic energy is then
m2
ΔK / K initial = − . (15.4.5)
m1 + m2
As a check, we can calculate the change in kinetic energy via
1 1
ΔK = (K f − K i ) = (m1 + m2 )v 2f − v1,2 i
2 2
2
1 ⎛ m1 ⎞ 2 1 2
= (m1 + m2 ) ⎜ v1, i − v1, i (15.4.6)
2 ⎝ m1 + m2 ⎟⎠ 2
⎛ m1 ⎞⎛1 ⎞ 1 m1m2 2
=⎜ − 1⎟ ⎜ m1v1,2 i ⎟ = − v1, i .
⎝ m1 + m2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 m1 + m2
Example 15.3 Bouncing Superballs
2
g
M 2 >> M1
Figure 15.8b Two superballs dropping
Consider two balls that are dropped from a height hi above the ground, one on top of the
other (Figure 15.8). Ball 1 is on top and has mass M1 , and ball 2 is underneath and has
mass M 2 with M 2 >> M1 . Assume that there is no loss of kinetic energy during all
collisions. Ball 2 first collides with the ground and rebounds. Then, as ball 2`starts to
move upward, it collides with the ball 1 which is still moving downwards (figure below
left). How high will ball 1 rebound in the air? Hint: consider this collision as seen by an
observer moving upward with the same speed as the ball 2 has after it collides with
ground. What speed does ball 1 have in this reference frame after it collides with the ball
2?
15-14
Solution
The system consists of the two balls and the earth. There are five special states for this
motion shown in the figure below.
part a)
Initial State: the balls are released from rest at a height hi above the ground.
State A: the balls just reach the ground with speed va = 2ghi . This follows from
ΔEmech = 0 ⇒ ΔK = −ΔU . Thus (1 / 2)mva2 − 0 = −mgΔh = mghi ⇒ va = 2ghi .
State B: immediately before the collision of the balls. Ball 2 has collided with the ground
and reversed direction with the same speed, va , but ball 1 is still moving downward with
speed va .
State C: immediately after the collision of the balls. Because we are assuming that
m2 >> m1 , ball 2 does not change its speed as a result of the collision so it is still moving
upward with speed va . As a result of the collision, ball 1 moves upward with speed vb .
Final State: ball 1 reaches a maximum height h f = vb 2 / 2g above the ground. This again
follows from ΔK = −ΔU ⇒ 0 − (1 / 2)mvb2 = −mgΔh = −mgh f ⇒ h f = vb2 / 2g .
Choice of Reference Frame:
As indicated in the hint above, this collision is best analyzed from the reference frame of
an observer moving upward with speed va , the speed of ball 2 just after it rebounded with
15-15
the ground. In this frame immediately, before the collision, ball 1 is moving downward
with a speed vb′ that is twice the speed seen by an observer at rest on the ground (lab
reference frame).
va′ = 2 va (15.4.7)
The mass of ball 2 is much larger than the mass of ball 1, m2 >> m1 . This enables us to
consider the collision (between States B and C) to be equivalent to ball 1 bouncing off a
hard wall, while ball 2 experiences virtually no recoil. Hence ball 2 remains at rest in the
reference frame moving upwards with speed va with respect to observer at rest on
ground. Before the collision, ball 1 has speed va′ = 2 va . Since there is no loss of kinetic
energy during the collision, the result of the collision is that ball 1 changes direction but
maintains the same speed,
vb′ = 2 va . (15.4.8)
However, according to an observer at rest on the ground, after the collision ball 1 is
moving upwards with speed
vb = 2 va + va = 3va . (15.4.9)
While rebounding, the mechanical energy of the smaller superball is constant (we
consider the smaller superball and the Earth as a system) hence between State C and the
Final State,
ΔK + ΔU = 0 . (15.4.10)
The change in kinetic energy is

1
ΔK = − m1 (3va )2 . (15.4.11)
2
The change in potential energy is

ΔU = m1 g h f . (15.4.12)
So the condition that mechanical energy is constant (Equation (15.4.10)) is now
1
− m1 (3v1a )2 + m1 g h f = 0 . (15.4.13)
2
We can rewrite Equation (15.4.13) as

1
m1 g h f = 9 m1 ( va )2 . (15.4.14)
2
15-16
Recall that we can also use the fact that the mechanical energy doesn’t change between
the Initial State and State A yielding an equation similar to Eq. (15.4.14),
1
m1 g hi = m ( v )2 . (15.4.15)
2 1 a
Now substitute the expression for the kinetic energy in Eq. (15.4.15) into Eq. (15.4.14)
yielding
m1 g h f = 9 m1 g hi . (15.4.16)
Thus ball 1 reaches a maximum height

h f = 9 hi . (15.4.17)
15.6 Two Dimensional Elastic Collisions
15.6.1 Two-dimensional Elastic Collision in Laboratory Reference Frame
Consider the elastic collision between two particles in which we neglect any external
forces on the system consisting of the two particles. Particle 1 of mass m1 is initially

moving with velocity v1, i and collides elastically with a particle 2 of mass m2 that is
initially at rest. We shall refer to the reference frame in which one particle is at rest, ‘the
target’, as the laboratory reference frame. After the collision particle 1 moves with
 
velocity v1, f and particle 2 moves with velocity v 2, f , (Figure 15.9). The angles θ1, f
and θ 2, f that the particles make with the positive forward direction of particle 1 are
called the laboratory scattering angles.
v1, f
1
1 v1, i 1, f
2 2, f
2
v 2, f
Figure 15.9 Two-dimensional collision in laboratory reference frame


Generally the initial velocity v1, i of particle 1 is known and we would like to determine
 
the final velocities v1, f and v 2, f , which requires finding the magnitudes and directions
15-17
of each of these vectors, v1, f , v2, f , θ1, f , and θ 2, f . These quantities are related by the two
equations describing the constancy of momentum, and the one equation describing
constancy of the kinetic energy. Therefore there is one degree of freedom that we must
specify in order to determine the outcome of the collision. In what follows we shall
express our results for v1, f , v2, f , and θ 2, f in terms of v1, i and θ1, f .
  
The components of the total momentum psys
i
= m1v1,i + m2 v 2,i in the initial state are given
by
sys
px,i = m1v1,i
(15.5.1)
p sys
y,i
= 0.
  
The components of the momentum psys
f
= m1v1, f + m2 v 2, f in the final state are given by
px,sysf = m1 v1, f cosθ1, f + m2 v2, f cosθ 2, f

(15.5.2)
p sys
y, f
= m1 v1, f sin θ1, f − m2 v2, f sin θ 2, f .
There are no any external forces acting on the system, so each component of the total
momentum remains constant during the collision,
pxsys,i = pxsys, f (15.5.3)

p sys
y,i
= p sys
y, f
. (15.5.4)
Eqs. (15.5.3) and (15.5.4) become
m1 v1,i = m1 v1, f cosθ1, f + m2 v2, f cosθ 2, f , (15.5.5)

0 = m1 v1, f sin θ1, f − m2 v2, f sin θ 2, f . (15.5.6)
The collision is elastic and therefore the system kinetic energy of is constant
K i sys = K f sys . (15.5.7)
Using the given information, Eq. (15.5.7) becomes
1 1 1
2
m1v1,i = m1v1,2 f + m2 v2,2 f . (15.5.8)
2 2 2
Rewrite the expressions in Eqs. (15.5.5) and (15.5.6) as
m2 v2, f cosθ 2, f = m1 (v1,i − v1, f cosθ1, f ), (15.5.9)
15-18
m2 v2, f sin θ 2, f = m1v1, f sin θ1, f . (15.5.10)
Square each of the expressions in Eqs. (15.5.9) and (15.5.10), add them together and use
the identity cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1 yielding
m12 2
v 2
2, f
= 2 (v1,i − 2v1,i v1, f cosθ1, f + v1,2 f ) . (15.5.11)
m2
2
1 1 1 m1 2
2
m1v1,i = m1v1,2 f + (v1,i − 2v1,i v1, f cosθ1, f + v1,2 f ) . (15.5.12)
2 2 2 m2
⎛ m⎞ m ⎛ m⎞ 2
0 = ⎜ 1+ 1 ⎟ v1,2 f − 1 2v1,i v1, f cosθ1, f − ⎜ 1− 1 ⎟ v1,i , (15.5.13)
⎝ m2 ⎠ m2 ⎝ m2 ⎠
Let α = m1 / m2 then Eq. (15.5.13) can be written as
0 = (1+ α )v1,2 f − 2α v1,i v1, f cosθ1, f − (1− α )v1,i

2
, (15.5.14)
The solution to this quadratic equation is given by
( )
1/2
α v1,i cosθ1, f ± α 2 v1,i
2
cos 2 θ1, f + (1− α )v1,i
2
v1, f = . (15.5.15)
(1+ α )
Divide the expressions in Eq. (15.5.9), yielding
v2, f sin θ 2, f v1, f sin θ1, f

= . (15.5.16)
v2, f cosθ 2, f v1,i − v1, f cosθ1, f
v1, f sin θ1, f
tan θ 2, f = . (15.5.17)
v1,i − v1, f cosθ1, f
The relationship between the scattering angles in Eq. (15.5.17) is independent of the
masses of the colliding particles. Thus the scattering angle for particle 2 is
15-19
⎛ v1, f sin θ1, f ⎞
θ 2, f = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ (15.5.18)
⎝ v1,i − v1, f cosθ1, f ⎠
We can now use Eq. (15.5.10) to find an expression for the final velocity of particle 1
v1, f sin θ1, f

v2, f = . (15.5.19)
α sin θ 2, f
Example 15.5 Elastic Two-dimensional collision of identical particles
ˆj v1, f
î
1
1 v1, i 1, f
= 30
2
2, f
2
v 2, f
Figure 15.10 Momentum flow diagram for two-dimensional elastic collision
Object 1 with mass m1 is initially moving with a speed v1,i = 3.0m ⋅s −1 and collides
elastically with object 2 that has the same mass, m2 = m1 , and is initially at rest. After the
collision, object 1 moves with an unknown speed v1, f at an angle θ1, f with respect to its
initial direction of motion and object 2 moves with an unknown speed v2, f , at an
unknown angle θ 2, f (as shown in the Figure 15.10). Find the final speeds of each of the
objects and the angle θ 2, f .
Solution: Because the masses are equal, α = 1 . We are given that v1,i = 3.0 m ⋅s −1 and
θ1, f = 30o . Hence Eq. (15.5.14) reduces to
v1, f = v1,i cosθ1, f = (3.0 m ⋅s −1 )cos30 = 2.6 m ⋅s −1 . (15.5.20)
Substituting Eq. (15.5.20) in Eq. (15.5.17) yields
15-20
⎛ v1, f sin θ1, f ⎞
θ 2, f = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ v1,i − v1, f cosθ1, f ⎠
⎛ (2.6 m ⋅s −1 )sin(30 ) ⎞
θ 2, f −1
= tan ⎜ (15.5.21)
⎝ 3.0 m ⋅s − (2.6 m ⋅s )cos(30 ) ⎟⎠
−1 −1 
= 60.
The above results for v1, f and θ 2, f may be substituted into either of the expressions in
Eq. (15.5.9), or Eq. (15.5.11), to find v2, f = 1.5m ⋅ s −1 . Eq. (15.5.11) also has the solution
v2, f = 0 , which would correspond to the incident particle missing the target completely.
Before going on, the fact that θ1, f + θ 2, f = 90 , that is, the objects move away from the
collision point at right angles, is not a coincidence. A vector derivation is presented in
Example 15.6. We can see this result algebraically from the above result. Substituting
Eq. (15.5.20) v1, f = v1,i cosθ1, f in Eq. (15.5.17) yields
cosθ1, f sin θ1, f

tan θ 2, f = = cot θ1, f = tan(90 − θ1, f ) ; (15.5.22)
1− cosθ 2
1, f
showing that θ1, f + θ 2, f = 90 , the angles θ1, f and θ 2, f are complements.
Example 15.6 Two-dimensional elastic collision between particles of equal mass
Show that the equal mass particles emerge from a two-dimensional elastic collision at
right angles by making explicit use of the fact that momentum is a vector quantity.
ˆj v1, f
î
1
1 v1, i 1, f
2
2, f
2
v 2, f
Figure 15.11 Elastic scattering of identical particles
15-21
Solution: Choose a reference frame in which particle 2 is initially at rest (Figure 15.11).
There are no external forces acting on the two objects during the collision (the collision
forces are all internal), therefore momentum is constant
 
psys
i
= psys
f
, (15.5.23)
which becomes
  
m1v1, i = m1v1, f + m1v 2, f . (15.5.24)
  
v1,i = v1, f + v 2, f . (15.5.25)
Recall the vector identity that the square of the speed is given by the dot product
 
v ⋅ v = v 2 . With this identity in mind, we take the dot product of each side of Eq.
(15.5.25) with itself,
     
v1,i ⋅ v1,i = ( v1, f + v 2, f ) ⋅( v1, f + v 2, f )
      (15.5.26)
= v1, f ⋅ v1, f + 2 v1, f ⋅ v 2, f + v 2, f ⋅ v 2, f .
This becomes
 
2
v1,i = v1,2 f + 2 v1, f ⋅ v 2, f + v2,2 f . (15.5.27)
Recall that kinetic energy is the same before and after an elastic collision, and the masses
of the two objects are equal, so constancy of energy, (Eq. (15.3.2)) simplifies to
2
v1,i = v1,2 f + v2,2 f . (15.5.28)
Comparing Eq. (15.5.27) to Eq. (15.5.28), we see that

 
v1, f ⋅ v 2, f = 0 . (15.5.29)
The dot product of two nonzero vectors is zero when the two vectors are at right angles to
each other justifying our claim that the collision particles emerge at right angles to each
other.
Example 15.7 Two dimensional collision between particles of unequal mass
Particle 1 of mass m1 , initially moving in the positive x -direction (to the right in the
figure below) with speed v1,i , collides with particle 2 of mass m2 = m1 / 3 , which is
initially moving in the opposite direction (Figure 15.12) with an unknown speed v2,i .
Assume that the total external force acting on the particles is zero. Do not assume the
collision is elastic. After the collision, particle 1 moves with speed v1, f = v1,i / 2 in the
negative y -direction. After the collision, particle 2 moves with an unknown speed v2, f ,
15-22
at an angle θ 2, f = 45o with respect to the positive x -direction. (i) Determine the initial
speed v2,i of particle 2 and the final speed v2, f of particle 2 in terms of v1,i . (ii) Is the
collision elastic?
before after v2, f

2 ĵ
î
1 v1,i v2,i 2 = 45
m1 = m m2 = m / 3
1
v1, f = v1,i / 2
Figure 15.12 Two-dimensional collision between particles of unequal mass
Solution: We choose as our system the two particles. We are given that v1, f = v1,i / 2 . We
apply the two momentum conditions,
m1 v1,i − (m1 / 3)v2,i = (m1 / 3) v2, f ( 2 / 2) (15.5.30)

0 = m1 v1, f − (m1 / 3) v2, f ( 2 / 2) . (15.5.31)
Solve Eq. (15.5.31) for v2, f
3 2
v2, f = 3 2v1, f = v (15.5.32)
2 1,i
Substitute Eq. (15.5.32) into Eq. (15.5.30) and solve for v2,i
v2,i = (3 / 2)v1,i . (15.5.33)

The initial kinetic energy is then
1 1 7
Ki = 2
m1v1,i + (m1 / 3)v2,i
2
= m1v1,i
2
. (15.5.34)
2 2 8
The final kinetic energy is
1 1 1 3 7
Kf = m1v1,2 f + m2 v2,2 f = m1v1,i
2
+ m1v1,i
2
= m1v1,i
2
. (15.5.35)
2 2 8 4 8
Comparing our results, we see that kinetic energy is constant so the collision is elastic.
15-23
15.7 Two-Dimensional Collisions in Center-of-Mass Reference Frame
15.7.1 Two-Dimensional Collision in Center-of-Mass Reference Frame
Consider the elastic collision between two particles in the laboratory reference frame

(Figure 15.9). Particle 1 of mass m1 is initially moving with velocity v1, i and collides
elastically with a particle 2 of mass m2 that is initially at rest. After the collision the
 
particle 1 moves with velocity v1, f and particle 2 moves with velocity v 2, f . In section
15.7.1 we determined how to find v1, f , v2, f , and θ 2, f in terms of v1, i and θ 2, f . We shall
now analyze the collision in the center-of-mass reference frame, which is boosted form
the laboratory frame by the velocity of center-of-mass given by

 m1v1, i
v cm = . (15.5.36)
m1 + m2
Because we assumed that there are no external forces acting on the system, the center-of-
mass velocity remains constant during the interaction.
v1, f
1
v1,i cm
1 2 v 2,i 2
v 2, f
Figure 15.13 Two-dimensional elastic collision in center-of-mass reference frame
Recall the velocities of particles 1 and 2 in the center-of-mass frame are given by
(Eq.,(15.2.9) and (15.2.10)). In the center-of-mass reference frame the velocities of the
two incoming particles are in opposite directions, as are the velocities of the two outgoing
particles after the collision (Figure 15.13). The angle Θ cm between the incoming and
outgoing velocities is called the center-of-mass scattering angle.
15-24
15.7.2 Scattering in the Center-of-Mass Reference Frame

Consider a collision between particle 1 of mass m1 and velocity v1,i and particle 2 of
mass m2 at rest in the laboratory frame. Particle 1 is scattered elastically through a
scattering angle Θ in the center-of-mass frame. The center-of-mass velocity is given by

 m1v1,i
v cm = . (15.5.37)
m1 + m2
In the center-of-mass frame, the momentum of the system of two particles is zero
    
0 = m1v1,i
′ + m2 v ′2,i = m1v1,′ f + m2 v ′2, f . (15.5.38)
Therefore
 m 
′ = − 2 v ′2,i .
v1,i (15.5.39)
m1
 m 
v1,′ f = − 2 v ′2, f (15.5.40)
m1
The energy condition in the center-of-mass frame is
1 1 1 1
′ 2 + m2 v2,i
m1v1,i ′ 2 = m1v1,′ 2f + m2 v2,′ 2f . (15.5.41)
2 2 2 2
Substituting Eqs. (15.5.39) and (15.5.40) into Eq. (15.5.41) yields
′ = v1,′ f .
v1,i (15.5.42)
(we are only considering magnitudes). Therefore
′ = v2,′ f .
v2,i (15.5.43)
Because the magnitude of the velocity of a particle in the center-of-mass reference frame
is proportional to the relative velocity of the two particles, Eqs. (15.5.42) and (15.5.43)
imply that the magnitude of the relative velocity also does not change
 
v1,′ 2, i = v1,′ 2, f , (15.5.44)
verifying our earlier result that for an elastic collision the relative speed remains the
same, (Eq. (15.2.20)). However the direction of the relative velocity is rotated by the
center-of-mass scattering angle Θ cm . This generalizes the energy-momentum principle to
two dimensions. Recall that the relative velocity is independent of the reference frame,
15-25
   
v1, i − v 2, i = v1,′ i − v ′2, i (15.5.45)
 
In the laboratory reference frame v 2,i = 0 , hence the initial relative velocity is
  
v1,′ 2, i = v1, 2, i = v1, i , and the velocities in the center-of-mass frame of the particles are then
 µ 
v1,′ i = v1, i (15.5.46)
m1
 µ 
v ′2, i = − v1, i . (15.5.47)
m2
Therefore the magnitudes of the final velocities in the center-of-mass frame are
µ µ µ
v1,′ f = v1,i
′ = v1,′ 2, i = v1, 2, i = v1, i . (15.5.48)
m1 m1 m1
µ µ µ
v2,′ f = v2,i
′ = v1,′ 2, i = v1, 2, i = v . (15.5.49)
m2 m2 m2 1, i
Example 15.8 Scattering in the Lab and CM Frames


Particle 1 of mass m1 and velocity v1,i by a particle of mass m2 at rest in the laboratory
frame is scattered elastically through a scattering angle Θ in the center of mass frame,
(Figure 15.14). Find (i) the scattering angle of the incoming particle in the laboratory
frame, (ii) the magnitude of the final velocity of the incoming particle in the laboratory
reference frame, and (iii) the fractional loss of kinetic energy of the incoming particle.
v1, f
ˆj v1, f
î 1
1
1 v1, i 1, f
v1,i cm
2
2, f
1 2 v 2,i 2
cm
2 v 2, f
v 2, f
Figure 15.14 Scattering in the laboratory and center-of-mass reference frames
15-26
Solution:
i) In order to determine the center-of-mass scattering angle we use the transformation law
for velocities
  
v1,′ f = v1, f − v cm . (15.5.50)
In Figure 15.15 we show the collision in the center-of-mass frame along with the
laboratory frame final velocities and scattering angles.
v1, f v1, f ˆj
1, f î
1 v cm
cm
v1,i v 2,i
1 2
2 v cm
cm
2, f
v 2, f
v 2, f
Figure 15.15 Final velocities of colliding particles
Vector decomposition of Eq. (15.5.50) yields
v1, f cosθ1, i = v1,′ f cosΘ cm − vcm , (15.5.51)

v1, f sin θ1, i = v1,′ f sinΘ cm . (15.5.52)
where we choose as our directions the horizontal and vertical Divide Eq. (15.5.52) by
(15.5.51) yields
v sin θ1, i v1,′ f sinΘ cm
tanθ1, i = 1, f = (15.5.53)
v1, f cosθ1, i v1,′ f cosΘ cm − vcm
′ = v1,′ f , we can rewrite Eq. (15.5.53) as

Because v1,i
v1,′ i sinΘ cm
tanθ1, i = (15.5.54)
v1,′ i cosΘ cm − vcm
We now substitute Eqs. (15.5.48) and vcm = m1v1, i / (m1 + m2 ) into Eq. (15.5.54) yielding
15-27
m2 sinΘ cm
tanθ1, i = . (15.5.55)
cosΘ cm − m1 / m2
Thus in the laboratory frame particle 1 scatters by an angle
⎛ m2 sinΘ cm ⎞
θ1, i = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ . (15.5.56)
⎝ cosΘ cm − m1 / m2 ⎠
ii) We can calculate the square of the final velocity in the laboratory frame
     
v1, f ⋅ v1, f = ( v1,′ f + v cm ) ⋅( v1,′ f + v cm ) . (15.5.57)
which becomes
 
v1, f 2 = v1,′ f 2 + 2 v1,′ f ⋅ v cm + vcm 2 = v1,′ f 2 + 2v1,′ f vcm cosΘ cm + vcm 2 . (15.5.58)
We use the fact that v1,′ f = v1,′ i = ( µ / m1 )v1,2, i = ( µ / m1 )v1, i = (m2 / m1 + m2 )v1, i to rewrite
Eq. (15.5.58) as
2
⎛ m2 ⎞ m2 m1 m12
v1, f 2
=⎜ ⎟ v1, i + 2
2
v cosΘ cm + v 2 . (15.5.59)
⎝ m1 + m2 ⎠ (m1 + m2 ) (m1 + m2 )
2 1, i 2 1, i
Thus
(m )
1/2
2
2
+ 2m2 m1 cosΘ cm + m12
v1, f = v1, i . (15.5.60)
m1 + m2
(iii) The fractional change in the kinetic energy of particle 1 in the laboratory frame is
given by
K1, f − K1, i v1, f 2 − v1, i 2 m2 2 + 2m2 m1 cosΘ cm + m12 2m2 m1 (cosΘ cm − 1)

= = −1= .(15.5.61)
K1, i v1, i 2 (m1 + m2 ) 2
(m1 + m2 )2
We can also determine the scattering angle Θ cm in the center-of-mass reference frame
from the scattering angle θ1, i of particle 1 in the laboratory. We now rewrite the
momentum relations as
v1, f cosθ1, i + vcm = v1,′ f cosΘ cm , (15.5.62)
v1, f sin θ1, i = v1,′ f sinΘ cm . (15.5.63)
In a similar fashion to the above argument, we have that
15-28
v1, f sin θ1, f
tanΘ cm = . (15.5.64)
v1, f cosθ1, f + vcm
Recall from our analysis of the collision in the laboratory frame that if we specify one of
the four parameters v1, f , v2, f , θ1, f , or v1, f , then we can solve for the other three in terms
of the initial parameters v1, i and v2, i . With that caveat, we can use Eq. (15.5.64) to
determine Θ cm .
15-29
Chapter 16 Two Dimensional Rotational Kinematics
16.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

16.2 Fixed Axis Rotation: Rotational Kinematics ...................................................... 1
16.2.1 Fixed Axis Rotation........................................................................................ 1
16.2.2 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration ............................................... 2
16.2.3 Sign Convention: Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration ................ 4
16.2.4 Tangential Velocity and Tangential Acceleration ....................................... 4
Example 16.1 Turntable ........................................................................................... 5
16.3 Rotational Kinetic Energy and Moment of Inertia............................................ 6
16.3.1 Rotational Kinetic Energy and Moment of Inertia ..................................... 6
16.3.2 Moment of Inertia of a Rod of Uniform Mass Density ............................... 7
Example 16.2 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Disc.............................................. 8
16.3.3 Parallel Axis Theorem ................................................................................. 10
16.3.4 Parallel Axis Theorem Applied to a Uniform Rod ................................... 11
Example 16.3 Rotational Kinetic Energy of Disk ................................................ 11
16.4 Conservation of Energy for Fixed Axis Rotation ............................................. 12
Example 16.4 Energy and Pulley System .............................................................. 12
Example 16.5 Physical Pendulum .......................................................................... 14
Appendix 16A: Proof of the Parallel Axis Theorem .................................................... 18
Chapter 16 Two Dimensional Rotational Kinematics
Most galaxies exhibit rising rotational velocities at the largest measured
velocity; only for the very largest galaxies are the rotation curves flat. Thus
the smallest SC’s (i.e. lowest luminosity) exhibit the same lack of Keplerian
velocity decrease at large R as do the high-luminosity spirals. The form for
the rotation curves implies that the mass is not centrally condensed, but
that significant mass is located at large R. The integral mass is increasing
at least as fast as R. The mass is not converging to a limiting mass at the
edge of the optical image. The conclusion is inescapable than non-
luminous matter exists beyond the optical galaxy.1
Vera Rubin
16.1 Introduction
The physical objects that we encounter in the world consist of collections of atoms that
are bound together to form systems of particles. When forces are applied, the shape of
the body may be stretched or compressed like a spring, or sheared like jello. In some
systems the constituent particles are very loosely bound to each other as in fluids and
gasses, and the distances between the constituent particles will vary. We shall begin by
restricting ourselves to an ideal category of objects, rigid bodies, which do not stretch,
compress, or shear.
A body is called a rigid body if the distance between any two points in the body
does not change in time. Rigid bodies, unlike point masses, can have forces applied at
different points in the body. Let’s start by considering the simplest example of rigid body
motion, rotation about a fixed axis.
16.2 Fixed Axis Rotation: Rotational Kinematics
16.2.1 Fixed Axis Rotation
A simple example of rotation about a fixed axis is the motion of a compact disc in
a CD player, which is driven by a motor inside the player. In a simplified model of this
motion, the motor produces angular acceleration, causing the disc to spin. As the disc is
set in motion, resistive forces oppose the motion until the disc no longer has any angular
acceleration, and the disc now spins at a constant angular velocity. Throughout this
process, the CD rotates about an axis passing through the center of the disc, and is
perpendicular to the plane of the disc (see Figure 16.1). This type of motion is called
fixed-axis rotation.
1
V.C. Rubin, W.K. Jr. Ford, N Thonnard, Rotational properties of 21 SC galaxies with a large range of
luminosities and radii, from NGC 4605 /R = 4kpc/ to UGC 2885 /R = 122 kpc/, Astrophysical Journal, Part
1, vol. 238, June 1, 1980, p. 471-487.
16-1
Figure 16.1 Rotation of a compact disc about a fixed axis.
When we ride a bicycle forward, the wheels rotate about an axis passing through
the center of each wheel and perpendicular to the plane of the wheel (Figure 16.2). As
long as the bicycle does not turn, this axis keeps pointing in the same direction. This
motion is more complicated than our spinning CD because the wheel is both moving

(translating) with some center of mass velocity, v cm , and rotating with an angular speed
ω.
Figure 16.2 Fixed axis rotation and center of mass translation for a bicycle wheel.
When we turn the bicycle’s handlebars, we change the bike’s trajectory and the
axis of rotation of each wheel changes direction. Other examples of non-fixed axis
rotation are the motion of a spinning top, or a gyroscope, or even the change in the
direction of the earth’s rotation axis. This type of motion is much harder to analyze, so
we will restrict ourselves in this chapter to considering fixed axis rotation, with or
without translation.
16.2.2 Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration
For a rigid body undergoing fixed-axis rotation, we can divide the body up into small
volume elements with mass Δmi . Each of these volume elements is moving in a circle of
radius r i about the axis of rotation (Figure 16.3).
16-2
Figure 16.3 Coordinate system for fixed-axis rotation.
We will adopt the notation implied in Figure 16.3, and denote the vector from the axis to
 
the point where the mass element is located as ri , with magnitude ri = ri . Suppose the
fixed axis of rotation is the z -axis. Introduce a right-handed coordinate system for an
angle θ in the plane of rotation and the choice of the positive z -direction perpendicular
to that plane of rotation. Recall our definition of the angular velocity vector. The angular
velocity vector is directed along the z -axis with z -component equal to the time
derivative of the angle θ ,
 dθ
ω= k̂ = ω z k̂ . (16.1.1)
dt
The angular velocity vector for the mass element undergoing fixed axis rotation with
ω z > 0 is shown in Figure 16.4. Because the body is rigid, all the mass elements will have
 
the same angular velocity ω and hence the same angular acceleration α . If the bodies
did not have the same angular velocity, the mass elements would “catch up to” or “pass”
each other, precluded by the rigid-body assumption.
Figure 16.4 Angular velocity vector for a mass element for fixed axis rotation
In a similar fashion, all points in the rigid body have the same angular acceleration,
 d 2θ
α = 2 k̂ = α z k̂ . (16.1.2)
dt
16-3
The angular acceleration vector is shown in Figure 16.5.
Figure 16.5 Angular acceleration vector for a rigid body rotating about the z -axis
16.2.3 Sign Convention: Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration
For rotational problems we shall always choose a right-handed cylindrical coordinate

system. If the positive z -axis points up, then we choose θ to be increasing in the
counterclockwise direction as shown in Figures 16.4 and 16.5. If the rigid body rotates in
the counterclockwise direction, then the z -component of the angular velocity is positive,
ω z = dθ / dt > 0 . The angular velocity vector then points in the +k̂ -direction as shown in
Figure 16.4. If the rigid body rotates in the clockwise direction, then the z -component of
the angular velocity angular velocity is negative, ω z = dθ / dt < 0 . The angular velocity
vector then points in the −k̂ -direction.
If the rigid body increases its rate of rotation in the counterclockwise (positive)
direction then the z -component of the angular acceleration is positive,
α z ≡ d 2θ dt 2 = dω z / dt > 0 . The angular acceleration vector then points in the +k̂ -
direction as shown in Figure 16.5. If the rigid body decreases its rate of rotation in the
counterclockwise (positive) direction then the z -component of the angular acceleration is
negative, α z = d 2θ / dt 2 = dω z / dt < 0 . The angular acceleration vector then points in the
 
−k̂ -direction. To phrase this more generally, if α and ω point in the same direction, the
body is speeding up, if in opposite directions, the body is slowing down. This general
result is independent of the choice of positive direction of rotation. Note that in Figure
16.1, the CD has the angular velocity vector points downward (in the −k̂ -direction).
16.2.4 Tangential Velocity and Tangential Acceleration
Because the small element of mass, Δmi , is moving in a circle of radius ri with angular

velocity ω = ω z k̂ , the element has a tangential velocity component
vθ , i = r i ω z . (16.1.3)
16-4
If the magnitude of the tangential velocity is changing, the mass element undergoes a
tangential acceleration given by
aθ , i = ri α z . (16.1.4)
Recall that the mass element is always accelerating inward with radial component given
by
vθ2, i
ar , i = − = −r i ω z2 . (16.1.5)
ri
Example 16.1 Turntable
A turntable is a uniform disc of mass 1.2 kg and a radius 1.3 ×101 cm . The turntable is
spinning initially in a counterclockwise direction when seen from above at a constant rate
of f 0 = 33 cycles ⋅ min −1 ( 33 rpm ). The motor is turned off and the turntable slows to a
stop in 8.0 s . Assume that the angular acceleration is constant. (a) What is the initial
angular velocity of the turntable? (b) What is the angular acceleration of the turntable?
Solution: (a) Choose a coordinate system shown in Figure 16.6.
Figure 16.6 Coordinate system for turntable
Initially, the disc is spinning with a frequency
⎛ cycles ⎞ ⎛ 1min ⎞ −1
f 0 = ⎜ 33 ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 0.55 cycles ⋅ s = 0.55 Hz , (16.1.6)
⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ 60 s ⎠
so the initial angular velocity has magnitude
⎛ radian ⎞ ⎛ cycles ⎞
ω0 = 2π f 0 = ⎜ 2π ⎟⎜ 0.55
−1
⎟ = 3.5 rad ⋅ s . (16.1.7)
⎝ cycle ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠
The angular velocity vector points in the +k̂ -direction as shown above.
16-5
(b) The final angular velocity is zero, so the component of the angular acceleration is
Δω z ω f − ω 0 −3.5 rad ⋅ s −1
αz = = = = −4.3 × 10−1 rad ⋅ s −2 . (16.1.8)
Δt t f − t0 8.0 s
The z -component of the angular acceleration is negative, the disc is slowing down and so
the angular acceleration vector then points in the −k̂ -direction as shown in Figure 16.7.
Figure 16.7 Angular acceleration vector for turntable
16.3 Rotational Kinetic Energy and Moment of Inertia

16.3.1 Rotational Kinetic Energy and Moment of Inertia
We have already defined translational kinetic energy for a point object as K = (1 / 2)mv 2 ;
we now define the rotational kinetic energy for a rigid body about its center of mass.
Figure 16.8 Volume element undergoing fixed-axis rotation about the z -axis that passes
through the center of mass.
Choose the z -axis to lie along the axis of rotation passing through the center of mass. As
in Section 16.2.2, divide the body into volume elements of mass Δmi (Figure 16.8). Each
individual mass element Δmi undergoes circular motion about the center of mass with z -
16-6
component of angular velocity ω cm in a circle of radius rcm, i . Therefore the velocity of

each element is given by v cm, i = rcm, iω cm θ̂ . The rotational kinetic energy is then
1 1
K cm, i = Δmi vcm,
2
i
= Δmi rcm,
2
ω2 .
i cm
(16.2.1)
2 2
We now add up the kinetic energy for all the mass elements,
i= N i= N
⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
K cm = lim
i→∞
∑K cm, i
= lim
i→∞
∑ ⎜⎝ ∑ 2 Δm r 2
i cm, i ⎟⎠ ω cm
Δmi →0 i=1 Δmi →0 i=1 i
(16.2.2)
⎛1 ⎞ 2
= ⎜ ∫ dmrdm2
⎟ ω cm ,
⎝ 2 body ⎠
where dm is an infinitesimal mass element undergoing a circular orbit of radius rdm

about the axis passing through the center of mass.
The quantity
I cm = ∫
2
dmrdm . (16.2.3)
bo dy
is called the moment of inertia of the rigid body about a fixed axis passing
through the center of mass, and is a physical property of the body. The SI units for
moment of inertia are ⎡⎣ kg ⋅ m 2 ⎤⎦ .
Thus
⎛1 ⎞ 2 1
K cm = ⎜ ∫ dmrdm 2
⎟ ω cm ≡ I cmω cm .
2
(16.2.4)
⎝ 2 bo dy ⎠ 2
16.3.2 Moment of Inertia of a Rod of Uniform Mass Density
Consider a thin uniform rod of length L and mass m . In this problem, we will calculate
the moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the rod that passes through the
center of mass of the rod. A sketch of the rod, volume element, and axis is shown in
Figure 16.9. Choose Cartesian coordinates, with the origin at the center of mass of the
rod, which is midway between the endpoints since the rod is uniform. Choose the x -axis
to lie along the length of the rod, with the positive x -direction to the right, as in the
figure.
16-7
Figure 16.9 Moment of inertia of a uniform rod about center of mass.
Identify an infinitesimal mass element dm = λ dx , located at a displacement x from the

center of the rod, where the mass per unit length λ = m / L is a constant, as we have
assumed the rod to be uniform. When the rod rotates about an axis perpendicular to the
rod that passes through the center of mass of the rod, the element traces out a circle of
radius rdm = x . We add together the contributions from each infinitesimal element as we
go from x = − L 2 to x = L 2 . The integral is then
L/ 2
L/ 2 x3
I cm = ∫ dm = λ ∫ (x ) dx = λ
2 2
r
dm − L/ 2 3
bo dy − L/ 2 (16.2.5)
3 3
m (L / 2) m (− L / 2) 1
= − = m L2 .
L 3 L 3 12
By using a constant mass per unit length along the rod, we need not consider variations in
the mass density in any direction other than the x - axis. We also assume that the width is
the rod is negligible. (Technically we should treat the rod as a cylinder or a rectangle in
the x-y plane if the axis is along the z - axis. The calculation of the moment of inertia in
these cases would be more complicated.)
Example 16.2 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Disc
A thin uniform disc of mass M and radius R is mounted on an axle passing through the
center of the disc, perpendicular to the plane of the disc. Calculate the moment of inertia
about an axis that passes perpendicular to the disc through the center of mass of the disc
Solution: As a starting point, consider the contribution to the moment of inertia from the
mass element dm show in Figure 16.10. Let r denote the distance form the center of
mass of the disc to the mass element.
Figure 16.10 Infinitesimal mass element and coordinate system for disc.
16-8
Choose cylindrical coordinates with the coordinates (r,θ ) in the plane and the z -axis
perpendicular to the plane. The area element
da = r dr dθ (16.2.6)
may be thought of as the product of arc length r dθ and the radial width dr . Since the
disc is uniform, the mass per unit area is a constant,
dm mtotal M
σ= = = . (16.2.7)
da Area π R 2
Therefore the mass in the infinitesimal area element as given in Equation (16.2.6), a
distance r from the axis of rotation, is given by
M
dm = σ r dr dθ = r dr dθ . (16.2.8)
π R2
When the disc rotates, the mass element traces out a circle of radius rdm = r ; that is, the
distance from the center is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation. The
moment of inertia integral is now an integral in two dimensions; the angle θ varies from
θ = 0 to θ = 2π , and the radial coordinate r varies from r = 0 to r = R . Thus the limits
of the integral are
M r = R θ = 2π 3
I cm = ∫ rdm
π R 2 ∫r =0 ∫θ =0
2
dm = r dθ dr . (16.2.9)
bo dy
The integral can now be explicitly calculated by first integrating the θ -coordinate
M r=R
⎛ θ = 2π dθ ⎞ r 3dr = M r=R 2M r=R
I cm =
π R2 ∫
r =0 ⎝ ∫θ =0 ⎠ π R2 ∫ r =0
2π r 3dr =
R2 ∫
r =0
r 3dr (16.2.10)
and then integrating the r -coordinate,
r=R
2M r=R 2M r4 2 M R4 1
= 2 ∫ r dr = 2 = = MR 2 .
3
I cm (16.2.11)
R r =0 R 4 r =0
R2 4 2
Remark: Instead of taking the area element as a small patch da = r dr dθ , choose a ring
of radius r and width dr . Then the area of this ring is given by
daring = π (r + dr)2 − π r 2 = π r 2 + 2π r dr + π (dr)2 − π r 2 = 2π r dr + π (dr)2 . (16.2.12)
16-9
In the limit that dr → 0 , the term proportional to (dr)2 can be ignored and the area is
da = 2π rdr . This equivalent to first integrating the dθ variable
daring = r dr ⎛ ∫ dθ ⎞ = 2π r dr .
θ = 2π
(16.2.13)
⎝ θ =0 ⎠
Then the mass element is
M
dmring = σ daring = 2π r dr . (16.2.14)
π R2
The moment of inertia integral is just an integral in the variable r ,
2π M r=R 1
I cm = ∫ (r⊥ )2 dm =
π R2 ∫ r =0
r 3dr =
2
MR 2 . (16.2.15)
body
16.3.3 Parallel Axis Theorem
Consider a rigid body of mass m undergoing fixed-axis rotation. Consider two parallel
axes. The first axis passes through the center of mass of the body, and the moment of
inertia about this first axis is I cm . The second axis passes through some other point S in
the body. Let d S ,cm denote the perpendicular distance between the two parallel axes
(Figure 16.11).
Figure 16.11 Geometry of the parallel axis theorem.
Then the moment of inertia I S about an axis passing through a point S is related to I cm
by
I S = I cm + m d S2,cm . (16.2.16)
16-10
16.3.4 Parallel Axis Theorem Applied to a Uniform Rod
Let point S be the left end of the rod of Figure 16.9. Then the distance from the center of
mass to the end of the rod is d S ,cm = L / 2 . The moment of inertia I S = I end about an axis
passing through the endpoint is related to the moment of inertia about an axis passing
through the center of mass, I cm = (1/12) m L2 , according to Equation (16.2.16),
1 1 1
IS = m L2 + m L2 = m L2 . (16.2.17)
12 4 3
In this case it’s easy and useful to check by direct calculation. Use Equation (16.2.5) but
with the limits changed to x′ = 0 and x′ = L , where x ′ = x + L / 2 ,
L
I end = ∫
body
r⊥ 2 dm = λ ∫ x′2 dx′
0
L (16.2.18)
x′3 m ( L)3 m (0)3 1
=λ = − = m L2 .
3 0
L 3 L 3 3
Example 16.3 Rotational Kinetic Energy of Disk
A disk with mass M and radius R is spinning with angular speed ω about an axis that
passes through the rim of the disk perpendicular to its plane. The moment of inertia about
cm is I cm = (1/ 2)mR 2 . What is the kinetic energy of the disk?
Solution: The parallel axis theorem states the moment of inertia about an axis passing
perpendicular to the plane of the disc and passing through a point on the edge of the disc
is equal to
I edge = I cm + mR 2 . (16.2.19)
The moment of inertia about an axis passing perpendicular to the plane of the disc and
passing through the center of mass of the disc is equal to I cm = (1/ 2)mR 2 . Therefore
I edge = (3 / 2)mR 2 . (16.2.20)

The kinetic energy is then
K = (1 / 2)I edgeω 2 = (3 / 4)mR 2ω 2 . (16.2.21)
16-11
16.4 Conservation of Energy for Fixed Axis Rotation
Consider a closed system ( ΔEsystem = 0 ) under action of only conservative internal forces.
Then the change in the mechanical energy of the system is zero
ΔEm = ΔU + ΔK = (U f + K f ) − (U i + K i ) = 0 . (16.3.1)
For fixed axis rotation with a component of angular velocity ω about the fixed axis, the
change in kinetic energy is given by
1 1
ΔK ≡ K f − K i = I Sω 2f − I Sω i2 , (16.3.2)
2 2
where S is a point that lies on the fixed axis. Then conservation of energy implies that
1 1
Uf + I Sω 2f = U i + I Sω i2 (16.3.3)
2 2
Example 16.4 Energy and Pulley System
A wheel in the shape of a uniform disk of radius R and mass mp is mounted on a

frictionless horizontal axis. The wheel has moment of inertia about the center of mass
I cm = (1/ 2)mp R 2 . A massless cord is wrapped around the wheel and one end of the cord is
attached to an object of mass m2 that can slide up or down a frictionless inclined plane.
The other end of the cord is attached to a second object of mass m1 that hangs over the
edge of the inclined plane. The plane is inclined from the horizontal by an angle θ
(Figure 16.12). Once the objects are released from rest, the cord moves without slipping
around the disk. Calculate the speed of block 2 as a function of distance that it moves
down the inclined plane using energy techniques. Assume there are no energy losses due
to friction and that the rope does not slip around the pulley
Figure 16.12 Pulley and blocks Figure 16.13 Coordinate system for
pulley and blocks
16-12
Solution: Define a coordinate system as shown in Figure 16.13. Choose the zero for the
gravitational potential energy at a height equal to the center of the pulley. In Figure 16.14
illustrates the energy diagrams for the initial state and a dynamic state at an arbitrary time
when the blocks are sliding.
Figure 16.14 Energy diagrams for initial state and dynamic state at arbitrary time
Then the initial mechanical energy is
Ei = U i = −m1gy1, i − m2 gx2,i sin θ . (16.3.4)
The mechanical energy, when block 2 has moved a distance
d = x2 − x2, i (16.3.5)
is given by
1 1 1
E = U + K = −m1 gy1 − m2 gx2 sin θ + m1v12 + m2 v2 2 + I Pω 2 . (16.3.6)
2 2 2
The rope connects the two blocks, and so the blocks move at the same speed
v ≡ v1 = v2 . (16.3.7)
The rope does not slip on the pulley; therefore as the rope moves around the pulley the
tangential speed of the rope is equal to the speed of the blocks
vtan = Rω = v . (16.3.8)
Eq. (16.3.6) can now be simplified
1⎛ I ⎞
E = U + K = −m1 gy1 − m2 gx2 sin θ + ⎜ m1 + m2 + P2 ⎟ v 2 . (16.3.9)
2⎝ R ⎠
Because we have assumed that there is no loss of mechanical energy, we can set Ei = E
and find that
16-13
1⎛ I ⎞
−m1gy1, i − m2 gx2, i sin θ = −m1gy1 − m2 gx2 sin θ + ⎜ m1 + m2 + P2 ⎟ v 2 , (16.3.10)
2⎝ R ⎠
which simplifies to
1⎛ I ⎞
−m1g( y1,0 − y1 ) + m2 g(x2 − x2,0 )sin θ = ⎜ m1 + m2 + P2 ⎟ v 2 . (16.3.11)
2⎝ R ⎠
We finally note that the movement of block 1 and block 2 are constrained by the
relationship
d = x2 − x2, i = y1, i − y1 . (16.3.12)
1⎛ I ⎞
gd(−m1 + m2 sin θ ) = ⎜ m1 + m2 + P2 ⎟ v 2 . (16.3.13)
2⎝ R ⎠
We can now solve for the speed as a function of distance d = x2 − x2, i that block 2 has
traveled down the incline plane
2gd(−m1 + m2 sin θ )
v= . (16.3.14)
( m + m + (I
1 2 P
/ R2 ) )
If we assume that the moment of inertial of the pulley is I cm = (1/ 2)mp R 2 , then the speed
becomes
2gd(−m1 + m2 sin θ )
v= . (16.3.15)
(m + m
1 2
+ (1 / 2)mP )
Example 16.5 Physical Pendulum
A physical pendulum consists of a uniform rod of mass m1 pivoted at one end about the
point S . The rod has length l1 and moment of inertia I1 about the pivot point. A disc of
mass m2 and radius r2 with moment of inertia I cm about its center of mass is rigidly
attached a distance l2 from the pivot point. The pendulum is initially displaced to an
angle θ i and then released from rest. (a) What is the moment of inertia of the physical
pendulum about the pivot point S ? (b) How far from the pivot point is the center of mass
of the system? (c) What is the angular speed of the pendulum when the pendulum is at
the bottom of its swing?
16-14
Figure 16.15 Rod and with fixed disc pivoted about the point S
Solution: a) The moment of inertia about the pivot point is the sum of the moment of
inertia of the rod, given as I1 , and the moment of inertia of the disc about the pivot point.
The moment of inertia of the disc about the pivot point is found from the parallel axis
theorem,
I disc = I cm + m2 l22 . (16.3.16)
The moment of inertia of the system consisting of the rod and disc about the pivot point
S is then
I S = I1 + I disc = I1 + I cm + m2 l22 . (16.3.17)
The center of mass of the system is located a distance from the pivot point
m1 (l1 / 2) + m2 l2
lcm = . (16.3.18)
m1 + m2
b) We can use conservation of mechanical energy, to find the angular speed of the
pendulum at the bottom of its swing. Take the zero point of gravitational potential energy
to be the point where the bottom of the rod is at its lowest point, that is, θ = 0 . The
initial state energy diagram for the rod is shown in Figure 16.16a and the initial state
energy diagram for the disc is shown in Figure 16.16b.
16-15
(a) (b)
Figure 16.16 (a) Initial state energy diagram for rod (b) Initial state energy diagram for
disc
The initial mechanical energy is then
l
Ei = U i = m1 g (l1 − 1 cosθ i ) + m2 g (l1 − l2 cosθ i ) , (16.3.19)
2
At the bottom of the swing, θ f = 0 , and the system has angular velocity ω f . The
mechanical energy at the bottom of the swing is
l1 1
E f = U f + K f = m1 g + m2 g(l1 − l2 ) + I Sω 2f , (16.3.20)
2 2
with I S as found in Equation (16.3.17). There are no non-conservative forces acting, so

the mechanical energy is constant therefore equating the expressions in (16.3.19) and
(16.3.20) we get that
l l 1
m1 g (l1 − 1 cosθ i ) + m2 g (l1 − l2 cosθ i ) = m1 g 1 + m2 g(l1 − l2 ) + I Sω 2f , (16.3.21)
2 2 2
This simplifies to
⎛ m1 l1 ⎞ 1
⎜⎝ 2 + m2 l2 ⎟⎠ g (1− cosθ i ) = 2 I Sω f ,
2
(16.3.22)
We now solve for ω f (taking the positive square root to insure that we are calculating
angular speed)
16-16
⎛m l ⎞
2 ⎜ 1 1 + m2 l2 ⎟ g (1− cosθ i )
⎝ 2 ⎠
ωf = , (16.3.23)
IS
Finally we substitute in Eq.(16.3.17) in to Eq. (16.3.23) and find
⎛m l ⎞
2 ⎜ 1 1 + m2 l2 ⎟ g (1− cosθ i )
⎝ 2 ⎠
ωf = . (16.3.24)
I1 + I cm + m2 l22
Note that we can rewrite Eq. (16.3.22), using Eq. (16.3.18) for the distance between the
center of mass and the pivot point, to get
1
(m1 + m2 )lcm g (1− cosθ i ) = I ω2 , (16.3.25)
2 S f
We can interpret this equation as follows. Treat the system as a point particle of mass
m1 + m2 located at the center of mass lcm . Take the zero point of gravitational potential
energy to be the point where the center of mass is at its lowest point, that is, θ = 0 . Then
Ei = (m1 + m2 )lcm g (1− cosθ i ) , (16.3.26)

1
Ef = I Sω 2f . (16.3.27)
2
Thus conservation of energy reproduces Eq. (16.3.25).
16-17
Appendix 16A: Proof of the Parallel Axis Theorem
Identify an infinitesimal volume element of mass dm . The vector from the point S to the
 
mass element is rS , dm , the vector from the center of mass to the mass element is rdm , and

the vector from the point S to the center of mass is rS ,cm .
Figure 16A.1 Geometry of the parallel axis theorem.
From Figure 16A.1, we see that

  
rS , dm = rS , cm + rdm . (16.A.1)
 
The notation gets complicated at this point. The vector rdm has a component vector r , dm

parallel to the axis through the center of mass and a component vector r⊥ , dm
perpendicular to the axis through the center of mass. The magnitude of the perpendicular
component vector is

rcm, ⊥ , dm = r⊥ , dm . (16.A.2)
 
The vector rS , dm has a component vector rS , , dm parallel to the axis through the point S

and a component vector rS , ⊥ , dm perpendicular to the axis through the point S . The
magnitude of the perpendicular component vector is

rS , ⊥ , dm = rS , ⊥ , dm . (16.A.3)
 
The vector rS ,cm has a component vector rS ,  ,cm parallel to both axes and a perpendicular

component vector rS ,⊥ ,cm that is perpendicular to both axes (the axes are parallel, of
course). The magnitude of the perpendicular component vector is

rS ,⊥ ,cm = d S ,cm . (16.A.4)
16-18
Equation (16.A.1) is now expressed as two equations,
  
rS ,⊥ , dm = rS ,⊥ , cm + r⊥ ,dm
   (16.A.5)
rS ,,dm = rS ,,cm + r,dm .
At this point, note that if we had simply decided that the two parallel axes are parallel to
the z -direction, we could have saved some steps and perhaps spared some of the notation
with the triple subscripts. However, we want a more general result, one valid for cases
where the axes are not fixed, or when different objects in the same problem have different
axes. For example, consider the turning bicycle, for which the two wheel axes will not be
parallel, or a spinning top that precesses (wobbles). Such cases will be considered in
later on, and we will show the general case of the parallel axis theorem in anticipation of
use for more general situations.
The moment of inertia about the point S is
IS = ∫ dm(rS , ⊥ ,dm )2 . (16.A.6)

body
From (16.A.5) we have

 
(rS , ⊥ ,dm )2 = rS , ⊥ ,dm ⋅ rS , ⊥ ,dm
   
= (rS , ⊥ ,cm + r⊥ ,dm ) ⋅ (rS , ⊥ ,cm + r ⊥ ,dm ) (16.A.7)
 
= d S2, cm + (r⊥ , dm )2 + 2 rS , ⊥ ,cm ⋅ r⊥ ,dm .
Thus we have for the moment of inertia about S ,
 
IS = ∫ dm d S2, cm + ∫ dm(r⊥ ,dm )2 + 2 ∫ dm(rS ,⊥ , cm ⋅ r⊥ ,dm ) . (16.A.8)
bo dy bo dy bo dy
In the first integral in Equation (16.A.8), rS ,⊥ ,cm = d S ,cm is the distance between the
parallel axes and is a constant. Therefore we can rewrite the integral as
d S2,cm ∫
body
dm = m d S2,cm . (16.A.9)
The second term in Equation (16.A.8) is the moment of inertia about the axis through the
center of mass,
I cm = ∫ dm (r⊥ ,dm )2 . (16.A.10)
bo dy
16-19

The third integral in Equation (16.A.8) is zero. To see this, note that the term rS ,⊥ ,cm is a
constant and may be taken out of the integral,
   
2 ∫ dm (rS ,⊥ , cm ⋅ r⊥ ,dm ) = rS ,⊥ , cm ⋅ 2 ∫ dm r ⊥ ,dm (16.A.11)
bo dy bo dy

The integral ∫ dm r ⊥ ,dm is the perpendicular component of the position of the center of
bo dy

mass with respect to the center of mass, and hence 0 , with the result that
 
2 ∫ dm (rS ,⊥ , cm ⋅ r ⊥ ,dm ) = 0 . (16.A.12)
bo dy
Thus, the moment of inertia about S is just the sum of the first two integrals in
Equation (16.A.8)
I S = I cm + m d S2, cm , (16.A.13)
proving the parallel axis theorem.
16-20
Chapter 17 Two Dimensional Rotational Dynamics
17.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

17.2 Vector Product (Cross Product) .......................................................................... 2
17.2.1 Right-hand Rule for the Direction of Vector Product ................................ 3
17.2.2 Properties of the Vector Product .................................................................. 4
17.2.3 Vector Decomposition and the Vector Product: Cartesian Coordinates .. 4
17.2.4 Vector Decomposition and the Vector Product: Cylindrical Coordinates 6
Example 17.1 Vector Products................................................................................. 7
Example 17.2 Law of Sines ....................................................................................... 7
Example 17.3 Unit Normal ....................................................................................... 7
Example 17.4 Volume of Parallelepiped ................................................................. 8
Example 17.5 Vector Decomposition....................................................................... 9
17.3 Torque .................................................................................................................... 9
17.3.1 Definition of Torque about a Point............................................................... 9
17.3.2 Alternative Approach to Assigning a Sign Convention for Torque ........ 11
Example 17.6 Torque and Vector Product ........................................................... 12
Example 17.7 Calculating Torque ......................................................................... 13
Example 17.8 Torque and the Ankle ..................................................................... 13
17.4 Torque, Angular Acceleration, and Moment of Inertia .................................. 15
17.4.1 Torque Equation for Fixed Axis Rotation ................................................. 15
17.4.2 Torque Acts at the Center of Gravity ........................................................ 19
Example 17.9 Turntable ......................................................................................... 20
Example 17.10 Pulley and blocks .......................................................................... 20
Example 17.11 Experimental Method for Determining Moment of Inertia...... 23
17.5 Torque and Rotational Work ............................................................................ 25
17.5.1 Rotational Work........................................................................................... 26
17.5.2 Rotational Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem ............................................... 26
17.5.3 Rotational Power .......................................................................................... 27
Example 17.12 Work Done by Frictional Torque ................................................ 28
Chapter 17 Two Dimensional Rotational Dynamics
torque, n.
a. The twisting or rotary force in a piece of mechanism (as a

measurable quantity); the moment of a system of forces producing
rotation.
Oxford English Dictionary
17.1 Introduction
A body is called a rigid body if the distance between any two points in the body
does not change in time. Rigid bodies, unlike point masses, can have forces applied at
different points in the body. For most objects, treating as a rigid body is an idealization,
but a very good one. In addition to forces applied at points, forces may be distributed
over the entire body. Forces that are distributed over a body are difficult to analyze;
however, for example, we regularly experience the effect of the gravitational force on
bodies. Based on our experience observing the effect of the gravitational force on rigid
bodies, we shall demonstrate that the gravitational force can be concentrated at a point in
the rigid body called the center of gravity, which for small bodies (so that g may be
taken as constant within the body) is identical to the center of mass of the body.
Let’s consider a rigid rod thrown in the air (Figure 17.1) so that the rod is

spinning as its center of mass moves with velocity v cm . We have explored the physics of
translational motion; now, we wish to investigate the properties of rotational motion
exhibited in the rod’s motion, beginning with the notion that every particle is rotating
about the center of mass with the same angular (rotational) velocity.
Figure 17.1 The center of mass of a thrown rigid rod follows a parabolic trajectory while
the rod rotates about the center of mass.
We can use Newton’s Second Law to predict how the center of mass will move.
Because the only external force on the rod is the gravitational force (neglecting the action
of air resistance), the center of mass of the body will move in a parabolic trajectory.
17-1
How was the rod induced to rotate? In order to spin the rod, we applied a torque
with our fingers and wrist to one end of the rod as the rod was released. The applied
torque is proportional to the angular acceleration. The constant of proportionality is the
moment of inertia. When external forces and torques are present, the motion of a rigid
body can be extremely complicated while it is translating and rotating in space.
In order to describe the relationship between torque, moment of inertia, and

angular acceleration, we will introduce a new vector operation called the vector product
also know as the “cross product” that takes any two vectors and generates a new vector.
The vector product is a type of “multiplication” law that turns our vector space (law for
addition of vectors) into a vector algebra (a vector algebra is a vector space with an
additional rule for multiplication of vectors).
17.2 Vector Product (Cross Product)

 
Let A and B be two vectors. Because any two non-parallel vectors form
a plane, we denote the angle θ to be the angle between the vectors A and
  
B as shown in Figure 17.2. The magnitude of the vector product A × B
 
of the vectors
 A and B is defined to be product of the magnitude of the

vectors A and B with the sine of the angle θ between the two vectors,
   
A × B = A B sin(θ ) . (17.2.1)
The angle θ between the vectors is limited to the values 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

ensuring that sin(θ ) ≥ 0 .
Figure 17.2 Vector product geometry.

The direction of the vector product is defined as follows. The vectors A

and B form a plane. Consider the direction perpendicular to this plane.
There are two possibilities: we shall choose one of these two (the one
 
shown in Figure 17.2) for the direction of the vector product A × B using
a convention that is commonly called the “right-hand rule”.
17-2
17.2.1 Right-hand Rule for the Direction of Vector Product
 
The first step is to redraw the vectors A and B so that the tails are touching. Then draw
 
an arc starting from the vector A and finishing on the vector B . Curl your right fingers
the same way as the arc. Your right thumb points in the direction of the vector product
 
A × B (Figure 17.3).
Figure 17.3 Right-Hand Rule.

 
You should remember that the direction of the vector product A × B is perpendicular to
 
the plane formed by A and B . We can give a geometric interpretation to the magnitude
of the vector product by writing the magnitude as
   
(
A × B = A B sin θ . ) (17.2.2)
 
The vectors A and B form a parallelogram. The area of the parallelogram is equal to the
height times the base, which is the magnitude of the vector product. In Figure 17.4, two
different representations of the height and base of a parallelogram are illustrated. As
 
depicted in Figure 17.4a, the term B sin θ is the projection of the vector B in the

direction perpendicular to the vector B . We could also write the magnitude of the vector
product as
   
( )
A × B = A sin θ B . (17.2.3)
 
The term A sin θ is the projection of the vector A in the direction perpendicular to the

vector B as shown in Figure 17.4(b). The vector product of two vectors that are parallel
(or anti-parallel) to each other is zero because the angle between the vectors is 0 (or π )
and sin(0) = 0 (or sin(π ) = 0 ). Geometrically, two parallel vectors do not have a unique
component perpendicular to their common direction.
17-3
(a) (b)
   
Figure 17.4 Projection of (a) B perpendicular to A , (b) of A perpendicular to B
17.2.2 Properties of the Vector Product
(1) The vector product is anti-commutative because changing the order of the vectors
changes the direction of the vector product by the right hand rule:
   
A × B = −B × A . (17.2.4)
 
(2) The vector product between a vector c A where c is a scalar and a vector B is
   
c A × B = c ( A × B) . (17.2.5)
Similarly,
   
A × c B = c ( A × B) . (17.2.6)
  
(3) The vector product between the sum of two vectors A and B with a vector C is
      
( A + B) × C = A × C + B × C (17.2.7)
Similarly,
      
A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C . (17.2.8)
17.2.3 Vector Decomposition and the Vector Product: Cartesian Coordinates
We first calculate that the magnitude of vector product of the unit vectors î and ĵ :
| î × ˆj |=| î || ˆj |sin(π / 2) = 1 , (17.2.9)
because the unit vectors have magnitude | î |=| ˆj |= 1 and sin(π / 2) = 1 . By the right hand
rule, the direction of î × ˆj is in the +kˆ as shown in Figure 17.5. Thus î × ˆj = kˆ .
17-4
Figure 17.5 Vector product of î × ˆj
We note that the same rule applies for the unit vectors in the y and z directions,
ˆj × kˆ = î , kˆ × î = ˆj . (17.2.10)
By the anti-commutatively property (1) of the vector product,
ˆj × î = −kˆ , î × kˆ = −ˆj (17.2.11)
The vector product of the unit vector î with itself is zero because the two unit vectors are
parallel to each other, ( sin(0) = 0 ),
| î × î |=| î || î | sin(0) = 0 . (17.2.12)
The vector product of the unit vector ĵ with itself and the unit vector k̂ with itself are
also zero for the same reason,
ˆj × ˆj = 0, kˆ × kˆ = 0 . (17.2.13)
With these properties in mind we can now develop an algebraic expression for the vector
product in terms of components. Let’s choose a Cartesian coordinate system with the

vector B pointing along the positive x-axis with positive x-component Bx . Then the
 
vectors A and B can be written as

A = Ax î + Ay ˆj + Az kˆ (17.2.14)

B = Bx î , (17.2.15)
respectively. The vector product in vector components is

 
A × B = ( Ax î + Ay ˆj + Az k)
ˆ × B î .
x (17.2.16)
17-5
This becomes,
 
A × B = ( Ax î × Bx î ) + ( Ay ˆj × Bx î ) + ( Az kˆ × Bx î )
= Ax Bx (î × î ) + Ay Bx (ˆj × î ) + Az Bx (kˆ × î ) . (17.2.17)
= − Ay Bx kˆ + Az Bx ˆj
The vector component expression for the vector product easily generalizes for arbitrary
vectors

A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂ (17.2.18)

B = Bx î + By ˆj + Bz kˆ , (17.2.19)
to yield
 
A × B = ( Ay Bz − Az By ) î + ( Az Bx − Ax Bz ) ˆj + ( Ax By − Ay Bx ) kˆ . (17.2.20)
17.2.4 Vector Decomposition and the Vector Product: Cylindrical Coordinates
Recall the cylindrical coordinate system, which we show in Figure 17.6. We have chosen
two directions, radial and tangential in the plane, and a perpendicular direction to the
plane.
Figure 17.6 Cylindrical coordinates
The unit vectors are at right angles to each other and so using the right hand rule, the
vector product of the unit vectors are given by the relations
r̂ × θ̂ = k̂ (17.2.21)
θ̂ × k̂ = r̂ (17.2.22)
k̂ × r̂ = θ̂ . (17.2.23)
   
Because the vector product satisfies A × B = −B × A , we also have that
θ̂ × r̂ = −k̂ (17.2.24)
17-6
k̂ × θ̂ = −r̂ (17.2.25)
r̂ × k̂ = − θ̂ . (17.2.26)
Finally

r̂ × r̂ = θ̂ × θ̂ = k̂ × k̂ = 0 . (17.2.27)
Example 17.1 Vector Products

   
Given two vectors, A = 2 î + −3 ˆj + 7 kˆ and B = 5î + ˆj + 2kˆ , find A × B .
Solution:
 
= ((−3)(2) − (7)(1)) î + ((7)(5) − (2)(2)) ĵ + ((2)(1) − (−3)(5)) k̂
= −13 î + 31 ĵ + 17 k̂.
Example 17.2 Law of Sines
For the triangle shown in Figure 17.7a, prove the law of sines,
  
A / sin α = B / sin β = C / sin γ , using the vector product.
Figure 17.7 (a) Example 17.2 Figure 17.7 (b) Vector analysis
  
Solution: Consider the area of a triangle formed by three vectors A , B , and C , where
     
A+B+C = 0 (Figure 17.7b). Because A+B+C = 0, we have that
               
0 = A × ( A + B + C) = A × B + A × C . Thus A × B = − A × C or A × B = A × C . From
       
Figure 17.7b we see that A × B = A B sin γ and A × C = A C sin β . Therefore
     
A B sin γ = A C sin β , and hence B / sin β = C / sin γ . A similar argument shows that
 
B / sin β = A / sin α proving the law of sines.
Example 17.3 Unit Normal

 
Find a unit vector perpendicular to A = î + ˆj − kˆ and B = −2î − ˆj + 3kˆ .
17-7
   
Solution: The vector product A × B is perpendicular to both A and B . Therefore the
     
unit vectors nˆ = ± A × B / A × B are perpendicular to both A and B . We first calculate
 
= ((1)(3) − (−1)(−1)) î + ((−1)(2) − (1)(3)) ĵ + ((1)(−1) − (1)(2)) k̂
= 2 î − 5 ĵ − 3 k̂.
We now calculate the magnitude

 
A × B = (22 + 52 + 32 )1/2 = (38)1/2 .
Therefore the perpendicular unit vectors are

   
n̂ = ± A × B / A × B = ±(2 î − 5 ĵ − 3 k̂) / (38)1/2 .
Example 17.4 Volume of Parallelepiped

 
Show that the volume of a parallelepiped with edges formed by the vectors A , B , and
   
C is given by A ⋅ (B × C) .
Solution: The volume of a parallelepiped is given by area of the base times height. If the
 
base is formed by the vectors B and C , then the area of the base is given by the
     
magnitude of B × C . The vector B × C = B × C nˆ where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular
to the base (Figure 17.8).


The projection of the vector A along the direction n̂ gives the height of the

parallelepiped. This projection is given by taking the dot product of A with a unit vector

and is equal to A ⋅ nˆ = height . Therefore
        
A ⋅ (B × C) = A ⋅ ( B × C )n̂ = ( B × C ) A ⋅ n̂ = (area)(height) = (volume) .
17-8
Example 17.5 Vector Decomposition

Let A be an arbitrary vector and let n̂ be a unit vector in some fixed direction. Show
that A = ( A ⋅ n̂)n̂ + ( n̂ × A) × n̂ .
 
Solution: Let A = An̂ + A⊥ ê where A is the component A in the direction of n̂ , ê is

the direction of the projection of A in a plane perpendicular to n̂ , and A⊥ is the
 
component of A in the direction of ê . Because eˆ ⋅ nˆ = 0 , we have that A ⋅ n̂ = A . Note
that 
n̂ × A = n̂ × ( An̂ + A⊥ ê) = n̂ × A⊥ ê = A⊥ ( n̂ × ê) .
The unit vector nˆ × eˆ lies in the plane perpendicular to n̂ and is also perpendicular to ê .
Therefore ( n̂ × ê) × n̂ is also a unit vector that is parallel to ê (by the right hand rule. So

( n̂ × A) × n̂ = A⊥ ê . Thus
  
A = An̂ + A⊥ ê = ( A ⋅ n̂)n̂ + ( n̂ × A) × n̂ .
17.3 Torque
17.3.1 Definition of Torque about a Point
In order to understand the dynamics of a rotating rigid body we will introduce a new
  
quantity, the torque. Let a force FP with magnitude F = FP act at a point P . Let rS , P

be the vector from the point S to a point P , with magnitude r = rS , P . The angle
 
between the vectors rS , P and FP is θ with [0 ≤ θ ≤ π ] (Figure 17.9).
Figure 17.9 Torque about a point S due to a force acting at a point P


The torque about a point S due to force FP acting at P , is defined by
  
τ S = rS , P × FP . (17.2.28)
17-9

The magnitude of the torque about a point S due to force FP acting at P ,
is given by

τ S ≡ τ S = r F sin θ . (17.2.29)
The SI units for torque are [N ⋅ m] . The direction of the torque is perpendicular to the
 
plane formed by the vectors rS , P and FP (for [0 < θ < π ] ), and by definition points in
the direction of the unit normal vector to the plane nˆ RHR as shown in Figure 17.10.
Figure 17.10 Vector direction for the torque
Figure 17.11 shows the two different ways of defining height and base for a
 
parallelogram defined by the vectors rS , P and FP .
Figure 17.11 Area of the torque parallelogram.


Let r⊥ = r sin θ and let F⊥ = F sin θ be the component of the force FP that is
perpendicular to the line passing from the point S to P . (Recall the angle θ has a range
of values 0 ≤ θ ≤ π so both r⊥ ≥ 0 and F⊥ ≥ 0 .) Then the area of the parallelogram
 
defined by rS , P and FP is given by
Area = τ S = r⊥ F = r F⊥ = r F sin θ . (17.2.30)
17-10
We can interpret the quantity r⊥ as follows.
Figure 17.12 The moment arm about the point S and line of action of force passing
through the point P

We begin by drawing the line of action of the force FP . This is a straight line passing

through P , parallel to the direction of the force FP . Draw a perpendicular to this line of
action that passes through the point S (Figure 17.12). The length of this perpendicular,

r⊥ = r sin θ , is called the moment arm about the point S of the force FP .
You should keep in mind three important properties of torque:

 
1. The torque is zero if the vectors rS , P and FP are parallel (θ = 0) or anti-parallel
(θ = π ) .
2. Torque is a vector whose direction and magnitude depend on the choice of a point
S about which the torque is calculated.
3. The direction of torque is perpendicular to the plane formed by the two vectors,
 
FP and r = rS , P (the vector from the point S to a point P ).
17.3.2 Alternative Approach to Assigning a Sign Convention for Torque

 
In the case where all of the forces Fi and position vectors ri , P are coplanar (or zero), we
can, instead of referring to the direction of torque, assign a purely algebraic positive or
negative sign to torque according to the following convention. We note that the arc in
Figure 17.13a circles in counterclockwise direction. (Figures 17.13a and 17.13b use the
simplifying assumption, for the purpose of the figure only, that the two vectors in
 
question, FP and rS , P are perpendicular. The point S about which torques are calculated
is not shown.)
17-11
(a) (b)
Figure 17.13 (a) Positive torque out of plane, (b) positive torque into plane
We can associate with this counterclockwise orientation a unit normal vector n̂

according to the right-hand rule: curl your right hand fingers in the counterclockwise
direction and your right thumb will then point in the n̂1 direction (Figure 17.13a). The
arc in Figure 17.13b circles in the clockwise direction, and we associate this orientation
with the unit normal n̂ 2 .
It’s important to note that the terms “clockwise” and “counterclockwise” might be
 
different for different observers. For instance, if the plane containing FP and rS , P is
horizontal, an observer above the plane and an observer below the plane would disagree
on the two terms. For a vertical plane, the directions that two observers on opposite sides
of the plane would be mirror images of each other, and so again the observers would
disagree.
1. Suppose we choose counterclockwise as positive. Then we assign a positive sign

for the component of the torque when the torque is in the same direction as the
    
unit normal n̂1 , i.e. τ S = rS ,P × FP = + rS ,P FP n̂1 , (Figure 17.13a).
2. Suppose we choose clockwise as positive. Then we assign a negative sign for the
component of the torque in Figure 17.13b because the torque is directed opposite
    
to the unit normal n̂ 2 , i.e. τ S = rS ,P × FP = − rS ,P FP n̂ 2 .
Example 17.6 Torque and Vector Product

 
Consider two vectors rP ,F = xî with x > 0 and F = Fx î + Fz kˆ with Fx > 0 and Fz > 0 .
 
Calculate the torque rP ,F × F .
Solution: We calculate the vector product noting that in a right handed choice of unit

vectors, î ×î = 0 and î × k
ˆ = − ˆj ,
 
rP,F × F = x î × (Fx î + Fz k̂) = (x î × Fx î) + (x î × Fz k̂) = −xFz ĵ .
17-12
Because x > 0 and Fz > 0 , the direction of the vector product is in the negative y -
direction.
Example 17.7 Calculating Torque
In Figure 17.14, a force of magnitude F is applied to one end of a lever of length L. What
is the magnitude and direction of the torque about the point S?
Figure 17.14 Example 17.7 Figure 17.15 Coordinate system
Solution: Choose units vectors such that î × ĵ = k̂ , with î pointing to the right and ĵ
  
pointing up (Figure 17.15). The torque about the point S is given by τ S = rS , F × F ,
 
where rSF = Lcosθ î + Lsin θ ĵ and F = − Fĵ then

τ S = (Lcosθ î + Lsin θ ĵ) × − F ĵ = − FLcosθ k̂ .
Example 17.8 Torque and the Ankle
A person of mass m is crouching with their weight evenly distributed on both tiptoes.
The free-bodyforce diagram on the skeletal part of the foot is shown in Figure 17.16. The
normal force N acts at the contact point between the foot and the ground. In this position,
 
the tibia acts on the foot at the point S with a force F of an unknown magnitude F = F
and makes an unknown angle β with the vertical. This force acts on the ankle a
horizontal distance s from the point where the foot contacts the floor. The Achilles

tendon also acts on the foot and is under considerable tension with magnitude T ≡ T and
acts at an angle α with the horizontal as shown in the figure. The tendon acts on the
ankle a horizontal distance b from the point S where the tibia acts on the foot. You may
ignore the weight of the foot. Let g be the gravitational constant. Compute the torque
about the point S due to (a) the tendon force on the foot; (b) the force of the tibia on the
foot; (c) the normal force of the floor on the foot.
17-13
Figure 17.16 Force diagram and coordinate system for ankle
Solution: (a) We shall first calculate the torque due to the force of the Achilles tendon on

the ankle. The tendon force has the vector decomposition T = T cos α î + T sin α ˆj .
Figure 17.17 Torque diagram for tendon Figure 17.18 Torque diagram for normal
force on ankle 
force on ankle rS ,N

The vector from the point S to the point of action of the force is given by rS ,T = −bî

(Figure 17.17). Therefore the torque due to the force of the tendon T on the ankle about
the point S is then
  
τ S ,T = rS ,T × T = −bî × (T cos α î + T sin α ĵ) = −bT sin α k̂ .
(b) The torque diagram for the normal force is shown in Figure 17.18. The vector from
the point S to the point where the normal force acts on the foot is given by
17-14

rS ,N = (sî − hĵ) . Because the weight is evenly distributed on the two feet, the normal force
on one foot is equal to half the weight, or N = (1 / 2)mg . The normal force is therefore

given by N = N ĵ = (1/ 2) mg ĵ . Therefore the torque of the normal force about the point
S is
 
τ S , N = rS , N × N ˆj = ( sî − hˆj) × N ˆj = s N kˆ = (1/ 2) s mg kˆ .

(c) The force F that the tibia exerts on the ankle will make no contribution to the torque
about this point S since the tibia force acts at the point S and therefore the vector
 
rS , F = 0 .
17.4 Torque, Angular Acceleration, and Moment of Inertia
17.4.1 Torque Equation for Fixed Axis Rotation
For fixed-axis rotation, there is a direct relation between the component of the torque
along the axis of rotation and angular acceleration. Consider the forces that act on the
rotating body. Generally, the forces on different volume elements will be different, and

so we will denote the force on the volume element of mass Δmi by Fi . Choose the z -
axis to lie along the axis of rotation. Divide the body into volume elements of mass Δmi .
Let the point S denote a specific point along the axis of rotation (Figure 17.19). Each
volume element undergoes a tangential acceleration as the volume element moves in a

circular orbit of radius ri = ri about the fixed axis.
Figure 17.19: Volume element undergoing fixed-axis rotation about the z -axis.
The vector from the point S to the volume element is given by

 
rS , i = zi k̂ + ri = zi k̂ + r i r̂ (17.3.1)
17-15
where zi is the distance along the axis of rotation between the point S and the volume

element. The torque about S due to the force Fi acting on the volume element is
given by 
 
τ S , i = rS , i × Fi . (17.3.2)
Substituting Eq. (17.3.1) into Eq. (17.3.2) gives

 
τ S , i = (zi k̂ + ri r̂) × Fi . (17.3.3)
For fixed-axis rotation, we are interested in the z -component of the torque, which must
be the term 

( τ S , i ) z = (ri r̂ × Fi ) z (17.3.4)

because the vector product zi kˆ × Fi must be directed perpendicular to the plane formed

by the vectors k̂ and Fi , hence perpendicular to the z -axis. The force acting on the
volume element has components

Fi = Fr , i r̂ + Fθ , i θ̂ + Fz, i k̂ . (17.3.5)
The z -component Fz , i of the force cannot contribute a torque in the z -direction, and so
substituting Eq. (17.3.5) into Eq. (17.3.4) yields

( τ S , i ) z = (ri r̂ × (Fr ,i r̂ + Fθ ,i θ̂)) z . (17.3.6)
Figure 17.20 Tangential force acting on a volume element.
The radial force does not contribute to the torque about the z -axis, since

r i r̂ × Fr , i r̂ = 0 . (17.3.7)
17-16
So, we are interested in the contribution due to torque about the z -axis due to the
tangential component of the force on the volume element (Figure 17.20). The component
of the torque about the z -axis is given by

( τ S , i ) z = (ri r̂ × Fθ ,i θ̂) z = ri Fθ ,i . (17.3.8)
The z -component of the torque is directed upwards in Figure 17.20, where Fθ , i is

positive (the tangential force is directed counterclockwise, as in the figure). Applying
Newton’s Second Law in the tangential direction,
Fθ , i = Δmi aθ , i . (17.3.9)
Using our kinematics result that the tangential acceleration is aθ , i = r i α z , where α z is

the z -component of angular acceleration, we have that
Fθ , i = Δmi r i α z . (17.3.10)
From Eq. (17.3.8), the component of the torque about the z -axis is then given by

( τ S , i ) z = r i Fθ , i = Δmi ri 2α z . (17.3.11)
The component of the torque about the z -axis is the summation of the torques on all the
volume elements,
 i= N
 i= N
( τ S ) z = ∑ ( τ S , i ) z = ∑ r⊥ , i Fθ , i
i=1 i=1
i= N
(17.3.12)
= ∑ Δmi ri 2α z .
i=1
Because each element has the same z -component of angular acceleration, α z , the
summation becomes
 ⎛ i= N ⎞
( τ S ) z = ⎜ ∑ Δmi ri 2 ⎟ α z . (17.3.13)
⎝ i=1 ⎠
Recalling our definition of the moment of inertia, (Chapter 16.3) the z -component of the
torque is proportional to the z -component of angular acceleration,
τ S ,z = I S α z , (17.3.14)
17-17
and the moment of inertia, I S , is the constant of proportionality. The torque about the
point S is the sum of the external torques and the internal torques
  
τ S = τ S ext + τ S int . (17.3.15)
The external torque about the point S is the sum of the torques due to the net external
force acting on each element
 i= N
 ext i= N   ext
τ ext
S
= ∑ τ S ,i
= ∑ rS ,i
× Fi
. (17.3.16)
i=1 i=1
The internal torque arise from the torques due to the internal forces acting between pairs
of elements
 N
 int i= N j = N  int i= N j = N
 
τ int
S
= ∑ S , j ∑ ∑ S , j, i ∑ ∑ rS ,i × Fj, i .
τ = τ = (17.3.17)
i=1 i=1 j =1 i=1 j =1
j≠i j≠i
 
We know by Newton’s Third Law that the internal forces cancel in pairs, Fj,i = −Fi, j , and
hence the sum of the internal forces is zero
 i= N j = N 
0 = ∑ ∑ Fj, i . (17.3.18)
i=1 j =1
j≠i
Does the same statement hold about pairs of internal torques? Consider the sum of
internal torques arising from the interaction between the ith and j th particles
     
τ int
S , j, i
+ τ int
S ,i, j
= rS ,i × Fj, i + rS , j × Fi, j . (17.3.19)
By the Newton’s Third Law this sum becomes

    
τ int
S , j, i
+ τ int
S , i, j
= ( rS ,i − rS , j ) × Fj, i . (17.3.20)
 
In the Figure 17.21, the vector rS ,i − rS , j points from the j th element to the ith element. If
the internal forces between a pair of particles are directed along the line joining the two
particles then the torque due to the internal forces cancel in pairs.
  int    
τ int
S , j, i
+ τ S , i, j
= ( rS ,i
− rS, j
) × F j, i
= 0 . (17.3.21)
17-18
Figure 17.21 The internal force is directed along the line connecting the ith and j th
particles
This is a stronger version of Newton’s Third Law than we have so far since we have
added the additional requirement regarding the direction of all the internal forces between
pairs of particles. With this assumption, the torque is just due to the external forces
 
τ S = τ S ext . (17.3.22)
Thus Eq. (17.3.14) becomes
(τ Sext ) z = I S α z , (17.3.23)
This is very similar to Newton’s Second Law: the total force is proportional to the
acceleration,  
F = ma . (17.3.24)
where the mass, m , is the constant of proportionality.
17.4.2 Torque Acts at the Center of Gravity
Suppose a rigid body in static equilibrium consists of N particles labeled by the index
i = 1, 2, 3, ..., N . Choose a coordinate system with a choice of origin O such that mass mi has
  
position ri . Each point particle experiences a gravitational force Fgravity,i = mi g . The total
torque about the origin is then zero (static equilibrium condition),
 i= N
 i= N
  i= N
  
τ O = ∑ τ O,i = ∑ ri × Fgravity,i = ∑ ri × mi g = 0 . (17.3.25)
i=1 i=1 i=1

If the gravitational acceleration g is assumed constant, we can rearrange the summation
 
in Eq. (17.3.25) by pulling the constant vector g out of the summation ( g appears in
each term in the summation),
17-19
 i= N
  ⎛ i= N  ⎞  
τ O = ∑ ri × mi g = ⎜ ∑ miri ⎟ × g = 0 . (17.3.26)
i=1 ⎝ i=1 ⎠
We now use our definition of the center of the center of mass, Eq. (10.5.3), to rewrite Eq.
(17.3.26) as
 i= N
      
τ O = ∑ ri × mi g = M T R cm × g = R cm × M T g = 0 . (17.3.27)
i=1
Thus the torque due to the gravitational force acting on each point-like particle is
equivalent to the torque due to the gravitational force acting on a point-like particle of
mass M T located at a point in the body called the center of gravity, which is equal to the

center of mass of the body in the typical case in which the gravitational acceleration g is
constant throughout the body.
Example 17.9 Turntable
The turntable in Example 16.1, of mass 1.2 kg and radius 1.3 ×101 cm , has a moment of
inertia I S = 1.01×10−2 kg ⋅ m 2 about an axis through the center of the turntable and
perpendicular to the turntable. The turntable is spinning at an initial constant frequency
f i = 33 cycles ⋅ min −1 . The motor is turned off and the turntable slows to a stop in 8.0 s
due to frictional torque. Assume that the angular acceleration is constant. What is the
magnitude of the frictional torque acting on the turntable?
Solution: We have already calculated the angular acceleration of the turntable in

Example 16.1, where we found that
Δω z ω f − ω i −3.5 rad ⋅s −1
αz = = = = −4.3× 10−1 rad ⋅s −2 (17.3.28)
Δt t f − ti 8.0 s
and so the magnitude of the frictional torque is
τ zfric = I S α z = (1.01× 10−2 kg ⋅ m 2 )(4.3× 10−1 rad ⋅s −2 )

(17.3.29)
= 4.3× 10−3 N ⋅ m.
Example 17.10 Pulley and blocks
A pulley of mass mp , radius R , and moment of inertia about its center of mass I cm , is
attached to the edge of a table. An inextensible string of negligible mass is wrapped
around the pulley and attached on one end to block 1 that hangs over the edge of the table
(Figure 17.22). The other end of the string is attached to block 2 that slides along a table.
17-20
The coefficient of sliding friction between the table and the block 2 is µk . Block 1 has
mass m1 and block 2 has mass m2 , with m1 > µk m2 . At time t = 0 , the blocks are
released from rest and the string does not slip around the pulley. At time t = t1 , block 1
hits the ground. Let g denote the gravitational constant. (a) Find the magnitude of the
acceleration of each block. (b) How far did the block 1 fall before hitting the ground?
Figure 17.22 Example 17.10 Figure 17.23 Torque diagram for pulley
Solution: The torque diagram for the pulley is shown in the figure below where we
choose k̂ pointing into the page. Note that the tensions in the string on either side of the
pulley are not equal. The reason is that the pulley is massive. To understand why,
remember that the difference in the magnitudes of the torques due to the tension on either
side of the pulley is equal to the moment of inertia times the magnitude of the angular
acceleration, which is non-zero for a massive pulley. So the tensions cannot be equal.
From our torque diagram, the torque about the point O at the center of the pulley is given
by
    
τ O = rO,1 × T1 + rO,2 × T2 = R(T1 − T2 )k̂ . (17.3.30)
Therefore the torque equation (17.3.23) becomes
R(T1 − T2 ) = I zα z . (17.3.31)
The free body force diagrams on the two blocks are shown in Figure 17.23.
(a) (b)
Figure 17.23 Free-body force diagrams on (a) block 2, (b) block 1
17-21
Newton’s Second Law on block 1 yields
m1 g − T1 = m1a y1 . (17.3.32)
Newton’s Second Law on block 2 in the ĵ direction yields
N − m2 g = 0 . (17.3.33)
Newton’s Second Law on block 2 in the î direction yields
T2 − f k = m2 ax 2 . (17.3.34)
The kinetic friction force is given by
f k = µ k N = µ k m2 g (17.3.35)
T2 − µ k m2 g = m2 ax 2 . (17.3.36)
Block 1 and block 2 are constrained to have the same acceleration so
a ≡ ax1 = ax 2 . (17.3.37)
We can solve Eqs. (17.3.32) and (17.3.36) for the two tensions yielding
T1 = m1 g − m1a , (17.3.38)
T2 = µ k m2 g + m2 a . (17.3.39)
At point on the rim of the pulley has a tangential acceleration that is equal to the
acceleration of the blocks so
a = aθ = Rα z . (17.3.40)
The torque equation (Eq. (17.3.31)) then becomes
Iz
T1 − T2 = a. (17.3.41)
R2
Iz
m1 g − m1a − ( µ k m2 g + m2 a) = a, (17.3.42)
R2
which we can now solve for the accelerations of the blocks
17-22
m1 g − µ k m2 g
a= . (17.3.43)
m1 + m2 + I z / R 2
Block 1 hits the ground at time t1 , therefore it traveled a distance
1 ⎛ m1 g − µ k m2 g ⎞ 2
y1 = ⎜ ⎟t . (17.3.44)
2 ⎝ m1 + m2 + I z / R 2 ⎠ 1
Example 17.11 Experimental Method for Determining Moment of Inertia
A steel washer is mounted on a cylindrical rotor of radius r = 12.7 mm . A massless

string, with an object of mass m = 0.055 kg attached to the other end, is wrapped around
the side of the rotor and passes over a massless pulley (Figure 17.24). Assume that there
is a constant frictional torque about the axis of the rotor. The object is released and falls.
As the object falls, the rotor undergoes an angular acceleration of magnitude α1 . After
the string detaches from the rotor, the rotor coasts to a stop with an angular acceleration
of magnitude α 2 . Let g = 9.8 m ⋅ s −2 denote the gravitational constant. Based on the data
in the Figure 17.25, what is the moment of inertia I R of the rotor assembly (including the
washer) about the rotation axis?
Figure 17.24 Steel washer, rotor, pulley, Figure 17.26 Graph of angular speed vs.
and hanging object time for falling object
Solution: We begin by drawing a force-torque diagram (Figure 17.26a) for the rotor and
a free-body diagram for hanger (Figure 17.26b). (The choice of positive directions are

indicated on the figures.) The frictional torque on the rotor is then given by τ f = −τ f k̂
where we use τ f as the magnitude of the frictional torque. The torque about the center of

the rotor due to the tension in the string is given by τ T = rT k̂ where r is the radius of
17-23

the rotor. The angular acceleration of the rotor is given by α 1 = α1 k̂ and we expect that
α1 > 0 because the rotor is speeding up.
(a) (b)
Figure 17.26 (a) Force-torque diagram on rotor and (b) free-body force diagram on
hanging object
While the hanger is falling, the rotor-washer combination has a net torque due to the
tension in the string and the frictional torque, and using the rotational equation of motion,
Tr − τ f = I Rα1 . (17.4.1)
We apply Newton’s Second Law to the hanger and find that
mg − T = ma1 = mα1r , (17.4.2)
where a1 = rα1 has been used to express the linear acceleration of the falling hanger to
the angular acceleration of the rotor; that is, the string does not stretch. Before
proceeding, it might be illustrative to multiply Eq. (17.4.2) by r and add to Eq. (17.4.1)
to obtain
mgr − τ f = (I R + mr 2 )α1 . (17.4.3)
Eq. (17.4.3) contains the unknown frictional torque, and this torque is determined by
considering the slowing of the rotor/washer after the string has detached.
Figure 17.27 Torque diagram on rotor when string has detached
17-24
The torque on the system is just this frictional torque (Figure 17.27), and so
−τ f = I Rα 2 (17.4.4)
Note that in Eq. (17.4.4), τ f > 0 and α 2 < 0 . Subtracting Eq. (17.4.4) from Eq. (17.4.3)
eliminates τ f ,
mgr = mr 2α1 + I R (α1 − α 2 ) . (17.4.5)
We can now solve for I R yielding

mr(g − rα 1 )
IR = . (17.4.6)
α1 − α 2
For a numerical result, we use the data collected during a trial run resulting in the graph
of angular speed vs. time for the falling object shown in Figure 17.25. The values for α1
and α 2 can be determined by calculating the slope of the two straight lines in Figure
17.28 yielding
α 1 = (96rad ⋅s −1 ) / (1.15s) = 83 rad ⋅s −2 ,
α 2 = −(89rad ⋅s −1 ) / (2.85s) = − 31rad ⋅s −2 .
Inserting these values into Eq. (17.4.6) yields
I R = 5.3 ×10−5 kg ⋅ m 2 . (17.4.7)
17.5 Torque and Rotational Work
When a constant torque τ s,z is applied to an object, and the object rotates through an
angle Δθ about a fixed z -axis through the center of mass, then the torque does an
amount of work ΔW = τ S ,z Δθ on the object. By extension of the linear work-energy
theorem, the amount of work done is equal to the change in the rotational kinetic energy
of the object,
1 1
Wrot = I cmω 2f − I cmω i2 = K rot, f − K rot,i . (17.4.8)
2 2
The rate of doing this work is the rotational power exerted by the torque,
dWrot ΔWrot dθ
Prot ≡ = lim = τ S ,z = τ S ,zω z . (17.4.9)
dt Δt→0 Δt dt
17-25
17.5.1 Rotational Work
Consider a rigid body rotating about an axis. Each small element of mass Δmi in the rigid
body is moving in a circle of radius (rS , i )⊥ about the axis of rotation passing through the
point S . Each mass element undergoes a small angular displacement Δθ under the

action of a tangential force, Fθ , i = Fθ , i θ̂ , where θ̂ is the unit vector pointing in the
tangential direction (Figure 17.20). The element will then have an associated

displacement vector for this motion, ΔrS , i = ri Δθ θ̂ and the work done by the tangential
force is
 
ΔWrot,i = Fθ ,i ⋅ ΔrS ,i = (Fθ ,i θ̂) ⋅(ri Δθ θ̂) = ri Fθ ,i Δθ . (17.4.10)
Recall the result of Eq. (17.3.8) that the component of the torque (in the direction along
the axis of rotation) about S due to the tangential force, Fθ , i , acting on the mass element
Δmi is
(τ S ,i ) z = ri Fθ ,i , (17.4.11)
and so Eq. (17.4.10) becomes
ΔWrot, i = (τ S ,i ) z Δθ . (17.4.12)
Summing over all the elements yields
( )
Wrot = ∑ ΔWrot, i = (τ S ,i ) z Δθ = τ S ,z Δθ ,
i
(17.4.13)
the rotational work is the product of the torque and the angular displacement. In the limit
of small angles, Δθ → dθ , ΔWrot → dWrot and the differential rotational work is
dWrot = τ S ,z dθ . (17.4.14)
We can integrate this amount of rotational work as the angle coordinate of the rigid body
changes from some initial value θ = θ i to some final value θ = θ f ,
θf
Wrot = ∫ dWrot = ∫ τ S ,z dθ . (17.4.15)
θi
17.5.2 Rotational Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
We will now show that the rotational work is equal to the change in rotational kinetic
energy. We begin by substituting our result from Eq. (17.3.14) into Eq. (17.4.14) for the
infinitesimal rotational work,
dWrot = I S α z dθ . (17.4.16)
17-26
Recall that the rate of change of angular velocity is equal to the angular acceleration,
α z ≡ dω z dt and that the angular velocity is ω z ≡ dθ dt . Note that in the limit of small
displacements,
dω z dθ
dθ = dω z = dω z ω z . (17.4.17)
dt dt
Therefore the infinitesimal rotational work is
dω z dθ
dWrot = I S α z dθ = I S dθ = I S dω z = I S dω z ω z . (17.4.18)
dt dt
We can integrate this amount of rotational work as the angular velocity of the rigid body
changes from some initial value ω z = ω z,i to some final value ω z = ω z, f ,
ωz,f 1 1
Wrot = ∫ dWrot = ∫ I S dω z ω z = I S ω z,2 f − I S ω z,i
2
. (17.4.19)
ω z ,i 2 2
When a rigid body is rotating about a fixed axis passing through a point S in the body,
there is both rotation and translation about the center of mass unless S is the center of
mass. If we choose the point S in the above equation for the rotational work to be the
center of mass, then
1 1
Wrot = I cmω cm,
2
f
− I cmω cm,i
2
= K rot, f − K rot,i ≡ ΔK rot . (17.4.20)
2 2
Note that because the z -component of the angular velocity of the center of mass appears
as a square, we can just use its magnitude in Eq. (17.4.20).
17.5.3 Rotational Power
The rotational power is defined as the rate of doing rotational work,
dWrot
Prot ≡ . (17.4.21)
dt
We can use our result for the infinitesimal work to find that the rotational power is the
product of the applied torque with the angular velocity of the rigid body,
dWrot dθ
Prot ≡ = τ S ,z = τ S ,zω z . (17.4.22)
dt dt
17-27
Example 17.12 Work Done by Frictional Torque
A steel washer is mounted on the shaft of a small motor. The moment of inertia of the
motor and washer is I 0 . The washer is set into motion. When it reaches an initial
angular velocity ω 0 , at t = 0 , the power to the motor is shut off, and the washer slows
down during a time interval Δt1 = ta until it reaches an angular velocity of ω a at time ta .
At that instant, a second steel washer with a moment of inertia I w is dropped on top of
the first washer. Assume that the second washer is only in contact with the first washer.
The collision takes place over a time Δtint = tb − ta after which the two washers and rotor
rotate with angular speed ω b . Assume the frictional torque on the axle (magnitude τ f ) is
independent of speed, and remains the same when the second washer is dropped. (a)
What angle does the rotor rotate through during the collision? (b) What is the work done
by the friction torque from the bearings during the collision? (c) Write down an equation
for conservation of energy. Can you solve this equation for ω b ? (d) What is the average
rate that work is being done by the friction torque during the collision?
Solution: We begin by solving for the frictional torque during the first stage of motion
when the rotor is slowing down. We choose a coordinate system shown in Figure 17.29.
Figure 17.29 Coordinate system for Example 17.12
The component of average angular acceleration is given by
ωa − ω0
α1 = < 0.
ta
We can use the rotational equation of motion, and find that the frictional torque satisfies
⎛ ω − ω0 ⎞
−τ f = I 0 ⎜ a .
⎝ Δt1 ⎟⎠
17-28
During the collision, the component of the average angular acceleration of the rotor is
given by
ω − ωa
α2 = b < 0.
(Δt int )
The angle the rotor rotates through during the collision is (analogous to linear motion
with constant acceleration)
1 1 ⎛ ω − ωa ⎞ 1
Δθ 2 = ω a Δt int + α 2 Δt int 2 = ω a Δt int + ⎜ b ⎟ Δt int 2 = (ω b + ω a )Δt int > 0 .
2 2 ⎝ Δt int ⎠ 2
The non-conservative work done by the bearing friction during the collision is
1
W f ,b = −τ f Δθ rotor = −τ f (ω a + ω b )Δt int .
2
Using our result for the frictional torque, the work done by the bearing friction during the
collision is
1 ⎛ ω − ω0 ⎞
W f ,b = I 0 ⎜ a (ω a + ω b )Δt int < 0 .
2 ⎝ Δt1 ⎟⎠
The negative work is consistent with the fact that the kinetic energy of the rotor is
decreasing as the rotor is slowing down. Using the work energy theorem during the
collision the kinetic energy of the rotor has deceased by
1 1
W f ,b = (I 0 + I w )ω b2 − I 0ω a2 .
2 2
Using our result for the work, we have that
1 ⎛ ωa − ω0 ⎞ 1 1
I0 ⎜ ⎟ (ω a + ω b )Δt int = (I 0 + I w )ω b2 − I 0ω a2 .
2 ⎝ Δt1 ⎠ 2 2
This is a quadratic equation for the angular speed ω b of the rotor and washer
immediately after the collision that we can in principle solve. However remember that we
assumed that the frictional torque is independent of the speed of the rotor. Hence the best
practice would be to measure ω 0 , ω a , ω b , Δt1 , Δt int , I 0 , and I w and then determine
how closely our model agrees with conservation of energy. The rate of work done by the
frictional torque is given by
W f ,b 1 ⎛ ωa − ω0 ⎞
Pf = = I0 (ω a + ω b ) < 0 .
Δt int 2 ⎜⎝ Δt1 ⎟⎠
17-29
Chapter 18 Static Equilibrium
18.1 Introduction Static Equilibrium .......................................................................... 1

18.2 Lever Law .............................................................................................................. 2
Example 18.1 Lever Law .......................................................................................... 4
18.3 Generalized Lever Law ........................................................................................ 5
18.4 Worked Examples ................................................................................................. 7
Example 18.2 Suspended Rod .................................................................................. 7
Example 18.3 Person Standing on a Hill ............................................................... 10
Example 18.4 The Knee .......................................................................................... 11
Appendix 18A The Torques About any Two Points are Equal for a Body in Static
Equilibrium ................................................................................................................. 16
Chapter 18 Static Equilibrium
The proof of the correctness of a new rule can be attained by the repeated
application of it, the frequent comparison with experience, the putting of it to the
test under the most diverse circumstances. This process, would in the natural
course of events, be carried out in time. The discoverer, however hastens to reach
his goal more quickly. He compares the results that flow from his rule with all the
experiences with which he is familiar, with all older rules, repeatedly tested in
times gone by, and watches to see if he does not light on contradictions. In this
procedure, the greatest credit is, as it should be, conceded to the oldest and most
familiar experiences, the most thoroughly tested rules. Our instinctive
experiences, those generalizations that are made involuntarily, by the irresistible
force of the innumerable facts that press upon us, enjoy a peculiar authority; and
this is perfectly warranted by the consideration that it is precisely the elimination
of subjective caprice and of individual error that is the object aimed at.1
Ernst Mach
18.1 Introduction Static Equilibrium
When the vector sum of the forces acting on a point-like object is zero then the object
will continue in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line. If the object is in
uniform motion we can always change reference frames so that the object will be at rest.
We showed that for a collection of point-like objects the sum of the external forces may
be regarded as acting at the center of mass. So if that sum is zero the center of mass will
continue in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line. We introduced the
idea of a rigid body, and again showed that in addition to the fact that the sum of the
external forces may be regarded as acting at the center of mass, forces like the
gravitational force that acts at every point in the body may be treated as acting at the
center of mass. However for an extended rigid body it matters where the force is applied
because even though the sum of the forces on the body may be zero, a non-zero sum of
torques on the body may still produce angular acceleration. In particular for fixed axis
rotation, the torque along the axis of rotation on the object is proportional to the angular
acceleration. It is possible that sum of the torques may be zero on a body that is not
constrained to rotate about a fixed axis and the body may still undergo rotation. We will
restrict ourselves to the special case in which in an inertial reference frame both the
center of mass of the body is at rest and the body does not undergo any rotation, a
condition that is called static equilibrium of an extended object.
The two sufficient and necessary conditions for a rigid body to be in static
equilibrium are:
1
Ernst Mach, The Science of Mechanics: A Critical and Historical Account of Its
Development, translated by Thomas J. McCormack, Sixth Edition with Revisions through
the Ninth German Edition, Open Court Publishing, Illinois.
18-1
(1) The sum of the forces acting on the rigid body is zero,
   
F = F1 + F2 +⋅⋅⋅= 0 . (18.1.1)
(2) The vector sum of the torques about any point S in a rigid body is zero,
   
τ S = τ S ,1 + τ S ,2 +⋅⋅⋅= 0 . (18.1.2)
18.2 Lever Law
Let’s consider a uniform rigid beam of mass mb balanced on a pivot near the center of
mass of the beam. We place two objects 1 and 2 of masses m1 and m2 on the beam, at
distances d1 and d 2 respectively from the pivot, so that the beam is static (that is, the
beam is not rotating. See Figure 18.1.) We shall neglect the thickness of the beam and
take the pivot point to be the center of mass.
Figure 18.1 Pivoted Lever
Let’s consider the forces acting on the beam. The earth attracts the beam
downward. This gravitational force acts on every atom in the beam, but we can

summarize its action by stating that the gravitational force mb g is concentrated at a point
in the beam called the center of gravity of the beam, which is identical to the center of

mass of the uniform beam. There is also a contact force Fpivot between the pivot and the
beam, acting upwards on the beam  at the
 pivot point. The objects 1 and 2 exert normal
forces downwards on the beam, N1,b ≡ N1 , and N 2,b ≡ N 2 , with magnitudes N1 , and N 2 ,
respectively. Note that the normal forces are not the gravitational forces acting on the
objects, but contact forces between the beam and the objects. (In this case, they are
mathematically the same, due to the horizontal configuration of the beam and the fact that
all objects are in static equilibrium.) The distances d1 and d 2 are called the moment arms
 
with respect to the pivot point for the forces N1 and N 2 , respectively. The force diagram

on the beam is shown in Figure 18.2. Note that the pivot force Fpivot and the force of

gravity mb g each has a zero moment arm about the pivot point.
18-2
Figure 18.2 Free-body diagram on beam
Because we assume the beam is not moving, the sum of the forces in the vertical
direction acting on the beam is therefore zero,
Fpivot − mb g − N1 − N 2 = 0 . (18.2.1)
The force diagrams on the objects are shown in Figure 18.3. Note the magnitude of the
normal forces on the objects are also N1 and N 2 since these are each part of an action-
   
reaction pair, N1, b = − N b,1 , and N 2, b = − N b, 2 .
(a) (b)
Figure 18.3 Free-body force diagrams for each body.
The condition that the forces sum to zero is not sufficient to completely predict the
motion of the beam. All we can deduce is that the center of mass of the system is at rest
(or moving with a uniform velocity). In order for the beam not to rotate the sum of the
torques about any point must be zero. In particular the sum of the torques about the pivot
point must be zero. Because the moment arm of the gravitational force and the pivot force
is zero, only the two normal forces produce a torque on the beam. If we choose out of the
page as positive direction for the torque (or equivalently counterclockwise rotations are
positive) then the condition that the sum of the torques about the pivot point is zero
becomes
d 2 N 2 − d1 N1 = 0 . (18.2.2)
The magnitudes of the two torques about the pivot point are equal, a condition known as
the lever law.
18-3
Lever Law: A beam of length l is balanced on a pivot point that is placed
directly beneath the center of mass of the beam. The beam will not
undergo rotation if the product of the normal force with the moment arm
to the pivot is the same for each body,
d1 N1 = d 2 N 2 . (18.2.3)
Example 18.1 Lever Law
Suppose a uniform beam of length l = 1.0 m and mass mB = 2.0 kg is balanced on a pivot
point, placed directly beneath the center of the beam. We place body 1 with mass
m1 = 0.3 kg a distance d1 = 0.4 m to the right of the pivot point, and a second body 2
with m2 = 0.6 kg a distance d 2 to the left of the pivot point, such that the beam neither

translates nor rotates. (a) What is the force Fpivot that the pivot exerts on the beam? (b)
What is the distance d 2 that maintains static equilibrium?
Solution: a) By Newton’s Third Law, the beam exerts equal and opposite normal forces
of magnitude N1 on body 1, and N 2 on body 2. The condition for force equilibrium
applied separately to the two bodies yields
N1 − m1 g = 0 , (18.2.4)
N 2 − m2 g = 0 . (18.2.5)
Thus the total force acting on the beam is zero,
Fpivot − (mb + m1 + m2 )g = 0 , (18.2.6)

and the pivot force is
Fpivot = (mb + m1 + m2 )g
(18.2.7)
= (2.0 kg+ 0.3 kg+ 0.6 kg)(9.8 m⋅s −2 ) = 2.8 × 101 N .
b) We can compute the distance d 2 from the Lever Law,
d1 N1 d1 m1 g d1 m1 (0.4 m)(0.3 kg)

d2 = = = = = 0.2 m . (18.2.8)
N2 m2 g m2 0.6 kg
18-4
18.3 Generalized Lever Law
 
We can extend the Lever Law to the case in which two external forces F1 and F2 are
acting on the pivoted beam at angles θ1 and θ 2 with respect to the horizontal as shown in
the Figure 18.4. Throughout this discussion the angles will be limited to the range
[0 ≤ θ1 , θ 2 ≤ π ] . We shall again neglect the thickness of the beam and take the pivot point
to be the center of mass.
Figure 18.4 Forces acting at angles to a pivoted beam.

 
The forces F1 and F2 can be decomposed into separate vectors components respectively
     
(F1, , F1, ⊥ ) and (F2, , F2, ⊥ ) , where F1,  and F2,  are the horizontal vector projections of

the two forces with respect to the direction formed by the length of the beam, and F1, ⊥

and F2, ⊥ are the perpendicular vector projections respectively to the beam (Figure 18.5),
with   
F1 = F1, + F1,⊥ , (18.3.1)
  
F2 = F2, + F2,⊥ . (18.3.2)
Figure 18.5 Vector decomposition of forces.
The horizontal components of the forces are
F1,  = F1 cosθ1 , (18.3.3)

F2,  = − F2 cosθ 2 , (18.3.4)
18-5
where our choice of positive horizontal direction is to the right. Neither horizontal force
component contributes to possible rotational motion of the beam. The sum of these
horizontal forces must be zero,
F1 cosθ1 − F2 cosθ 2 = 0 . (18.3.5)
The perpendicular component forces are
F1, ⊥ = F1 sin θ1 , (18.3.6)

F2, ⊥ = F2 sin θ 2 , (18.3.7)
where the positive vertical direction is upwards. The perpendicular components of the
forces must also sum to zero,
Fpivot − mb g + F1 sin θ1 + F2 sin θ 2 = 0 . (18.3.8)
Only the vertical components F1, ⊥ and F2, ⊥ of the external forces are involved in the
lever law (but the horizontal components must balance, as in Equation (18.3.5), for
equilibrium). Then the Lever Law can be extended as follows.
Generalized Lever Law A beam of length l is balanced on a pivot point

that is placed directly beneath the center of mass of the beam. Suppose a

force F1 acts on the beam a distance d1 to the right of the pivot point. A

second force F2 acts on the beam a distance d 2 to the left of the pivot
point. The beam will remain in static equilibrium if the following two
conditions are satisfied:
1) The total force on the beam is zero,
2) The product of the magnitude of the perpendicular component of

the force with the distance to the pivot is the same for each force,
d1 F1, ⊥ = d 2 F2, ⊥ . (18.3.9)
The Generalized Lever Law can be stated in an equivalent form,
d1F1 sin θ1 = d 2 F2 sin θ 2 . (18.3.10)
We shall now show that the generalized lever law can be reinterpreted as the statement
that the vector sum of the torques about the pivot point S is zero when there are just two
 
forces F1 and F2 acting on our beam as shown in Figure 18.6.
18-6
Figure 18.6 Force and torque diagram.
Let’s choose the positive z -direction to point out of the plane of the page then torque
pointing out of the page will have a positive z -component of torque (counterclockwise
rotations are positive). From our definition of torque about the pivot point, the magnitude

of torque due to force F1 is given by
τ S ,1 = d1F1 sin θ1 . (18.3.11)
From the right hand rule this is out of the page (in the counterclockwise direction) so the
component of the torque is positive, hence,
(τ S ,1 ) z = d1 F1 sin θ1 . (18.3.12)

The torque due to F2 about the pivot point is into the page (the clockwise direction) and
the component of the torque is negative and given by
(τ S , 2 ) z = −d2 F2 sin θ 2 . (18.3.13)
The z -component of the torque is the sum of the z -components of the individual torques
and is zero,
(τ S , total ) z = (τ S ,1 ) z + (τ S , 2 ) z = d1 F1 sin θ1 − d2 F2 sin θ 2 = 0 , (18.3.14)
which is equivalent to the Generalized Lever Law, Equation (18.3.10),
d1F1 sin θ1 = d 2 F2 sin θ 2 .
Example 18.2 Suspended Rod
A uniform rod of length l = 2.0 m and mass m = 4.0 kg is hinged to a wall at one end
and suspended from the wall by a cable that is attached to the other end of the rod at an
18-7
angle of β = 30o to the rod (see Figure 18.7). Assume the cable has zero mass. There is a
contact force at the pivot on the rod. The magnitude and direction of this force is
unknown. One of the most difficult parts of these types of problems is to introduce an
angle for the pivot force and then solve for that angle if possible. In this problem you will
solve for the magnitude of the tension in the cable and the direction and magnitude of the
pivot force. (a) What is the tension in the cable? (b) What angle does the pivot force
make with the beam? (c) What is the magnitude of the pivot force?
Figure 18.7 Example 18.2 Figure 18.8 Force and torque diagram.
Solution: a) The force diagram is shown in Figure 18.8. Take the positive î -direction to
be to the right in the figure above, and take the positive ĵ -direction to be vertically

upward. The forces on the rod are: the gravitational force m g = −m g ˆj , acting at the

center of the rod; the force that the cable exerts on the rod, T = T (− cos β î + sin β ĵ) ,

acting at the right end of the rod; and the pivot force Fpivot = F(cos α î + sin α ĵ) , acting at
the left end of the rod. If 0 < α < π / 2 , the pivot force is directed up and to the right in
the figure. If 0 > α > −π / 2 , the pivot force is directed down and to the right. We have
no reason, at this point, to expect that α will be in either of the quadrants, but it must be
in one or the other.
For static equilibrium, the sum of the forces must be zero, and hence the sums of the
components of the forces must be zero,
0 = −T cos β + F cos α
(18.4.1)
0 = −m g + T sin β + F sin α .
With respect to the pivot point, and taking positive torques to be counterclockwise, the
gravitational force exerts a negative torque of magnitude m g(l / 2) and the cable exerts a
positive torque of magnitude T l sin β . The pivot force exerts no torque about the pivot.
Setting the sum of the torques equal to zero then gives
0 = T l sin β − m g(l / 2)
mg (18.4.2)
T= .
2sin β
18-8
This result has many features we would expect; proportional to the weight of the rod and
inversely proportional to the sine of the angle made by the cable with respect to the
horizontal. Inserting numerical values gives
mg (4.0kg)(9.8m ⋅s −2 )
T= = = 39.2 N. (18.4.3)
2sin β 2sin30
There are many ways to find the angle α . Substituting Eq. (18.4.2) for the tension into
both force equations in Eq. (18.4.1) yields
F cos α = T cos β = (mg / 2)cot β

(18.4.4)
F sin α = m g − T sin β = mg / 2.
In Eq. (18.4.4), dividing one equation by the other, we see that tan α = tan β , α = β .
The horizontal forces on the rod must cancel. The tension force and the pivot force act
with the same angle (but in opposite horizontal directions) and hence must have the same
magnitude,
F = T = 39.2 N . (18.4.5)
As an alternative, if we had not done the previous parts, we could find torques about the
point where the cable is attached to the wall. The cable exerts no torque about this point
and the y -component of the pivot force exerts no torque as well. The moment arm of the
x -component of the pivot force is l tan β and the moment arm of the weight is l / 2 .
Equating the magnitudes of these two torques gives
l
F cos α l tan β = mg ,
2
equivalent to the first equation in Eq. (18.4.4). Similarly, evaluating torques about the
right end of the rod, the cable exerts no torques and the x -component of the pivot force
exerts no torque. The moment arm of the y -component of the pivot force is l and the
moment arm of the weight is l / 2 . Equating the magnitudes of these two torques gives
l
F sin α l = mg ,
2
reproducing the second equation in Eq. (18.4.4). The point of this alternative solution is
to show that choosing a different origin (or even more than one origin) in order to remove
an unknown force from the torques equations might give a desired result more directly.
18-9
Example 18.3 Person Standing on a Hill
A person is standing on a hill that is sloped at an angle of α with respect to the

horizontal (Figure 18.9). The person’s legs are separated by a distance d , with one foot
uphill and one downhill. The center of mass of the person is at a distance h above the
ground, perpendicular to the hillside, midway between the person’s feet. Assume that the
coefficient of static friction between the person’s feet and the hill is sufficiently large that
the person will not slip. (a) What is the magnitude of the normal force on each foot? (b)
How far must the feet be apart so that the normal force on the upper foot is just zero?
This is the moment when the person starts to rotate and fall over.
Figure 18.9 Person standing on hill Figure 18.10 Free-body force diagram
for person standing on hill
Solution: The force diagram on the person is shown in Figure 18.10. Note that the
contact forces have been decomposed into components perpendicular and parallel to the
hillside. A choice of unit vectors and positive direction for torque is also shown.
Applying Newton’s Second Law to the two components of the net force,
ˆj : N + N − mg cos α = 0 (18.4.6)
1 2
î : f + f − mg sin α = 0 . (18.4.7)
1 2
These two equations imply that

N1 + N 2 = mg cos α (18.4.8)
f1 + f 2 = mg sin α . (18.4.9)
Evaluating torques about the center of mass,
d
h( f1 + f 2 ) + (N 2 − N1 ) = 0. (18.4.10)
2
18-10
Equation (18.4.10) can be rewritten as
2h( f1 + f 2 )
N1 − N 2 = . (18.4.11)
d
Substitution of Equation (18.4.9) into Equation (18.4.11) yields
2h (mg sin α )
N1 − N 2 = . (18.4.12)
d
We can solve for N1 by adding Equations (18.4.8) and (18.4.12), and then dividing by 2,
yielding
1 h (mg sin α ) ⎛1 h ⎞
N1 = mg cos α + = mg ⎜ cos α + sin α ⎟ . (18.4.13)
2 d ⎝2 d ⎠
Similarly, we can solve for N 2 by subtracting Equation (18.4.12) from Equation (18.4.8)
and dividing by 2, yielding
⎛1 h ⎞
N 2 = mg ⎜ cos α − sin α ⎟ . (18.4.14)
⎝2 d ⎠
The normal force N 2 as given in Equation (18.4.14) vanishes when
1 h
cos α = sin α , (18.4.15)
2 d
which can be solved for the minimum distance between the legs,
d = 2h (tan α ) . (18.4.16)
It should be noted that no specific model for the frictional force was used, that is, no
coefficient of static friction entered the problem. The two frictional forces f1 and f 2
were not determined separately; only their sum entered the above calculations.
Example 18.4 The Knee
A man of mass m = 70 kg is about to start a race. Assume the runner’s weight is equally
distributed on both legs. The patellar ligament in the knee is attached to the upper tibia

and runs over the kneecap. When the knee is bent, a tensile force, T , that the ligament
exerts on the upper tibia, is directed at an angle of θ = 40° with respect to the horizontal.

The femur exerts a force F on the upper tibia. The angle, α , that this force makes with
the vertical will vary and is one of the unknowns to solve for. Assume that the ligament is
connected a distance, d = 3.8cm , directly below the contact point of the femur on the
18-11
tibia. The contact point between the foot and the ground is a distance s = 3.6 ×101 cm
from the vertical line passing through contact point of the femur on the tibia. The center
of mass of the lower leg lies a distance x = 1.8 ×101 cm from this same vertical line.
Suppose the mass mL of the lower leg is a 1/10 of the mass of the body (Figure 18.11). (a)

Find the magnitude T of the force T of the patellar ligament on the tibia. (b) Find the

direction (the angle α ) of the force F of the femur on the tibia. (c) Find the magnitude

F of the force F of the femur on the tibia.
Figure 18.11 Example 18.4 Figure 18.12 Torque-force diagram for

knee
Solutions: a) Choose the unit vector î to be directed horizontally to the right and ĵ
directed vertically upwards. The first condition for static equilibrium, Eq. (18.1.1), that
the sum of the forces is zero becomes
î : − F sin α + T cosθ = 0. (18.4.17)

ĵ : N − F cos α + T sin θ − (1 / 10)mg = 0. (18.4.18)
Because the weight is evenly distributed on the two feet, the normal force on one foot is
equal to half the weight, or
N = (1 / 2)mg ; (18.4.19)
Equation (18.4.18) becomes
ĵ : (1 / 2)mg − F cos α + T sin θ − (1 / 10)mg = 0

. (18.4.20)
(2 / 5)mg − F cos α + T sin θ = 0.
18-12
The torque-force diagram on the knee is shown in Figure 18.12. Choose the point of
action of the ligament on the tibia as the point S about which to compute torques. Note

that the tensile force, T , that the ligament exerts on the upper tibia will make no
contribution to the torque about this point S . This may help slightly in doing the
calculations. Choose counterclockwise as the positive direction for the torque; this is the

positive k̂ - direction. Then the torque due to the force F of the femur on the tibia is
  
τ S ,1 = rS ,1 × F = d ĵ × (− F sin α î − F cos α ĵ) = d F sin α k̂ . (18.4.21)
The torque due to the mass of the leg is

 
τ S , 2 = rS , 2 × (−mg / 10) ĵ = (−x î − y L ĵ) × (−mg / 10) ĵ = (1 / 10)x mg k̂ . (18.4.22)
The torque due to the normal force of the ground is

 
τ S , 3 = rS , 3 × N ĵ = (−s î − y N ĵ) × N ĵ = −s N k̂ = −(1 / 2)s mg k̂ . (18.4.23)
(In Equations (18.4.22) and (18.4.23), yL and y N are the vertical displacements of the
point where the weight of the leg and the normal force with respect to the point S ; as can
be seen, these quantities do not enter directly into the calculations.) The condition that the
sum of the torques about the point S vanishes, Eq. (18.1.2),
    
τ S , total = τ S ,1 + τ S , 2 + τ S , 3 = 0 , (18.4.24)
becomes

d F sin α k̂ + (1 / 10)x mg k̂ − (1 / 2)s mg k̂ = 0 . (18.4.25)
The three equations in the three unknowns are summarized below:
− F sin α + T cosθ = 0
(2 / 5)mg − F cos α + T sin θ = 0 (18.4.26)
d F sin α + (1 / 10)x mg − (1 / 2)s mg = 0.
The horizontal force equation, the first in (18.4.26), implies that
F sin α = T cosθ . (18.4.27)
Substituting this into the torque equation, the third equation of (18.4.26), yields
d T cosθ + (1 / 10)x mg − s(1 / 2)mg = 0 . (18.4.28)
18-13
Note that Equation (18.4.28) is the equation that would have been obtained if we had
chosen the contact point between the tibia and the femur as the point about which to
determine torques. Had we chosen this point, we would have saved one minor algebraic

step. We can solve this Equation (18.4.28) for the magnitude T of the force T of the
patellar ligament on the tibia,
s(1 / 2)mg − (1 / 10)x mg

T= . (18.4.29)
d cosθ
Inserting numerical values into Equation (18.4.29),
(3.6 × 10−1 m)(1/2) − (1/10)(1.8× 10−1 m)

T = (70 kg)(9.8m ⋅ s −2 )
(3.8× 10−2 m)cos(40°) (18.4.30)
= 3.8 × 103 N.

b) We can now solve for the direction α of the force F of the femur on the tibia as
follows. Rewrite the two force equations in (18.4.26) as
F cos α = (2 / 5)mg + T sin θ

(18.4.31)
F sin α = T cosθ .
Dividing these equations yields
F cos α (2 / 5)mg + T sin θ

= cotan α = , (18.4.32)
F sin α T cosθ
And so
⎛ (2 / 5)mg + T sin θ ⎞
α = cotan −1 ⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ T cosθ
(18.4.33)
⎛ (2 / 5)(70 kg)(9.8m ⋅ s −2 ) + (3.4 × 103 N)sin(40°) ⎞
α = cotan ⎜−1
⎟ = 47°.
⎝ (3.4 × 103 N)cos(40°) ⎠
c) We can now use the horizontal force equation to calculate the magnitude F of the

force of the femur F on the tibia from Equation (18.4.27),
(3.8 × 103 N)cos(40°)

F= = 4.0 × 103 N . (18.4.34)
sin(47°)
Note you can find a symbolic expression for α that did not involve the intermediate
numerical calculation of the tension. This is rather complicated algebraically; basically,
the last two equations in (18.4.26) are solved for F and T in terms of α , θ and the
18-14
other variables (Cramer’s Rule is suggested) and the results substituted into the first of
(18.4.26). The resulting expression is
(s / 2 − x / 10)sin(40°) + ((2d / 5)cos(40°))

cot α =
(s / 2 − x / 10)cos(40°)
(18.4.35)
2d / 5
= tan(40°) +
s / 2 − x / 10
which leads to the same numerical result, α = 47° .
18-15
Appendix 18A The Torques About Any Two Points are Equal for a
Body in Static Equilibrium
When the net force on a body is zero, the torques about any two points are equal. To
show this, consider any two points A and B . Choose a coordinate system with origin O
 
and denote the constant vector from A to B by rA, B . Suppose a force Fi is acting at the

point rO,i . The vector from the point A to the point where the force acts is denoted by

rA, i , and the vectors from the point B to the point where the force acts is denoted by

rB, i .
Figure 18A.1 Location of body i with respect to the points A and B .
In Figure 18A.1, the position vectors satisfy

  
rA, i = rA, B + rB, i . (18.A.1)
The sum of the torques about the point A is given by
 i= N
 
τ A = ∑ rA,i × Fi . (18.A.2)
i=1
The sum of the torques about the point B is given by
 i= N
 
τ B = ∑ rB,i × Fi . (18.A.3)
i=1
We can now substitute Equation (18.A.1) into Equation (18.A.2) and find that
 i= N
  i= N    i= N   i= N  
τ A = ∑ rA, i × Fi = ∑ (rA, B + rB, i ) × Fi = ∑ rA, B × Fi + ∑ rB, i × Fi . (18.A.4)
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

In the next-to-last term in Equation (18.A.4), the vector rA, B is constant and so may be
taken outside the summation,
18-16
i= N
   i= N 
∑ A, B i A, B ∑ Fi .
r
i =1
× F = r ×
i =1
(18.A.5)
We are assuming that there is no net force on the body, and so the sum of the forces on
the body is zero,
i= N  
∑ Fi = 0 . (18.A.6)
i=1
Therefore the torque about point A , Equation (18.A.2), becomes
 i= N
  
τ A = ∑ rB,i × Fi = τ B . (18.A.7)
i=1
For static equilibrium problems, the result of Equation (18.A.7) tells us that it does not
matter which point we use to determine torques. In fact, note that the position of the
chosen origin did not affect the result at all. Choosing the point about which to calculate
torques (variously called “ A ”, “ B ”, “ S ” or sometimes “ O ”) so that unknown forces do
not exert torques about that point may often greatly simplify calculations.
18-17
Chapter 19 Angular Momentum
19.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 2

19.2 Angular Momentum about a Point for a Particle .............................................. 3
19.2.1 Angular Momentum for a Point Particle ..................................................... 3
19.2.2 Right-Hand-Rule for the Direction of the Angular Momentum ................ 4
Example 19.1 Angular Momentum: Constant Velocity ......................................... 5
Example 19.2 Angular Momentum and Circular Motion ..................................... 6
Example 19.3 Angular Momentum About a Point along Central Axis for Circular
Motion ......................................................................................................................... 6
19.3 Torque and the Time Derivative of Angular Momentum about a Point for a Particle
......................................................................................................................................... 8
19.4 Conservation of Angular Momentum about a Point.......................................... 9
Example 19.4 Meteor Flyby of Earth .................................................................... 10
19.5 Angular Impulse and Change in Angular Momentum .................................... 12
19.6 Angular Momentum of a System of Particles ................................................... 13
Example 19.5 Angular Momentum of Two Particles undergoing Circular Motion
................................................................................................................................... 14
Example 19.6 Angular Momentum of a System of Particles about Different Points
................................................................................................................................... 16
19.7 Angular Momentum and Torque for Fixed Axis Rotation ............................. 17
Example 19.6 Circular Ring ................................................................................... 20
19.8 Principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum........................................... 21
Example 19.7 Collision Between Pivoted Rod and Object .................................. 21
19.9 External Angular Impulse and Change in Angular Momentum .................... 26
Example 19.8 Angular Impulse on Steel Washer ................................................. 26
Chapter 19 Angular Momentum
The situation, in brief, is that newtonian physics is incapable of predicting
conservation of angular momentum, but no isolated system has yet been
encountered experimentally for which angular momentum is not conserved. We
conclude that conservation of angular momentum is an independent physical law,
and until a contradiction is observed, our physical understanding must be guided
by it. 1
Dan Kleppner
19.1 Introduction
When we consider a system of objects, we have shown that the external force, acting at the center
of mass of the system, is equal to the time derivative of the total momentum of the system,

 ext dpsys
F = . (19.1.1)
dt
We now introduce the rotational analog of Equation (19.1.1). We will first introduce the concept

of angular momentum for a point-like particle of mass m with linear momentum p about a point
S , defined by the equation
  
L S = rS × p , (19.1.2)

where rS is the vector from the point S to the particle. We will show in this chapter that the
torque about the point S acting on the particle is equal to the rate of change of the angular
momentum about the point S of the particle,

 dL S
τS = . (19.1.3)
dt
Equation (19.1.3) generalizes to any body undergoing rotation.
We shall concern ourselves first with the special case of rigid body undergoing fixed axis rotation

about the z-axis with angular velocity ω = ω z k̂ . We divide up the rigid body into N elements

labeled by the index i , i = 1, 2,… N , the ith element having mass mi and position vector rS , i . The
rigid body has a moment of inertia I S about some point S on the fixed axis, (often taken to be the

z-axis, but not always) which rotates with angular velocity ω about this axis. The angular
momentum is then the vector sum of the individual angular momenta,
1
Kleppner, Daniel, An Introduction to Mechanics (1973), p. 307.
 i= N  i= N
 
L S = ∑ L S ,i = ∑ rS ,i × p i (19.1.4)
i=1 i=1
When the rotation axis is the z-axis the z-component of the angular momentum, LS ,z , about the
point S is then given by
LS ,z = I S ω z . (19.1.5)
We shall show that the z-component of the torque about the point S , τ S ,z , is then the time
derivative of the z-component of angular momentum about the point S ,
dLS ,z dω z
τ S ,z = = IS = IS α z . (19.1.6)
dt dt
19.2 Angular Momentum about a Point for a Particle
19.2.1 Angular Momentum for a Point Particle


Consider a point-like particle of mass m moving with a velocity v (Figure 19.1) with momentum
 
p = mv .
rS
.
m
p
S .
Figure 19.1 A point-like particle and its angular momentum about S .

Consider a point S located anywhere in space. Let rS denote the vector from the point S to the
location of the object.

Define the angular momentum L S about the point S of a point-like particle as the
vector product of the vector from the point S to the location of the object with the
momentum of the particle,
  
L S = rS × p . (19.2.1)
The derived SI units for angular momentum are [kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −1 ] = [N ⋅ m ⋅s] = [J ⋅s] . There is no
special name for this set of units.
Because angular momentum is defined as a vector, we begin by studying its magnitude and
direction. The magnitude of the angular momentum about S is given by
  
L S = rS p sin θ , (19.2.2)

where θ is the angle between the vectors and p , and lies within the range [0 ≤ θ ≤ π ] Analogous
to the magnitude of torque, there are two ways to determine the magnitude of the angular
momentum about S .
.S
rS
rS
.
moment arm
p
.S rS
. p
pS
Figure 19.2 (a) Moment arm. (b) Perpendicular component of momentum.
Define the moment arm, rS⊥ , (Figure 19.2 (a)), as the perpendicular distance from the point S to
the line defined by the direction of the momentum. Then

rS⊥ = rS sin θ . (19.2.3)
Hence the magnitude of the angular momentum is the product of the moment arm with the
magnitude of the momentum,
 
L S = rS⊥ p . (19.2.4)
Alternatively, let Error! Objects cannot be created from editing field codes. denote the
magnitude of the component of the momentum perpendicular to the line defined by the direction

of the vector rS . From the geometry shown in Figure 19.2 (b),

pS⊥ = p sin θ . (19.2.5)
Thus the magnitude of the angular momentum is the product of the distance from S to the
particle with pS⊥ ,
 
L S = rS pS⊥ . (19.2.6)
19.2.2 Right-Hand-Rule for the Direction of the Angular Momentum
We shall define the direction of the angular momentum about the point S by a right hand rule.
 
Draw the vectors rS and p so their tails are touching. Then draw an arc starting from the vector
 
rS and finishing on the vector p . (There are two such arcs; choose the shorter one.) This arc is
either in the clockwise or counterclockwise direction. Curl the fingers of your right hand in the
same direction as the arc. Your right thumb points in the direction of the angular momentum.
L S = rS p
.
p
S . rS
Figure 19.3 The right hand rule for determining the direction of angular momentum about S .
Remember that, as in all vector products, the direction of the angular momentum about S is
 
perpendicular to the plane formed by rS and p .
Example 19.1 Angular Momentum: Constant Velocity
A particle of mass m = 2.0 kg moves as shown in Figure 19.4 with a uniform velocity

v = 3.0 m ⋅ s −1 î + 3.0 m ⋅ s −1 ˆj . At time t , the particle passes through the point (2.0 m, 3.0 m) . Find
the direction and the magnitude of the angular momentum about the point S (the origin) at time
.
t.
+y
m p ˆj
rS î
S. +x
k̂
Solution: Choose Cartesian coordinates with unit vectors shown in the figure above. The vector

from the point S to the location of the particle is rS = 2.0 m î + 3.0 m ĵ . The angular momentum

vector LO of the particle about the origin S is given by:
    
L S = rS × p = rS × m v
= (2.0m î + 3.0m ĵ) × (2kg)(3.0m ⋅s −1î + 3.0m ⋅s −1ĵ)

= 0 + 12kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −1 k̂ − 18kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −1(−k̂) + 0
= − 6kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −1 k̂.
          
In the above, the relations i × j = k , j × i = −k , i × i = j × j = 0 were used.
Example 19.2 Angular Momentum and Circular Motion
A particle of mass m moves in a circle of radius R about the z -axis in the x-y plane defined by

z = 0 with angular velocity ω = ω z k̂ , ω z > 0 , (Figure 19.5). Find the magnitude and the direction

of the angular momentum L S relative to the point S lying at the center of the circular orbit, (the
origin).
+z = z k̂
LS
S .
.
rS = R r̂
k̂
p
r̂
ˆ


Solution: The velocity of the particle is given by v = Rω z θˆ . The vector from the center of the

circle (the point S ) to the object is given by rS = R r̂ . The angular momentum about the center of
the circle is the vector product
     
L S = rS × p = rS × mv = Rmv k̂ = RmRω z k̂ = mR 2ω z k̂ = I Sω .

The magnitude is L S = mR 2ω z , and the direction is in the + kˆ -direction. For the particle, the
moment of inertia about the z -axis is I S = mR 2 , therefore the angular momentum about S is
 
L S = I Sω .

The fact that L S is in the same direction as the angular velocity is due to the fact that the point S
lies on the plane of motion.
Example 19.3 Angular Momentum About a Point along Central Axis for Circular Motion

A particle of mass m moves in a circle of radius R with angular velocity ω = ω z k̂ , ω z > 0 ,
about the z - axis in a plane parallel to but a distance h above the x-y plane (Figure 19.6). Find

the magnitude and the direction of the angular momentum L S relative to the point S (the origin).
.
= z k̂
+z k̂
p r̂
ˆ
h R
S +x


Solution: The easiest way to calculate L S is to use cylindrical coordinates. We begin by writing
 
the two vectors rS and p in polar coordinates. We start with the vector from point S (the origin)

to the location of the moving object, rS = R r̂ + h k̂ . The momentum vector is tangent to the
 
circular orbit so p = mv = mRω z θ̂ . Using the fact that r̂ × θ̂ = k̂ and k̂ × θ̂ = −r̂ , the angular
momentum about point S is
  
L S = rS × p = (R r̂ + h k̂) × mRω z θ̂ = mR 2ω z k̂ − hmRω z r̂
.
= z k̂
+z
p
R
h rS
LS
S +x
Figure 19.7 Angular momentum about the point S


The magnitude of L S is given by

L S = ((mR 2ω z )2 + (hmRω z )2 )1/2 = mRω z (h2 + R 2 )1/2

The direction of L S is given by (Figure 19.7)
LS , z R
− = = tan φ
LS ,r h
We also present a geometric argument. Suppose the particle has coordinates (x, y, h) . The
    
angular momentum about the origin is given by L S = rS × p . The vectors rS and p are
perpendicular to each other so the angular momentum is perpendicular to the plane formed by

those two vectors. Recall that the speed v = Rω z . Suppose the vector rS forms an angle φ

with the z -axis. Then L S forms an angle φ with respect to the x − y plane as shown in the

figure above. The magnitude of L S is
  
L S = rS m v = (h2 + R 2 )1/2 mRω z

The magnitude of L S is constant, but its direction is changing as the particle moves in a
circularorbit about the z -axis, sweeping out a cone as shown in Figure 19.8. We draw the
vector L S at the origin because it is defined at that point.
= z k̂
+z
LS
S +x
Figure 19.8 Direction of angular momentum about the point S sweeps out a cone
The important point to keep in mind regarding this calculation is that for any point along the
z -axis not at the center of the circular orbit of a single particle, the angular momentum about
that point does not point along the z -axis but it is has a non-zero component in the x − y
plane (or in the −rˆ direction if you use polar coordinates). The z -component of the angular
momentum about any point along the z -axis is independent of the location of that point along
the axis.
19.3 Torque and the Time Derivative of Angular Momentum about a Point
for a Particle
We will now show that the torque about a point S is equal to the time derivative of the
angular momentum about S ,

 dL S
τS = . (19.3.1)
dt
Take the time derivative of the angular momentum about S ,


dL S d  
dt
= (
r ×p .
dt S
) (19.3.2)
19-8
In this equation we are taking the time derivative of a vector product of two vectors. There are
two important facts that will help us simplify this expression. First, the time derivative of the
vector product of two vectors satisfies the product rule,
  
dL S d   ⎛ ⎛ drS ⎞  ⎞ ⎛  ⎛ dp ⎞ ⎞
= (rS × p) = ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ × p⎟ + ⎜ rS × ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ ⎟ . (19.3.3)
dt dt ⎝ ⎝ dt S ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Second, the first term on the right hand side vanishes,


drS    
×p = v×m v = 0. (19.3.4)
dt
The rate of angular momentum change about the point S is then

 
dL S  dp
= rS × . (19.3.5)
dt dt
From Newton’s Second Law, the force on the particle is equal to the derivative of the linear
momentum,
 dp
F= . (19.3.6)
dt
Therefore the rate of change in time of angular momentum about the point S is

dL S  
= rS × F . (19.3.7)
dt

Recall that the torque about the point S due to the force F acting on the particle is
  
τ S = rS × F . (19.3.8)
Combining the expressions in (19.3.7) and (19.3.8), it is readily seen that the torque about the
point S is equal to the rate of change of angular momentum about the point S ,

 dL S
τS = . (19.3.9)
dt
19.4 Conservation of Angular Momentum about a Point
19-9
So far we have introduced two conservation principles, showing that energy is constant for
closed systems (no change in energy in the surroundings) and linear momentum is constant
isolated system. The change in mechanical energy of a closed system is
Wnc = ΔEm = ΔK + ΔU , (closed system) . (19.3.10)
If the non-conservative work done in the system is zero, then the mechanical energy is
constant,
0 = Wnc = ΔEmechanical = ΔK + ΔU , (closed system) . (19.3.11)
The conservation of linear momentum arises from Newton’s Second Law applied to systems,
 N
d  d
Fext = ∑ p i = psys (19.3.12)
i=1 dt dt
Thus if the external force in any direction is zero, then the component of the momentum of the
system in that direction is a constant. For example, if there are no external forces in the x -
and y -directions then
  d 
0 = (Fext ) x = (psys ) x
dt (19.3.13)
  ext d 
0 = (F ) y = (psys ) y .
dt
We can now use our relation between torque about a point S and the change of the angular
momentum about S , Eq. (19.3.9), to introduce a new conservation law. Suppose we can find
a point S such that torque about the point S is zero,

  dL S
0 = τS = , (19.3.14)
dt
then the angular momentum about the point S is a constant vector, and so the change in
angular momentum is zero,    
ΔL S ≡ L S , f − L S ,i = 0 . (19.3.15)
Thus when the torque about a point S is zero, the final angular momentum about S is equal
to the initial angular momentum,  
L S , f = L S ,i . (19.3.16)
Example 19.4 Meteor Flyby of Earth
A meteor of mass m is approaching Earth as shown in the figure. The radius of Earth is RE .
The mass of Earth is M E . Assume that the meteor started very far away from Earth with
19-10
speed vi and at a perpendicular distance h from the axis of symmetry of the orbit. At some
later time the meteor just grazes Earth (Figure 19.9). You may ignore all other gravitational
forces except due to Earth. Find the distance h . Hint: What quantities are constant for this
orbit?
.
vi ( )
.
h
E (M E ,RE )
.
vf( )
v(RE )
Figure 19.9 Meteor flyby of earth
Solution: In this problem both energy and angular momentum about the center of Earth are
constant (see below for justification).
The meteor’s mass is so much small than the mass of Earth that we will assume that the
earth’s motion is not affected by the meteor. We’ll also need to neglect any air resistance
when the meteor approaches Earth. Choose the center of Earth, (point S ) to calculate the
torque and angular momentum. The force on the meteor is
 GmM E
FEG,m = − r̂
r2

The vector from the center of Earth to the meteor is rS = rr̂ . The torque about S is zero
because they two vectors are anti-parallel
   GmM E 
τ S = rS × FEG,m = rr̂ × − r̂ = 0
r2
Therefore the angular momentum about the center of Earth is a constant.
The initial angular momentum is

  
L S ,i = rS ,i × mv i = (xi î + hĵ) × mvi î = −hmvik̂
When the meteor just grazes Earth, the angular momentum is

  
L S , E = rS , E × mv p = RE î × mv p (− ĵ) = − RE mv pk̂
19-11
where we have used v p for the speed of the meteor at its nearest approach to Earth. The
constancy of angular momentum requires that
mvi h = mv p RE
In order to solve for h , we need to find v p . Because we are neglecting all forces on the
meteor other than Earth’s gravity, mechanical energy is constant, and
1 2 1 2 GmM E
mv = mv − ,
2 i 2 p RE
where we have taken the meteor to have speed vi at a distance “very far away from Earth” to
mean that we neglect any gravitational potential energy in the meteor-Earth system, when
r → ∞ , U (r) = −GmM E / r → 0 . From the angular momentum condition, v p = vi h / RE and
therefore the energy condition can be rewritten as
2
⎛ h ⎞ 2GM E
v =v ⎜ ⎟ −
2
i
2
i
⎝ RE ⎠ RE
which we solve for the impact parameter h
2GM E RE
h = RE2 + .
vi2
19.5 Angular Impulse and Change in Angular Momentum


If there is a total applied torque τ S about a point S over an interval of time Δt = t f − ti , then
the torque applies an angular impulse about a point S , given by
 tf 
J S = ∫ τ S dt . (19.4.1)
ti
 
Because τ S = d Ltotal
S / dt , the angular impulse about S is equal to the change in angular
momentum about S ,

 tf  t f dL   
J S = ∫ τ S dt = ∫ S
dt = ΔL S = L S , f − L S ,i . (19.4.2)
ti ti dt
19-12
This result is the rotational analog to linear impulse, which is equal to the change in
momentum,
 tf 

t f dp   
I = ∫ F dt = ∫ dt = Δp = p f − p i . (19.4.3)
ti ti dt
19.6 Angular Momentum of a System of Particles
We now calculate the angular momentum about the point S associated with a system of N
point particles. Label each individual particle by the index j , j = 1,2,, N . Let the j th

particle have mass m j and velocity v j . The momentum of an individual particle is then
  
p j = m j v j . Let rS , j be the vector from the point S to the j th particle, and let θ j be the angle
 
between the vectors rS , j and p j (Figure 19.10).
Figure 19.10 System of particles


The angular momentum L S , j of the j th particle is
  
L S , j = rS , j × p j . (19.5.1)
The angular momentum for the system of particles is the vector sum of the individual angular
momenta,
 j= N  j= N
 
Lsys
S
= ∑ S , j ∑ rS , j × p j .
L = (19.5.2)
j=1 j=1
The change in the angular momentum of the system of particles about a point S is given by
 
j= N ⎛ dr

dLsys d j= N    dp j ⎞
S
= ∑ LS , j = ∑ ⎜ S, j
× p j + rS , j × . (19.5.3)
dt dt j=1 j=1 ⎝ dt dt ⎟⎠
 
Because the velocity of the j th particle is v S , j = drS , j / dt , the first term in the parentheses
vanishes (the cross product of a vector with itself is zero because they are parallel to each
other)
19-13

drS , j   
× p j = vS, j × mjvS, j = 0 . (19.5.4)
dt
 
Substitute Eq. (19.5.4) and Fj = dp j / dt into Eq. (19.5.3) yielding
 j= N ⎛

dp j ⎞ j= N  
dLsys
dt
S
j=1 ⎝

= ∑ ⎜ rS , j × ⎟ = ∑ rS , j × Fj .
dt ⎠ j=1
( ) (19.5.5)
Because

∑( )
j= N j= N
   
rS , j × Fj = ∑ τ S , j = τ S ext + τ S int (19.5.6)
j=1 j=1
We have already shown in Chapter 17.4 that when we assume all internal forces are directed
along the line connecting the two interacting objects then the internal torque about the point
S is zero,
 
τ int
S
= 0 . (19.5.7)

( )
j= N j= N
  
∑ S , j j ∑ τ S , j = τ S ext .
r × F = (19.5.8)
j=1 j=1

 sys
 ext dL S
τS = . (19.5.9)
dt
The external torque about the point S is equal to the time derivative of the angular
momentum of the system about that point.
Example 19.5 Angular Momentum of Two Particles undergoing Circular Motion
Two identical particles of mass m move in a circle of radius R , with angular velocity

ω = ω z k̂ , ω z > 0 , ω about the z -axis in a plane parallel to but a distance h above the x-y
plane. The particles are located on opposite sides of the circle (Figure 19.11). Find the
magnitude and the direction of the angular momentum about the point S (the origin).
. .
= z k̂
+z
2 1
p2 p1
h R
S +x
19-14
Solution: The angular momentum about the origin is the sum of the contributions from each
object. The calculation of each contribution will be identical to the calculation in Example
19.3
. .
k̂
+z k̂
2 1
R p1 r̂1
p2
ˆ
1
rS ,1
h
L S ,1
S +x
Figure 19.12 Angular momentum of particle 1 about origin
. .
k̂
k̂ +z
2 R 1
r̂2 p2 p1
ˆ
2
rS ,2 h
L S ,2
S +x
Figure 19.13 Angular momentum of particle 2 about origin
For particle 1 (Figure 19.12), the angular momentum about the point S is
  
L S ,1 = rS ,1 × p1 = (R r̂1 + h k̂) × mRω z θ̂1 = mR 2ω z k̂ − hmRω z r̂1 .
For particle 2, (Figure 19.13), the angular momentum about the point S is
  
L S ,2 = rS ,2 × p 2 = (R r̂2 + h k̂) × mRω z θ̂ 2 = mR 2ω z k̂ − hmRω z r̂2 .
Because the particles are located on opposite sides of the circle, r̂1 = −r̂2 . The vector sum only
points along the z -axis and is equal to
  
L S = L S ,1 + L S ,2 = 2mR 2ω z k̂ . (19.5.10)
The two angular momentum vectors are shown in Figure 19.14.
19-15
. .
k̂
+z
2 1
p2 LS p1
L S ,1 L S ,2
S +x
Figure 19.14 Angular momentum about the point S of both particles and their sum
The moment of inertia of the two particles about the z -axis is given by I S = 2mR 2 . Therefore
 
L S = I Sω . The important point about this example is that the two objects are symmetrically
distributed with respect to the z -axis (opposite sides of the circular orbit). Therefore the

angular momentum about any point S along the z -axis has the same value L S = 2mr 2ωkˆ ,
which is constant in magnitude and points in the + z -direction. This result generalizes to any
rigid body in which the mass is distributed symmetrically about the axis of rotation.
Example 19.6 Angular Momentum of a System of Particles about Different Points
Consider a system of N particles, and two points A and B (Figure 19.15). The angular
momentum of the j th particle about the point A is given by
  
L A,j = rA,j × m j v j . (19.5.11)
Figure 19.15 Vector triangle relating position of object and points A and B
The angular momentum of the system of particles about the point A is given by the sum
 N  N
 
L A = ∑ L A,j = ∑ rA,j × m j v j (19.5.12)
j=1 j=1
The angular momentum about the point B can be calculated in a similar way and is given by
19-16
 N  N
 
L B = ∑ L B ,j = ∑ rB ,j × m j v j . (19.5.13)
j=1 j=1
From Figure 19.15, the vectors

  
rA,j = rB ,j + rA,B . (19.5.14)
We can substitute Eq. (19.5.14) into Eq. (19.5.12) yielding
 N
   N
  N
 
L A = ∑ (rB, j + rA,B ) × m j v j = ∑ rB, j × m j v j + ∑ rA,B × m j v j . (19.5.15)
j=1 j=1 j=1

The first term in Eq. (19.5.15) is the angular momentum about the point B . The vector rA,B is
a constant and so can be pulled out of the sum in the second term, and Eq. (19.5.15) becomes
   N

L A = L B + rA,B × ∑ m j v j (19.5.16)
j=1
The sum in the second term is the momentum of the system
 N

p sys = ∑ m j v j . (19.5.17)
j=1
Therefore the angular momentum about the points A and B are related by
   
L A = L B + rA,B × p sys (19.5.18)
Thus if the momentum of the system is zero, the angular momentum is the same about any
point.
   
LA = LB , (p sys = 0) . (19.5.19)
In particular, the momentum of a system of particles is zero by definition in the center of mass

reference frame because in that reference frame p sys = 0 . Hence the angular momentum is the
same about any point in the center of mass reference frame.
19.7 Angular Momentum and Torque for Fixed Axis Rotation
We have shown that, for fixed axis rotation, the component of torque that causes the angular
velocity to change is the rotational analog of Newton’s Second Law,
19-17
 
τ ext
S
= IS α . (19.5.20)
We shall now see that this is a special case of the more general result
 d sys
τ ext
S
= L . (19.5.21)
dt S
Consider a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis passing through the point S and take the
fixed axis of rotation to be the z -axis. Recall that all the points in the rigid body rotate about

the z -axis with the same angular velocity ω = (dθ / dt)k̂ = ω z k̂ . In a similar fashion, all

points in the rigid body have the same angular acceleration, α = (d 2θ / dt 2 ) k̂ = α z k̂ . Let the
point S lie somewhere along the z -axis.
As before, the body is divided into individual elements. We calculate the contribution of each
element to the angular momentum about the point S , and then sum over all the elements. The
summation will become an integral for a continuous body.
Each individual element has a mass Δm j and is moving in a circle of radius rS⊥, j about the axis

of rotation. Let rS , j be the vector from the point S to the element. The momentum of the

element, p j , is tangent to this circle (Figure 19.16).
fixed axis +z
= z k̂
of rotation
.
.
rS , j
S
rS , j
rS , j
. mj
pj
ˆ
k̂
r̂
rigid body
Figure 19.16 Geometry of instantaneous rotation.

  
The angular momentum of the j th element about the point S is given by L S , j = rS , j × p j . The

vector rS , j can be decomposed into parallel and perpendicular components with respect to the
    
axis of rotation rS , j = rS, j + rS⊥, j (Figure 19.16), where rS⊥, j = rS⊥, j and rS, j = rS, j . The

momentum is given by p j = Δm j rS⊥, jω zθˆ . Then the angular momentum about the point S is
19-18
  
L S , j = rS , j × p j = (rS⊥, j r̂ + rS, j k̂) × (Δm j rS⊥, jω zθˆ )
. (19.5.22)
= Δm j (rS⊥, j )2 ω z k̂ − Δm j rS, j rS⊥, jω z r̂
In the last expression in Equation (19.5.22), the second term has a direction that is
perpendicular to the z -axis. Therefore the z -component of the angular momentum about the
 
point S , (LS , j ) z , arises entirely from the second term, rS⊥, j × p j . Therefore the z -component
of the angular momentum about S is
(LS , j ) z = Δm j (rS⊥, j )2 ω z . (19.5.23)
The z -component of the angular momentum of the system about S is the summation over all
the elements,
Lsys
S, z
= ∑ (LS , j ) z = ∑ Δm j (rS⊥, j )2 ω z . (19.5.24)
j j
For a continuous mass distribution the summation becomes an integral over the body,
Lsys
S, z
= ∫
body
dm (rdm )2 ω z , (19.5.25)
where rdm is the distance form the fixed z -axis to the infinitesimal element of mass dm . The
moment of inertia of a rigid body about a fixed z -axis passing through a point S is given by
an integral over the body
I S = ∫ dm (rdm )2 . (19.5.26)
bo dy
Thus the z -component of the angular momentum about S for a fixed axis that passes through
S in the z -direction is proportional to the z -component of the angular velocity, ω z ,
Lsys
S, z
= IS ω z . (19.5.27)
For fixed axis rotation, our result that torque about a point is equal to the time derivative of
the angular momentum about that point,
 d 
τ ext
S
= Lsys , (19.5.28)
dt S
can now be resolved in the z -direction,
dLsys d dω z d 2θ
τ ext
S ,z
= S, z
= (I S ω z ) = I S = IS 2 = IS α z , (19.5.29)
dt dt dt dt
19-19
in agreement with our earlier result that the z -component of torque about the point S is equal
to the product of moment of inertia about I S , and the z -component of the angular
acceleration, α z .
Example 19.6 Circular Ring
A circular ring of radius R , and mass M is rotating about the z -axis in a plane parallel to
but a distance h above the x-y plane. The z -component of the angular velocity is ω z (Figure

19.17). Find the magnitude and the direction of the angular momentum L S along at any point
S on the central z -axis.
. .
= z k̂
M +z
R
LS
h
S +x
Solution: Use the same symmetry argument as we did in Example 19.5. The ring can be
thought of as made up of pairs of point like objects on opposite sides of the ring each of mass
m (Figure 19.18).
. .
= z k̂
M +z
R
LS
h
S +x
Figure 19.18 Ring as a sum of pairs of symmetrically distributed particles
Each pair has a non-zero z-component of the angular momentum taken about any point S
  
along the z -axis, Lpair
S
= L S ,1 + L S ,2 = 2mR 2ω z k̂ = m pair R 2ω z k̂ . The angular momentum of the
ring about the point S is then the sum over all the pairs

LS = ∑m pair
R 2ω z k̂ = MR 2ω z k̂ . (19.5.30)
pairs
19-20
Recall that the moment of inertia of a ring is given by
IS = ∫
body
dm (rdm )2 = MR 2 . (19.5.31)
For the symmetric ring, the angular momentum about S points in the direction of the angular
velocity and is equal to

L S = I Sω z k̂ . (19.5.32)
19.8 Principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum
Consider a system of particles. We begin with the result that we derived in Section 19.7 that
the torque about a point S is equal to the time derivative of the angular momentum about that
point S ,
 sys
 ext dL S
τS = . (19.5.33)
dt
With this assumption, the torque due to the external forces is equal to the rate of change of the
angular momentum
 sys
 ext dL S
τS = . (19.5.34)
dt
Principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum
If the external torque acting on a system is zero, then the angular momentum of
the system is constant. So for any change of state of the system the change in
angular momentum is zero
   
ΔLsys
S
≡ (Lsys
S
) f − (Lsys
S i
) = 0. (19.5.35)
Equivalently the angular momentum is constant

 
(Lsys
S
) f = (Lsys
S i
) . (19.5.36)
So far no isolated system has been encountered such that the angular momentum is not
constant so our assumption that internal torques cancel is pairs can be taken as an
experimental observation.
Example 19.7 Collision Between Pivoted Rod and Object
A point-like object of mass m1 moving with constant speed vi strikes a rigid uniform rod of
length l and mass m2 that is hanging by a frictionless pivot from the ceiling. Immediately
19-21
after striking the rod, the object continues forward but its speed decreases to vi / 2 (Figure
19.19). The moment of inertia of the rod about its center of mass is I cm = (1/ 12)m2 l 2 . Gravity
acts with acceleration g downward. (a) For what value of vi will the rod just touch the
ceiling on its first swing? (b) For what ratio m2 / m1 will the collision be elastic?
frictionless pivot
g m2 l m2
m1g m1
vi vi / 2
Solution: We begin by identifying our system, which consists of the object and the uniform
rod. We identify three states; an initial state i : immediately before the collision, state a :
immediately after the collision, and state f : the instant the rod touches the ceiling when the
final angular speed is zero. We would like to know if any of our fundamental quantities:
momentum, energy, and angular momentum, are constant during these state changes, state i
to state a , state a to state f .
.
Fpivot ,2 S
cm .
m2 g
A
F2,1 F1,2
.
A
m1g
Figure 19.20 Free-body force diagrams on particle and rod
We start with the transition from state i to state a . The pivot force holding the rod to the
ceiling is an external force acting at the pivot point S . There is also the gravitational force
acting at the center of mass of the rod and on the object. There are also internal forces due to
the collision of the rod and the object at point A (Figure 19.20).
19-22
The external force means that momentum is not constant. The point of action of the external
pivot force is fixed and so does no work. However, we do not know whether or not the
collision is elastic and so we cannot assume that mechanical energy is constant. Choose the
pivot point S as the point about which to calculate torque, then the torque diagrams are
.
S
.
Fpivot ,2 S
rS ,cm
rS ,A cm .
m2 g
F2,1 F1,2 rS ,A
A
A
m1g
Figure 19.21 Torque diagrams on particle and rod with torque calculated about pivot point S
The torque on the system about the pivot S is then the sum of terms
 sys          
τ S = rS ,S × Fpivot ,2 + rS ,A × F1,2 + rS ,A × F2,1 + rS ,cm × m2g + rS , A × m1g .(19.5.37)
 
The external pivot force does not contribute any torque because rS ,S = 0 . The internal forces
 
between the rod and the object are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, F1,2 = −F2,1
(Newton’s Third Law), and so their contributions to the torque add to zero. If the collision is
 
instantaneous then the gravitational force is parallel to rS ,cm and rS ,A so the two gravitational
 
torques are zero. Therefore the torque on the system about the pivot point is zero, τ sys S
= 0 .
Thus the angular momentum about the pivot point is constant,
  sys
Lsys
S ,i
= L S ,a
. (19.5.38)
.
S
ˆj .
S
= a k̂
î a
l rS ,A k̂ cm .
state i
rS ,A state a
vi . vi / 2
A A
Figure 19.22 Angular momentum diagram
19-23
In order to calculate the angular momentum we draw a diagram showing the momentum of
the object and the angular speed of the rod in (Figure 19.22). The angular momentum about S
immediately before the collision is
  
Lsys
S, i
= rS ,1 × m1v i = l(− ĵ) × m1vi î = lm1vik̂ .
The angular momentum about S immediately after the collision is

   
Lsys
S, a
= rS ,1 × m1v i / 2 + I S ω a = l(− ĵ) × m1 (vi / 2) î + I Sω ak̂ = (lm1vi / 2)k̂ + I Sω ak̂ .
Therefore the condition that the angular momentum about S is constant during the collision
becomes
lm1vik̂ = (lm1vi / 2 + I Sω a )k̂ .
We can solve for the angular speed immediately after the collision
lm1vi
ωa = .
2I S
By the parallel axis theorem the moment of inertial of a uniform rod about the pivot point is
I S = m2 (l / 2)2 + I cm = (1/ 4)m2 l 2 + (1/ 12)m2 l 2 = (1/ 3)m2 l 2 . (19.5.39)
Therefore the angular speed immediately after the collision is
3m1vi
ω2 = . (19.5.40)
2m2 l
.
S
a = a k̂
.
S
l/2
cm . Ug =0
state a state f
. A
A
Figure 19.23 Energy diagram for transition from state a to state f .
For the transition from state a to state f , we know that the gravitational force is conservative
and the pivot force does no work so mechanical energy is constant.
19-24
Eamech = E mech
f
We draw an energy diagram only for the rod because the kinetic energy for the particle is not
changing between states a and f , (Figure 19.23), with a choice of zero for the potential
energy at the center of mass. The mechanical energy of the rod and particle immediately after
the collision is
1 1
Eamech = I Sω a2 + m1 (vi / 2)2 .
2 2
Using our results for the moment of inertia I S (Eq. (19.5.39)) and ω 2 (Eq. (19.5.40)), we
have that
2
1 ⎛
2 3m1vi
⎞ 1 3m12 vi 2 1
E mech
a
= (1/ 3)m2 l ⎜ ⎟ + m1 (vi / 2) =
2
+ m1 (vi / 2)2 . (19.5.41)
2 ⎝ 2m2 l ⎠ 2 8m2 2
The mechanical energy when the rod just reaches the ceiling when the final angular speed is
zero is then
1
E mech
f
= m2 g(l / 2) + m1 (vi / 2)2 .
2
Then the condition that the mechanical energy is constant becomes
3m12 vi 2 1 1
+ m1 (vi / 2)2 = m2 g(l / 2) + m1 (vi / 2)2 . (19.5.42)
8m2 2 2
We can now solve Eq. (19.5.42) for the initial speed of the object
m2 4gl
vi = . (19.5.43)
m1 3
We now return to the transition from state i to state a . and determine the constraint on the
mass ratio in order for the collision to be elastic. The mechanical energy before the collision is
1
Eimech = m1vi 2 . (19.5.44)
2
If we impose the condition that the collision is elastic then
Eimech = Eamech . (19.5.45)
19-25
1 3m 2 v 2 1
m1vi 2 = 1 i + m1 (vi / 2)2 .
2 8m2 2
This simplifies to
3 3m 2 v 2
m1vi 2 = 1 i
8 8m2
Hence we can solve for the mass ratio necessary to ensure that the collision is elastic if the
final speed of the object is half it’s initial speed
m2
= 1. (19.5.46)
m1
Notice that this mass ratio is independent of the initial speed of the object.
19.9 External Angular Impulse and Change in Angular Momentum
Define the external angular impulse about a point S applied as the integral of
the external torque about S
t
 f
 ext
J ext
S
≡ ∫ τ S dt .
ti
(19.5.47)
Then the external angular impulse about S is equal to the change in angular momentum
t tf 
 ext f  ext dLsys  
J S ≡ ∫ τ S dt = ∫ S dt = Lsys
S, f
− Lsys
S ,i
. (19.5.48)
t t
dt
i i
Notice that this is the rotational analog to our statement about impulse and momentum,
t tf 
 ext f  ext dpsys  
IS ≡ ∫ F dt = ∫ dt = psys, f − psys,i . (19.5.49)
t t
dt
i i
Example 19.8 Angular Impulse on Steel Washer
A steel washer is mounted on the shaft of a small motor. The moment of inertia of the motor
and washer is I 0 . The washer is set into motion. When it reaches an initial angular speed ω 0 ,
at t = 0 , the power to the motor is shut off, and the washer slows down until it reaches an
angular speed of ω a at time ta . At that instant, a second steel washer with a moment of inertia
I w is dropped on top of the first washer. Assume that the second washer is only in contact
19-26
with the first washer. The collision takes place over a time Δtint = tb − ta . Assume the
frictional torque on the axle is independent of speed, and remains the same when the second
washer is dropped. The two washers continue to slow down during the time interval
Δt2 = t f − tb until they stop at time t = t f . (a) What is the angular acceleration while the
washer and motor are slowing down during the interval Δt1 = ta ? (b) Suppose the collision is
nearly instantaneous, Δtint = (tb − ta )  0 . What is the angular speed ω b of the two washers
immediately after the collision is finished (when the washers rotate together)?
= z k̂
motor
washer
Now suppose the collision is not instantaneous but that the frictional torque is independent of
the speed of the rotor. (c) What is the angular impulse during the collision? (d) What is the
angular velocity ω b of the two washers immediately after the collision is finished (when the
washers rotate together)? (e) What is the angular deceleration α 2 after the collision?
Solution: a) The angular acceleration of the motor and washer from the instant when the
power is shut off until the second washer was dropped is given by
ω a − ω0
α1 = < 0. (19.5.50)
Δt1
(b) If the collision is nearly instantaneous, then there is no angular impulse and therefore the
z -component of the angular momentum about the rotation axis of the motor remains constant
0 = ΔLz = L f ,z − L0,z = (I 0 + I w )ω b − I 0ω a . (19.5.51)
We can solve Eq. (19.5.51) for the angular speed ω b of the two washers immediately after the
collision is finished
19-27
I0
ωb = ω . (19.5.52)
I0 + I w a
(c) The angular acceleration found in part a) is due to the frictional torque in the motor.
washer
motor
overhead view
Figure 19.25 Frictional torque in the motor

Let τ f = −τ f k̂ where τ f is the magnitude of the frictional torque (Figure 19.25) then
I 0 (ω a − ω 0 )
−τ f = I 0α1 = . (19.5.53)
Δt1
During the collision with the second washer, the frictional torque exerts an angular impulse
(pointing along the z -axis in the figure),
tb Δtint
J z = − ∫ τ f dt = −τ f Δtint = I 0 (ω a − ω 0 ) . (19.5.54)
ta Δt1
(d) The z -component of the angular momentum about the rotation axis of the motor changes
during the collision,
ΔLz = L f ,z − L0,z = (I 0 + I w )ω b − I 0ω a . (19.5.55)
The change in the z -component of the angular momentum is equal to the z -component of the
angular impulse
J z = ΔLz . (19.5.56)
Thus, equating the expressions in Equations (19.5.54) and (19.5.55), yields
⎛ Δt ⎞
I 0 (ω a − ω 0 ) ⎜ int ⎟ = (I 0 + I w )ω b − (I 0 )ω a . (19.5.57)
⎝ Δt1 ⎠
19-28
Solve Equation (19.5.57) for the angular velocity immediately after the collision,
I0 ⎛ ⎛ Δtint ⎞ ⎞
ωb = ⎜ (ω − ω )
0 ⎜ ⎟ + ω a⎟
. (19.5.58)
(I 0 + I w ) ⎝ a ⎝ Δt1 ⎠ ⎠
If there were no frictional torque, then the first term in the brackets would vanish, and the
second term of Eq. (19.5.58) would be the only contribution to the final angular speed.
(e) The final angular acceleration α 2 is given by
0 − ωb I0 ⎛ ⎛ Δtint ⎞ ⎞
α2 = =− ⎜ (ω a − ω 0 ) ⎜ ⎟ + ωa ⎟ . (19.5.59)
Δt2 (I 0 + I w )Δt2 ⎝ ⎝ Δt1 ⎠ ⎠
19-29
Chapter 20 Rigid Body: Translation and Rotational Motion Kinematics
for Fixed Axis Rotation
20.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

20.2 Constrained Motion: Translation and Rotation ................................................ 1
20.2.1 Rolling without slipping ................................................................................ 5
Example 20.1 Bicycle Wheel Rolling Without Slipping ........................................ 6
Example 20.2 Cylinder Rolling Without Slipping Down an Inclined Plane ........ 9
Example 20.3 Falling Yo-Yo .................................................................................. 10
Example 20.4 Unwinding Drum ............................................................................ 11
20.3 Angular Momentum for a System of Particles Undergoing Translational and
Rotational .................................................................................................................... 12
Example 20.5 Earth’s Motion Around the Sun .................................................... 15
20.4 Kinetic Energy of a System of Particles ............................................................ 17
20.5 Rotational Kinetic Energy for a Rigid Body Undergoing Fixed Axis Rotation
...................................................................................................................................... 18
Appendix 20A Chasles’s Theorem: Rotation and Translation of a Rigid Body ... 19
Chapter 20 Rigid Body: Translation and Rotational Motion
Kinematics for Fixed Axis Rotation
Hence I feel no shame in asserting that this whole region engirdled by the
moon, and the center of the earth, traverse this grand circle amid the rest
of the planets in an annual revolution around the sun. Near the sun is the
center of the universe. Moreover, since the sun remains stationary,
whatever appears as a motion of the sun is really due rather to the motion
of the earth.1
Copernicus
20.1 Introduction
The general motion of a rigid body of mass m consists of a translation of the center of
mass with velocity Vcm and a rotation about the center of mass with all elements of the

rigid body rotating with the same angular velocity ω cm . We prove this result in Appendix
A. Figure 20.1 shows the center of mass of a thrown rigid rod follows a parabolic
trajectory while the rod rotates about the center of mass.
Figure 20.1 The center of mass of a thrown rigid rod follows a parabolic trajectory while
the rod rotates about the center of mass.
20.2 Constrained Motion: Translation and Rotation
We shall encounter many examples of a rolling object whose motion is constrained. For
example we will study the motion of an object rolling along a level or inclined surface
and the motion of a yo-yo unwinding and winding along a string. We will examine the
constraint conditions between the translational quantities that describe the motion of the
center of mass, displacement, velocity and acceleration, and the rotational quantities that
describe the motion about the center of mass, angular displacement, angular velocity and
angular acceleration. We begin with a discussion about the rotation and translation of a
rolling wheel.
1
Nicolaus Copernicus, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres),
Book 1 Chapter 10.
20-1
Figure 20.2 Rolling Wheel
Consider a wheel of radius R is rolling in a straight line (Figure 20.2).

 The center of
mass of the wheel is moving in a straight line at a constant velocity Vcm . Let’s analyze
the motion of a point P on the rim of the wheel.

Let v P denote the velocity of a point P on the rim of the wheel with respect to reference

frame O at rest with respect to the ground (Figure 20.3a). Let v ′P denote the velocity of
the point P on the rim with respect to the center of mass reference frame Ocm moving

with velocity Vcm with respect to at O (Figure 20.3b). (You should review the definition
of the center of mass reference frame in Chapter 15.2.1.) We can use the law of addition
of velocities (Eq.15.2.4) to relate these three velocities,
  
v P = v ′P + Vcm . (20.2.1)
Let’s choose Cartesian coordinates for the translation motion and polar coordinates for
the motion about the center of mass as shown in Figure 20.3.
(a) (b)
Figure 20.3 (a) reference frame fixed to ground, (b) center of mass reference frame
The center of mass velocity in the reference frame fixed to the ground is given by

Vcm = Vcm î . (20.2.2)
20-2
where Vcm is the speed of the center of mass. The position of the center of mass in the
reference frame fixed to the ground is given by

R cm (t) = (Xcm, 0 + Vcm t) î , (20.2.3)
where Xcm, 0 is the initial x -component of the center of mass at t = 0 . The angular
velocity of the wheel in the center of mass reference frame is given by

ω cm = ω cm k̂ . (20.2.4)
where ω cm is the angular speed. The point P on the rim is undergoing uniform circular
motion with the velocity in the center of mass reference frame given by

v ′P = Rω cm θ̂ . (20.2.5)

If we want to use the law of addition of velocities then we should express v ′P = Rω cm θ̂ in
Cartesian coordinates. Assume that at t = 0 , θ (t = 0) = 0 i.e. the point P is at the top of
the wheel at t = 0 . Then the unit vectors in polar coordinates satisfy (Figure 20.4)
r̂ = sin θ î − cosθ ĵ
. (20.2.6)
θ̂ = cosθ î + sin θ ĵ
Therefore the velocity of the point P on the rim in the center of mass reference frame is
given by

v ′P = Rω cm θ̂ = Rω cm (cosθ î − sin θ ĵ) . (20.2.7)
Figure 20.4 Unit vectors
Now substitute Eqs. (20.2.2) and (20.2.7) into Eq. (20.2.1) for the velocity of a point P
on the rim in the reference frame fixed to the ground

v P = Rω cm (cosθ î + sin θ ĵ) + Vcm î
. (20.2.8)
= (Vcm + Rω cm cosθ ) î + Rω cm sin θ ĵ
20-3
The point P is in contact with the ground when θ = π . At that instant the velocity of a
point P on the rim in the reference frame fixed to the ground is

v P (θ = π ) = (Vcm − Rω cm ) î . (20.2.9)
What velocity does the observer at rest on the ground measure for the point on the rim
when that point is in contact with the ground? In order to understand the relationship
between Vcm and ω cm , we consider the displacement of the center of mass for a small
time interval Δt (Figure 20.5).
Figure 20.5 Displacement of center of mass in ground reference frame.
From Eq. (20.2.3) the x -component of the displacement of the center of mass is
ΔXcm =Vcm Δt . (20.2.10)
The point P on the rim in the center of mass reference frame is undergoing circular
motion (Figure 20.6).
Figure 20.6: Small displacement of point on rim in center of mass reference frame.
20-4
In the center of mass reference frame, the magnitude of the tangential displacement is
given by the arc length subtended by the angular displacement Δθ = ω cm Δt ,
Δs = RΔθ = Rω cm Δt . (20.2.11)
Case 1: if the x -component of the displacement of the center of mass is equal to the arc
length subtended by Δθ , then the wheel is rolling without slipping or skidding, rolling
without slipping for short, along the surface with
ΔXcm = Δs . (20.2.12)
Substitute Eq. (20.2.10) and Eq. (20.2.11) into Eq. (20.2.12) and divide through by Δt .
Then the rolling without slipping condition becomes
Vcm = Rω cm , (rolling without slipping) . (20.2.13)
Case 2: if the x -component of the displacement of the center of mass is greater than the
arc length subtended by Δθ , then the wheel is skidding along the surface with
ΔXcm > Δs . (20.2.14)
Substitute Eqs. (20.2.10) and (20.2.11) into Eq. (20.2.14) and divide through by Δt , then
Vcm > Rω cm , (skidding) . (20.2.15)
Case 3: if the x -component of the displacement of the center of mass is less than the arc
length subtended by Δθ , then the wheel is slipping along the surface with
ΔXcm < Δs . (20.2.16)
Arguing as above the slipping condition becomes
Vcm < Rω cm , (slipping) . (20.2.17)
20.2.1 Rolling without slipping
When a wheel is rolling without slipping, the velocity of a point P on the rim is zero
when it is in contact with the ground. In Eq. (20.2.9) set θ = π ,
 
v P (θ = π ) = (Vcm − Rω cm ) î = (Rω cm − Rω cm ) î = 0 . (20.2.18)
This makes sense because the velocity of the point P on the rim in the center of mass
reference frame when it is in contact with the ground points in the opposite direction as
the translational motion of the center of mass of the wheel. The two velocities have the
20-5
same magnitude so the vector sum is zero. The observer at rest on the ground sees the
contact point on the rim at rest relative to the ground.
Thus any frictional force acting between the tire and the ground on the wheel is static
friction because the two surfaces are instantaneously at rest with respect to each other.
Recall that the direction of the static frictional force depends on the other forces acting on
the wheel.
Example 20.1 Bicycle Wheel Rolling Without Slipping
Consider a bicycle wheel of radius R that is rolling in a straight line without slipping.
The velocity
 of the center of mass in a reference frame fixed to the ground is given by
velocity Vcm . A bead is fixed to a spoke a distance b from the center of the wheel
(Figure 20.7). (a) Find the position, velocity, and acceleration of the bead as a function of
time in the center of mass reference frame. (b) Find the position, velocity, and
acceleration of the bead as a function of time as seen in a reference frame fixed to the
ground.
Figure 20.7 Example 20.1 Figure 20.8 Coordinate system for bead
in center of mass reference frame
Solution: a) Choose the center of mass reference frame with an origin at the center of the
wheel, and moving with the wheel. Choose polar coordinates (Figure 20.8). The z -
component of the angular velocity ω cm = dθ / dt > 0 . Then the bead is moving uniformly
in a circle of radius r = b with the position, velocity, and acceleration given by
  
rb′ = b r̂, v ′b = bω cm θˆ, a ′b = −bω cm
2
r̂ . (20.2.19)
Because the wheel is rolling without slipping, the velocity of a point on the rim of the
wheel has speed v′P = Rω cm . This is equal to the speed of the center of mass of the wheel
Vcm , thus
Vcm = Rω cm . (20.2.20)
Note that at t = 0 , the angle θ = θ 0 = 0 . So the angle grows in time as
20-6
θ (t) = ω cm t = (Vcm / R)t . (20.2.21)
The velocity and acceleration of the bead with respect to the center of the wheel are then
 bVcm ˆ  bVcm2
v ′b = θ , a ′b = − 2 r̂ . (20.2.22)
R R
b) Define a second reference frame fixed to the ground with choice of origin, Cartesian
coordinates and unit vectors as shown in Figure 20.9.
Figure 20.9 Coordinates of bead in reference frame fixed to ground
Then the position vector of the center of mass in the reference frame fixed to the ground
is given by

R cm (t) = X cm î + R ĵ = Vcmt î + R ĵ . (20.2.23)
The relative velocity of the two frames is the derivative


 dR cm dXcm
Vcm = = î = Vcm î . (20.2.24)
dt dt
Because the center of the wheel is moving at a uniform speed the relative acceleration of
the two frames is zero, 
 dVcm 
A cm = = 0. (20.2.25)
dt
Define the position, velocity, and acceleration in this frame (with respect to the ground)
by
  
rb (t) = xb (t) î + yb (t) ĵ, v b (t) = vb,x (t) î + vb,y (t) ĵ, a(t) = ab,x (t) î + ab,y (t) ĵ . (20.2.26)
Then the position vectors are related by
20-7
  
rb (t) = R cm (t) + rb′(t) . (20.2.27)
In order to add these vectors we need to decompose the position vector in the center of
mass reference frame into Cartesian components,

rb′(t) = b r̂(t) = bsin θ (t) î + bcosθ (t) ĵ . (20.2.28)
Then using the relation θ (t) = (Vcm / R)t , Eq. (20.2.28) becomes
  
rb (t) = R cm (t) + rb′(t) = (Vcm t î + R ĵ) + (bsin θ (t) î + bcosθ (t) ĵ)
. (20.2.29)
= (Vcm t + bsin((Vcm / R)t) ) î + ( R + bcos((Vcm / R)t) ) ĵ
Thus the position components of the bead with respect to the reference frame fixed to the
ground are given by
xb (t) = Vcm t + bsin((Vcm / R)t) (20.2.30)
yb (t) = R + bcos((Vcm / R)t) . (20.2.31)
A plot of the y -component vs. the x -component of the position of the bead in the
reference frame fixed to the ground is shown in Figure 20.10 below using the values
Vcm = 5 m ⋅ s-1 , R = 0.25 m , and b = 0.125 m . We can differentiate the position vector in
the reference frame fixed to the ground to find the velocity of the bead

 drb d d
v b (t) = (t) = (Vcm t + bsin((Vcm / R)t)) î + (R + bcos((Vcm / R)t) ) ĵ , (20.2.32)
dt dt dt

v b (t) = (Vcm + (b / R)V cos((Vcm / R)t)) î − ((b / R)Vcm sin((Vcm / R)t) ) ĵ . (20.2.33)
Figure 20.10 Plot of the y -component vs. the x -component of the position of the bead
20-8
Alternatively, we can decompose the velocity of the bead in the center of mass reference
frame into Cartesian coordinates

v ′b (t) = (b / R)Vcm (cos((Vcm / R)t) î − sin((Vcm / R)t) ĵ) . (20.2.34)
The law of addition of velocities is then

  
v b (t) = Vcm + v ′b (t) , (20.2.35)

v b (t) = Vcm î + (b / R)Vcm (cos((Vcm / R)t) î − sin((Vcm / R)t) ĵ) , (20.2.36)

v b (t) = (Vcm + (b / R)Vcm cos((Vcm / R)t)) î − (b / R)sin((Vcm / R)t) ĵ , (20.2.37)
in agreement with our previous result. The acceleration is the same in either frame so
 
a b (t) = a ′b = −(b / R 2 )Vcm2 r̂ = −(b / R 2 )Vcm2 (sin((Vcm / R)t) î + cos((Vcm / R)t) ĵ) . (20.2.38)
When the bead is at the rim of the wheel, b = R , then the position of the bead in the
reference frame fixed to the ground is given by

rb (t) = (Vcm t + Rsin((Vcm / R)t)) î + R(1+ cos((Vcm / R)t))) ĵ . (20.2.39)
The path traced out by the bead in the reference frame fixed to the ground is called a
cycloid.
Example 20.2 Cylinder Rolling Without Slipping Down an Inclined Plane
A uniform cylinder of outer radius R and mass M with moment of inertia about the
center of mass I cm = (1 / 2) M R 2 starts from rest and rolls without slipping down an
incline tilted at an angle β from the horizontal. The center of mass of the cylinder has
dropped a vertical distance h when it reaches the bottom of the incline. Let g denote the
gravitational constant. What is the relation between the component of the acceleration of
the center of mass in the direction down the inclined plane and the component of the
angular acceleration into the page of Figure 20.11?
20-9
Solution: We begin by choosing a coordinate system for the translational and rotational
motion as shown in Figure 20.12.
Figure 20.12 Coordinate system for rolling cylinder
For a time interval Δt , the displacement of the center of mass is given by


ΔR cm (t) = ΔX cm î . The arc length due to the angular displacement of a point on the rim
during the time interval Δt is given by Δs = RΔθ . The rolling without slipping condition
is
ΔX cm = RΔθ .
If we divide both sides by Δt and take the limit as Δt → 0 then the rolling without
slipping condition show that the x -component of the center of mass velocity is equal to
the magnitude of the tangential component of the velocity of a point on the rim
ΔX cm Δθ
Vcm = lim = lim R = Rω cm .
Similarly if we differentiate both sides of the above equation, we find a relation between
the x -component of the center of mass acceleration is equal to the magnitude of the
tangential component of the acceleration of a point on the rim
dVcm dω cm
Acm = =R = Rα cm .
dt dt
Example 20.3 Falling Yo-Yo
A Yo-Yo of mass m has an axle of radius b and a spool of radius R (Figure 20.13a). Its
moment of inertia about the center of mass can be taken to be I = (1 / 2)mR 2 (the
thickness of the string can be neglected). The Yo-Yo is released from rest. What is the
relation between the angular acceleration about the center of mass and the linear
acceleration of the center of mass?
20-10
Solution: Choose coordinates as shown in Figure 20.13b.
Figure 20.13a Example 20.3 Figure 20.13b Coordinate system for

Yo-Yo
Consider a point on the rim of the axle at a distance r = b from the center of mass. As the
yo-yo falls, the arc length Δs = bΔθ subtended by the rotation of this point is equal to
length of string that has unraveled, an amount Δl . In a time interval Δt , bΔθ = Δl .
Therefore bΔθ / Δt = Δl / Δt . Taking limits, noting that, Vcm, y = dl / dt , we have that
bω cm = Vcm, y . Differentiating a second time yields bα cm = Acm, y .
Example 20.4 Unwinding Drum
Drum A of mass m and radius R is suspended from a drum B also of mass m and
radius R , which is free to rotate about its axis. The suspension is in the form of a
massless metal tape wound around the outside of each drum, and free to unwind (Figure
20.14). Gravity acts with acceleration g downwards. Both drums are initially at rest.
Find the initial acceleration of drum A , assuming that it moves straight down.
20-11
Solution: The key to solving this problem is to determine the relation between the three
kinematic quantities α A , α B , and a A , the angular accelerations of the two drums and the
linear acceleration of drum A . Choose the positive y -axis pointing downward with the
origin at the center of drum B . After a time interval Δt , the center of drum A has
undergone a displacement Δy . An amount of tape Δl A = RΔθ A has unraveled from drum
A , and an amount of tape ΔlB = RΔθ B has unraveled from drum B . Therefore the
displacement of the center of drum A is equal to the total amount of tape that has
unwound from the two drums, Δy = Δl A + ΔlB = RΔθ A + RΔθ B . Dividing through by Δt
and taking the limit as Δt → 0 yields
dy dθ dθ
=R A+R B.
dt dt dt
Differentiating a second time yields the desired relation between the angular
accelerations of the two drums and the linear acceleration of drum A ,
d2y d 2θ A d 2θ B
=R 2 +R 2
dt 2 dt dt
a A, y = Rα A + Rα B .
20.3 Angular Momentum for a System of Particles Undergoing

Translational and Rotational
We shall now show that the angular momentum of a body about a point S can be
decomposed into two vector parts, the angular momentum of the center of mass (treated
as a point particle) about the point S , and the angular momentum of the rotational
motion about the center of mass.
Consider a system of N particles located at the points labeled i = 1,2,, N . The angular
momentum about the point S is the sum
 total N  N
 
L S = ∑ L S ,i = (∑ rS , i × mi v i ) , (20.3.1)
i=1 i=1

where rS , i is the vector from the point S to the ith particle (Figure 20.15) satisfying
  
rS , i = rS , cm + rcm,i , (20.3.2)
  
v S ,i = Vcm + v cm,i , (20.3.3)
 
where v S , cm = Vcm . We can now substitute both Eqs. (20.3.2) and (20.3.3) into Eq.
(20.3.1) yielding
20-12
 N
   
Ltotal
S
= ∑ (rS , cm + rcm,i ) × mi ( Vcm + v cm,i ) . (20.3.4)
i=1
Figure 20.15 Vector Triangle
When we expand the expression in Equation (20.3.4), we have four terms,
 N
  N
 
Ltotal
S
= ∑ S ,cm i cm,i ∑ (rS ,cm × mi Vcm )
( r × m v ) +
i=1 i=1
(20.3.5)
N
  N
 
+ ∑ (rcm,i × mi v cm,i ) + ∑ (rcm,i × mi Vcm ).
i=1 i=1

The vector rS , cm is a constant vector that depends only on the location of the center of
mass and not on the location of the ith particle. Therefore in the first term in the above

equation, rS , cm can be taken outside the summation. Similarly, in the second term the

velocity of the center of mass Vcm is the same for each term in the summation, and may
be taken outside the summation,
 total  ⎛ N  ⎞  ⎛ N ⎞
L S = rS ,cm × ⎜ ∑ mi v cm,i ⎟ + rS ,cm × ⎜ ∑ mi ⎟ Vcm
⎝ i=1 ⎠ ⎝ i=1 ⎠
(20.3.6)
N
  ⎛ N  ⎞ 
+ ∑ (rcm,i × mi v cm,i ) + ⎜ ∑ mircm,i ⎟ × Vcm .
i=1 ⎝ i=1 ⎠
The first and third terms in Eq. (20.3.6) are both zero due to the fact that
N

∑mr i cm,i
=0
i=1
N
(20.3.7)

∑ mi v cm,i = 0.
i=1
N

We first show that ∑mr i cm,i
is zero. We begin by using Eq. (20.3.2),
i=1
20-13
N N
  
∑ i cm,i ∑ (mi (ri − rS ,cm ))
(m r ) =
i=1 i=1
(20.3.8)
 ⎛ N
N
⎞ N
 
= ∑ miri − ⎜ ∑ (mi )⎟ rS ,cm = ∑ miri − mtotal rS ,cm .
i=1 ⎝ i=1 ⎠ i=1
Substitute the definition of the center of mass (Eq. 10.5.3) into Eq. (20.3.8) yielding
N
 N
 1 N
 
∑ i cm,i ∑ miri − mtotal
(m r ) =
mtotal
∑mr = 0.
i i
(20.3.9)
i=1 i=1 i=1
N

The vanishing of ∑m v i cm,i
= 0 follows directly from the definition of the center of mass
i=1
frame, that the momentum in the center of mass is zero. Equivalently the derivative of
Eq. (20.3.9) is zero. We could also simply calculate and find that
  
∑ i cm,i ∑ i i cm )
m v = m ( v − V
i i
 
= ∑ mi v i − Vcm ∑ mi
i i
(20.3.10)
 
= mtotal Vcm − Vcm mtotal

= 0.
We can now simplify Eq. (20.3.6) for the angular momentum about the point S using the
N
 
fact that, mT = ∑ mi , and psys = mT Vcm (in reference frame O ):
i=1
   sys N  
Ltotal
S
= rS , cm
× p + ∑ (rcm,i × mi v cm,i ) . (20.3.11)
i=1
  
Consider the first term in Equation (20.3.11), rS ,cm × psys ; the vector rS ,cm is the vector
from the point S to the center of mass. If we treat the system as a point-like particle of
mass mT located at the center of mass, then the momentum of this point-like particle is
 
psys = mT Vcm . Thus the first term is the angular momentum about the point S of this
“point-like particle”, which is called the orbital angular momentum about S ,
  
Lorbital
S
= rS ,cm × psys . (20.3.12)
for the system of particles.
20-14
N
 
Consider the second term in Equation (20.3.11), ∑ (r cm,i
× mi v cm,i ) ; the quantity inside
i=1
th
the summation is the angular momentum of the i particle with respect to the origin in
the center of mass reference frame Ocm (recall the origin in the center of mass reference
frame is the center of mass of the system),
  
L cm,i = rcm,i × mi v cm,i . (20.3.13)
Hence the total angular momentum of the system with respect to the center of mass in the
center of mass reference frame is given by
 N  N
 
Lspin
cm
= ∑ L cm,i
= ∑ (rcm,i × mi v cm,i ) . (20.3.14)
i=1 i=1
a vector quantity we call the spin angular momentum. Thus we see that the total angular
momentum about the point S is the sum of these two terms,
  orbital spin
Ltotal
S
= L S
+ L cm . (20.3.15)
This decomposition of angular momentum into a piece associated with the translational
motion of the center of mass and a second piece associated with the rotational motion
about the center of mass in the center of mass reference frame is the key conceptual
foundation for what follows.
Example 20.5 Earth’s Motion Around the Sun
The earth, of mass me = 5.97 ×1024 kg and (mean) radius Re = 6.38 ×106 m , moves in a
nearly circular orbit of radius rs,e = 1.50 × 1011 m around the sun with a period
Torbit = 365.25 days , and spins about its axis in a period Tspin = 23 hr 56 min , the axis
inclined to the normal to the plane of its orbit around the sun by 23.5° (in Figure 20.16,
the relative size of the earth and sun, and the radius and shape of the orbit are not
representative of the actual quantities).
20-15
If we approximate the earth as a uniform sphere, then the moment of inertia of the earth
about its center of mass is
2
I cm = me Re2 . (20.3.16)
5
If we choose the point S to be at the center of the sun, and assume the orbit is circular,
then the orbital angular momentum is
  
Lorbital
S
= rS ,cm × psys = rs,e r̂ × me vcm θ̂ = rs,e me vcm k̂ . (20.3.17)
The velocity of the center of mass of the earth about the sun is related to the orbital
angular velocity by
vcm = rs,e ω orbit , (20.3.18)
where the orbital angular speed is
2π 2π
ω orbit = =
Torbit (365.25 d)(8.640 × 104 s ⋅ d −1 ) (20.3.19)
−7 −1
= 1.991 × 10 rad ⋅ s .
The orbital angular momentum about S is then


Lorbital
S
= me rs,2e ω orbit k̂
= (5.97 × 1024 kg)(1.50 × 1011 m)2 (1.991 × 10−7 rad ⋅ s −1 ) k̂ (20.3.20)
= (2.68 × 1040 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −1 ) k̂.
The spin angular momentum is given by
  2
Lspin
cm
= I cm ω spin = me Re2 ω spin n̂ , (20.3.21)
5
where n̂ is a unit normal pointing along the axis of rotation of the earth and
2π 2π
ωspin = = = 7.293 ×10−5 rad ⋅ s −1 . (20.3.22)
Tspin 8.616 ×10 s
4
The spin angular momentum is then
 2
Lspin = (5.97 × 1024 kg)(6.38 × 106 m)2 (7.293 × 10−5 rad ⋅ s −1 ) n̂
cm
5 (20.3.23)
= (7.10 × 1033 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅ s −1 ) n̂.
20-16
The ratio of the magnitudes of the orbital angular momentum about S to the spin angular
momentum is greater than a million,
Lorbital me rs,e2 ω orbit 2

5 rs,e Tspin
S
= = = 3.77 ×106 , (20.3.24)
Lspin
cm (2 / 5) m R
e e
2
ω spin 2 R e
2
Torbit
as this ratio is proportional to the square of the ratio of the distance to the sun to the
radius of the earth. The angular momentum about S is then
 2
Ltotal
S = me rs,e2 ω orbit kˆ + me Re2ωspin nˆ . (20.3.25)
5
The orbit and spin periods are known to far more precision than the average values used
for the earth’s orbit radius and mean radius. Two different values have been used for one
“day;” in converting the orbit period from days to seconds, the value for the solar day,
Tsolar = 86, 400s was used. In converting the earth’s spin angular frequency, the sidereal
day, Tsidereal = Tspin = 86,160s was used. The two periods, the solar day from noon to noon
and the sidereal day from the difference between the times that a fixed star is at the same
place in the sky, do differ in the third significant figure.
20.4 Kinetic Energy of a System of Particles


Consider a system of particles. The ith particle has mass mi and velocity v i with respect
to a reference frame O . The kinetic energy of the system of particles is given by
1 1  
K = ∑ mi vi2 = ∑ mi v i ⋅ v i
i 2 2 i
(20.4.1)
1    
= ∑ mi ( v cm,i + Vcm ) ⋅( v cm,i + Vcm ).
2 i
  
where Equation 15.2.6 has been used to express v i in terms of v cm,i and Vcm . Expanding
the last dot product in Equation (20.4.1),
1 ! ! ! ! ! !
K= ∑
2 i
mi ( v cm,i ⋅ v cm,i + Vcm ⋅ Vcm + 2 v cm,i ⋅ Vcm )
1 ! ! 1 ! ! ! !
= ∑ mi ( v cm,i ⋅ v cm,i ) + ∑ mi ( Vcm ⋅ Vcm ) + ∑ mi v cm,i ⋅ Vcm (20.4.2)
2 i 2 i i
1 1 ⎛ ! ⎞ !
= ∑ mi vcm,i
2
+ ∑ mi Vcm2 + ⎜ ∑ m v cm,i ⎟ ⋅ Vcm .
i2 2 i ⎝ i ⎠
20-17
The last term in the third equation in (20.4.2) vanishes as we showed in Eq. (20.3.7).
Then Equation (20.4.2) reduces to
1 1
K = ∑ mi vcm,i
2
+ ∑ mi Vcm2
i 2 2 i
(20.4.3)
1 1
= ∑ mi vcm,i
2
+ mtotal Vcm2 .
i 2 2
We interpret the first term as the sum of the individual kinetic energies of the particles of
the system in the center of mass reference frame Ocm and the second term as the kinetic
energy of the center of mass motion in reference frame O .
At this point, it’s important to note that no assumption was made regarding the mass
elements being constituents of a rigid body. Equation (20.4.3) is valid for a rigid body, a
gas, a firecracker (but K is certainly not the same before and after detonation), and the
sixteen pool balls after the break, or any collection of objects for which the center of
mass can be determined.
20.5 Rotational Kinetic Energy for a Rigid Body Undergoing Fixed Axis
Rotation

The rotational kinetic energy for the rigid body, using v cm, i = (rcm, i )⊥ ω cm θ̂ , simplifies to
1
K rot = I cmω cm
2
. (20.5.1)
2
Therefore the total kinetic energy of a translating and rotating rigid body is
1 1
K total = K trans + K rot = mVcm2 + I cmω cm
2
. (20.5.2)
2 2
20-18
Appendix 20A Chasles’s Theorem: Rotation and Translation of a Rigid
Body
We now return to our description of the translating and rotating rod that we first
considered when we began our discussion of rigid bodies. We shall now show that the
motion of any rigid body consists of a translation of the center of mass and rotation about
the center of mass.
We shall demonstrate this for a rigid body by dividing up the rigid body into point-like
constituents. Consider two point-like constituents with masses m1 and m2 . Choose a

coordinate system with a choice of origin such that body 1 has position r1 and body 2

has position r2 (Figure 20A.1). The relative position vector is given by
  
r1,2 = r1 − r2 . (20.A.1)
Figure 20A.1 Two-body coordinate system.


Recall we defined the center of mass vector, R cm , of the two-body system as
 
 m1 r1 + m2 r2
R cm = . (20.A.2)
m1 + m2
In Figure 20A.2 we show the center of mass coordinate system.
Figure 20A.2 Position coordinates with respect to center of mass
20-19
The position vector of the object 1 with respect to the center of mass is given by
 
    m1 r1 + m2 r2 m2   µ 
rcm,1 = r1 − R cm = r1 − = (r1 − r2 ) = r , (20.A.3)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 1,2
where
m1m2
µ= , (20.A.4)
m1 + m2
is the reduced mass. In addition, the relative position vector between the two objects is
independent of the choice of reference frame,
         
r12 = r1 − r2 = (rcm,1 + R cm ) − (rcm,2 + R cm ) = rcm,1 − rcm,2 = rcm,1,2 . (20.A.5)
Because the center of mass is at the origin in the center of mass reference frame,
 
m1rcm,1 + m2rcm,2 
= 0. (20.A.6)
m1 + m2
Therefore
 
m1rcm,1 = −m2rcm,2 (20.A.7)
 
m1 rcm,1 = m2 rcm,2 . (20.A.8)
The displacement of object 1 about the center of mass is given by taking the derivative of
Eq. (20.A.3),
 µ 
drcm,1 = dr . (20.A.9)
m1 1,2
A similar calculation for the position of object 2 with respect to the center of mass yields
for the position and displacement with respect to the center of mass
   µ 
rcm,2 = r2 − R cm = − r , (20.A.10)
m2 1,2
 µ 
drcm,2 = − dr . (20.A.11)
m2 1,2
Let i = 1,2 . An arbitrary displacement of the ith object is given respectively by

  
dri = drcm,i + dR cm , (20.A.12)
20-20

which is the sum of a displacement about the center of mass drcm,i and a displacement of

the center of mass dR cm . The displacement of objects 1 and 2 are constrained by the
condition that the distance between the objects must remain constant since the body is
rigid. In particular, the distance between objects 1 and 2 is given by
 2    
r1,2 = (r1 − r2 ) ⋅ (r1 − r2 ) . (20.A.13)
Because this distance is constant we can differentiate Eq. (20.A.13), yielding the rigid
body condition that
     
0 = 2(r1 − r2 ) ⋅ (dr1 − dr2 ) = 2r1,2 ⋅ dr1,2 (20.A.14)
20A.1. Translation of the Center of Mass
The condition (Eq. (20.A.14)) can be satisfied if the relative displacement vector between
the two objects is zero,
   
dr1,2 = dr1 − dr2 = 0 . (20.A.15)
This implies, using, Eq. (20.A.9) and Eq. (20.A.11), that the displacement with respect to
the center of mass is zero, 
 
drcm,1 = drcm,2 = 0 . (20.A.16)
Thus by Eq. (20.A.12), the displacement of each object is equal to the displacement of
the center of mass, 

dri = dR cm , (20.A.17)
which means that the body is undergoing pure translation.
20A.2 Rotation about the Center of Mass

   
Now suppose that dr1,2 = dr1 − dr2 ≠ 0 . The rigid body condition can be expressed in
terms of the center of mass coordinates. Using Eq. (20.A.9), the rigid body condition (Eq.
(20.A.14)) becomes
µ  
0=2 r1,2 ⋅ drcm,1 . (20.A.18)
m1
Because the relative position vector between the two objects is independent of the choice
of reference frame (Eq. (20.A.5)), the rigid body condition Eq. (20.A.14) in the center of
mass reference frame is then given by
 
0 = 2rcm,1,2 ⋅ drcm,1 . (20.A.19)
20-21
This condition is satisfied if the relative displacement is perpendicular to the line passing
through the center of mass,
 
rcm,1,2 ⊥ drcm,1 . (20.A.20)
 
By a similar argument, rcm,1,2 ⊥ drcm,2 . In order for these displacements to correspond to a
rotation about the center of mass, the displacements must have the same angular
displacement.
Figure 20A.3 Infinitesimal angular displacements in the center of mass reference frame
In Figure 20A.3, the infinitesimal angular displacement of each object is given by


drcm,1
dθ1 =  , (20.A.21)
rcm,1

drcm,2
dθ 2 =  . (20.A.22)
rcm,2
From Eq. (20.A.9) and Eq. (20.A.11), we can rewrite Eqs. (20.A.21) and (20.A.22) as

µ dr1,2
dθ1 = , (20.A.23)
m1 rcm,1

µ dr1,2
dθ 2 = . (20.A.24)
m2 rcm,2
 
Recall that in the center of mass reference frame m1 rcm,1 = m2 rcm,2 (Eq. (20.A.8))
and hence the angular displacements are equal,
20-22
dθ1 = dθ 2 = dθ . (20.A.25)

Therefore the displacement of the ith object dri differs from the displacement of the

center of mass dR cm by a vector that corresponds to an infinitesimal rotation in the center
of mass reference frame 
 
dri = dR cm + drcm,i . (20.A.26)
We have shown that the displacement of a rigid body is the vector sum of the
displacement of the center of mass (translation of the center of mass) and an infinitesimal
rotation about the center of mass.
20-23
Chapter 21 Rigid Body Dynamics: Rotation and Translation about a
Fixed Axis
21.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

21.2 Translational Equation of Motion ....................................................................... 1
21.3 Translational and Rotational Equations of Motion ........................................... 1
21.3.1 Summary ......................................................................................................... 6
21.4 Translation and Rotation of a Rigid Body Undergoing Fixed Axis Rotation . 6
21.5 Work-Energy Theorem ........................................................................................ 7
21.6 Worked Examples ................................................................................................. 8
Example 21.1 Angular Impulse ............................................................................... 8
Example 21.2 Person on a railroad car moving in a circle.................................... 9
Example 21.3 Torque, Rotation and Translation: Yo-Yo ................................... 13
Example 21.4 Cylinder Rolling Down Inclined Plane ......................................... 16
Example 21.5 Bowling Ball..................................................................................... 21
Example 21.6 Rotation and Translation Object and Stick Collision ................. 25
Chapter 21 Rigid Body Dynamics: Rotation and Translation
about a Fixed Axis
Accordingly, we find Euler and D'Alembert devoting their talent and their
patience to the establishment of the laws of rotation of the solid bodies.
Lagrange has incorporated his own analysis of the problem with his
general treatment of mechanics, and since his time M. Poinsôt has brought
the subject under the power of a more searching analysis than that of the
calculus, in which ideas take the place of symbols, and intelligent
propositions supersede equations. 1
James Clerk Maxwell
21.1 Introduction
We shall analyze the motion of systems of particles and rigid bodies that are undergoing
translational and rotational motion about a fixed direction. Because the body is
translating, the axis of rotation is no longer fixed in space. We shall describe the motion
by a translation of the center of mass and a rotation about the center of mass. By choosing
a reference frame moving with the center of mass, we can analyze the rotational motion
separately and discover that the torque about the center of mass is equal to the change in
the angular momentum about the center of mass. For a rigid body undergoing fixed axis
rotation about the center of mass, our rotational equation of motion is similar to one we
 
have already encountered for fixed axis rotation, τ ext
cm
= dLspin
cm
/ dt .
21.2 Translational Equation of Motion
We shall think about the system of particles as follows. We treat the whole system as a
single point-like particle of mass mT located at the center of mass moving with the

velocity of the center of mass Vcm . The external force acting on the system acts at the
center of mass and from our earlier result (Eq. 10.4.9) we have that

 ext dpsys d 
F = = (mT Vcm ) . (21.2.1)
dt dt
21.3 Translational and Rotational Equations of Motion
For a system of particles, the torque about a point S can be written as
1
J. C. Maxwell on Louis Poinsôt (1777-1859) in 'On a Dynamical Top' (1857). In W. D. Niven (ed.), The
Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell (1890), Vol. 1, 248.
21-1
 N
 
τ ext
S
= ∑ (ri × Fi ) . (21.3.1)
i=1
where we have assumed that all internal torques cancel in pairs. Let choose the point S

to be the origin of the reference frame O , then rS ,cm = R cm (Figure 21.1). (You may want
to recall the main properties of the center of mass reference frame by reviewing Chapter
15.2.1.)
ith particle Fi
rcm,i
rS ,i cm
rS ,cm
S
Figure 21.1 Torque diagram for center of mass reference frame

! ! !
We can now apply rS , i = rS , cm + rcm,i to Eq. (21.3.1) yielding
! ext N ! ! N
! ! ! N
! ! N
! !
τ S = ∑ (rS ,i × Fi ) = ∑ ((rcm,i + rcm,i ) × Fi ) = ∑ (rS ,cm × Fi ) + ∑ (rcm,i × Fi ) . (21.3.2)
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
The term
" " "
⊙ τ Sext,cm = rS ,cm × Fext (21.3.3)
in Eq. (21.3.2) corresponds to the external torque about the point S where all the external
forces act at the center of mass (Figure 21.2).
Fext
ext
S ,cm
cm
rS ,cm
S
Figure 21.2 Torque diagram for “point-like” particle located at center of mass
The term,
 ext N  
τ cm = ∑ (rcm,i × Fi ) . (21.3.4)
i=1
21-2
is the sum of the torques on the individual particles in the center of mass reference frame.
If we assume that all internal torques cancel in pairs, then
 N
  ext
τ ext
cm
= ∑ ( rcm,i
× Fi
). (21.3.5)
i=1
We conclude that the external torque about the point S can be decomposed into two
pieces,
  
τ ext
S
= τ ext
S ,cm
+ τ ext
cm
. (21.3.6)
We showed in Chapter 20.3 that
   sys N  
Lsys
S
= rS , cm
× p + ∑ (rcm,i × mi v cm,i ) , (21.3.7)
i=1
where the first term in Eq. (21.3.7) is the orbital angular momentum of the center of mass
about the point S
  
Lorbital
S
= rS , cm × psys , (21.3.8)
and the second term in Eq. (21.3.7) is the spin angular momentum about the center of
mass (independent of the point S )
 spin N  
L S = ∑ (rcm,i × mi v cm,i ) . (21.3.9)
i=1
The angular momentum about the point S can therefore be decomposed into two terms
  orbital  spin
Lsys
S
= L S
+ LS . (21.3.10)
Recall that that we have previously shown that it is always true that
 sys
 ext dL S
τS = . (21.3.11)
dt
Therefore we can therefore substitute Eq. (21.3.6) on the LHS of Eq. (21.3.11) and
substitute Eq. (21.3.10) on the RHS of Eq. (21.3.11) yielding as
 spin
 ext  ext dLorbital dL
τ S ,cm + τ cm = S
+ S
. (21.3.12)
dt dt
21-3
We shall now show that Eq. (21.3.12) can also be decomposed in two separate
conditions. We begin by analyzing the first term on the RHS of Eq. (21.3.12). We
differentiate Eq. (21.3.8) and find that

dLorbital d  
S
= (rS , cm × psys ) . (21.3.13)
dt dt
We apply the vector identity
 
d   dA   dB
( A × B) = ×B+A× , (21.3.14)
dt dt dt
to Eq. (21.3.13) yielding
  
dLorbital drS ,cm   dpsys
S
= × psys + rS ,cm × . (21.3.15)
dt dt dt
The first term in Eq. (21.3.21) is zero because


drS ,cm    
× psys = Vcm × mtotal Vcm = 0 . (21.3.16)
dt
Therefore the time derivative of the orbital angular momentum about a point S , Eq.
(21.3.15), becomes
 
dLorbital  d p
S
= rS ,cm × sys . (21.3.17)
dt dt
In Eq. (21.3.17), the time derivative of the momentum of the system is the external force,

 ext dpsys
F = . (21.3.18)
dt
The expression in Eq. (21.3.17) then becomes the first of our relations

dLorbital   
S
= rS , cm × Fext = τ ext
S ,cm
. (21.3.19)
dt
Thus the time derivative of the orbital angular momentum about the point S is equal to
the external torque about the point S where all the external forces act at the center of
mass, (we treat the system as a point-like particle located at the center of mass).
We now consider the second term on the RHS of Eq. (21.3.12), the time derivative of the
spin angular momentum about the center of mass. We differentiate Eq. (21.3.9),
21-4

dLspin d N  
S
= ∑ (rcm,i × mi v cm,i ) . (21.3.20)
dt dt i=1
We again use the product rule for taking the time derivatives of a vector product (Eq.
(21.3.14)). Then Eq. (21.3.20) the becomes
 
N ⎛ dr
dLspin  ⎞ N ⎛ d  ⎞
S
= ∑ ⎜ cm,i × mi v cm,i ⎟ + ∑ ⎜ rcm,i × (mi v cm,i )⎟ . (21.3.21)
dt i=1 ⎝ dt ⎠ i=1 ⎝ dt ⎠
The first term in Eq. (21.3.21) is zero because


N ⎛ drcm,i  ⎞ N   
∑ ⎜⎝ dt × mi v cm,i ⎟⎠ = ∑ ( v cm,i × mi v cm,i ) = 0 . (21.3.22)
i=1 i=1
Therefore the time derivative of the spin angular momentum about the center of mass,
Eq. (21.3.21), becomes

dLspin N
⎛ d  ⎞
S
= ∑ ⎜ rcm,i × (mi v cm,i )⎟ . (21.3.23)
dt i=1 ⎝ dt ⎠
The force, acting on an element of mass mi , is
 d 
Fi = (mi v cm,i ) . (21.3.24)
dt
The expression in Eq. (21.3.23) then becomes


dLspin N
 
S
= ∑ (rcm,i × Fi ) . (21.3.25)
dt i=1
N
 
The term, ∑ (r cm,i
× Fi ) , is the sum of the torques on the individual particles in the center
i=1
of mass reference frame. If we again assume that all internal torques cancel in pairs,
Eq. (21.3.25) may be expressed as

dLspin N
  ext N
 
S
= ∑ (rcm,i × Fi ) = ∑ τ ext
cm,i
= τ ext
cm
, (21.3.26)
dt i=1 i=1
which is the second of our two relations.
21-5
21.3.1 Summary
For a system of particles, there are two conditions that always hold (Eqs. (21.3.19) and
(21.3.26)) when we calculate the torque about a point S ; we treat the system as a point-

like particle located at the center of mass of the system. All the external forces Fext act at
the center of mass. We calculate the orbital angular momentum of the center of mass and
determine its time derivative and then apply

 ext   ext dLorbital
τ S ,cm = rS , cm × F = S
. (21.3.27)
dt
In addition, we calculate the torque about the center of mass due to all the forces acting
on the particles in the center of mass reference frame. We calculate the time derivative of
the angular momentum of the system with respect to the center of mass in the center of
mass reference frame and then apply

 ext N   ext dLspin
τ cm = ∑ (rcm,i × Fi ) = cm
. (21.3.28)
i=1 dt
21.4 Translation and Rotation of a Rigid Body Undergoing Fixed Axis

Rotation
For the special case of rigid body of mass m , we showed that with respect to a reference

frame in which the center of mass of the rigid body is moving with velocity Vcm , all
elements of the rigid body are rotating about the center of mass with  the same angular
 
velocity ω cm . For the rigid body of mass m and momentum p = mVcm , the translational
equation of motion is still given by Eq. (21.2.1), which we repeat in the form
 
Fext = mA cm . (21.4.1)
For fixed axis rotation, choose the z -axis as the axis of rotation that passes through the
center of mass of the rigid body. We have already seen in our discussion of angular
momentum of a rigid body that the angular momentum does not necessary point in the
same direction as the angular velocity. However we can take the z -component of Eq.
(21.3.28)
dLspin
τ cm,z = cm,z .
ext
(21.4.2)
dt

For a rigid body rotating about the center of mass with ω cm = ω cm,z k̂ , the z -component of
angular momentum about the center of mass is
Lspin
cm,z
= I cmω cm,z . (21.4.3)
21-6
The z -component of the rotational equation of motion about the center of mass is
dω cm,z
τ cm,z
ext
= I cm = I cmα cm,z . (21.4.4)
dt
21.5 Work-Energy Theorem

For a rigid body, we can also consider the work-energy theorem separately for the
translational motion and the rotational motion. Once again treat the rigid body as a point-
like particle moving with velocity Vcm in reference frame O . We can use the same
technique that we used when treating point particles to show that the work done by the
external forces is equal to the change in kinetic energy
 
 ext 
f f d(mV )  f d( V ) 
W = ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫
ext
trans
cm
⋅ d R cm = m ∫ cm
⋅ Vcm dt
i i dt i dt (21.5.1)
1 f   1 1
= m ∫ d( Vcm ⋅ Vcm ) = mVcm, 2
f
− mVcm, 2
i
= ΔK trans .
2 i 2 2
For the rotational motion we go to the center of mass reference frame and we determine
the rotational work done i.e. the integral of the z -component of the torque about the
center of mass with respect to dθ as we did for fixed axis rotational work. Then
f f dω cm,z f dθ f
∫i
(τ ext
cm
) z dθ = ∫ I cm
i dt
dθ = ∫ I cm d ω cm,z
i dt
= ∫ I cm d ω cm,zω cm,z
i
. (21.5.2)
1 1
= I cmω cm, f − I cmω cm, i = ΔK rot
2 2
2 2
In Eq. (21.5.2) we expressed our result in terms of the angular speed ω cm because it
appears as a square. Therefore we can combine these two separate results, Eqs. (21.5.1)
and (21.5.2), and determine the work-energy theorem for a rotating and translating rigid
body that undergoes fixed axis rotation about the center of mass.
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛1 1 2 ⎞
W = ⎜ mVcm,f
2
+ I cmω cm,f
2
⎟ − ⎜ mVcm,f
2
+ I cmω cm,i ⎟⎠
⎝2 2 ⎠ ⎝2 2 (21.5.3)
= ΔK trans + ΔK rot = ΔK.
Equations (21.4.1), (21.4.4), and (21.5.3) are principles that we shall employ to analyze
the motion of a rigid bodies undergoing translation and fixed axis rotation about the
center of mass.
21-7
Example 21.1 Angular Impulse
Two point-like objects are located at the points A and B, of respective masses
M A = 2 M , and M B = M , as shown in the figure below. The two objects are initially
oriented along the y-axis and connected by a rod of negligible mass of length D , forming

a rigid body. A force of magnitude F = F along the x direction is applied to the object at
B at t = 0 for a short time interval Δt , (Figure 21.3). Neglect gravity. Give all your
answers in terms of M and D as needed. What is the magnitude of the angular velocity
of the system after the collision?
Solutions: An impulse of magnitude F Δt is applied in the + x direction, and the center

of mass of the system will move in this direction. The two masses will rotate about the
center of mass, counterclockwise in the figure. Before the force is applied we can
calculate the position of the center of mass (Figure 21.4a),
  
M ArA + M BrB 2 M (D / 2) ĵ + M (D / 2)(− ĵ)
R cm = = = (D / 6) ĵ . (21.6.1)
MA + MB 3M
The center of mass is a distance (2 / 3)D from the object at B and is a distance (1/ 3)D
from the object at A.
21-8
(a) (b)
Figure 21.4 (a) Center of mass of system, (b) Angular momentum about point B

Because FΔtî = 3MVcm , the magnitude of the velocity of the center of mass is then
FΔt / 3M and the direction is in the positive î -direction. Because the force is applied at
the point B, there is no torque about the point B, hence the angular momentum is constant
about the point B. The initial angular momentum about the point B is zero. The angular
momentum about the point B (Figure 21.4b) after the impulse is applied is the sum of two
terms,
     
0 = L B, f = rB, f × 3MVcm + L cm = (2D / 3) ĵ × FΔt î + L cm
  (21.6.2)
0 = (2DFΔt / 3)(−k̂) + L cm .
The angular momentum about the center of mass is given by


. L cm = I cmω k̂ = (2 M (D / 3)2 + M (2D / 3)2 )ω k̂ = (2 / 3) MD 2ω k̂ . (21.6.3)
Thus the angular about the point B after the impulse is applied is

0 = (2DFΔt / 3)(−k̂) + (2 / 3) MD 2ω k̂ (21.6.4)
We can solve this Eq. (21.6.4) for the angular speed
FΔt
ω= . (21.6.5)
MD
Example 21.2 Person on a railroad car moving in a circle
A person of mass M is standing on a railroad car, which is rounding an unbanked turn of

radius R at a speed v . His center of mass is at a height of L above the car midway
21-9
between his feet, which are separated by a distance of d . The man is facing the direction
of motion (Figure 21.5). What is the magnitude of the normal force on each foot?
Solution: We begin by choosing a cylindrical coordinate system and drawing a free-body

force diagram, shown in Figure 21.6.
Figure 21.6 Coordinate system for Example 21.2
We decompose the contact force between the inner foot closer to the center of the circular

motion and the ground into a tangential component corresponding to static friction f1 and

a perpendicular component, N1 . In a similar fashion we decompose the contact force
between the outer foot further from the center of the circular
 motion and the ground into a
tangential component corresponding to static friction f2 and a perpendicular component,

N 2 . We do not assume that the static friction has its maximum magnitude nor do we
   
assume that f1 = f2 or N1 = N 2 . The gravitational force acts at the center of mass.
We shall use our two dynamical equations of motion, Eq. (21.4.1) for translational
motion and Eq. (21.4.4) for rotational motion about the center of mass noting that we are

considering the special case that α cm = 0 because the object is not rotating about the
center of mass. In order to apply Eq. (21.4.1), we treat the person as a point-like particle
located at the center of mass and all the external forces act at this point. The radial
component of Newton’s Second Law (Eq. (21.4.1) is given by
v2
r̂ : − f1 − f 2 = −m . (21.6.6)
R
21-10
The vertical component of Newton’s Second Law is given by
k̂ : N1 + N 2 − mg = 0 . (21.6.7)
The rotational equation of motion (Eq. (21.4.4) is

 total
τ cm = 0. (21.6.8)
We begin our calculation of the torques about the center of mass by noting that the
gravitational force does not contribute to the torque because it is acting at the center of
mass. We draw a torque diagram in Figure 21.7a showing the location of the point of
application of the forces, the point we are computing the torque about (which in this case

is the center of mass), and the vector rcm,1 from the point we are computing the torque
about to the point of application of the forces.
(a) (b)
Figure 21.7 Torque diagram for (a) inner foot, (b) outer foot
The torque on the inner foot is given by
    ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
τ cm,1 = rcm,1 × ( f1 + N1 ) = ⎜ − r̂ − Lk̂ ⎟ × (− f1r̂ + N1k̂) = ⎜ N1 + Lf1 ⎟ θ̂ . (21.6.9)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
We draw a similar torque diagram (Figure 21.7b) for the forces applied to the outer foot.
The torque on the outer foot is given by
    ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞
τ cm,2 = rcm,2 × ( f2 + N 2 ) = ⎜ + r̂ − Lk̂ ⎟ × (− f 2r̂ + N 2k̂) = ⎜ − N 2 + Lf 2 ⎟ θ̂ . (21.6.10)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
  
Notice that the forces f1 , N1 , and f2 all contribute torques about the center of mass in the

positive θ̂ -direction while N 2 contributes a torque about the center of mass in the
negative θ̂ -direction. According to Eq. (21.6.8) the sum of these torques about the center
of mass must be zero. Therefore
21-11
 ext   ⎛d ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞
τ cm = τ cm,1 + τ cm,2 = ⎜ N1 + Lf1 ⎟ θ̂ + ⎜ − N 2 + Lf 2 ⎟ θ̂
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
(21.6.11)
⎛d ⎞ 
= ⎜ (N1 − N 2 ) + L( f1 + f 2 )⎟ θ̂ = 0.
⎝2 ⎠
Notice that the magnitudes of the two frictional forces appear together as a sum in Eqs.
(21.6.11) and (21.6.6). We now can solve Eq. (21.6.6) for f1 + f 2 and substitute the result
into Eq. (21.6.11) yielding the condition that
d v2
(N − N 2 ) + Lm = 0 . (21.6.12)
2 1 R
We can rewrite this Eq. as
2Lmv 2
N 2 − N1 = . (21.6.13)
Rd
We also rewrite Eq. (21.6.7) in the form
N 2 + N1 = mg . (21.6.14)
We now can solve for N 2 by adding together Eqs. (21.6.13) and (21.6.14), and then
divide by two,
1⎛ 2Lmv 2 ⎞
N 2 = ⎜ Mg + . (21.6.15)
2⎝ Rd ⎟⎠
We now can solve for N1 by subtracting Eqs. (21.6.13) from (21.6.14), and then divide
by two,
1⎛ 2Lmv 2 ⎞
N1 = ⎜ mg − . (21.6.16)
2⎝ Rd ⎟⎠
Check the result: we see that the normal force acting on the outer foot is greater in
magnitude than the normal force acting on the inner foot. We expect this result because
as we increase the speed v , we find that at a maximum speed vmax , the normal force on
the inner foot goes to zero and we start to rotate in the positive θ̂ -direction, tipping
outward. We can find this maximum speed by setting N1 = 0 in Eq. (21.6.16) resulting in
gRd
vmax = . (21.6.17)
2L
21-12
Example 21.3 Torque, Rotation and Translation: Yo-Yo
A Yo-Yo of mass m has an axle of radius b and a spool of radius R . Its moment of
inertia about the center can be taken to be I cm = (1 / 2)mR 2 and the thickness of the string
can be neglected (Figure 21.8). The Yo-Yo is released from rest. You will need to
assume that the center of mass of the Yo-Yo descends vertically, and that the string is
vertical as it unwinds. (a) What is the tension in the cord as the Yo-Yo descends? (b)
What is the magnitude of the angular acceleration as the yo-yo descends and the
magnitude of the linear acceleration? (c) Find the magnitude of the angular velocity of
the Yo-Yo when it reaches the bottom of the string, when a length l of the string has
unwound.
Figure 21.8 Example 21.3 Figure 21.9 Torque diagram for Yo-Yo
Solutions: a) as the Yo-Yo descends it rotates clockwise in Figure 21.9. The torque about
the center of mass of the Yo-Yo is due to the tension and increases the magnitude of the
angular velocity. The direction of the torque is into the page in Figure 21.9 (positive z -
direction). Use the right-hand rule to check this, or use the vector product definition of
torque,
  
τ cm = rcm,T × T . (21.6.18)
 
About the center of mass, rcm, T = −b î and T = −T ˆj , so the torque is
  
τ cm = rcm,T × T = (−b î) × (−T ĵ) = bT k̂ . (21.6.19)
Apply Newton’s Second Law in the ĵ -direction,
mg − T = ma y . (21.6.20)
Apply the rotational equation of motion for the Yo-Yo,
21-13
bT = Icmα z , (21.6.21)
where α z is the z -component of the angular acceleration. The z -component of the

angular acceleration and the y -component of the linear acceleration are related by the
constraint condition
a y = bα z , (21.6.22)
where b is the axle radius of the Yo-Yo. Substitute Eq. (21.6.22) into (21.6.20) yielding
mg − T = mbα z . (21.6.23)
Now solve Eq. (21.6.21) for α z and substitute the result into Eq.(21.6.23),
mb2T
mg − T = . (21.6.24)
Icm
Solve Eq. (21.6.24) for the tension T ,
mg mg mg
T= = = . (21.6.25)
⎛ mb2 ⎞ ⎛ mb2 ⎞ ⎛ 2b2 ⎞
⎜ 1 + 1 + 1 +
⎝ Icm ⎟⎠ ⎜
⎝
⎟
(1 / 2)mR 2 ⎠
⎜
⎝ R2 ⎠
⎟
b) Substitute Eq. (21.6.25) into Eq. (21.6.21) to determine the z -component of the
angular acceleration,
bT 2bg
αz = = 2 . (21.6.26)
Icm (R + 2b2 )
Using the constraint condition Eq. (21.6.22), we determine the y -component of linear
acceleration
2b2 g g
a y = bα z = 2 = . (21.6.27)
(R + 2b ) 1+ R / 2b2
2 2
Note that both quantities az > 0 and α z > 0 , so Eqs. (21.6.26) and (21.6.27) are the
magnitudes of the respective quantities. For a typical Yo-Yo, the acceleration is much
less than that of an object in free fall.
c) Use conservation of energy to determine the magnitude of the angular velocity of the
Yo-Yo when it reaches the bottom of the string. As in Figure 21.9, choose the downward
vertical direction as the positive ĵ -direction and let y = 0 designate the location of the
21-14
center of mass of the Yo-Yo when the string is completely wound. Choose U ( y = 0) = 0
for the zero reference potential energy. This choice of direction and reference means that
the gravitational potential energy will be negative and decreasing while the Yo-Yo
descends. For this case, the gravitational potential energy is
U = −mg y . (21.6.28)
The Yo-Yo is not yet moving downward or rotating, and the center of mass is located at
y = 0 so the mechanical energy in the initial state, when the Yo-Yo is completely wound,
is zero
Ei = U ( y = 0) = 0 . (21.6.29)
Denote the linear speed of the Yo-Yo as v f and its angular speed as ω f (at the point
y = l ). The constraint condition between v f and ω f is given by
v f = bω f , (21.6.30)
consistent with Eq. (21.6.22). The kinetic energy is the sum of translational and rotational
kinetic energy, where we have used Icm = (1 / 2)mR 2 , and so mechanical energy in the
final state, when the Yo-Yo is completely unwound, is
1 2 1
E f = K f +U f =mv + I ω 2 − mgl
2 f 2 cm f (21.6.31)
1 1
= mb2ω 2f + mR 2ω 2f − mgl.
2 4
There are no external forces doing work on the system (neglect air resistance), so
0 = E f = Ei . (21.6.32)
Thus
⎛1 2 1 2⎞ 2
⎜⎝ 2 mb +
4
mR ⎟⎠ ω f = mgl . (21.6.33)
Solving for ω f ,
4gl
ωf = . (21.6.34)
(2b + R 2 )
2
We may also use kinematics to determine the final angular velocity by solving for the
time interval Δt that it takes for the Yo-Yo to travel a distance l at the constant
acceleration found in Eq. (21.6.27)),
21-15
l(R 2 + 2b2 )
Δt = 2l / a y = (21.6.35)
b2 g
The final angular velocity of the Yo-Yo is then (using Eq. (21.6.26) for the z -component
of the angular acceleration),
4gl
ω f = α z Δt = , (21.6.36)
(R + 2b2 )
2
Example 21.4 Cylinder Rolling Down Inclined Plane
A uniform cylinder of outer radius R and mass M with moment of inertia about the
center of mass, I cm = (1/ 2) M R 2 , starts from rest and rolls without slipping down an
incline tilted at an angle β from the horizontal. The center of mass of the cylinder has
dropped a vertical distance h when it reaches the bottom of the incline Figure 21.10. Let
g denote the gravitational constant. The coefficient of static friction between the cylinder
and the surface is µs . What is the magnitude of the velocity of the center of mass of the
cylinder when it reaches the bottom of the incline?
Solution: We shall solve this problem three different ways.
1. Apply the torque condition about the center of mass and the force law for the
center of mass motion.
2. Apply the energy methods.
3. Use torque about a fixed point that lies along the line of contact between the
cylinder and the surface,
First Approach: Rotation about center of mass and translation of center of mass
21-16
We shall apply the torque condition (Eq. (21.4.4)) about the center of mass and the force
law (Eq. (21.4.1)) for the center of mass motion. We will first find the acceleration and
hence the speed at the bottom of the incline using kinematics. The forces are shown in
Figure 21.11.
Figure 21.11 Torque diagram about center of mass
Choose x = 0 at the point where the cylinder just starts to roll. Newton’s Second Law,
applied in the x - and y -directions in turn, yields
Mg sin β − f s = Max , (21.6.37)

− N + Mg cos β = 0 . (21.6.38)
Choose the center of the cylinder to compute the torque about (Figure 21.10). Then, the
only force exerting a torque about the center of mass is the friction force, therefore the
rotational equation of motion is
f s R = I cmα z . (21.6.39)
Use I cm = (1/ 2) M R 2 and the kinematic constraint for the no-slipping condition
α z = ax / R in Eq. (21.6.39) to solve for the magnitude of the static friction force yielding
f s = (1/ 2) Max . (21.6.40)
Mg sin θ − (1 / 2) Max = Max , (21.6.41)
which we can solve for the acceleration
2
ax = g sin β . (21.6.42)
3
21-17
In the time t f it takes to reach the bottom, the displacement of the cylinder is
x f = h / sin β . The x -component of the velocity vx at the bottom is vx , f = ax t f . Thus
x f = (1/ 2)ax t f 2 . After eliminating t f , we have x f = vx , f 2 / 2ax , so the x -component of
the velocity when the cylinder reaches the bottom of the inclined plane is
vx, f = 2ax x f = 2((2 / 3)g sin β )(h / sin β ) = (4 / 3)gh . (21.6.43)
Note that if we substitute Eq. (21.6.42) into Eq. (21.6.40) the magnitude of the frictional
force is
f s = (1 / 3) Mg sin β . (21.6.44)
In order for the cylinder to roll without slipping
f s ≤ µs Mg cos β . (21.6.45)
Combining Eq. (21.6.44) and Eq. (21.6.45) we have the condition that
(1 / 3) Mg sin β ≤ µs Mg cos β (21.6.46)
Thus in order to roll without slipping, the coefficient of static friction must satisfy
1
µs ≥ tan β . (21.6.47)
3
Second Approach: Energy Methods
We shall use the fact that the energy of the cylinder-earth system is constant since the
static friction force does no work.
Figure 21.12 Energy diagram for cylinder
21-18
Choose a zero reference point for potential energy at the center of mass when the cylinder
reaches the bottom of the incline plane (Figure 21.12). Then the initial potential energy is
U i = Mgh . (21.6.48)
For the given moment of inertia, the final kinetic energy is
1 1
Kf = M vx, f 2 + I cmω z, f 2
2 2
1 1
= M vx, f 2 + (1/ 2) MR 2 (vx, f / R)2 (21.6.49)
2 2
3
= M vx, f 2 .
4
Setting the final kinetic energy equal to the initial gravitational potential energy leads to
3
Mgh = M vx , f 2 . (21.6.50)
4
The magnitude of the velocity of the center of mass of the cylinder when it reaches the
bottom of the incline is
vx, f = (4 / 3)gh , (21.6.51)
Third Approach: Torque about a fixed point that lies along the line of contact
between the cylinder and the surface
Choose a fixed point P that lies along the line of contact between the cylinder and the
surface. Then the torque diagram is shown in Figure 21.13.
Figure 21.13 Torque about a point along the line of contact
21-19

The gravitational force Mg = Mg sin β î + Mg cos β ĵ acts at the center of mass. The

vector from the point P to the center of mass is given by rP,mg = d P î − R ĵ , so the torque
due to the gravitational force about the point P is given by
  
τ P,Mg = rP,Mg × Mg = (d P î − R ĵ) × ( Mg sin β î + Mg cos β ĵ)
(21.6.52)
= (d P Mg cos β + RMg sin β )k̂.
The normal force acts at the point of contact between the cylinder and the surface and is

given by N = − N ĵ . The vector from the point P to the point of contact between the

cylinder and the surface is rP, N = d P î . Therefore the torque due to the normal force
about the point P is given by
  
τ P, N = rP, N × N = (d P î) × (− N ĵ) = −d P N k̂ . (21.6.53)
Substituting Eq. (21.6.38) for the normal force into Eq. (21.6.53) yields

τ P, N = −d P Mg cos β k̂ . (21.6.54)
Therefore the sum of the torques about the point P is

  
τ P = τ P, Mg + τ P, N = (d P Mg cos β + RMg sin β )k̂ − d P Mg cos β k̂ = Rmg sin β k̂ . (21.6.55)
The angular momentum about the point P is given by

   
L P = Lcm + rP,cm × MVcm = I cmω z k̂ + (dP î − R ĵ) × (Mvx ) î
. (21.6.56)
= (I cmω z + RMvx ) k̂
The time derivative of the angular momentum about the point P is then

dL P
= (I cmα z + RMax ) k̂ . (21.6.57)
dt
Therefore the torque law about the point P , becomes
RMg sin β k̂ = (I cmα z + RMax )k̂ . (21.6.58)
Using the fact that I cm = (1 / 2)MR 2 and α x = ax / R , the z -component of Eq. (21.6.58)
is then
21-20
RMg sin β = (1/ 2) MRax + Rmax = (3 / 2) MRax . (21.6.59)
We can now solve Eq. (21.6.59) for the x -component of the acceleration
ax = (2 / 3) g sin β , (21.6.60)
Example 21.5 Bowling Ball
A bowling ball of mass m and radius R is initially thrown down an alley with an initial
speed vi , and it slides without rolling but due to friction it begins to roll (Figure 21.14).
The moment of inertia of the ball about its center of mass is I cm = (2 5)mR 2 . Using
conservation of angular momentum about a point (you need to find that point), find the
speed v f and the angular speed ω f of the bowling ball when it just starts to roll without
slipping?
Solution: We begin introducing coordinates for the angular and linear motion. Choose
an angular coordinate θ increasing in the clockwise direction. Choose the positive k̂
unit vector pointing into the page in Figure 21.15.
Figure 21.15 Coordinate system for ball


Then the angular velocity vector is ω = ω z k̂ = dθ / dt k̂ , and the angular acceleration

vector is α = α z k̂ = d 2θ / dt 2 k̂ . Choose the positive î unit vector pointing to the right in

Figure 21.15. Then the velocity of the center of mass is given by v cm = vcm,x î = dxcm / dt î ,
21-21

and the acceleration of the center of mass is given by a cm = acm,x î = d 2 xcm / dt 2 î . The
free-body force diagram is shown in Figure 21.16.
Figure 21.16 Free-body force diagram for ball

  
At t = 0 , when the ball is released, v cm,0 = v0 î and ω 0 = 0 , so the ball is skidding and
hence the frictional force on the ball due to the sliding of the ball on the surface is kinetic
friction, hence acts in the negative î -direction. Because there is kinetic friction and non-
conservative
 work, mechanical energy is not constant. The rotational equation of motion

is τ S = dL S / dt . In order for angular momentum about some point to remain constant
throughout the motion, the torque about that point must also be zero throughout the
motion. As the ball moves down the alley, the contact point will move, but the frictional
force will always be directed along the line of contact between the bowling bowl and the
surface. Choose any fixed point S along the line of contact then
   
τ S , f = rS , f × fk = 0 (21.6.61)
k k
 
because rS , f and fk are anti-parallel. The gravitation force acts at the center of mass
k
hence the torque due to gravity about S is

  
τ S ,mg = rS ,mg × mg = dmgk̂ , (21.6.62)
where d is the distance from S to the contact point between the ball and the ground. The
torque due to the normal force about S is
  
τ S ,N = rS ,N × mg = −dNk̂ , (21.6.63)
with the same moment arm d . Because the ball is not accelerating in the ĵ -direction,
from Newton’s Second Law, we note that mg − N = 0 . Therefore
  
τ S ,N + τ S ,mg = d(mg − N )k̂ = 0 . (21.6.64)
21-22
There is no torque about any fixed point S along the line of contact between the bowling
bowl and the surface; therefore the angular momentum about that point S is constant,
 
L S ,i = L S , f . (21.6.65)
Choose one fixed point S along the line of contact (Figure 21.17).
(a) (b)
Figure 21.17 Angular momentum about S : (a) initial, (b) final
The initial angular momentum about S is only due to the translation of the center of
mass (Figure 21.17a),
  
L S ,i = rS ,cm,i × mv cm,i = m R vcm,ik̂ . (21.6.66)
In Figure 21.17b, the ball is rolling without slipping. The final angular momentum about
S has both a translational and rotational contribution
   
L S , f = rS ,cm, f × mv cm, f + I cmω f = m R vcm, f k̂ + I cmω z, f k̂ . (21.6.67)
When the ball is rolling without slipping, vcm, f = Rω z, f and also I cm = (2 / 5)m R 2 .
Therefore the final angular momentum about S is

L S , f = (m R + (2 / 5)m R)vcm, f k̂ = (7 / 5)m R vcm, f k̂ . (21.6.68)
Equating the z -components in Eqs. (21.6.66) and (21.6.68) yields
m R vcm,i = (7 / 5)m R vcm, f , (21.6.69)

which we can solve for
vcm, f = (5 / 7)vcm,i . (21.6.70)
The final angular velocity vector is
21-23
 v 5v
ω = ω z, f k̂ = cm, f k̂ = cm,i k̂ . (21.6.71)
R 7R
We could also solve this problem by analyzing the translational motion and the rotational
motion about the center of mass. Gravity exerts no torque about the center of mass, and
the normal component of the contact force has a zero moment arm; the only force that
exerts a torque is the frictional force, with a moment arm of R (the force vector and the
radius vector are perpendicular). The frictional force should be in the negative x -
direction. From the right-hand rule, the direction of the torque is into the page, and hence
in the positive z -direction. Equating the z -component of the torque to the rate of change
of angular momentum about the center of mass yields
τ cm = R f k = I cmα z , (21.6.72)
where f k is the magnitude of the kinetic frictional force and α z is the z -component of
the angular acceleration of the bowling ball. Note that Eq. (21.6.72) results in a positive
z -component of the angular acceleration, which is consistent with the ball tending to
rotate as indicated Figure 21.15. The frictional force is also the only force in the
horizontal direction, and will cause an acceleration of the center of mass,
acm,x = − f k / m . (21.6.73)
Note that the x -component of the acceleration will be negative, as expected. Now we
need to consider the kinematics. The bowling ball will increase its z -component of the
angular velocity as given in Eq. (21.6.72) and decrease its x -component of the velocity
as given in Eq. (21.6.73),
Rf k
ω z (t) = α z t = t
I cm
(21.6.74)
f
vcm,x (t) = vcm,i − k t.
m
As soon as the ball stops slipping, the kinetic friction no longer acts, static friction is
zero, and the ball moves with constant angular and linear velocity. Denote the time when
this happens as t f . At this time the rolling without slipping condition,
ω z (t f ) = vcm,x (t f ) / R , holds and the relations in Eq. (21.6.74) become
fk
R2 t = vcm,x, f
I cm f
(21.6.75)
f
vcm,x,i − k t f = vcm,x, f .
m
21-24
We can now solve the first equation in Eq. (21.6.75) for t f and find that
I cm
tf = v . (21.6.76)
f k R 2 cm,x, f
We now substitute Eq. (21.6.76) into the second equation in Eq. (21.6.75) and find that
f k I cm
vcm,x, f = vcm,x,i − v
m f k R 2 cm,x, f
(21.6.77)
I
vcm,x, f = vcm,x,i − cm 2 vcm,x, f .
mR
The second equation in (21.6.77) is easily solved for
v0 5
vcm,x, f = 2
= vcm,x,i , (21.6.78)
1+ I cm / mR 7
agreeing with Eq. (21.6.70) where we have used I cm = (2 / 5)m R 2 for a uniform sphere.
Example 21.6 Rotation and Translation Object and Stick Collision
A long narrow uniform stick of length l and mass m lies motionless on ice (assume the
ice provides a frictionless surface). The center of mass of the stick is the same as the
geometric center (at the midpoint of the stick). The moment of inertia of the stick about
its center of mass is I cm . A puck (with putty on one side) has the same mass m as the

stick. The puck slides without spinning on the ice with a velocity of v i toward the stick,
hits one end of the stick, and attaches to it (Figure 21.18). You may assume that the
radius of the puck is much less than the length of the stick so that the moment of inertia
of the puck about its center of mass is negligible compared to I cm . (a) How far from the
midpoint of the stick is the center of mass of the stick-puck combination after the

collision? (b) What is the linear velocity v cm, f of the stick plus puck after the collision?
(c) Is mechanical energy conserved during the collision? Explain your reasoning. (d)

What is the angular velocity ω cm, f of the stick plus puck after the collision? (e) How far
does the stick's center of mass move during one rotation of the stick?
21-25
Solution: In this problem we will calculate the center of mass of the puck-stick system
after the collision. There are no external forces or torques acting on this system so the
momentum of the center of mass is constant before and after the collision and the angular
momentum about the center of mass of the puck-stick system is constant before and after
the collision. We shall use these relations to compute the final angular velocity of the
puck-stick about the center of mass.
Figure 21.19 Center of mass of the system
a) With respect to the center of the stick, the center of mass of the stick-puck combination
is
m d + mpuck d puck m(l / 2) l
dcm = stick stick = = . (21.6.79)
mstick + mpuck m+ m 4
where we are neglecting the radius of the puck (Figure 21.19).
b) During the collision, the only net forces on the system (the stick-puck combination)
are the internal forces between the stick and the puck (transmitted through the putty).
Hence, the linear momentum is constant. Initially only the puck had linear momentum
 
p i = m v i = mvi î . After the collision, the center of mass of the system is moving with

velocity v cm, f = vcm, f î . Equating initial and final linear momenta,
21-26
vi
mvi = (2m)vcm, f ⇒ vcm, f = . (21.6.80)
2
The direction of the velocity is the same as the initial direction of the puck’s velocity.
c) The forces that deform the putty do negative work (the putty is compressed
somewhat), and so mechanical energy is not conserved; the collision is totally inelastic.
d) Choose the center of mass of the stick-puck combination, as found in part a), as the
point S about which to find angular momentum. This choice means that after the
collision there is no angular momentum due to the translation of the center of mass.
Before the collision, the angular momentum was entirely due to the motion of the puck,
  
L S ,i = rpuck × p i = (l / 4)(mvi ) k̂ , (21.6.81)
where k̂ is directed out of the page in Figure 21.19. After the collision, the angular
momentum is

L S , f = I cm, f ω cm, f k̂ , (21.6.82)
where I cm, f is the moment of inertia about the center of mass of the stick-puck
combination. This moment of inertia of the stick about the new center of mass is found
from the parallel axis theorem and the moment of inertia of the puck, which is m(l / 4)2 .
Therefore
ml 2
I cm, f = I cm, stick + I cm, puck = (I cm + m(l / 4)2 ) + m(l / 4)2 = I cm + . (21.6.83)
8
 
Inserting this expression into Eq. (21.6.82), equating the expressions for L S , i and L S , f
and solving for ω cm, f yields
m(l / 4)
ω cm, f = v. (21.6.84)
I cm + ml 2 / 8 i
If the stick is uniform, I cm = ml 2 / 12 and Eq. (21.6.84) reduces to
6 vi
ω cm, f = . (21.6.85)
5 l
It may be tempting to try to calculate angular momentum about the contact point C ,
where the putty hits the stick. If this is done, there is no initial angular momentum, and
after the collision the angular momentum will be the sum of two parts, the angular
21-27
momentum of the center of mass of the stick and the angular moment about the center of
the stick,
   
L C , f = rcm × pcm + I cm ω cm, f . (21.6.86)
There are two crucial things to note: First, the speed of the center of mass is not the
speed found in part b); the rotation must be included, so that vcm = vi / 2 − ω cm, f (l / 4) .
 
Second, the direction of rcm × p cm with respect to the contact point C is, from the right-

hand rule, into the page, or the −kˆ -direction, opposite the direction of ω . This is to
cm, f
be expected, as the sum in Eq. (21.6.86) must be zero. Adding the k̂ -components (the
only components) in Eq. (21.6.86),
−(l / 2)m(vi / 2 − ω cm, f (l / 4)) + I cmω cm, f = 0 . (21.6.87)
Solving Eq. (21.6.87) for ω cm, f yields Eq. (21.6.84).
This alternative derivation should serve two purposes. One is that it doesn’t matter which
point we use to find angular momentum. The second is that use of foresight, in this case
choosing the center of mass of the system so that the final velocity does not contribute to
the angular momentum, can prevent extra calculation. It’s often a matter of trial and
error (“learning by misadventure”) to find the “best” way to solve a problem.
e) The time of one rotation will be the same for all observers, independent of choice of
origin. This fact is crucial in solving problems, in that the angular velocity will be the
same (this was used in the alternate derivation for part d) above). The time for one
rotation is the period T = 2π / ω f and the distance the center of mass moves is
vcm
xcm = vcmT = 2π
ω cm, f
vi / 2
= 2π (21.6.88)
⎛ m(l / 4) ⎞
⎜ I + ml 2 / 8 ⎟ vi
⎝ cm ⎠
I cm + ml 2 / 8
= 2π .
m(l / 2)
Using I cm = ml 2 / 12 for a uniform stick gives

5
xcm = π l . (21.6.89)
6
21-28
Chapter 22 Three Dimensional Rotations and Gyroscopes
22.1 Introduction to Three Dimensional Rotations ............................................................... 1

22.1.1 Angular Velocity for Three Dimensional Rotations ............................................... 1
Example 22.1 Angular Velocity of a Rolling Bicycle Wheel ............................................. 2
22.2 Gyroscope .......................................................................................................................... 3
22.3 Why Does a Gyroscope Precess? ..................................................................................... 9
22.3.1 Deflection of a Particle by a Small Impulse ............................................................. 9
22.3.2 Effect of Small Impulse on Tethered Object ......................................................... 10
Example 22.2 Effect of Large Impulse on Tethered Object............................................ 11
22.3.3 Effect of Small Impulse Couple on Baton .............................................................. 12
22.3.4 Effect of Small Impulse Couple on Massless Shaft of Baton ............................... 12
22.3.5 Effect of a Small Impulse Couple on a Rotating Disk .......................................... 13
22.3.6 Effect of a Force Couple on a Rotating Disk ......................................................... 13
22.3.7 Effect of a Small Impulse Couple on a Non-Rotating Disc .................................. 15
22.4 Worked Examples ........................................................................................................... 15
Example 22.3 Tilted Toy Gyroscope ................................................................................. 15
Example 22.4 Gyroscope on Rotating Platform ............................................................... 17
Example 22.5 Grain Mill .................................................................................................... 20
Chapter 22 Three Dimensional Rotations and Gyroscopes
Hypothesis: The earth, having once received a rotational movement around an
axis, which agrees with its axis on the figure or only differs from it slightly, will
always conserve this uniform movement, and its axis of rotation will always
remain the same and will be directed toward the same points of the sky, unless the
earth should be subjected to external forces which might cause some change
either in the speed of rotational movement or in the position of the axis of
rotation.1
Leonhard Euler
22.1 Introduction to Three Dimensional Rotations
Most of the examples and applications we have considered concerned the rotation of rigid bodies
about a fixed axis. However, there are many examples of rigid bodies that rotate about an axis
that is changing its direction. A turning bicycle wheel, a gyroscope, the earth’s precession about
its axis, a spinning top, and a coin rolling on a table are all examples of this type of motion.
These motions can be very complex and difficult to analyze. However, for each of these motions
we know that if there a non-zero torque about a point S , then the angular momentum about S
must change in time, according to the rotational equation of motion,

 dL S
τS = . (22.1.1)
dt
We also know that the angular momentum about S of a rotating body is the sum of the orbital
angular momentum about S and the spin angular momentum about the center of mass.
  
L S = Lorbital
S
+ Lspin
cm
. (22.1.2)
For fixed axis rotation the spin angular momentum about the center of mass is just
 
Lspin
cm
= I cm ω cm . (22.1.3)

where ω cm is the angular velocity about the center of mass and is directed along the fixed axis of
rotation.
22.1.1 Angular Velocity for Three Dimensional Rotations
1
L. Euler, Recherches sur la precession des equinoxes et sur la nutation de l'axe de la terre
(Research concerning the precession of the equinoxes and of the nutation of the earth's axis), Memoires de
l'academie des sciences de Berlin 5, 1751, pp. 289-325
22-1
When the axis of rotation is no longer fixed, the angular velocity will no longer point in a fixed
direction.
For an object that is rotating with angular coordinates (θ x ,θ y ,θ z ) about each

respective Cartesian axis, the angular velocity of an object that is rotating about
each axis is defined to be
 dθ dθ dθ
ω = x î + y ĵ + z k̂
dt dt dt (22.1.4)
= ω x î + ω y ĵ + ω z k̂
This definition is the result of a property of very small (infinitesimal) angular rotations in which
the order of rotations does matter. For example, consider an object that undergoes a rotation
 
about the x -axis, ω x = ω x î , and then a second rotation about the y -axis, ω y = ω y ĵ . Now
consider a different sequence of rotations. The object first undergoes a rotation about the y -axis,
 
ω y = ω y ĵ , and then undergoes a second rotation about the x -axis, ω x = ω x î . In both cases the
   
object will end up in the same position indicated that ω x + ω y = ω y + ω x , a necessary condition
that must be satisfied in order for a physical quantity to be a vector quantity.
Example 22.1 Angular Velocity of a Rolling Bicycle Wheel
A bicycle wheel of mass m and radius R rolls without slipping about the z -axis. An axle of
length b passes through its center. The bicycle wheel undergoes two simultaneous rotations. The

wheel circles around the z -axis with angular speed Ω and associated angular velocity Ω = Ω z k̂
(Figure 22.1). Because the wheel is rotating without slipping, it is spinning about its center of

mass with angular speed ω spin and associated angular velocity ω spin = −ω spinr̂ .
R
k̂ ˆ
S
r̂
The angular velocity of the wheel is the sum of these two vector contributions
22-2

ω = Ω k̂ − ω spinr̂ . (22.1.5)
Because the wheel is rolling without slipping, vcm = bΩ = ω spin R and so ω spin = bΩ / R . The
angular velocity is then

ω = Ω (k̂ − (b / R)r̂) . (22.1.6)
The orbital angular momentum about the point S where the axle meets the axis of rotation
(Figure 22.1), is then

Lorbital
S
= bmvcm k̂ = mb2Ω k̂ . (22.1.7)
The spin angular momentum about the center of mass is more complicated. The wheel is rotating
about both the z -axis and the radial axis. Therefore

Lspin
cm
= I z Ω k̂ + I rω spin (−r̂) . (22.1.8)
Therefore the angular momentum about S is the sum of these two contributions

L S = mb2Ω k̂ + I z Ω k̂ + I rω spin (−r̂)
(22.1.9)
= (mb2Ω + I z Ω) k̂ − I r (b Ω / R)r̂.
Comparing Eqs. (22.1.6) and (22.1.9), we note that the angular momentum about S is not
proportional to the angular velocity.
22.2 Gyroscope
A toy gyroscope of mass m consists of a spinning flywheel mounted in a suspension frame that
allows the flywheel’s axle to point in any direction. One end of the axle is supported on a pylon a
distance d from the center of mass of the gyroscope.
Figure 22.2a Toy Gyroscope
22-3
Choose polar coordinates so that the axle of the gyroscope flywheel is aligned along the r -axis
and the vertical axis is the z -axis (Figure 22.2 shows a schematic representation of the
gyroscope).
d g d g
k̂ k̂
S .
cm
ˆ
r̂
S .
cm r̂
ˆ
Figure 22.2 A toy gyroscope. Figure 22.3 Angular rotations
The flywheel is spinning about its axis with a spin angular velocity,

ω s = ω sr̂ , (22.2.1)
where ω s is the radial component and ω s > 0 for the case illustrated in Figure 22.2.
When we release the gyroscope it undergoes a very surprising motion. Instead of falling
downward, the center of mass rotates about a vertical axis that passes through the contact point
S of the axle with the pylon with a precessional angular velocity
 dθ
Ω = Ω z k̂ = k̂ , (22.2.2)
dt
where Ω z = dθ / dt is the z -component and Ω z > 0 for the case illustrated in Figure 22.3.
Therefore the angular velocity of the flywheel is the sum of these two contributions
  
ω = ω s + Ω = ω s r̂ + Ω z k̂ . (22.2.3)
We shall study the special case where the magnitude of the precession component Ω z of the
angular velocity is much less than the magnitude of the spin component ω s of the spin angular

velocity, Ω z << ω s , so that the magnitude of the angular velocity ω  ω s and Ω z and ω s are
nearly constant. These assumptions are collectively called the gyroscopic approximation.
The force diagram for the gyroscope is shown in Figure 22.4. The gravitational force acts at the
 
center of the mass and is directed downward, F g = −mg k̂ . There is also a contact force, F c ,

between the end of the axle and the pylon. It may seem that the contact force, F c , has only an

upward component, F v = Fz k̂ , but as we shall soon see there must also be a radial inward
22-4

component to the contact force, F r = Fr r̂ , with Fr < 0 , because the center of mass undergoes
circular motion.
Fz
Fpivot k̂
rS ,cm
S .
cm
ˆ
r̂
Fr
S
mg
Figure 22.4 Force and torque diagram for the gyroscope
The reason that the gyroscope does not fall down is that the vertical component of the contact
force exactly balances the gravitational force
Fz − mg = 0 . (22.2.4)
What about the torque about the contact point S ? The contact force acts at S so it does not
contribute to the torque about S ; only the gravitational force contributes to the torque about S
(Figure 22.5b). The direction of the torque about S is given by
  
τ S = rS , cm × Fgravity = d r̂ × mg(−k̂) = d mgθ̂ , (22.2.5)
and is in the positive θ̂ -direction. However we know that if there a non-zero torque about S ,
then the angular momentum about S must change in time, according to

 dL S
τS = . (22.2.6)
dt
The angular momentum about the point S of the gyroscope is given by

   spin
L S = Lorbital
S
+ L cm
. (22.2.7)
The orbital angular momentum about the point S is

  
Lorbital
S
= rS ,cm × mv cm = d r̂ × mdΩ z θ̂ = md 2Ω z k̂ . (22.2.8)
The magnitude of the orbital angular momentum about S is nearly constant and the direction
does not change. Therefore
22-5
d  orbital 
L = 0. (22.2.9)
dt S
The spin angular momentum includes two terms. Recall that the flywheel undergoes two separate
rotations about different axes. It is spinning about the flywheel axis with spin angular velocity

ω s . As the flywheel precesses around the pivot point, the flywheel rotates about the z -axis with

precessional angular velocity Ω (Figure 22.5). The spin angular momentum therefore is given
by

Lspin
cm
= I rω sr̂ + I z Ω z k̂ , (22.2.10)
where I r is the moment of inertia with respect to the flywheel axis and I z is the moment of
inertia with respect to the z -axis. If we assume the axle is massless and the flywheel is uniform
with radius R , then I r = (1 / 2)mR 2 . By the perpendicular axis theorem I r = I z + I y = 2I z , hence
I z = (1/ 4)mR 2 .
Figure 22.5: Rotations about center of mass Figure 22.6 Spin angular momentum.
of flywheel
Recall that the gyroscopic approximation holds when Ω z << ω s , which implies that
I z Ω z << I rω s , and therefore we can ignore the contribution to the spin angular momentum from
the rotation about the vertical axis, and so

Lspin
cm
 I cmω sr̂ . (22.2.11)
(The contribution to the spin angular momentum due to the rotation about the z -axis, I z Ω z k̂ , is
nearly constant in both magnitude and direction so it does not change in time,

d(I z Ω z k̂) / dt  0 .) Therefore the angular momentum about S is approximately
 
L S  Lspin
cm
= I cmω sr̂ . (22.2.12)
Our initial expectation that the gyroscope should fall downward due to the torque that the
gravitational force exerts about the contact point S leads to a violation of the torque law. If the
22-6

center of mass did start to fall then the change in the spin angular momentum, ΔLspin cm
, would
point in the negative z -direction and that would contradict the vector aspect of Eq. (22.2.6).

Instead of falling down, the angular momentum about the center of mass, Lspin cm
, must change
spin
direction such that the direction of ΔL cm is in the same direction as torque about S (Eq.
(22.2.5)), the positive θ̂ -direction.
Recall that in our study of circular motion, we have already encountered several examples in
which the direction of a constant magnitude vector changes. We considered a point object of
mass m moving in a circle of radius r . When we choose a coordinate system with an origin at

the center of the circle, the position vector r is directed radially outward. As the mass moves in
a circle, the position vector has a constant magnitude but changes in direction. The velocity
vector is given by

 dr d dθ
v= = (r r̂) = r θ̂ = rω z θ̂ (22.2.13)
dt dt dt
and has direction that is perpendicular to the position vector (tangent to the circle), (Figure
22.7a)).
Figure 22.7 (a) Rotating position and velocity vector; (b) velocity and acceleration vector for
uniform circular motion
For uniform circular motion, the magnitude of the velocity is constant but the direction
constantly changes and we found that the acceleration is given by (Figure 22.7b)

 dv d dθ
a= = (vθ θ̂) = vθ (−r̂) = rω zω z (−r̂) = −rω z2r̂ . (22.2.14)
dt dt dt
Note that we used the facts that

dr̂ dθ
= θ̂,
dt dt
, (22.2.15)
d θ̂ dθ
=− r̂
dt dt
22-7
in Eqs. (22.2.13) and (22.2.14). We can apply the same reasoning to how the spin angular
changes in time (Figure 22.8).
The time derivative of the spin angular momentum is given by

  spin
dL S dL cm, ω s  spin dθ 
= = L cm, ω θ̂ = Lspin
cm, ω s
Ω z θ̂ = I rω sΩ z θ̂ . (22.2.16)
dt dt s
dt
where Ω z = dθ / dt is the z -component and Ω z > 0 . The center of mass of the flywheel rotates
about a vertical axis that passes through the contact point S of the axle with the pylon with a
precessional angular velocity
 dθ
Ω = Ω z k̂ = k̂ , (22.2.17)
dt
Substitute Eqs. (22.2.16) and (22.2.5) into Eq. (22.2.6) yielding

d mgθ̂ = Lspin
cm
Ω z θ̂ . (22.2.18)
Solving Equation (22.2.18) for the z -component of the precessional angular velocity of the
gyroscope yields
d mg d mg
Ω z =  spin = . (22.2.19)
L cm I cm ω s
dL cm dL cm
dt dt
L cm
. . L cm
dL cm
L cm
. . dt
dL cm L cm
dt
L cm
. .
L cm
dL cm dL cm
dt dt
view from above
Figure 22.8 Time changing direction of the spin angular momentum
22-8
22.3 Why Does a Gyroscope Precess?
Why does a gyroscope precess? We now understand that the torque is causing the spin angular
momentum to change but the motion still seems mysterious. We shall try to understand why the
angular momentum changes direction by first examining the role of force and impulse on a
single rotating particle and then generalize to a rotating disk.
22.3.1 Deflection of a Particle by a Small Impulse
L +z
L2 L1
+z
S +y
+y
+z
S
rS
+z rS
I=F t
p2 I=F t
.
p p2
+x p
p1
+x
p1
(a) (b)
Figure 22.9 (a) Deflection of a particle by a small impulse, (b) change in angular momentum
about origin

We begin by first considering how a particle with momentum p1 undergoes a deflection due to a
 
small impulse (Figure 22.9a). If the impulse I << p1 , the primary effect is to rotate the
    
momentum p1 about the x -axis by a small angle θ , with p 2 = p1 + Δp . The application of I

causes a change in the angular momentum L O,1 about the origin S , according to the torque
! ! ! !    ! ! !
equation, ΔL S = τ ave, S Δt = (rS × Fave )Δt . Because I = Δp = Fave Δt , we have that ΔL S = rS × I . As
!
a result, ΔL S rotates about the x -axis by a small angle θ , to a new angular momentum
! ! ! ! !
L S ,2 = L S ,1 + ΔL S . Note that although L S is in the z -direction, ΔL S is in the negative y -
direction (Figure 22.9b).
22-9
22.3.2 Effect of Small Impulse on Tethered Object
+z L +z
L1
L2 L1
. .
S
F t
+y S
rS F t rS +y
+x
p1 +x
p1
(a) (b)
Figure 22.10a Small impulse on object undergoing circular motion, (b) change in angular
momentum
Now consider an object that is attached to a string

 and is rotating about a fixed point S with
 ! 
momentum p1 . The object is given an impulse I perpendicular to rS and to p1 . Neglect gravity.
!
As a result ΔL S rotates about the x -axis by a small angle θ (Figure 22.10a). Note that although
 !
I is in the z -direction, ΔL S is in the negative y - direction (Figure 22.10b). Note that although

I is in the z -direction, the plane in which the ball moves also rotates about the x -axis by the
same angle (Figure 22.11).
L +z
L2 L1
F t +y
p2
+x p
p1
Figure 22.11 Plane of object rotates about x -axis
22-10
Example 22.2 Effect of Large Impulse on Tethered Object
+z
L1
1 p2
8 2
6
5
4
3 L2
+x
. S
p1
+y


What impulse, I , must be given to the ball in order to rotate its orbit by 90 degrees as shown
without changing its speed (Figure 21.12)?
  
Solution: h. The impulse I must halt the momentum p1 and provide a momentum p 2 of equal
 
magnitude along the z -direction such that I = Δp .
+z
+z
L L1
.
+y S
I=F t rS +y
L2
+x
S
t = rS I
Figure 22.13 Impulse and torque about S
The angular impulse about S must be equal to the change in angular momentum about S
! ! ! ! ! !
τ S Δt = rS × I = (rS × Δp) = ΔL S (22.3.1)
22-11
!
The change in angular momentum, ΔL S , due to the torque about S , cancels the z -component of
!
L S and adds a component of the same magnitude in the negative y -direction (Figure 22.13).
22.3.3 Effect of Small Impulse Couple on Baton
. .
+z
L1 L +z
p1
L2 L1
. .
p2
S I
I +y I
I +y
p2
+x
p1 +x p
p1
(a)
(b)
Figure 22.14 (a) and (b)
Now consider two equal masses at the ends of a massless rod, which spins about its center. We
apply an impulse couple to insure no motion of the center of mass. Again note that the impulse
couple is applied in the z -direction (Figure 22.14a). The resulting torque about S lies along the
negative y -direction and the plane of rotation tilts about the x -axis (Figure 22.14b).
22.3.4 Effect of Small Impulse Couple on Massless Shaft of Baton
p1
+z
. p1
+z
.
.
Ib
.
Ia
S
Ia
+y
+x
. Ib
.
S
p1
+y
+x
p1 (b)
(a)
Figure 22.15 Apply impulse couple to (a) objects and (b) shaft
!
Instead of applying the impulse couple Ia to the masses (Figure 21.15a), one could apply the
! !
same impulse couple Ib = Ia to the vertical massless shaft that is connected to the baton (Figure
22.15b) to achieve the same result.
22-12
.
+z
L
L2 Ib
p1
L1
.A
+x
. Ib
.
S
p1
+y
Figure 22.16 Twisting shaft causes shaft and plane to rotate about x -axis
Twisting the shaft around the y -axis causes the shaft and the plane in which the baton moves to
rotate about the x -axis.
22.3.5 Effect of a Small Impulse Couple on a Rotating Disk
+z
L
Ib
L2 L1
.
+y
+x
Ib
.
Figure 22.17 Impulse couple causes a disk to rotate about the x -axis.
Now let’s consider a rotating disk. The plane of a rotating disk and its shaft behave just like the
plane of the rotating baton and its shaft when one attempts to twist the shaft about the y -axis.
The plane of the disk rotates about the x -axis (Figure! 22.17). This unexpected result is due to
the large pre-existing angular momentum about S , L1 , due to the spinning disk. It does not
matter where along the shaft the impulse couple is applied, as long as it creates the same torque
about S .
22.3.6 Effect of a Force Couple on a Rotating Disk
22-13
+z Ls +z
Ib
L s (t + t) L s (t)
Ib
. .
+y
+y
+x
. .
Ib Ib
Figure 22.18 A series of small impulse couples causes the tip of the shaft to execute
circular motion about the x -axis
A series of small impulse couples, or equivalently a continuous force couple (with force
F ), causes the tip of the shaft to execute circular motion about the x -axis (Figure 22.18).
The magnitude of the angular momentum about S changes according to
! !
dL S = L S Ω dt = Iω Ω dt . Recall that torque and changing angular momentum about S
! ! ! !
are related by τ S = dL S / dt . Therefore τ S = L S Ω = Iω Ω . The precession rate of the
shaft is the ratio of the magnitude of the torque to the angular momentum
! ! !
Ω = τ S / L S = τ S / Iω .
Figure 22.19 Precessing gyroscope with hanging object
Thus we can explain the motion of a precessing gyroscope in which the torque about the
center of mass is provided by the force of gravity on the hanging object (Figure 22.19).
22-14
22.3.7 Effect of a Small Impulse Couple on a Non-Rotating Disc
Figure 22.20 Impulse couple on non-rotating disk causes shaft to rotate about negative y
-axis.
! !
If the disk is not rotating to begin with, ΔL S is also the final L S . The shaft moves in the
direction it is pushed (Figure 22.20).

Example 22.3 Tilted Toy Gyroscope
A wheel is at one end of an axle of length d . The axle is pivoted at an angle φ with
respect to the vertical. The wheel is set into motion so that it executes uniform
precession; that is, the wheel’s center of mass moves with uniform circular motion with z
-component of precessional angular velocity Ω z . The wheel has mass m and moment of

inertia I cm about its center of mass. Its spin angular velocity ω s has magnitude ω s and is
directed as shown in Figure 22.21. Assume that the gyroscope approximation holds,
Ω z << ω s . Neglect the mass of the axle. What is the z -component of the precessional
angular velocity Ω z ? Does the gyroscope rotate clockwise or counterclockwise about the
vertical axis (as seen from above)?
s
k̂
d . ˆ
r̂
S Lspin
cm g
22-15
Solution: The gravitational force acts at the center of mass and is directed downward,

F g = −mg k̂ . Let S denote the contact point between the pylon and the axle. The contact
force between the pylon and the axle is acting at S so it does not contribute to the torque
about S . Only the gravitational force contributes to the torque. Let’s choose cylindrical
coordinates. The torque about S is
  
τ S = rS ,cm × F g = (d sin φ r̂ + d cosφ k̂) × mg(−k̂) = mgd sin φ θ̂ , (22.4.1)
which is into the page in Figure 22.21. Because we are assuming that Ω z << ω s , we only
consider contribution from the spinning about the flywheel axle to the spin angular
momentum,

ω s = −ω s sin φ r̂ − ω s cosφ k̂ (22.4.2)
The spin angular momentum has a vertical and radial component,

!
Lspin
cm
= − I cmω s sin φ r̂ − I cmω s cos φ k̂ . (22.4.3)
We assume that the spin angular velocity ω s is constant. As the wheel precesses, the
time derivative of the spin angular momentum arises from the change in the direction of
the radial component of the spin angular momentum,
d spin dr̂ dθ
L cm = − I cmω s sin φ = − I cmω s sin φ θ̂ . (22.4.4)
dt dt dt
where we used the fact that

dr̂ dθ
= θ̂ . (22.4.5)
dt dt
The z -component of the angular velocity of the flywheel about the vertical axis is
defined to be
dθ
Ωz ≡ . (22.4.6)
dt
Therefore the rate of change of the spin angular momentum is then
d spin
L = − I cmω s sin φ Ω z θ̂ . (22.4.7)
dt cm
The torque about S induces the spin angular momentum about S to change,
22-16

 dLspin
τS = cm
. (22.4.8)
dt
Now substitute Equation (22.4.1) for the torque about S , and Equation (22.4.7) for the
rate of change of the spin angular momentum into Equation (22.4.8), yielding
mgd sin φ θ̂ = − I cmω s sin φ Ω z θ̂ . (22.4.9)
Solving Equation (22.2.18) for the z -component of the precessional angular velocity of
the gyroscope yields
d mg
Ωz = − . (22.4.10)
I cm ω s
The z -component of the precessional angular velocity is independent of the angle φ .

!
Because Ω z < 0 , the direction of the precessional angular velocity, Ω = Ω z k̂ , is in the
negative z -direction. That means that the gyroscope precesses in the clockwise direction
when seen from above (Figure 21.22).
dL cm view from
dt above
L cm
.
dL cm
. dt
L cm
.
L cm dL cm
dt
Figure 21.22 Precessional angular velocity of tilted gyroscope as seen from above
Both the torque and the time derivative of the spin angular momentum point in the θ̂ -
direction indicating that the gyroscope will precess clockwise when seen from above in
agreement with the calculation that Ω z < 0 .
Example 22.4 Gyroscope on Rotating Platform
A gyroscope consists of an axle of negligible mass and a disk of mass M and radius R
mounted on a platform that rotates with angular speed Ω . The gyroscope is spinning with
22-17
angular speed ω . Forces Fa and Fb act on the gyroscopic mounts. What are the
magnitudes of the forces Fa and Fb (Figure 22.22)? You may assume that the moment of
inertia of the gyroscope about an axis passing through the center of mass normal to the
plane of the disk is given by I cm .
d d
A B
FA FB
Solution: Figure 22.23 shows a choice of coordinate system and force diagram on the
gyroscope.
Figure 22.23 Free-body force diagram
The vertical forces sum to zero since there is no vertical motion
Fa + Fb − Mg = 0 (22.4.11)
22-18
Using the coordinate system depicted in the Figure 22.23, torque about the center of mass
is

τ cm = d(Fa − Fb )θ̂ (22.4.12)
The spin angular momentum is (gyroscopic approximation)


Lspin
cm
 I cm ω r̂ (22.4.13)
Looking down on the gyroscope from above (Figure 2.23), the radial component of the
angular momentum about the center of mass is rotating counterclockwise.
Figure 22.24 Change in angular momentum
During a very short time interval Δt , the change in the spin angular momentum is

ΔLspin
cm
= I cm ωΔθ θ̂ , (Figure 22.24). Taking limits we have that
 spin
dLspin ΔL Δθ dθ
cm
= lim cm
= lim I cm ω θ̂ = I cm ω θ̂ (22.4.14)
dt Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt dt
We can now apply the torque law


 dLspin
τ cm = cm
. (22.4.15)
dt
Substitute Eqs. (22.4.12) and (22.4.14) into Eq. (22.4.15) and just taking the component
of the resulting vector equation yields
d(Fa − Fb ) = I cm ω Ω z . (22.4.16)
We can divide Eq. (22.4.16) by the quantity d yielding
I cm ω Ω z
Fa − Fb = . (22.4.17)
d
We can now use Eqs. (22.4.17) and (22.4.11) to solve for the forces Fa and Fb ,
22-19
1⎛ I ω Ωz ⎞
Fa = ⎜ Mg + cm ⎟⎠ (22.4.18)
2⎝ d
1⎛ I ω Ωz ⎞
Fb = ⎜ Mg − cm ⎟⎠ . (22.4.19)
2⎝ d
Note that if Ω z = Mgd / I cm ω then Fb = 0 and one could remove the right hand support
in the Figure 22.22. The simple pivoted gyroscope that we already analyzed Section 22.2
satisfied this condition. The forces we just found are the forces that the mounts must exert
on the gyroscope in order to cause it to move in the desired direction. It is important to
understand that the gyroscope is exerting equal and opposite forces on the mounts, i.e. the
structure that is holding it. This is a manifestation of Newton’s Third Law.
Example 22.5 Grain Mill
In a mill, grain is ground by a massive wheel that rolls without slipping in a circle on a
flat horizontal millstone driven by a vertical shaft. The rolling wheel has mass M , radius
b and is constrained to roll in a horizontal circle of radius R at angular speed Ω (Figure
22.25). The wheel pushes down on the lower millstone with a force equal to twice its
weight (normal force). The mass of the axle of the wheel can be neglected. What is the
precessional angular frequency Ω ?
g
ˆ
P. r̂
k̂
b
M
Solution: Figure 22.5 shows the pivot point along with some convenient coordinate axes.
For rolling without slipping, the speed of the center of mass of the wheel is related to the
angular spin speed by
vcm = bω . (22.4.20)
22-20
Also the speed of the center of mass is related to the angular speed about the vertical axis
associated with the circular motion of the center of mass by
vcm = RΩ . (22.4.21)
Therefore equating Eqs. (22.4.20) and (22.4.21) we have that
ω = ΩR / b . (22.4.22)
Assuming a uniform millwheel, I cm = (1/ 2) Mb2 , the magnitude of the horizontal

component of the spin angular momentum about the center of mass is
1 1
Lspin
cm
= I cmω = Mb2ω = Ω MRb . (22.4.23)
2 2

The horizontal component of Lspin
cm
is directed inward, and in vector form is given by
 Ω MRb
Lspin
cm
=− r̂ . (22.4.24)
2
The axle exerts both a force and torque on the wheel, and this force and torque would be
quite complicated. That’s why we consider the forces and torques on the axle/wheel
combination. The normal force of the wheel on the ground is equal in magnitude to
N W,G = 2mg so the third-law counterpart; the normal force of the ground on the wheel
has the same magnitude N G,W = 2mg . The joint (or hinge) at point P therefore must
 
exert a force FH,A on the end of the axle that has two components, an inward force F2 to

maintain the circular motion and a downward force F1 to reflect that the upward normal
force is larger in magnitude than the weight (Figure 22.26).
k̂
F2 P r̂
.
F1 Mg ˆ
Figure 22.26 Free-body force diagram on wheel
22-21

About point P , FH,A exerts no torque. The normal force exerts a torque of magnitude

N G,W R = 2mgR , directed out of the page, or, in vector form, τ P,N = −2mgRθ̂ . The
weight exerts a toque of magnitude mgR , directed into the page, or, in vector form,

τ P,mg = mgR θ̂ . The torque about P is then
  
τ P = τ P,N + τ P,mg = −2mgRθ̂ + mgR θ̂ = −mgR θ̂ . (22.4.25)
As the wheel rolls, the horizontal component of the angular momentum about the center
of mass will rotate, and the inward-directed vector will change in the negative θ̂ -
direction. The angular momentum about the point P has orbital and spin decomposition
  
L P = Lorbital
P
+ Lspin
cm
. (22.4.26)
The orbital angular momentum about the point P is

  
Lorbital
P
= rP,cm × mv cm = R r̂ × mbΩ θ̂ = mRbΩ z k̂ . (22.4.27)
The magnitude of the orbital angular momentum about P is nearly constant and the
direction does not change. Therefore

dLorbital 
P
=0. (22.4.28)
dt
Therefore the change in angular momentum about the point P is

 
dL P dLspin d ⎛ Ω mRb ⎞ 1
= cm
= ⎜ (−r̂)⎟ = Ω mRbΩ(− θ̂) , (22.4.29)
dt dt dt ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
where we used Eq. (22.4.24) for the magnitude of the horizontal component of the
angular momentum about the center of mass. This is consistent with the torque about P
pointing out of the plane of Figure 22.26. We can now apply the rotational equation of
motion,

 dL P
τP = . (22.4.30)
dt
Substitute Eqs.(22.4.25) and (22.4.29) into Eq. (22.4.30) yielding
1
mgR(− θ̂) = Ω2 mRb(− θ̂). (22.4.31)
2
We can now solve Eq. (22.4.31) for the angular speed about the vertical axis
22-22
2g
Ω= . (22.4.32)
b
22-23
Chapter 23 Simple Harmonic Motion
23.1 Introduction: Periodic Motion ............................................................................. 1

23.1.1 Simple Harmonic Motion: Quantitative ...................................................... 1
23.2 Simple Harmonic Motion: Analytic .................................................................... 3
23.2.1 General Solution of Simple Harmonic Oscillator Equation ...................... 6
Example 23.1: Phase and Amplitude ...................................................................... 7
Example 23.2: Block-Spring System ..................................................................... 10
23.3 Energy and the Simple Harmonic Oscillator ................................................... 11
23.3.1 Simple Pendulum: Force Approach ........................................................... 13
23.3.2 Simple Pendulum: Energy Approach ........................................................ 16
23.4 Worked Examples ............................................................................................... 18
Example 23.3: Rolling Without Slipping Oscillating Cylinder ........................... 18
Example 23.4: U-Tube ............................................................................................ 19
23.5 Damped Oscillatory Motion ............................................................................... 21
23.5.1 Energy in the Underdamped Oscillator ..................................................... 24
23.6 Forced Damped Oscillator ................................................................................. 26
23.6.1 Resonance ..................................................................................................... 27
23.6.2 Mechanical Energy ...................................................................................... 30
Example 23.5: Time-Averaged Mechanical Energy ............................................ 30
23.6.3 The Time-averaged Power .......................................................................... 34
23.6.4 Quality Factor .............................................................................................. 35
23.7 Small Oscillations ................................................................................................ 36
Example 23.6: Quartic Potential ........................................................................... 39
Example 23.7: Lennard-Jones 6-12 Potential ....................................................... 41
Appendix 23A: Solution to Simple Harmonic Oscillator Equation ....................... 42
Appendix 23B: Complex Numbers ............................................................................ 45
Appendix 23C: Solution to the Underdamped Simple Harmonic Oscillator ........ 48
Appendix 23D: Solution to the Forced Damped Oscillator Equation.................... 50
Chapter 23 Simple Harmonic Motion
…Indeed it is not in the nature of a simple pendulum to provide equal and
reliable measurements of time, since the wide lateral excursions often
made may be observed to be slower than more narrow ones; however, we
have been led in a different direction by geometry, from which we have
found a means of suspending the pendulum, with which we were
previously unacquainted, and by giving close attention to a line with a
certain curvature, the time of the swing can be chosen equal to some
calculated value and is seen clearly in practice to be in wonderful
agreement with that ratio. As we have checked the lapses of time
measured by these clocks after making repeated land and sea trials, the
effects of motion are seen to have been avoided, so sure and reliable are
the measurements; now it can be seen that both astronomical studies and
the art of navigation will be greatly helped by them…1
Christian Huygens
23.1 Introduction: Periodic Motion
There are two basic ways to measure time: by duration or periodic motion. Early clocks
measured duration by calibrating the burning of incense or wax, or the flow of water or
sand from a container. Our calendar consists of years determined by the motion of the
sun; months determined by the motion of the moon; days by the rotation of the earth;
hours by the motion of cyclic motion of gear trains; and seconds by the oscillations of
springs or pendulums. In modern times a second is defined by a specific number of
vibrations of radiation, corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels
of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom.
Sundials calibrate the motion of the sun through the sky, including seasonal
corrections. A clock escapement is a device that can transform continuous movement into
discrete movements of a gear train. The early escapements used oscillatory motion to stop
and start the turning of a weight-driven rotating drum. Soon, complicated escapements
were regulated by pendulums, the theory of which was first developed by the physicist
Christian Huygens in the mid 17th century. The accuracy of clocks was increased and the
size reduced by the discovery of the oscillatory properties of springs by Robert Hooke.
By the middle of the 18th century, the technology of timekeeping advanced to the point
that William Harrison developed timekeeping devices that were accurate to one second in
a century.
23.1.1 Simple Harmonic Motion: Quantitative
1
Christian Huygens, The Pendulum Clock or The Motion of Pendulums Adapted to Clocks By Geometrical
Demonstrations, tr. Ian Bruce, p. 1.
23-1
One of the most important examples of periodic motion is simple harmonic
motion (SHM), in which some physical quantity varies sinusoidally. Suppose a function
of time has the form of a sine wave function,
y(t) = Asin(2π t / T ) (23.1.1)
where A > 0 is the amplitude (maximum value). The function y(t) varies between A
and − A , because a sine function varies between +1 and −1 . A plot of y (t ) vs. time is
Figure 23.1 Sinusoidal function of time
The sine function is periodic in time. This means that the value of the function at
time t will be exactly the same at a later time t ′ = t + T , where T is the period. That the
sine function satisfies the periodic condition can be seen from
⎡ 2π ⎤ ⎡ 2π ⎤ ⎡ 2π ⎤
y (t + T ) = A sin ⎢ (t + T ) ⎥ = A sin ⎢ t + 2π ⎥ = A sin ⎢ t ⎥ = y (t ) . (23.1.2)
⎣T ⎦ ⎣T ⎦ ⎣T ⎦
The frequency, f , is defined to be

f ≡ 1/ T . (23.1.3)
The SI unit of frequency is inverse seconds, ⎡⎣s −1 ⎤⎦ , or hertz [Hz] . The angular frequency
of oscillation is defined to be
ω 0 ≡ 2π / T = 2π f , (23.1.4)
and is measured in radians per second. (The angular frequency of oscillation is denoted
by ω 0 to distinguish from the angular speed ω = dθ / dt .) One oscillation per second,
1 Hz , corresponds to an angular frequency of 2π rad ⋅ s −1 . (Unfortunately, the same
23-2
symbol ω is used for angular speed in circular motion. For uniform circular motion the
angular speed is equal to the angular frequency but for non-uniform motion the angular
speed is not constant. The angular frequency for simple harmonic motion is a constant by
definition.) We therefore have several different mathematical representations for
sinusoidal motion
y(t) = Asin(2π t / T ) = Asin(2π f t) = Asin(ω 0t) . (23.1.5)
23.2 Simple Harmonic Motion: Analytic
Our first example of a system that demonstrates simple harmonic motion is a spring-
object system on a frictionless surface, shown in Figure 23.2
Figure 23.2 Spring-object system
The object is attached to one end of a spring. The other end of the spring is attached to a
wall at the left in Figure 23.2. Assume that the object undergoes one-dimensional motion.
The spring has a spring constant k and equilibrium length leq . Choose the origin at the
equilibrium position and choose the positive x -direction to the right in the Figure 23.2.
In the figure, x > 0 corresponds to an extended spring, and x < 0 to a compressed spring.
Define x(t ) to be the position of the object with respect to the equilibrium position. The
force acting on the spring is a linear restoring force, Fx = −k x (Figure 23.3). The initial
conditions are as follows. The spring is initially stretched a distance l0 and given some
initial speed v0 to the right away from the equilibrium position. The initial position of the
stretched spring from the equilibrium position (our choice of origin) is x0 = (l0 − leq ) > 0
and its initial x -component of the velocity is vx,0 = v0 > 0 .
23-3
Figure 23.3 Free-body force diagram for spring-object system
Newton’s Second law in the x -direction becomes
d 2x
−k x = m 2 . (23.2.1)
dt
This equation of motion, Eq. (23.2.1), is called the simple harmonic oscillator equation
(SHO). Because the spring force depends on the distance x , the acceleration is not
constant. Eq. (23.2.1) is a second order linear differential equation, in which the second
derivative of the dependent variable is proportional to the negative of the dependent
variable,
d 2x k
2
=− x. (23.2.2)
dt m
In this case, the constant of proportionality is k / m ,
Eq. (23.2.2) can be solved from energy considerations or other advanced techniques but
instead we shall first guess the solution and then verify that the guess satisfies the SHO
differential equation (see Appendix 22.3.A for a derivation of the solution).
We are looking for a position function x(t) such that the second time derivative position
function is proportional to the negative of the position function. Since the sine and cosine
functions both satisfy this property, we make a preliminary ansatz (educated guess) that
our position function is given by
x(t) = Acos((2π / T )t) = Acos(ω 0 t) , (23.2.3)
where ω 0 is the angular frequency (as of yet, undetermined).
We shall now find the condition that the angular frequency ω 0 must satisfy in order to
insure that the function in Eq. (23.2.3) solves the simple harmonic oscillator equation, Eq.
(23.2.1). The first and second derivatives of the position function are given by
23-4
dx
= −ω 0 Asin(ω 0t)
dt
(23.2.4)
d 2x
2
= −ω 02 Acos(ω 0 t) = −ω 02 x.
dt
Substitute the second derivative, the second expression in Eq. (23.2.4), and the position
function, Equation (23.2.3), into the SHO Equation (23.2.1), yielding
k
−ω 02 Acos(ω 0 t) = − Acos(ω 0 t) . (23.2.5)
m
Eq. (23.2.5) is valid for all times provided that
k
ω0 = . (23.2.6)
m
The period of oscillation is then
2π m
T= = 2π . (23.2.7)
ω0 k
One possible solution for the position of the block is
⎛ k ⎞
x(t) = Acos ⎜ t⎟ , (23.2.8)
⎝ m ⎠
and therefore by differentiation, the x -component of the velocity of the block is
k ⎛ k ⎞
vx (t) = − Asin ⎜ t⎟ . (23.2.9)
m ⎝ m ⎠
Note that at t = 0 , the position of the object is x0 ≡ x(t = 0) = A since cos(0) = 1 and the
velocity is vx,0 ≡ vx (t = 0) = 0 since sin(0) = 0 . The solution in (23.2.8) describes an
object that is released from rest at an initial position A = x0 but does not satisfy the initial
velocity condition, vx (t = 0) = vx,0 ≠ 0 . We can try a sine function as another possible
solution,
⎛ k ⎞
x(t ) = B sin ⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟ . (23.2.10)
⎝ m ⎠
This function also satisfies the simple harmonic oscillator equation because
23-5
d 2x k ⎛ k ⎞
= − Bsin ⎜ t ⎟ = −ω 0 2 x , (23.2.11)
dt 2 m ⎝ m ⎠
where ω 0 = k / m . The x -component of the velocity associated with Eq. (23.2.10) is
dx k ⎛ k ⎞
vx (t) = = Bcos ⎜ t⎟ . (23.2.12)
dt m ⎝ m ⎠
The proposed solution in Eq. (23.2.10) has initial conditions x0 ≡ x(t = 0) = 0 and
vx,0 ≡ vx (t = 0) = ( k / m)B , thus B = vx,0 / k / m . This solution describes an object that
is initially at the equilibrium position but has an initial non-zero x -component of the
velocity, vx,0 ≠ 0 .
23.2.1 General Solution of Simple Harmonic Oscillator Equation
Suppose x1 (t ) and x2 (t ) are both solutions of the simple harmonic oscillator equation,
d2 k
x (t) = − x1 (t)
2 1
dt m
2
(23.2.13)
d k
x (t) = − x2 (t).
2 2
dt m
Then the sum x(t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) of the two solutions is also a solution. To see this,
consider
d 2 x(t) d 2 d 2 x1 (t) d 2 x2 (t)
= (x (t) + x (t)) = + . (23.2.14)
dt 2 dt 2 1 2
dt 2 dt 2
Using the fact that x1 (t ) and x2 (t ) both solve the simple harmonic oscillator equation
(23.2.13), we see that
d2 k k k
2
x(t ) = − x1 (t ) + − x2 (t ) = − (x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) )
dt m m m (23.2.15)
k
= − x(t ).
m
Thus the linear combination x(t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) is also a solution of the SHO equation,
Eq. (23.2.1). Therefore the sum of the sine and cosine solutions is the general solution,
x(t) = C cos(ω 0 t) + D sin(ω 0 t) , (23.2.16)
23-6
where the constant coefficients C and D depend on a given set of initial conditions
x0 ≡ x(t = 0) and vx,0 ≡ vx (t = 0) where x0 and vx,0 are constants. For this general
solution, the x -component of the velocity of the object at time t is then obtained by
differentiating the position function,
dx
vx (t) = = −ω 0C sin(ω 0 t) + ω 0 D cos(ω 0 t) . (23.2.17)
dt
To find the constants C and D , substitute t = 0 into the Eqs. (23.2.16) and (23.2.17).
Because cos(0) = 1 and sin(0) = 0 , the initial position at time t = 0 is
x0 ≡ x(t = 0) = C . (23.2.18)
The x -component of the velocity at time t = 0 is
vx,0 = vx (t = 0) = −ω 0C sin(0) + ω 0 D cos(0) = ω 0 D . (23.2.19)

Thus
vx,0
C = x0 and D = . (23.2.20)
ω0
The position of the object-spring system is then given by
⎛ k ⎞ v ⎛ k ⎞
x(t) = x0 cos ⎜ t ⎟ + x,0 sin ⎜ t⎟ (23.2.21)
⎝ m ⎠ k/m ⎝ m ⎠
and the x -component of the velocity of the object-spring system is
k ⎛ k ⎞ ⎛ k ⎞
vx (t) = − x0 sin ⎜ t ⎟ + vx,0 cos ⎜ t⎟ . (23.2.22)
m ⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ m ⎠
Although we had previously specified x0 > 0 and vx,0 > 0 , Eq. (23.2.21) is seen to be a
valid solution of the SHO equation for any values of x0 and vx,0 .
Example 23.1: Phase and Amplitude
Show that x(t) = C cos ω 0t + D sin ω 0t = Acos(ω 0t + φ ) , where A = (C 2 + D 2 )1 2 > 0 , and

φ = tan −1 (− D / C) .
23-7
Solution: Use the identity Acos(ω 0t + φ ) = Acos(ω 0t)cos(φ ) − Asin(ω 0t)sin(φ ) . Thus
C cos(ω 0t) + D sin(ω 0t) = Acos(ω 0t)cos(φ ) − Asin(ω 0t)sin(φ ) . Comparing coefficients
we see that C = Acos φ and D = − Asin φ . Therefore
(C 2 + D 2 )1 2 = A2 (cos 2 φ + sin 2 φ ) = A2 .
We choose the positive square root to ensure that A > 0 , and thus
A = (C 2 + D 2 )1 2 (23.2.23)
sin φ − D / A D
tan φ = = =− ,
cos φ C/A C
φ = tan −1 (− D / C) . (23.2.24)
Thus the position as a function of time can be written as
x(t) = Acos(ω 0t + φ ) . (23.2.25)
In Eq. (23.2.25) the quantity ω 0t + φ is called the phase, and φ is called the phase
constant. Because cos(ω 0t + φ ) varies between +1 and −1 , and A > 0 , A is the
amplitude defined earlier. We now substitute Eq. (23.2.20) into Eq. (23.2.23) and find
that the amplitude of the motion described in Equation (23.2.21), that is, the maximum
value of x(t ) , and the phase are given by
A = x02 + (vx,0 / ω 0 )2 . (23.2.26)

φ = tan −1 (−vx,0 / ω 0 x0 ) . (23.2.27)
A plot of x(t ) vs. t is shown in Figure 23.4a with the values A = 3 , T = π , and
φ = π / 4 . Note that x(t) = Acos(ω 0t + φ ) takes on its maximum value when
cos(ω 0t + φ ) = 1 . This occurs when ω 0t + φ = 2π n where n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,⋅ ⋅ ⋅ . The
maximum value associated with n = 0 occurs when ω 0t + φ = 0 or t = −φ / ω 0 . For the
case shown in Figure 23.4a where φ = π / 4 , this maximum occurs at the instant
t = −T / 8 . Let’s plot x(t) = Acos(ω 0t + φ ) vs. t for φ = 0 (Figure 23.4b). For φ > 0 ,
Figure 23.4a shows the plot x(t) = Acos(ω 0t + φ ) vs. t . Notice that when φ > 0 , x(t) is
shifted to the left compared with the case φ = 0 (compare Figures 23.4a with 23.4b). The
function x(t) = Acos(ω 0t + φ ) with φ > 0 reaches its maximum value at an earlier time
than the function x(t) = Acos(ω 0t) . The difference in phases for these two cases is
(ω 0t + φ ) − ω 0t = φ and φ is sometimes referred to as the phase shift. When φ < 0 , the
23-8
function x(t) = Acos(ω 0t + φ ) reaches its maximum value at a later time t = T / 8 than
the function x(t) = Acos(ω 0t) as shown in Figure 23.4c.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 23.4 Phase shift of x(t) = Acos(ω 0t + φ ) (a) to the left by φ = π / 4 , (b) no shift
φ = 0 , (c) to the right φ = −π / 4
23-9
Example 23.2: Block-Spring System
A block of mass m is attached to a spring with spring constant k and is free to slide
along a horizontal frictionless surface. At t = 0 , the block-spring system is stretched an
amount x0 > 0 from the equilibrium position and is released from rest, vx,0 = 0 . What is
the period of oscillation of the block? What is the velocity of the block when it first
comes back to the equilibrium position?
Solution: The position of the block can be determined from Eq. (23.2.21) by substituting
the initial conditions x0 > 0 , and vx,0 = 0 yielding
⎛ k ⎞
x(t ) = x0 cos ⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟ , (23.2.28)
⎝ m ⎠
and the x -component of its velocity is given by Eq. (23.2.22),
k ⎛ k ⎞
vx (t) = − x0 sin ⎜ t⎟ . (23.2.29)
m ⎝ m ⎠
The angular frequency of oscillation is ω 0 = k / m and the period is given by

Eq. (23.2.7),
2π m
T= = 2π . (23.2.30)
ω0 k
The block first reaches equilibrium when the position function first reaches zero. This
occurs at time t1 satisfying
k π π m T
t1 = , t1 = = . (23.2.31)
m 2 2 k 4
The x -component of the velocity at time t1 is then
k ⎛ k ⎞ k k
vx (t1 ) = − x0 sin ⎜ t1 ⎟ = − x0 sin(π / 2) = − x = −ω 0 x0 (23.2.32)
m ⎝ m ⎠ m m 0
Note that the block is moving in the negative x -direction at time t1 ; the block has moved
from a positive initial position to the equilibrium position (Figure 23.4(b)).
23-10
23.3 Energy and the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Let’s consider the block-spring system of Example 23.2 in which the block is initially
stretched an amount x0 > 0 from the equilibrium position and is released from rest,
vx,0 = 0 . We shall consider three states: state 1, the initial state; state 2, at an arbitrary
time in which the position and velocity are non-zero; and state 3, when the object first
comes back to the equilibrium position. We shall show that the mechanical energy has
the same value for each of these states and is constant throughout the motion. Choose the
equilibrium position for the zero point of the potential energy.
State 1: all the energy is stored in the object-spring potential energy, U1 = (1/ 2) k x02 . The
object is released from rest so the kinetic energy is zero, K1 = 0 . The total mechanical
energy is then
1
E1 = U1 = k x02 . (23.3.1)
2
State 2: at some time t , the position and x -component of the velocity of the object are
given by
⎛ k ⎞
x(t) = x0 cos ⎜ t⎟
⎝ m ⎠
(23.3.2)
k ⎛ k ⎞
vx (t) = − x0 sin ⎜ t⎟ .
m ⎝ m ⎠
The kinetic energy is
1 1 ⎛ k ⎞
K 2 = m v 2 = k x02 sin 2 ⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟ , (23.3.3)
2 2 ⎝ m ⎠
and the potential energy is
1 1 ⎛ k ⎞
U 2 = k x 2 = k x02 cos 2 ⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟ . (23.3.4)
2 2 ⎝ m ⎠
The mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies
1 1
E2 = K 2 + U 2 = mvx 2 + k x 2
2 2
1 ⎛ ⎛ k ⎞ ⎛ k ⎞⎞
= k x02 ⎜ cos 2 ⎜ t ⎟ + sin 2 ⎜ t⎟ ⎟ (23.3.5)
2 ⎝ ⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ m ⎠⎠
1 2
= kx ,
2 0
23-11
where we used the identity that cos 2 ω 0t + sin 2 ω 0t = 1 , and that ω 0 = k / m (Eq.
(23.2.6)).
The mechanical energy in state 2 is equal to the initial potential energy in state 1, so the
mechanical energy is constant. This should come as no surprise; we isolated the object-
spring system so that there is no external work performed on the system and no internal
non-conservative forces doing work.
Figure 23.5 State 3 at equilibrium and in motion
State 3: now the object is at the equilibrium position so the potential energy is zero,
U 3 = 0 , and the mechanical energy is in the form of kinetic energy (Figure 23.5).
1
E3 = K 3 = m veq2 . (23.3.6)
2
Because the system is closed, mechanical energy is constant,
E1 = E3 . (23.3.7)
Therefore the initial stored potential energy is released as kinetic energy,
1 2 1
k x0 = m veq2 , (23.3.8)
2 2
and the x -component of velocity at the equilibrium position is given by
k
vx,eq = ± x . (23.3.9)
m 0
Note that the plus-minus sign indicates that when the block is at equilibrium, there are
two possible motions: in the positive x -direction or the negative x -direction. If we take
x0 > 0 , then the block starts moving towards the origin, and vx,eq will be negative the first
time the block moves through the equilibrium position.
23-12
We can show more generally that the mechanical energy is constant at all times as
follows. The mechanical energy at an arbitrary time is given by
1 1
E = K +U = mvx 2 + k x 2 . (23.3.10)
2 2
Differentiate Eq. (23.3.10)
dE dv dx ⎛ d 2x ⎞
= mvx x + k x = vx ⎜ m 2 + k x ⎟ . (23.3.11)
dt dt dt ⎝ dt ⎠
Now substitute the simple harmonic oscillator equation of motion, (Eq. (23.2.1) ) into Eq.
(23.3.11) yielding
dE
=0 , (23.3.12)
dt
demonstrating that the mechanical energy is a constant of the motion.
23.3.1 Simple Pendulum: Force Approach
A pendulum consists of an object hanging from the end of a string or rigid rod pivoted
about the point P . The object is pulled to one side and allowed to oscillate. If the object
has negligible size and the string or rod is massless, then the pendulum is called a simple
pendulum. Consider a simple pendulum consisting of a massless string of length l and a
point-like object of mass m attached to one end, called the bob. Suppose the string is
fixed at the other end and is initially pulled out at an angle θ 0 from the vertical and
released from rest (Figure 23.6). Neglect any dissipation due to air resistance or frictional
forces acting at the pivot.
Figure 23.6 Simple pendulum
Let’s choose polar coordinates for the pendulum as shown in Figure 23.7a along with the
free-body force diagram for the suspended object (Figure 23.7b). The angle θ is defined
with respect to the equilibrium position. When θ > 0 , the bob is has moved to the right,
and when θ < 0 , the bob has moved to the left. The object will move in a circular arc
centered at the pivot point. The forces on the object are the tension in the string
23-13
 
T = −T r̂ and gravity mg . The gravitation force on the object has r̂ - and θ̂ -
components given by

mg = mg(cosθ r̂ − sin θ θ̂) . (23.3.13)
Figure 23.7 (a) Coordinate system Figure 23.7 (b) free-body force diagram
Our concern is with the tangential component of the gravitational force,
Fθ = −mg sin θ . (23.3.14)
The sign in Eq. (23.3.14) is crucial; the tangential force tends to restore the pendulum to
the equilibrium value θ = 0 . If θ > 0 , Fθ < 0 and if θ < 0 , Fθ > 0 , where we are that
because the string is flexible, the angle θ is restricted to the range −π / 2 < θ < π / 2 . (For
angles θ > π / 2 , the string would go slack.) In both instances the tangential component
of the force is directed towards the equilibrium position. The tangential component of
acceleration is
d 2θ
aθ = lα = l 2 . (23.3.15)
dt
Newton’s Second Law, Fθ = m aθ , yields
d 2θ
−mgl sin θ = ml 2
. (23.3.16)
dt 2
We can rewrite this equation is the form
d 2θ g
2
= − sin θ . (23.3.17)
dt l
This is not the simple harmonic oscillator equation although it still describes periodic
motion. In the limit of small oscillations, sin θ ≅ θ , Eq. (23.3.17) becomes
23-14
d 2θ g
2
≅ − θ. (23.3.18)
dt l
This equation is similar to the object-spring simple harmonic oscillator differential

equation
d2x k
2
= − x. (23.3.19)
dt m
By comparison with Eq. (23.2.6) the angular frequency of oscillation for the pendulum is
approximately
g
ω0  , (23.3.20)
l
with period
2π l
T=  2π . (23.3.21)
ω0 g
The solutions to Eq. (23.3.18) can be modeled after Eq. (23.2.21). With the initial
dθ
conditions that the pendulum is released from rest, (t = 0) = 0 , at a small angle
dt
θ (t = 0) = θ 0 , the angle the string makes with the vertical as a function of time is given by
⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ g ⎞
θ (t) = θ 0 cos(ω 0 t) = θ 0 cos ⎜ t ⎟ = θ 0 cos ⎜ t⎟ . (23.3.22)
⎝ T ⎠ ⎝ l ⎠
The z -component of the angular velocity of the bob is
dθ g ⎛ g ⎞
ω z (t) = (t) = − θ 0 sin ⎜ t⎟ . (23.3.23)
dt l ⎝ l ⎠
Keep in mind that the component of the angular velocity ω z = dθ / dt changes with time
in an oscillatory manner (sinusoidally in the limit of small oscillations). The angular
frequency ω 0 is a parameter that describes the system. The z -component of the angular
velocity ω z (t) , besides being time-dependent, depends on the amplitude of oscillation θ 0 .
In the limit of small oscillations, ω 0 does not depend on the amplitude of oscillation.
The fact that the period is independent of the mass of the object follows algebraically
from the fact that the mass appears on both sides of Newton’s Second Law and hence
cancels. Consider also the argument that is attributed to Galileo: if a pendulum,
consisting of two identical masses joined together, were set to oscillate, the two halves
would not exert forces on each other. So, if the pendulum were split into two pieces, the
23-15
pieces would oscillate the same as if they were one piece. This argument can be
extended to simple pendula of arbitrary masses.
23.3.2 Simple Pendulum: Energy Approach
We can use energy methods to find the differential equation describing the time evolution
of the angle θ . When the string is at an angle θ with respect to the vertical, the
gravitational potential energy (relative to a choice of zero potential energy at the bottom
of the swing where θ = 0 as shown in Figure 23.8) is given by
U = mgl(1− cosθ ) (23.3.24)
The θ -component of the velocity of the object is given by vθ = l(dθ / dt) so the kinetic
energy is
1 ⎛ dθ ⎞
2
1
K = mv = m⎜l ⎟ .
2
(23.3.25)
2 2 ⎝ dt ⎠
Figure 23.8 Energy diagram for simple pendulum
The mechanical energy of the system is then
1 ⎛ dθ ⎞
2
E = K +U = m ⎜ l ⎟ + mgl (1 − cosθ ) . (23.3.26)

2 ⎝ dt ⎠
Because we assumed that there is no non-conservative work (i.e. no air resistance or

frictional forces acting at the pivot), the energy is constant, hence
2 dθ d θ dθ
2
dE 1
0= = m 2l 2
+ mgl sin θ
dt 2 dt dt dt
(23.3.27)
dθ ⎛ d θ g
2
⎞
= ml 2 ⎜ + sin θ ⎟ .
dt ⎝ dt 2
l ⎠
23-16
There are two solutions to this equation; the first one dθ / dt = 0 is the equilibrium
solution. That the z -component of the angular velocity is zero means the suspended
object is not moving. The second solution is the one we are interested in
d 2θ g
+ sin θ = 0 , (23.3.28)
dt 2 l
which is the same differential equation (Eq. (23.3.16)) that we found using the force
method.
We can find the time t1 that the object first reaches the bottom of the circular arc by
setting θ (t1 ) = 0 in Eq. (23.3.22)
⎛ g ⎞
0 = θ 0 cos ⎜ t1 ⎟ . (23.3.29)
⎝ l ⎠
This zero occurs when the argument of the cosine satisfies
g π
t1 = . (23.3.30)
l 2
The z -component of the angular velocity at time t1 is therefore
dθ g ⎛ g ⎞ g ⎛π⎞ g
(t1 ) = − θ 0 sin ⎜ t1 ⎟ = − θ 0 sin ⎜ ⎟ = − θ0 . (23.3.31)
dt l ⎝ l ⎠ l ⎝ 2⎠ l
Note that the negative sign means that the bob is moving in the negative θ̂ -direction
when it first reaches the bottom of the arc. The θ -component of the velocity at time t1 is
therefore
dθ g ⎛ g ⎞ ⎛π⎞
vθ (t1 ) ≡ v1 = l (t1 ) = −l θ 0 sin ⎜ t1 ⎟ = − lg θ 0 sin ⎜ ⎟ = − lg θ 0 .(23.3.32)
dt l ⎝ l ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
We can also find the components of both the velocity and angular velocity using energy
methods. When we release the bob from rest, the energy is only potential energy
θ 02
E = U 0 = mgl (1 − cosθ 0 ) ≅ mgl , (23.3.33)
2
where we used the approximation that cosθ 0 ≅ 1 − θ 02 / 2 . When the bob is at the bottom
of the arc, the only contribution to the mechanical energy is the kinetic energy given by
23-17
1
K1 = mv12 . (23.3.34)
2
Because the energy is constant, we have that U 0 = K1 or
θ 02 1
mgl = mv12 . (23.3.35)
2 2
We can solve for the θ -component of the velocity at the bottom of the arc
vθ ,1 = ± gl θ 0 . (23.3.36)
The two possible solutions correspond to the different directions that the motion of the
bob can have when at the bottom. The z -component of the angular velocity is then
dθ v g
(t1 ) = 1 = ± θ0 , (23.3.37)
dt l l
in agreement with our previous calculation.
If we do not make the small angle approximation, we can still use energy techniques to
find the θ -component of the velocity at the bottom of the arc by equating the energies at
the two positions
1
mgl (1 − cosθ 0 ) = mv12 , (23.3.38)
2
vθ , 1 = ± 2gl (1− cosθ 0 ) . (23.3.39)
Example 23.3: Rolling Without Slipping Oscillating Cylinder
Attach a solid cylinder of mass M and radius R to a horizontal massless spring with
spring constant k so that it can roll without slipping along a horizontal surface. At time t ,
the center of mass of the cylinder is moving with speed Vcm and the spring is compressed
a distance x from its equilibrium length. What is the period of simple harmonic motion
for the center of mass of the cylinder?
23-18
Solution: At time t , the energy of the rolling cylinder and spring system is
1 ⎛ dθ ⎞
2
1 1
E= 2
Mvcm + I cm ⎜ ⎟ + kx 2 . (23.4.1)
2 2 ⎝ dt ⎠ 2
where x is the amount the spring has compressed, I cm = (1 / 2)MR 2 , and because it is
rolling without slipping
dθ Vcm
= . (23.4.2)
dt R
Therefore the energy is
2
1 1 ⎛V ⎞ 1 3 1
E= MVcm2 + MR 2 ⎜ cm ⎟ + kx 2 = MVcm2 + kx 2 . (23.4.3)
2 4 ⎝ R ⎠ 2 4 2
The energy is constant (no non-conservative force is doing work on the system) so
dE 3 dVcm 1 dx 3 d2x
0= = 2MVcm + k2x = Vcm ( M 2 + kx) (23.4.4)
dt 4 dt 2 dt 2 dt
Because Vcm is non-zero most of the time, the displacement of the spring satisfies a
simple harmonic oscillator equation
d 2 x 2k
+ x=0 . (23.4.5)
dt 2 3M
Hence the period is
2π 3M
T= = 2π . (23.4.6)
ω0 2k
Example 23.4: U-Tube
A U-tube open at both ends is filled with an incompressible fluid of density ρ . The
cross-sectional area A of the tube is uniform and the total length of the fluid in the tube
is L . A piston is used to depress the height of the liquid column on one side by a distance
x0 , (raising the other side by the same distance) and then is quickly removed (Figure
23.10). What is the angular frequency of the ensuing simple harmonic motion? Neglect
any resistive forces and at the walls of the U-tube.
23-19
Figure 23.10 Example 23.4 Figure 23.11 Energy diagram for water
Solution: We shall use conservation of energy. First choose as a zero for gravitational
potential energy in the configuration where the water levels are equal on both sides of the
tube. When the piston on one side depresses the fluid, it rises on the other. At a given
instant in time when a portion of the fluid of mass Δm = ρ Ax is a height x above the
equilibrium height (Figure 23.11), the potential energy of the fluid is given by
U = Δmgx = (ρ Ax)gx = ρ Agx 2 . (23.4.7)
At that same instant the entire fluid of length L and mass m = ρ AL is moving with
speed v , so the kinetic energy is
1 1
K = mv 2 = ρ ALv 2 . (23.4.8)
2 2
Thus the total energy is
1
E = K + U = ρ ALv 2 + ρ Agx 2 . (23.4.9)
2
By neglecting resistive force, the mechanical energy of the fluid is constant. Therefore
dE dv dx
0= = ρ ALv + 2 ρ Agx . (23.4.10)
dt dt dt
If we just consider the top of the fluid above the equilibrium position on the right arm in
Figure 23.13, we rewrite Eq. (23.4.10) as
dE dv dx
0= = ρ ALvx x + 2 ρ Agx , (23.4.11)
dt dt dt
where vx = dx / dt . We now rewrite the energy condition using dvx / dt = d 2 x / dt 2 as
23-20
⎛ d 2x ⎞
0 = vx ρ A ⎜ L 2 + 2gx ⎟ . (23.4.12)
⎝ dt ⎠
This condition is satisfied when vx = 0 , i.e. the equilibrium condition or when
d 2x
0= L + 2gx . (23.4.13)
dt 2
This last condition can be written as
d 2x 2g
2
=− x . (23.4.14)
dt L
This last equation is the simple harmonic oscillator equation. Using the same
mathematical techniques as we used for the spring-block system, the solution for the
height of the fluid above the equilibrium position is given by
x(t) = Bcos(ω 0t) + C sin(ω 0t) , (23.4.15)

where
2g
ω0 = (23.4.16)
L
is the angular frequency of oscillation. The x -component of the velocity of the fluid on
the right-hand side of the U-tube is given by
dx(t)
vx (t) = = −ω 0 Bsin(ω 0t) + ω 0C cos(ω 0t) . (23.4.17)
dt
The coefficients B and C are determined by the initial conditions. At t = 0 , the height of
the fluid is x(t = 0) = B = x0 . At t = 0 , the speed is zero so vx (t = 0) = ω 0C = 0 , hence
C = 0 . The height of the fluid above the equilibrium position on the right hand-side of
the U-tube as a function of time is thus
⎛ 2g ⎞
x(t) = x0 cos ⎜ t⎟ . (23.4.18)
⎝ L ⎠
23.5 Damped Oscillatory Motion
Let’s now consider our spring-block system moving on a horizontal frictionless surface
but now the block is attached to a damper that resists the motion of the block due to
viscous friction. This damper, commonly called a dashpot, is shown in Figure 23.13. The
viscous force arises when objects move through fluids at speeds slow enough so that
there is no turbulence. When the viscous force opposes the motion and is proportional to
the velocity, so that
23-21
 
fvis = −bv , (23.5.1)
the dashpot is referred to as a linear dashpot. The constant of proportionality b depends

on the properties of the dashpot.
Figure 23.12 Spring-block system connected to a linear dashpot
Choose the origin at the equilibrium position and choose the positive x -direction to the
right in the Figure 23.13. Define x(t) to be the position of the object with respect to the
equilibrium position. The x -component of the total force acting on the spring is the sum
of the linear restoring spring force, and the viscous friction force (Figure 23.13),
dx
Fx = −k x − b (23.5.2)
dt
Figure 23.13 Free-body force diagram for spring-object system with linear dashpot
dx d 2x
−k x − b = m 2 . (23.5.3)
dt dt

d 2 x b dx k
+ + x = 0. (23.5.4)
dt 2 m dt m
When (b / m)2 < 4k / m , the oscillator is called underdamped, and the solution to Eq.
(23.5.4) is given by
x(t) = xm e−α t cos(γ t + φ ) (23.5.5)
23-22
where γ = (k / m − (b / 2m)2 )1 2 is the angular frequency of oscillation, α = b 2m is a
parameter that measured the exponential decay of the oscillations, xm is a constant and φ
is the phase constant. Recall the undamped oscillator has angular frequency
ω 0 = (k / m)1 2 , so the angular frequency of the underdamped oscillator can be expressed
as
γ = (ω 0 2 − α 2 )1 2 . (23.5.6)
In Appendix 23B: Complex Numbers, we introduce complex numbers and use them to
solve Eq.(23.5.4) in Appendix 23C: Solution to the Underdamped Simple Harmonic
Oscillator Equation.
The x -component of the velocity of the object is given by
vx (t) = dx dt = ( −γ xm sin(γ t + φ ) − α xm cos(γ t + φ ) ) e−α t . (23.5.7)
The position and the x -component of the velocity of the object oscillate but the
amplitudes of the oscillations decay exponentially. In Figure 23.14, the position is plotted
as a function of time for the underdamped system for the special case φ = 0 . For that case
x(t) = xm e−α t cos(γ t) . (23.5.8)

and
vx (t) = dx dt = ( −γ xm sin(γ t) − α xm cos(γ t) ) e−α t . (23.5.9)
Figure 23.14 Plot of position x(t) of object for underdamped oscillator with φ = 0
Because the coefficient of exponential decay α = b 2m is proportional to the b , we see

that the position will decay more rapidly if the viscous force increases. We can introduce
a time constant
τ = 1 α = 2m / b . (23.5.10)
23-23
When t = τ , the position is
x(t = τ ) = xm cos(γτ )e−1 . (23.5.11)
The envelope of exponential decay has now decreases by a factor of e−1 , i.e. the
amplitude can be at most xm e−1 . During this time interval [0,τ ] , the position has
undergone a number of oscillations. The total number of radians associated with those
oscillations is given by
γτ = (k / m − (b / 2m)2 )1 2 (2m / b) . (23.5.12)
The closest integral number of cycles is then
n = ⎡⎣γτ / 2π ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣(k / m − (b / 2m)2 )1 2 (m / π b) ⎤⎦ . (23.5.13)
If the system is very weakly damped, such that (b / m)2 << 4k / m , then we can
approximate the number of cycles by
n = ⎡⎣γτ 2π ⎤⎦  ⎡⎣(k / m)1 2 (m / π b) ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ω 0 (m / π b) ⎤⎦ , (23.5.14)
where ω 0 = (k / m)1 2 is the angular frequency of the undamped oscillator.
We define the quality, Q , of this oscillating system to be proportional to the number of

integral cycles it takes for the exponential envelope of the position function to fall off by
a factor of e−1 . The constant of proportionality is chosen to be π . Thus
Q = nπ . (23.5.15)
For the weakly damped case, we have that
Q  ω 0 (m / b) . (23.5.16)
23.5.1 Energy in the Underdamped Oscillator
For the underdamped oscillator, (b / m)2 < 4k / m , γ = (k / m − (b / 2m)2 )1 2 , and

α = b 2m . Let’s choose t = 0 such that the phase shift is zero φ = 0 . The stored energy
in the system will decay due to the energy loss due to dissipation. The mechanical energy
stored in the potential and kinetic energies is then given by
1 2 1 2
E= kx + mv . (23.5.17)
2 2
23-24
where the position and the x -component of the velocity are given by Eqs. (23.5.8) and
(23.5.9). The mechanical energy is then
1 1
kxm 2 cos 2 (γ t)e−2α t + m ( −γ xm sin(γ t) − α xm cos(γ t) ) e−2α t .
2
E= (23.5.18)
2 2
Expanding this expression yields
1 1
E = (k + mα 2 )xm 2 cos 2 (γ t)e−2α t + mγα xm 2 sin(γ t)cos(γ t)e−2α t + mγ 2 xm 2 sin 2 (γ t)e−2α t (23.5.19)
2 2
The kinetic energy, potential energy, and mechanical energy are shown in Figure 23.15.
Figure 23.15 Kinetic, potential and mechanical energy for the underdamped oscillator
The stored energy at time t = 0 is
1
E(t = 0) = (k + mα 2 )xm 2 (23.5.20)
2
The mechanical energy at the conclusion of one cycle, with γ T = 2π , is
1
E(t = T ) = (k + mα 2 )xm 2 e−2αT (23.5.21)
2
The change in the mechanical energy for one cycle is then
1
E(t = T ) − E(t = 0) = − (k + mα 2 )xm 2 (1− e−2αT ) . (23.5.22)
2
23-25
Recall that α 2 = b2 4m2 . Therefore
1
E(t = T ) − E(t = 0) = − (k + b2 4m)xm 2 (1− e−2αT ) . (23.5.23)
2
We can show (although the calculation is lengthy) that the energy dissipated by the
viscous force over one cycle is given by the integral
T
  ⎛ b 2 ⎞ xm 2
Edis = ∫ Fvis ⋅ v dt = − ⎜ k + −2α t
⎟⎠ 2 (1− e ) . (23.5.24)
0 ⎝ 4m
By comparison with Eq. (23.5.23), the change in the mechanical energy in the
underdamped oscillator during one cycle is equal to the energy dissipated due to the
viscous force during one cycle.
23.6 Forced Damped Oscillator
Let’s drive our damped spring-object system by a sinusoidal force. Suppose that the x -
component of the driving force is given by
Fx (t) = F0 cos(ω t) , (23.6.1)
where F0 is called the amplitude (maximum value) and ω is the driving angular
frequency. The force varies between F0 and − F0 because the cosine function varies
between +1 and −1 . Define x(t) to be the position of the object with respect to the
equilibrium position. The x -component of the force acting on the object is now the sum
dx
Fx = F0 cos(ω t) − kx − b . (23.6.2)
dt
dx d 2x
F0 cos(ω t) − kx − b = m 2 . (23.6.3)
dt dt
d 2x dx
F0 cos(ω t) = m 2 + b + kx . (23.6.4)
dt dt
23-26
We derive the solution to Eq. (23.6.4) in Appendix 23E: Solution to the forced Damped
Oscillator Equation. The solution to is given by the function
x(t) = x0 cos(ω t + φ ) , (23.6.5)
where the amplitude x0 is a function of the driving angular frequency ω and is given by
F0 / m
x0 (ω ) = . (23.6.6)
((b / m) ω )
1/2
2 2
+ (ω 0 − ω )
2 2 2
The phase constant φ is also a function of the driving angular frequency ω and is given
by
⎛ (b / m)ω ⎞
φ (ω ) = tan −1 ⎜ 2 2⎟
. (23.6.7)
⎝ ω − ω0 ⎠
In Eqs. (23.6.6) and (23.6.7)
k
ω0 = (23.6.8)
m
is the natural angular frequency associated with the undriven undamped oscillator. The x
-component of the velocity can be found by differentiating Eq. (23.6.5),
dx
vx (t) = (t) = −ω x0 sin(ω t + φ ) , (23.6.9)
dt
where the amplitude x0 (ω ) is given by Eq. (23.6.6) and the phase constant φ (ω ) is given
by Eq. (23.6.7).
23.6.1 Resonance
When b / m << 2ω 0 we say that the oscillator is lightly damped. For a lightly-damped
driven oscillator, after a transitory period, the position of the object will oscillate with the
same angular frequency as the driving force. The plot of amplitude x0 (ω ) vs. driving
angular frequency ω for a lightly damped forced oscillator is shown in Figure 23.16. If
the angular frequency is increased from zero, the amplitude of the x0 (ω ) will increase
until it reaches a maximum when the angular frequency of the driving force is the same
as the natural angular frequency, ω 0 , associated with the undamped oscillator. This is
called resonance. When the driving angular frequency is increased above the natural
angular frequency the amplitude of the position oscillations diminishes.
23-27
Figure 23.16 Plot of amplitude x0 (ω ) vs. driving angular frequency ω for a lightly
damped oscillator with b / m << 2ω 0
We can find the angular frequency such that the amplitude x0 (ω ) is at a maximum by
setting the derivative of Eq. (23.6.6) equal to zero,
d F0 (2ω ) ((b / m)2 − 2(ω 0 2 − ω 2 ))

0 = x0 (ω ) = − . (23.6.10)
dt
( )
2m (b / m)2 ω 2 + (ω 2 − ω 2 )2 3/2
0
This vanishes when

ω = (ω 0 2 − (b / m)2 / 2)1/2 . (23.6.11)
For the lightly-damped oscillator, ω 0 >> (1/ 2)b / m , and so the maximum value of the
amplitude occurs when
ω  ω 0 = (k / m)1/2 . (23.6.12)
The amplitude at resonance is then
F0
x0 (ω = ω 0 ) = (lightly damped) . (23.6.13)
bω 0
The plot of phase constant φ (ω ) vs. driving angular frequency ω for a lightly damped
forced oscillator is shown in Figure 23.17.
23-28
Figure 23.17 Plot of phase constant φ (ω ) vs. driving angular frequency ω for a lightly
damped oscillator with b / m << 2ω 0
The phase constant at resonance is zero,
φ (ω = ω 0 ) = 0 . (23.6.14)
At resonance, the x -component of the velocity is given by
dx F
vx (t) = (t) = − 0 sin(ω 0t) (lightly damped) . (23.6.15)
dt b
When the oscillator is not lightly damped ( b / m  ω 0 ), the resonance peak is shifted to
the left of ω = ω 0 as shown in the plot of amplitude vs. angular frequency in Figure
23.18. The corresponding plot of phase constant vs. angular frequency for the non-lightly
damped oscillator is shown in Figure 23.19.
Figure 23.18 Plot of amplitude vs. angular frequency for lightly-damped driven oscillator
where b / m  ω 0
23-29
Figure 23.19 Plot of phase constant vs. angular frequency for lightly-damped driven
oscillator where b / m  ω 0
23.6.2 Mechanical Energy
The kinetic energy for the driven damped oscillator is given by
1 2 1
K(t) = mv (t) = mω 2 x0 2 sin 2 (ω t + φ ) . (23.6.16)
2 2
The potential energy is given by
1 2 1
U (t) = kx (t) = kx0 2 cos 2 (ω t + φ ) . (23.6.17)
2 2
The mechanical energy is then
1 2 1 1 1
E(t) = mv (t) + kx 2 (t) = mω 2 x0 2 sin 2 (ω t + φ ) + kx0 2 cos 2 (ω t + φ ) .(23.6.18)
2 2 2 2
Example 23.5: Time-Averaged Mechanical Energy
The period of one cycle is given by T = 2π / ω . Show that
1T 2 1
(i) ∫ sin (ω t + φ ) dt = , (23.6.19)
T0 2
1 T 1
∫ cos (ω t + φ ) dt = ,
2
(ii) (23.6.20)
T0 2
T
1
T ∫0
(iii) sin(ω t)cos(ω t) dt = 0 . (23.6.21)
23-30
Solution: (i) We use the trigonometric identity
1
sin 2 (ω t + φ )) = (1− cos(2(ω t + φ )) (23.6.22)
2
to rewrite the integral in Eq. (23.6.19) as
T T
1 1
∫
T 0
sin 2 (ω t + φ )) dt =
2T ∫0
(1− cos(2(ω t + φ )) dt (23.6.23)
Integration yields
T T =2π /ω
1 1 ⎛ sin(2(ω t + φ )) ⎞
∫
2T 0
(1− cos(2(ω t + φ )) dt = − ⎜
2 ⎝ 2ω ⎟⎠
T =0 (23.6.24)
1 ⎛ sin(4π + 2φ ) sin(2φ ) ⎞ 1
= −⎜ − = ,
2 ⎝ 2ω 2ω ⎟⎠ 2
where we used the trigonometric identity that
sin(4π + 2φ ) = sin(4π )cos(2φ ) + sin(2φ )cos(4π ) = sin(2φ ) , (23.6.25)
proving Eq. (23.6.19).
(ii) We use a similar argument starting with the trigonometric identity that
1
cos 2 (ω t + φ )) = (1+ cos(2(ω t + φ )) . (23.6.26)
2
Then
T T
1 1
∫
T 0
cos 2 (ω t + φ )) dt =
2T ∫0
(1+ cos(2(ω t + φ )) dt . (23.6.27)
Integration yields
T T =2π /ω
1 1 ⎛ sin(2(ω t + φ )) ⎞
∫
2T 0
(1+ cos(2(ω t + φ )) dt = + ⎜
2 ⎝ 2ω ⎟⎠
T =0 (23.6.28)
1 ⎛ sin(4π + 2φ ) sin(2φ ) ⎞ 1
= +⎜ − = .
2 ⎝ 2ω 2ω ⎟⎠ 2
(iii) We first use the trigonometric identity that
23-31
1
sin(ω t)cos(ω t) = sin(ω t) . (23.6.29)
2
Then
T T
1 1
∫
T 0
sin(ω t)cos(ω t) dt = ∫ sin(ω t) dt
T 0
T
(23.6.30)
1 cos(ω t) 1
=− =− (1− 1) = 0.
T 2ω 0 2ω T
The values of the integrals in Example 23.5 are called the time-averaged values. We
denote the time-average value of a function f (t) over one period by
1T
f ≡ ∫ f (t) dt . (23.6.31)
T0
In particular, the time-average kinetic energy as a function of the angular frequency is

given by
1
K(ω ) = mω 2 x0 2 . (23.6.32)
4
The time-averaged potential energy as a function of the angular frequency is given by
1 2
U (ω ) = kx . (23.6.33)
4 0
The time-averaged value of the mechanical energy as a function of the angular frequency
is given by
1 1 1
E(ω ) = mω 2 x0 2 + kx0 2 = (mω 2 + k)x0 2 . (23.6.34)
4 4 4
We now substitute Eq. (23.6.6) for the amplitude into Eq. (23.6.34) yielding
F0 2 (ω 0 2 + ω 2 )
E(ω ) = . (23.6.35)
⎝ ( 0 )
4m ⎛ (b / m)2 ω 2 + ω 2 − ω 2 2 ⎞
⎠
A plot of the time-averaged energy versus angular frequency for the lightly-damped case
( b / m << 2ω 0 ) is shown in Figure 23.20.
23-32
Figure 23.20 Plot of the time-averaged energy versus angular frequency for the
lightly-damped case ( b / m << 2ω 0 )
We can simplify the expression for the time-averaged energy for the lightly-damped case
by observing that the time-averaged energy is nearly zero everywhere except where
ω = ω 0 , (see Figure 23.20). We first substitute ω = ω 0 everywhere in Eq. (23.6.35)
except the term ω 0 2 − ω 2 that appears in the denominator, yielding
F0 2 (ω 0 2 )
E(ω ) = . (23.6.36)
⎝ 0 (
2m ⎛ (b / m)2 ω 2 + ω 2 − ω 2 2 ⎞
0 ⎠ )
We can approximate the term
ω 0 2 − ω 2 = (ω 0 − ω )(ω 0 + ω )  2ω 0 (ω 0 − ω ) (23.6.37)
F0 2 1
E(ω ) = (lightly damped) . (23.6.38)
(
2m (b / m) + 4(ω 0 − ω )2
2
)
The right-hand expression of Eq. (23.6.38) takes on its maximum value when the
denominator has its minimum value. By inspection, this occurs when ω = ω 0 .
Alternatively, to find the maximum value, we set the derivative of Eq. (23.6.35) equal to
zero and solve for ω ,
23-33
d d F0 2 1
0= E(ω ) =
dω (
dω 2m (b / m) + 4(ω 0 − ω )2
2
)
. (23.6.39)
4F 2 (ω 0 − ω )
= 0
( )
2
m (b / m)2 + 4(ω − ω )2
0
The maximum occurs when occurs at ω = ω 0 and has the value
mF0 2
E(ω 0 ) = (underdamped) . (23.6.40)
2b2
23.6.3 The Time-averaged Power
The time-averaged power delivered by the driving force is given by the expression
1
T
1
T
F0 2ω cos(ω t)sin(ω t + φ )
P(ω ) = ∫ Fx vx dt = − ∫ dt , (23.6.41)
( )
1/2
T 0 T 0 m (b / m)2 ω 2 + (ω 2 − ω 2 )2
0
where we used Eq. (23.6.1) for the driving force, and Eq. (23.6.9) for the x -component
of the velocity of the object. We use the trigonometric identity
sin(ω t + φ ) = sin(ω t)cos(φ ) + cos(ω t)sin(φ ) (23.6.42)
to rewrite the integral in Eq. (23.6.41) as two integrals
1
T
F0 2ω cos(ω t)sin(ω t)cos(φ )
T ∫0 m (b / m)2 ω 2 + (ω 2 − ω 2 )2 1/2
P(ω ) = − dt
( 0 ) (23.6.43)
1
T
F0 2ω cos 2 (ω t)sin(φ )
− ∫ dt.
( )
1/2
T 0 m (b / m)2 ω 2 + (ω 2 − ω 2 )2
0
Using the time-averaged results from Example 23.5, we see that the first term in Eq.
(23.6.43) is zero and the second term becomes
F0 2ω sin(φ )
P(ω ) = (23.6.44)
( )
1/2
2m (b / m) ω + (ω 0 − ω )
2 2 2 2 2
For the underdamped driven oscillator, we make the same approximations in Eq.
(23.6.44) that we made for the time-averaged energy. In the term in the numerator and the
23-34
term on the left in the denominator, we set ω  ω 0 , and we use Eq. (23.6.37) in the term
on the right in the denominator yielding
F0 2 sin(φ )
P(ω ) = (underdamped) . (23.6.45)
( )
1/2
2m (b / m)2 + 2(ω 0 − ω )
The time-averaged power dissipated by the resistive force is given by
1
T
1
T
1
T
F0 2ω 2 sin 2 (ω t + φ )dt
T ∫0 x dis x T ∫0 x T ∫0 m2 (b / m)2 ω 2 + (ω 0 2 − ω 2 )2
Pdis (ω ) = (F ) v dt = − bv 2
dt =
( ) ,(23.6.46)
F0 2ω 2 dt
= .
(
2m2 (b / m)2 ω 2 + (ω 0 2 − ω 2 )2 )
where we used Eq. (23.5.1) for the dissipative force, Eq. (23.6.9) for the x -component of
the velocity of the object, and Eq. (23.6.19) for the time-averaging.
23.6.4 Quality Factor
The plot of the time-averaged energy vs. the driving angular frequency for the
underdamped oscullator has a width, Δω (Figure 23.20). One way to characterize this
width is to define Δω = ω + − ω − , where ω ± are the values of the angular frequency such
that time-averaged energy is equal to one half its maximum value
1 mF0 2
E(ω ± ) = E(ω 0 ) = . (23.6.47)
2 4b2
The quantity Δω is called the line width at half energy maximum also known as the
resonance width. We can now solve for ω ± by setting
F0 2 1 mF0 2
E(ω ± ) = = , (23.6.48)
(
2m (b / m)2 + 4(ω 0 − ω ± )2 4b2 )
yielding the condition that
(b / m)2 = 4(ω 0 − ω ± )2 . (23.6.49)
Taking square roots of Eq. (23.6.49) yields
(b / 2m) = ω 0 − ω ± . (23.6.50)
23-35
Therefore
ω ± = ω 0 ± (b / 2m) . (23.6.51)
The half-width is then
Δω = ω + − ω − = (ω 0 + (b / 2m)) − (ω 0 − (b / 2m)) = b / m . (23.6.52)
We define the quality Q of the resonance as the ratio of the resonant angular frequency
to the line width,
ω ω
Q= 0 = 0 . (23.6.53)
Δω b / m
Figure 23.21 Plot of time-averaged energy vs. angular frequency for different values of
b/ m
In Figure 23.21 we plot the time-averaged energy vs. angular frequency for several
different values of the quality factor Q = 10, 5, and 3. Recall that this was the same result
that we had for the quality of the free oscillations of the damped oscillator, Eq. (23.5.16)
(because we chose the factor π in Eq. (23.5.16)).
23.7 Small Oscillations
Any object moving subject to a force associated with a potential energy function that is
quadratic will undergo simple harmonic motion,
1
U (x) = U 0 + k(x − xeq )2 . (23.7.1)
2
where k is a “spring constant”, xeq is the equilibrium position, and the constant U 0 just
depends on the choice of reference point xref for zero potential energy, U (xref ) = 0 ,
23-36
1
0 = U (xref ) = U 0 + k(xref − xeq )2 . (23.7.2)
2
Therefore the constant is
1
U 0 = − k(xref − xeq )2 . (23.7.3)
2
The minimum of the potential x0 corresponds to the point where the x -component of the
force is zero,
dU
= 2k(x0 − xeq ) = 0 ⇒ x0 = xeq , (23.7.4)
dx x = x
0
corresponding to the equilibrium position. Therefore the constant is U (x0 ) = U 0 and we

rewrite our potential function as
1
U (x) = U (x0 ) + k(x − x0 )2 . (23.7.5)
2
Now suppose that a potential energy function is not quadratic but still has a minimum at
x0 . For example, consider the potential energy function
⎛⎛ x ⎞3 ⎛ x ⎞2⎞
U (x) = −U1 ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ , (23.7.6)
⎜⎝ ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎝ x1 ⎠ ⎟⎠
(Figure 23.22), which has a stable minimum at x0 .
Figure 23.22 Potential energy function with stable minima and unstable maxima
When the energy of the system is very close to the value of the potential energy at the
minimum U (x0 ) , we shall show that the system will undergo small oscillations about the
23-37
minimum value x0 . We shall use the Taylor formula to approximate the potential
function as a polynomial. We shall show that near the minimum x0 , we can approximate
the potential function by a quadratic function similar to Eq. (23.7.5) and show that the
system undergoes simple harmonic motion for small oscillations about the minimum x0 .
We begin by expanding the potential energy function about the minimum point using the
Taylor formula
dU 1 d 2U 1 d 3U
U (x) = U (x0 ) + (x − x0 ) + (x − x0 ) +
2
(x − x0 )3 + ⋅⋅⋅ (23.7.7)
dx x=x0
2! dx 2 x=x0
3! dx 3 x=x0
1 d 3U
where (x − x0 )3 is a third order term in that it is proportional to (x − x0 )3 , and
3! dx 3 x=x0
d 3U d 2U dU
, and are constants. If x0 is the minimum of the potential
dx 3 x=x0
dx 2
x=x0 , dx
x=x0
energy, then the linear term is zero, because
dU
=0 (23.7.8)
dx x=x0
and so Eq. ((23.7.7)) becomes
1 d 2U 1 d 3U
U (x)  U (x0 ) + (x − x0 )2 + (x − x0 )3 + ⋅⋅⋅ (23.7.9)
2 dx 2 x=x0
3! dx 3 x=x0
For small displacements from the equilibrium point such that x − x0 is sufficiently small,
the third order term and higher order terms are very small and can be ignored. Then the
potential energy function is approximately a quadratic function,
1 d 2U 1
U (x)  U (x0 ) + (x − x0 )2 = U (x0 ) + keff (x − x0 )2 (23.7.10)
2 dx 2 x=x0
2
where we define keff , the effective spring constant, by
d 2U
keff ≡ . (23.7.11)
dx 2 x=x0
23-38
Because the potential energy function is now approximated by a quadratic function, the
system will undergo simple harmonic motion for small displacements from the minimum
with a force given by
dU
Fx = − = −keff (x − x0 ) . (23.7.12)
dx
At x = x0 , the force is zero
dU
Fx (x0 ) = (x ) = 0 . (23.7.13)
dx 0
We can determine the period of oscillation by substituting Eq. (23.7.12) into Newton’s
Second Law
d 2x
−keff (x − x0 ) = meff 2 (23.7.14)
dt
where meff is the effective mass. For a two-particle system, the effective mass is the
reduced mass of the system.
m1m2
meff = ≡ µred , (23.7.15)
m1 + m2
Eq. (23.7.14) has the same form as the spring-object ideal oscillator. Therefore the
angular frequency of small oscillations is given by
d 2U
keff dx 2 x=x0
ω0 = = . (23.7.16)
meff meff
Example 23.6: Quartic Potential
A system with effective mass m has a potential energy given by
⎛ ⎛ x ⎞2 ⎛ x ⎞4⎞
U (x) = U 0 ⎜ −2 ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ , (23.7.17)
⎜⎝ ⎝ x0 ⎠ ⎝ x0 ⎠ ⎟⎠
where U 0 and x0 are positive constants and U (0) = 0 . (a) Find the points where the
force on the particle is zero. Classify these points as stable or unstable. Calculate the
value of U (x) / U 0 at these equilibrium points. (b) If the particle is given a small
displacement from an equilibrium point, find the angular frequency of small oscillation.
Solution: (a) A plot of U (x) / U 0 as a function of x / x0 is shown in Figure 23.23.
23-39
Figure 22.23 Plot of U (x) / U 0 as a function of x / x0
The force on the particle is zero at the minimum of the potential energy,
dU ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 3⎞
4
0= = U 0 ⎜ −4 ⎜ ⎟ x + 4 ⎜ ⎟ x ⎟
dx ⎜⎝ ⎝ x0 ⎠ ⎝ x0 ⎠ ⎟⎠
(23.7.18)
⎛ 1⎞
2
⎛ ⎛ x ⎞2⎞
= −4U 0 x ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1− ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⇒ x 2 = x0 2 and x = 0.
⎝ x0 ⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎝ x0 ⎠ ⎟⎠
The equilibrium points are at x = ±x0 which are stable and x = 0 which is unstable. The
second derivative of the potential energy is given by
d 2U ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2⎞
4
= U 0 ⎜ −4 ⎜ ⎟ + 12 ⎜ ⎟ x ⎟ . (23.7.19)
dx 2 ⎜⎝ ⎝ x0 ⎠ ⎝ x0 ⎠ ⎟⎠
If the particle is given a small displacement from x = x0 then
d 2U ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2⎞
4
8
= U 0 ⎜ −4 ⎜ ⎟ + 12 ⎜ ⎟ x0 ⎟ = U 0 2 . (23.7.20)
dx 2 x=x0
⎜⎝ ⎝ x0 ⎠ ⎝ x0 ⎠ ⎟⎠ x0
(b) The angular frequency of small oscillations is given by
d 2U 8U 0
ω0 = /m= . (23.7.21)
dx 2 x=x0
mx02
23-40
Example 23.7: Lennard-Jones 6-12 Potential
A commonly used potential energy function to describe the interaction between two atoms is the
Lennard-Jones 6-12 potential
U (r) = U 0 ⎡⎣(r0 / r)12 − 2(r0 / r)6 ⎤⎦ ; r > 0 , (23.7.22)
where r is the distance between the atoms. Find the angular frequency of small oscillations
about the stable equilibrium position for two identical atoms bound to each other by the Lennard-
Jones interaction. Let m denote the effective mass of the system of two atoms.
Solution: The equilibrium points are found by setting the first derivative of the potential
energy equal to zero,
dU ⎡ ⎛ r ⎞6 ⎤
0= ⎡ 6 −7
⎤
= U 0 ⎣ −12r0 r + 12r0 r ⎦ = U 012r0 r ⎢ − ⎜ 0 ⎟ + 1⎥ .
12 −13 6 −7
(23.7.23)
dr ⎢⎣ ⎝ r ⎠ ⎥⎦
The equilibrium point occurs when r = r0 . The second derivative of the potential energy
function is
d 2U
2
= U 0 ⎡⎣ +(12)(13)r012 r −14 − (12)(7)r06 r −8 ⎤⎦ . (23.7.24)
dr
Evaluating this at r = r0 yields

d 2U
= 72U 0 r0 −2 . (23.7.25)
dr 2 r=r0
The angular frequency of small oscillation is therefore
d 2U
ω0 = / m = 72U 0 / mr0 2 . (23.7.26)
dr 2 r=r0
23-41
Appendix 23A: Solution to Simple Harmonic Oscillator Equation
In our analysis of the solution of the simple harmonic oscillator equation of motion,
Equation (23.2.1),
d 2x
−k x = m 2 , (23.A.1)
dt
we assumed that the solution was a linear combination of sinusoidal functions,
x(t) = Acos(ω 0 t) + Bsin(ω 0 t) , (23.A.2)
where ω 0 = k / m . We shall now derive Eq. (23.A.2).
Assume that the mechanical energy of the spring-object system is given by the constant
E . Choose the reference point for potential energy to be the unstretched position of the
spring. Let x denote the amount the spring has been compressed ( x < 0 ) or stretched
( x > 0 ) from equilibrium at time t and denote the amount the spring has been
compressed or stretched from equilibrium at time t = 0 by x(t = 0) ≡ x0 . Let vx = dx / dt
denote the x -component of the velocity at time t and denote the x -component of the
velocity at time t = 0 by vx (t = 0) ≡ v x,0 . The constancy of the mechanical energy is then
expressed as
1 1
E = K + U = k x2 + m v2 . (23.A.3)
2 2
We can solve Eq. (23.A.3) for the square of the x -component of the velocity,
2E k 2 2E ⎛ k 2⎞
vx 2 = − x = 1− x . (23.A.4)
m m m ⎝ 2E ⎟⎠
⎜
Taking square roots, we have

dx 2E k 2
= 1− x . (23.A.5)
dt m 2E
(why we take the positive square root will be explained below).
Let a1 ≡ 2E / m and a2 ≡ k / 2E . It’s worth noting that a1 has dimensions of velocity

and w has dimensions of [length]−2 . Eq. (23.A.5) is separable,
23-42
dx
= a1 1− a2 x 2
dt
dx (23.A.6)
= a1 dt.
1− a2 x 2
We now integrate Eq. (23.A.6),

dx
∫ 1− a1 x 2
= ∫ a1 dt . (23.A.7)
The integral on the left in Eq. (23.A.7) is well known, and a derivation is presented here.
We make a change of variables cosθ = a2 x with the differentials dθ and dx related
by − sin θ dθ = a2 dx . The integration variable is
θ = cos −1 ( )
a2 x . (23.A.8)
Eq. (23.A.7) then becomes

− sin θ dθ
∫ 1− cos 2 θ
= ∫ a2 a1 dt . (23.A.9)
This is a good point at which to check the dimensions. The term on the left in Eq.
(23.A.9) is dimensionless, and the product a2 a1 on the right has dimensions of inverse
time, [length]−1[length ⋅ time −1 ] = [time −1 ] , so a2 a1 dt is dimensionless. Using the
trigonometric identity 1− cos 2 θ = sin θ , Eq. (23.A.9) reduces to
∫ dθ = − ∫ a2 a1 dt . (23.A.10)
Although at this point in the derivation we don’t know that a2 a1 , which has
dimensions of frequency, is the angular frequency of oscillation, we’ll use some foresight
and make the identification
k 2E k
ω 0 ≡ a2 a1 = = , (23.A.11)
2E m m
and Eq. (23.A.10) becomes

θ t
∫
θ =θ 0
dθ = − ∫ ω 0 dt .
t=0
(23.A.12)
23-43
After integration we have
θ − θ 0 = −ω 0 t , (23.A.13)
where θ 0 ≡ −φ is the constant of integration. Because θ = cos −1 ( )

a2 x(t) , Eq. (23.A.13)
becomes
cos −1 ( )
a2 x(t) = −(ω 0 t + φ ) . (23.A.14)
Take the cosine of each side of Eq. (23.A.14), yielding
1 2E
x(t) = cos(−(ω 0 t + φ )) = cos(ω 0 t + φ ) . (23.A.15)
a2 k
At t = 0 ,
2E
x0 ≡ x(t = 0) = cos φ . (23.A.16)
k
The x -component of the velocity as a function of time is then
dx(t) 2E
vx (t) = = −ω 0 sin(ω 0 t + φ ) . (23.A.17)
dt k
At t = 0 ,
2E
vx,0 ≡ vx (t = 0) = −ω 0 sin φ . (23.A.18)
k
We can determine the constant φ by dividing the expressions in Eqs. (23.A.18) and
(23.A.16),
v
− x,0 = tan φ . (23.A.19)
ω 0 x0
Thus the constant φ can be determined by the initial conditions and the angular
frequency of oscillation,
⎛ v ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ − x,0 ⎟ . (23.A.20)
⎝ ω 0 x0 ⎠
Use the identity
cos(ω 0t + φ ) = cos(ω 0t)cos(φ ) − sin(ω 0t)sin(φ ) (23.A.21)
to expand Eq. (23.A.15) yielding
23-44
2E 2E
x(t) = cos(ω 0t)cos(φ ) − sin(ω 0t)sin(φ ) , (23.A.22)
k k
and substituting Eqs. (23.A.16) and (23.A.18) into Eq. (23.A.22) yields
vx,0
x(t) = x0 cos ω 0t + sin ω 0t , (23.A.23)
ω0
agreeing with Eq. (23.2.21).
So, what about the missing ± that should have been in Eq. (23.A.5)? Strictly speaking,
we would need to redo the derivation for the block moving in different directions.
Mathematically, this would mean replacing φ by π − φ (or φ − π ) when the block’s
velocity changes direction. Changing from the positive square root to the negative and
changing φ to π − φ have the collective action of reproducing Eq. (23.A.23).
Appendix 23B: Complex Numbers

A complex number z can be written as a sum of a real number x and a purely imaginary
number iy where i = −1 ,
z = x + iy . (23.B.1)
The complex number can be represented as a point in the x-y plane as show in Figure
23B.1.
Figure 23B.1 Complex numbers
The complex conjugate z of a complex number z is defined to be
z = x − iy . (23.B.2)
The modulus of a complex number is
z = (zz )1 2 = ((x + iy)(x − iy))1 2 = (x 2 + y 2 )1 2 . (23.B.3)
23-45
where we used the fact that i 2 = −1 . The modulus z represents the length of the ray
from the origin to the complex number z in Figure 23B.1. Let φ denote the angle that
the ray with the positive x -axis in Figure 23B.1. Then
x = z cosφ , (23.B.4)
y = z sin φ . (23.B.5)
Hence the angle φ is given by
φ = tan −1 ( y / x) . (23.B.6)
The inverse of a complex number is then
1 z x − iy
= = 2 . (23.B.7)
z zz (x + y 2 )
The modulus of the inverse is the inverse of the modulus;
1 1 1
= 2 = . (23.B.8)
z (x + y )
2 12
z
The sum of two complex numbers, z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 , is the complex number
z3 = z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + i( y1 + y2 ) = x3 + iy3 , (23.B.9)
where x3 = x1 + x2 , y3 = y1 + y2 . We can represent this by the vector sum in Figure

23B.2,
Figure 23B.2 Sum of two complex numbers
The product of two complex numbers is given by
23-46
z3 = z1z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = (x1x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) = x3 + iy3 , (23.B.10)
where x3 = x1x2 − y1 y2 , and y3 = x1 y2 + x2 y1 .
One of the most important identities in mathematics is the Euler formula,
eiφ = cosφ + isin φ . (23.B.11)
This identity follows from the power series representations for the exponential, sine, and
cosine functions,
n=∞
1 φ 2 φ3 φ 4 φ5
eiφ = ∑ (iφ ) n = 1+ iφ − − i + + i ... , (23.B.12)
n=0 n! 2 3! 4! 5!
φ2 φ4
cosφ = 1− + − ... , (23.B.13)
2 4!
φ3 φ5
sin φ = φ − + − ... . (23.B.14)
3! 5!
We define two projection operators. The first one takes the complex number eiφ and
gives its real part,
Re eiφ = cosφ . (23.B.15)
The second operator takes the complex number eiφ and gives its imaginary part, which is
the real number
Im eiφ = sin φ . (23.B.16)
A complex number z = x + iy can also be represented as the product of a modulus z and

a phase factor eiφ ,
z = z eiφ . (23.B.17)
The inverse of a complex number is then

1 1 1
= iφ
= e− iφ , (23.B.18)
z ze z
1
= e− iφ . (23.B.19)
eiφ
iφ1
In terms of modulus and phase, the sum of two complex numbers, z1 = z1 e and
iφ
z2 = z2 e 2 , is
23-47
z1 + z2 = z1 eiφ1 + z2 eiφ2 . (23.B.20)
A special case of this result is when the phase angles are equal, φ1 = φ2 , then the sum
iφ1
z1 + z2 has the same phase factor e as z1 and z2 ,
iφ iφ
(
z1 + z2 = z1 e 1 + z2 e 1 = z1 + z2 e 1 . ) iφ
(23.B.21)
iφ iφ2
The product of two complex numbers, z1 = z1 e 1 , and z2 = z2 e is
z1z2 = z1 eiφ1 z2 eiφ2 = z1 z2 eiφ1+φ2 . (23.B.22)
When the phases are equal, the product does not have the same factor as z1 and z2 ,
z1z2 = z1 eiφ1 z2 eiφ1 = z1 z2 ei2φ1 . (23.B.23)
Appendix 23C: Solution to the Underdamped Simple Harmonic

Oscillator
Consider the underdamped simple harmonic oscillator equation (Eq. (23.5.4)),
d 2 x b dx k
+ + x = 0. (23.C.1)
dt 2 m dt m
When (b / m)2 < 4k / m , we show that the equation has a solution of the form
x(t) = xm e−α t cos(γ t + φ ) . (23.C.2)
Solution: Let’s suppose the function x(t) has the form
x(t) = ARe(e zt ) (23.C.3)
where z is a number (possibly complex) and A is a real number. Then
dx
= zAe zt (23.C.4)
dt
d 2x
2
= z 2 Ae zt (23.C.5)
dt
23-48
We now substitute Eqs. (23.C.3), (23.C.4), and (23.C.5), into Eq. (23.C.1) resulting in
b k
z 2 Ae zt + zAe zt + Ae zt = 0 . (23.C.6)
m m
Collecting terms in Eq. (23.C.6) yields
⎛ 2 b k ⎞ zt
⎜⎝ z + z + Ae = 0 (23.C.7)
m m ⎟⎠
The condition for the solution is that

b k
z2 + z+ =0 . (23.C.8)
m m
This quadratic equation has solutions
−(b / m) ± ((b / m)2 − 4k / m)1 2

z= . (23.C.9)
2
When (b / m)2 < 4k / m , the oscillator is called underdamped, and we have two solutions
for z , however the solutions are complex numbers. Let
γ = (k / m − (b / 2m)2 )1 2 ; (23.C.10)
and
α = b 2m . (23.C.11)
.
Recall that the imaginary number i = −1 . The two solutions are then z1 = −α + iγ t and
z2 = −α − iγ t . Because our system is linear, our general solution is a linear combination
of these two solutions,
x(t) = A1e−α +iγ t + A2 e−α −iγ t = ( A1eiγ t + A2 e−iγ t )e−α t , (23.C.12)
where A1 and A2 are constants. We shall transform this expression into a more familiar
equation involving sine and cosine functions with help from the Euler formula,
e ±iγ t = cos(γ t) ± isin(γ t) . (23.C.13)
Therefore we can rewrite our solution as
x(t) = ( A1 (cos(γ t) + isin(γ t)) + A2 (cos(γ t) − isin(γ t)) ) e−α t . (23.C.14)
23-49
A little rearrangement yields
x(t) = ( ( A1 + A2 )cos(γ t) + i( A1 − A2 )sin(γ t) ) e−α t . (23.C.15)
Define two new constants C = A1 + A2 and D = i( A1 − A2 ) . Then our solution looks like
x(t) = (C cos(γ t) + D sin(γ t))e−α t . (23.C.16)
Recall from Example 23.5 that we can rewrite
C cos(γ t) + D sin(γ t) = xm cos(γ t + φ ) (23.C.17)

,
where
xm = (C 2 + D 2 )1 2 , and φ = tan −1 (D / C) .
Then our general solution for the underdamped case (Eq. (23.C.16)) can be written as
x(t) = xm e−α t cos(γ t + φ ) . (23.C.18)
There are two other possible cases which we shall not analyze: when (b / m)2 > 4k / m , a
case referred to as overdamped, and when (b / m)2 = 4k / m , a case referred to as
critically damped.
Appendix 23D: Solution to the Forced Damped Oscillator Equation
We shall now use complex numbers to solve the differential equation
d 2x dx
F0 cos(ω t) = m 2
+ b + kx . (23.D.1)
dt dt
We begin by assuming a solution of the form
x(t) = x0 cos(ω t + φ ) . (23.D.2)
where the amplitude x0 and the phase constant φ need to be determined. We begin by
defining the complex function
z(t) = x0 ei(ω t+φ ) . (23.D.3)
Our desired solution can be found by taking the real projection
23-50
x(t) = Re(z(t)) = x0 cos(ω t + φ ) . (23.D.4)
Our differential equation can now be written as
d 2z dz
F0 eiω t = m 2
+ b + kz . (23.D.5)
dt dt
We take the first and second derivatives of Eq. (23.D.3),
dz
(t) = iω x0 ei(ω t+φ ) = iω z . (23.D.6)
dt
2
d z
2
(t) = −ω 2 x0 ei(ω t+φ ) = −ω 2 z . (23.D.7)
dt
We substitute Eqs. (23.D.3), (23.D.6), and (23.D.7) into Eq. (23.D.5) yielding
F0 eiω t = (−ω 2 m + biω + k)z = (−ω 2 m + biω + k)x0 ei(ω t+φ ) . (23.D.8)
We divide Eq. (23.D.8) through by eiω t and collect terms using yielding
F0 / m
x0 eiφ = . (23.D.9)
((ω 0 − ω 2 ) + i(b / m)ω )
2
where we have used ω 0 2 = k / m . Introduce the complex number
z1 = (ω 0 2 − ω 2 ) + i(b / m)ω . (23.D.10)

Then Eq. (23.D.9) can be written as
F0
x0 eiφ = . (23.D.11)
my
Multiply the numerator and denominator of Eq. (23.D.11) by the complex conjugate
z1 = (ω 0 2 − ω 2 ) − i(b / m)ω yielding
F0 z1 F0 ((ω 0 2 − ω 2 ) − i(b / m)ω )

x0 eiφ = = ≡ u + iv . (23.D.12)
mz1z1 m ((ω 0 2 − ω 2 )2 + (b / m)2 ω 2 )
where
F0 (ω 0 2 − ω 2 )
u= , (23.D.13)
m ((ω 0 2 − ω 2 )2 + (b / m)2 ω 2 )
23-51
F0 (b / m)ω
v=− . (23.D.14)
m ((ω 0 − ω 2 )2 + (b / m)2 ω 2 )
2
Therefore the modulus x0 is given by
F /m
x0 = (u 2 + v 2 )1/2 = 0
, (23.D.15)
((ω 0 − ω ) + (b / m)2 ω 2 )
2 2 2
and the phase is given by

−(b / m)ω
φ = tan −1 (v / u) = . (23.D.16)
(ω 0 2 − ω 2 )
23-52
Chapter 24 Physical Pendulum
24.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

24.1.1 Simple Pendulum: Torque Approach .......................................................... 1
24.2 Physical Pendulum ................................................................................................ 2
24.3 Worked Examples ................................................................................................. 4
Example 24.1 Oscillating Rod .................................................................................. 4
Example 24.3 Torsional Oscillator .......................................................................... 7
Example 24.4 Compound Physical Pendulum........................................................ 9
Appendix 24A Higher-Order Corrections to the Period for Larger Amplitudes of
a Simple Pendulum ..................................................................................................... 12
Chapter 24 Physical Pendulum
…. I had along with me….the Descriptions, with some Drawings of the
principal Parts of the Pendulum-Clock which I had made, and as also of
them of my then intended Timekeeper for the Longitude at Sea.1
John Harrison
24.1 Introduction
We have already used Newton’s Second Law or Conservation of Energy to analyze

systems like the spring-object system that oscillate. We shall now use torque and the
rotational equation of motion to study oscillating systems like pendulums and torsional
springs.
24.1.1 Simple Pendulum: Torque Approach
Recall the simple pendulum from Chapter 23.3.1.The coordinate system and force
diagram for the simple pendulum is shown in Figure 24.1.
(a) (b)
Figure 24.1 (a) Coordinate system and (b) torque diagram for simple pendulum
The torque about the pivot point P is given by

  
τ P = rP, m × m g = l r̂ × m g(cosθ r̂ − sin θ θ̂) = −l m g sin θ k̂ (24.1.1)
The z -component of the torque about point P
(τ P ) z = −mgl sin θ . (24.1.2)
1
J. Harrison, A Description Concerning Such Mechanisms as will Afford a Nice, or True Mensuration of
Time;…(London, 1775), p.19.
24-1
When θ > 0 , (τ P ) z < 0 and the torque about P is directed in the negative k̂ -direction
(into the plane of Figure 24.1b) when θ < 0 , (τ P ) z > 0 and the torque about P is
directed in the positive k̂ -direction (out of the plane of Figure 24.1b). The moment of
inertia of a point mass about the pivot point P is I P = ml 2 . The rotational equation of
motion is then
d 2θ
(τ P ) z = I Pα z ≡ I P 2
dt (24.1.3)
d 2θ
−mgl sin θ = ml 2 2 .
dt
Thus we have
d 2θ g
2
= − sin θ , (24.1.4)
dt l
agreeing with Eq. 23. 3.14. When the angle of oscillation is small, we may use the small
angle approximation
sin θ ≅ θ , (24.1.5)
and Eq. (24.1.4) reduces to the simple harmonic oscillator equation
d 2θ g
2
≅− θ . (24.1.6)
dt l
We have already studied the solutions to this equation in Chapter 23.3. A procedure for
determining the period when the small angle approximation does not hold is given in
Appendix 24A.
24.2 Physical Pendulum
A physical pendulum consists of a rigid body that undergoes fixed axis rotation about a
fixed point S (Figure 24.2).
Figure 24.2 Physical pendulum
24-2
The gravitational force acts at the center of mass of the physical pendulum. Denote the
distance of the center of mass to the pivot point S by lcm . The torque analysis is nearly
identical to the simple pendulum. The torque about the pivot point S is given by
  
τ S = rS , cm × m g = lcm r̂ × m g(cosθ r̂ − sin θ θ̂) = −lcm m g sin θ k̂ . (24.2.1)
Following the same steps that led from Equation (24.1.1) to Equation (24.1.4), the
rotational equation for the physical pendulum is
d 2θ
− mglcm sin θ = I S 2 , (24.2.2)
dt
where I S the moment of inertia about the pivot point S . As with the simple pendulum,
for small angles sin θ ≈ θ , Equation (24.2.2) reduces to the simple harmonic oscillator
equation
d 2θ mglcm
2
− θ. (24.2.3)
dt IS
The equation for the angle θ (t) is given by
θ (t) = A cos(ω 0 t) + Bsin(ω 0 t) , (24.2.4)
where the angular frequency is given by
mg lcm
ω0  (physical pendulum) , (24.2.5)
IS
and the period is
2π IS
T=  2π (physical pendulum) . (24.2.6)
ω0 mg lcm
Substitute the parallel axis theorem, I S = mlcm

2
+ I cm , into Eq. (24.2.6) with the result that
lcm I
T  2π + cm (physical pendulum) . (24.2.7)
g mg lcm
Thus, if the object is “small” in the sense that I cm << mlcm

2
, the expressions for the
physical pendulum reduce to those for the simple pendulum. The z -component of the
angular velocity is given by
24-3
dθ
ω z (t) = (t) = −ω 0 Asin(ω 0 t) + ω 0 Bcos(ω 0 t) . (24.2.8)
dt
The coefficients A and B can be determined form the initial conditions by setting t = 0
in Eqs. (24.2.4) and (24.2.8) resulting in the conditions that
A = θ (t = 0) ≡ θ 0
ω z (t = 0) ω z,0 (24.2.9)
B= ≡ .
ω0 ω0
dθ
Therefore the equations for the angle θ (t) and ω z (t) = (t) are given by
dt
ω z,0
θ (t) = θ 0 cos(ω 0 t) + sin(ω 0 t) , (24.2.10)
ω0
dθ
ω z (t) = (t) = −ω 0θ 0 sin(ω 0 t) + ω z,0 cos(ω 0 t) . (24.2.11)
dt
Example 24.1 Oscillating Rod
A physical pendulum consists of a uniform rod of length d and mass m pivoted at one
end. The pendulum is initially displaced to one side by a small angle θ 0 and released
from rest with θ 0 << 1 . Find the period of the pendulum. Determine the period of the
pendulum using (a) the torque method and (b) the energy method.
Figure 24.3 Oscillating rod
(a) Torque Method: with our choice of rotational coordinate system the angular
acceleration is given by
24-4
 d 2θ
α = 2 k̂ . (24.3.1)
dt
The force diagram on the pendulum is shown in Figure 24.4. In particular, there is an
unknown pivot force and the gravitational force acts at the center of mass of the rod.
Figure 24.4 Free-body force diagram on rod
The torque about the pivot point P is given by

  
τ P = rP,cm × mg . (24.3.2)
The rod is uniform, therefore the center of mass is a distance d / 2 from the pivot point.
The gravitational force acts at the center of mass, so the torque about the pivot point P is
given by

τ P = (d / 2)r̂ × mg(− sin θ θ̂ + cos r̂) = −(d / 2)mg sin θ k̂ . (24.3.3)
The rotational equation of motion about P is then

 
τ P = I Pα . (24.3.4)
d 2θ
−(d / 2)mg sin θ k̂ = I P 2 k̂ . (24.3.5)
dt
When the angle of oscillation is small, we may use the small angle approximation
sin θ ≅ θ , then Eq. (24.3.5) becomes
24-5
d 2θ (d / 2)mg
+ θ 0, (24.3.6)
dt 2 IP
which is a simple harmonic oscillator equation. The angular frequency of small

oscillations for the pendulum is
(d / 2)mg
ω0  . (24.3.7)
IP
The moment of inertia of a rod about the end point P is I P = (1 / 3)md 2 therefore the
angular frequency is
(d / 2)mg (3 / 2)g
ω0  2
= (24.3.8)
(1/ 3)md d
with period
2π 2d
T=  2π . (24.3.9)
ω0 3g
(b) Energy Method: Take the zero point of gravitational potential energy to be the point
where the center of mass of the pendulum is at its lowest point (Figure 24.5), that is,
θ = 0.
Figure 24.5 Energy diagram for rod
When the pendulum is at an angle θ the potential energy is
d
U = m g (1− cosθ ) . (24.3.10)
2
The kinetic energy of rotation about the pivot point is
24-6
1
K rot = I pω z 2 . (24.3.11)
2
The mechanical energy is then
d 1
E = U + K rot = m g
2
(1− cosθ ) + I pω z 2 ,
2
(24.3.12)
with I P = (1/ 3)md 2 . There are no non-conservative forces acting (by assumption), so the
mechanical energy is constant, and therefore the time derivative of energy is zero,
dE d dθ dω z
0= = m g sinθ + I pω z . (24.3.13)
dt 2 dt dt
Recall that ω z = dθ / dt and α z = dω z / dt = d 2θ / dt 2 , so Eq. (24.3.13) becomes
⎛ d d 2θ ⎞
0 = ω z ⎜ m g sin θ + I p 2 ⎟ . (24.3.14)
⎝ 2 dt ⎠
There are two solutions, ω z = 0 , in which case the rod remains at the bottom of the
swing,
d d 2θ
0 = m g sin θ + I p 2 . (24.3.15)
2 dt
Using the small angle approximation, we obtain the simple harmonic oscillator equation
(Eq. (24.3.6))
d 2θ m g(d / 2)
+ θ  0. (24.3.16)
dt 2 Ip
Example 24.3 Torsional Oscillator
A disk with moment of inertia about the center of mass I cm rotates in a horizontal plane.
It is suspended by a thin, massless rod. If the disk is rotated away from its equilibrium
position by an angle θ , the rod exerts a restoring torque about the center of the disk with
magnitude given by τ cm = b θ (Figure 24.6), where b is a positive constant. At t = 0 , the
disk is released from rest at an angular displacement of θ 0 . Find the subsequent time
dependence of the angular displacement θ (t ) .
24-7
Figure 24.6 Example 24.3 with exaggerated angle θ
Solution: Choose a coordinate system such that k̂ is pointing upwards (Figure 24.6),
then the angular acceleration is given by
 d 2θ
α = 2 k̂ . (24.3.17)
dt
The torque about the center of mass is given in the statement of the problem as a
restoring torque, therefore

τ cm = −b θ k̂ . (24.3.18)
The z -component of the rotational equation of motion is
d 2θ
−b θ = I cm . (24.3.19)
dt 2
This is a simple harmonic oscillator equation with solution
θ (t) = Acos(ω 0 t) + Bsin(ω 0 t) (24.3.20)
where the angular frequency of oscillation is given by
ω 0 = b / I cm . (24.3.21)
The z -component of the angular velocity is given by
dθ
ω z (t) = (t) = −ω 0 Asin(ω 0 t) + ω 0 Bcos(ω 0 t) . (24.3.22)
dt
The initial conditions at t = 0 , are θ (t = 0) = A = θ 0 , and (dθ / dt)(t = 0) = ω 0 B = 0 .

Therefore
θ (t) = θ 0 cos( b / I cm t) . (24.3.23)
24-8
Example 24.4 Compound Physical Pendulum
A compound physical pendulum consists of a disk of radius R and mass md fixed at the
end of a rod of mass mr and length l (Figure 24.7a). (a) Find the period of the pendulum.
(b) How does the period change if the disk is mounted to the rod by a frictionless bearing
so that it is perfectly free to spin?
(a) (b)
Figure 24.7 (a) Example 24.4 (b) Free-body force diagram
Solution: We begin by choosing coordinates. Let k̂ be normal to the plane of the motion
of the pendulum pointing out of the plane of the Figure 24.7b. Choose an angle variable
θ such that counterclockwise rotation corresponds to a positive z -component of the
angular velocity. Thus a torque that points into the page has a negative z -component and
a torque that points out of the page has a positive z -component. The free-body force
diagram on the pendulum is also shown in Figure 24.7b. In particular, there is an
unknown pivot force, the gravitational force acting at the center of mass of the rod, and
the gravitational force acting at the center of mass of the disk. The torque about the pivot
point is given by
    
τ P = rP,cm × mr g + rP,disk × md g . (24.3.24)

Recall that the vector rP,cm points from the pivot point to the center of mass of the rod a

distance l / 2 from the pivot. The vector rP,disk points from the pivot point to the center of
mass of the disk a distance l from the pivot. Torque diagrams for the gravitational force
on the rod and the disk are shown in Figure 24.8. Both torques about the pivot are in the
negative k̂ -direction (into the plane of Figure 24.8) and hence have negative z -
components,

τ P = −(mr (l / 2) + md l)g sin θ k̂ . (24.3.25)
24-9
(a) (b)
Figure 24.8 Torque diagram for (a) center of mass, (b) disk
In order to determine the moment of inertia of the rigid compound pendulum we will
treat each piece separately, the uniform rod of length d and the disk attached at the end
of the rod. The moment of inertia about the pivot point P is the sum of the moments of
inertia of the two pieces,
I P = I P,rod + I P,disc . (24.3.26)
We calculated the moment of inertia of a rod about the end point P (Chapter 16.3.3),
with the result that
1
I P,rod = mr l 2 . (24.3.27)
3
We can use the parallel axis theorem to calculate the moment of inertia of the disk about
the pivot point P ,
I P,disc = I cm,disc + md l 2 . (24.3.28)
We calculated the moment of inertia of a disk about the center of mass (Example 16.3)
and determined that
1
I cm,disc = md R 2 . (24.3.29)
2
The moment of inertia of the compound system is then
1 1
I P = mr l 2 + md l 2 + md R 2 . (24.3.30)
3 2
Therefore the rotational equation of motion becomes
24-10
d 2θ
(
−((1/ 2)mr + md )gl sin θ k̂ = ((1/ 3)mr + md )l 2 + (1/ 2)md R 2 ) dt 2
k̂ . (24.3.31)
When the angle of oscillation is small, we can use the small angle approximation
sin θ  θ . Then Eq. (24.3.31) becomes a simple harmonic oscillator equation,
d 2θ ((1/ 2)mr + md )gl

− θ. (24.3.32)
dt 2
((1/ 3)mr + md )l 2 + (1/ 2)md R 2
Eq. (24.3.32) describes simple harmonic motion with an angular frequency of oscillation
when the disk is fixed in place given by
((1/ 2)mr + md )gl

ω fixed = . (24.3.33)
((1/ 3)mr + md )l 2 + (1/ 2)md R 2
The period is
2π ((1/ 3)mr + md )l 2 + (1/ 2)md R 2
Tfixed =  2π . (24.3.34)
ω fixed ((1/ 2)mr + md )gl
(b) If the disk is not fixed to the rod, then it will not rotate about its center of mass as the
pendulum oscillates. Therefore the moment of inertia of the disk about its center of mass
does not contribute to the moment of inertia of the physical pendulum about the pivot
point. Notice that the pendulum is no longer a rigid body. The total moment of inertia is
only due to the rod and the disk treated as a point like object,
1
I P = mr l 2 + md l 2 . (24.3.35)
3
Therefore the period of oscillation is given by
2π ((1/ 3)mr + md )l 2
Tfree =  2π . (24.3.36)
ω free ((1/ 2)mr + md )gl
Comparing Eq. (24.3.36) to Eq. (24.3.34), we see that the period is smaller when the disk
is free and not fixed. From an energy perspective we can argue that when the disk is free,
it is not rotating about the center of mass. Therefore more of the gravitational potential
energy goes into the center of mass translational kinetic energy than when the disk is free.
Hence the center of mass is moving faster when the disk is free so it completes one
period is a shorter time.
24-11
Appendix 24A Higher-Order Corrections to the Period for Larger
Amplitudes of a Simple Pendulum
In Section 24.1.1, we found the period for a simple pendulum that undergoes small
oscillations is given by
2π l
T= ≅ 2π (simple pendulum) .
ω0 g
How good is this approximation? If the pendulum is pulled out to an initial angle θ 0 that
is not small (such that our first approximation sin θ ≅ θ no longer holds) then our
expression for the period is no longer valid. We shall calculate the first-order (or higher-
order) correction to the period of the pendulum.
Let’s first consider the mechanical energy, a conserved quantity in this system. Choose
an initial state when the pendulum is released from rest at an angle θ i ; this need not be at
time t = 0 , and in fact later in this derivation we’ll see that it’s inconvenient to choose
this position to be at t = 0 . Choose for the final state the position and velocity of the bob
at an arbitrary time t . Choose the zero point for the potential energy to be at the bottom
of the bob’s swing (Figure 24A.1).
Figure 24A.1 Energy diagram for simple pendulum
The mechanical energy when the bob is released from rest at an angle θ i is
Ei = K i + U i = m g l (1− cosθ i ) . (24.C.37)
The tangential component of the velocity of the bob at an arbitrary time t is given by
dθ
vθ = l , (24.C.38)
dt
and the kinetic energy at that time is
24-12
2
1 1 ⎛ dθ ⎞
K f = mvθ 2 = m ⎜ l ⎟ . (24.C.39)
2 2 ⎝ dt ⎠
The mechanical energy at time t is then
2
1 ⎛ dθ ⎞
Ef = K f +U f = m⎜l ⎟ + m g l (1 − cos θ ) . (24.C.40)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠
Because the tension in the string is always perpendicular to the displacement of the bob,
the tension does no work, we neglect any frictional forces, and hence mechanical energy
is constant, E f = Ei . Thus
2
1 ⎛ dθ ⎞
m l + m g l (1− cosθ ) = m g l (1− cosθ i )
2 ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠
2
(24.C.41)
⎛ dθ ⎞ g
⎜⎝ l dt ⎟⎠ = 2 l (cosθ − cosθ i ).
We can solve Equation (24.C.41) for the angular velocity as a function of θ ,
dθ 2g
= cosθ − cosθ i . (24.C.42)
dt l
Note that we have taken the positive square root, implying that dθ / dt ≥ 0 . This clearly
cannot always be the case, and we should change the sign of the square root every time
the pendulum’s direction of motion changes. For our purposes, this is not an issue. If we
wished to find an explicit form for either θ (t) or t (θ ) , we would have to consider the
signs in Equation (24.C.42) more carefully.
Before proceeding, it’s worth considering the difference between Equation (24.C.42) and
the equation for the simple pendulum in the simple harmonic oscillator limit, where
cosθ  1− (1/ 2)θ 2 . Then Eq. (24.C.42) reduces to
dθ 2g θ i θ 2
2
= − . (24.C.43)
dt l 2 2
In both Equations (24.C.42) and (24.C.43) the last term in the square root is proportional
to the difference between the initial potential energy and the final potential energy. The
final potential energy for the two cases is plotted in Figures 24A.2 for −π < θ < π on the
left and −π / 2 < θ < π / 2 on the right (the vertical scale is in units of mgl ).
24-13
Figures 24A.2 Potential energies as a function of displacement angle
It would seem to be to our advantage to express the potential energy for an arbitrary
displacement of the pendulum as the difference between two squares. We do this by first
recalling the trigonometric identity
1 − cosθ = 2sin 2 (θ / 2) (24.C.44)
with the result that Equation (24.C.42) may be re-expressed as
dθ 2g
= 2(sin 2 (θ i / 2) − sin 2 (θ / 2)) . (24.C.45)
dt l
Equation (24.C.45) is separable,
dθ g
=2 dt (24.C.46)
sin 2 (θ i / 2) − sin 2 (θ / 2) l
Rewrite Equation (24.C.46) as
dθ g
=2 dt . (24.C.47)
sin 2 (θ / 2) l
sin(θ i / 2) 1− 2
sin (θ i / 2)
The ratio sin(θ / 2) / sin(θ i / 2) in the square root in the denominator will oscillate (but
not with simple harmonic motion) between −1 and +1 , and so we will make the
identification
sin(θ / 2)
sin φ = . (24.C.48)
sin(θ i / 2)
24-14
Let b = sin(θ i / 2) , so that
θ
sin = bsin φ
2
12 (24.C.49)
θ ⎛ θ⎞
cos = ⎜ 1− sin 2 ⎟ = (1− b2 sin 2 φ )1 2 .
2 ⎝ 2⎠
Eq. (24.C.47) can then be rewritten in integral form as
dθ g
∫b 1− sin φ 2
= 2∫
l
dt . (24.C.50)
From differentiating the first expression in Equation (24.C.49), we have that
1 θ
cos dθ = bcosφ dφ
2 2
cosφ 1− sin 2 φ
dθ = 2b dφ = 2b dφ (24.C.51)
cos(θ / 2) 1− sin 2 (θ / 2)
1− sin 2 φ
= 2b dφ .
1− b2 sin 2 φ
Substituting the last equation in (24.C.51) into the left-hand side of the integral in
(24.C.50) yields
2b 1− sin 2 φ dφ
∫b 1− sin 2 φ 1− b2 sin 2 φ
dφ = 2 ∫
1− b2 sin 2 φ
. (24.C.52)
Thus the integral in Equation (24.C.50) becomes
dφ g
∫ 1− b2 sin 2 φ
=∫
l
dt . (24.C.53)
This integral is one of a class of integrals known as elliptic integrals. We find a power
series solution to this integral by expanding the function
1 3
(1− b2 sin 2 φ )−1 2 = 1+ b2 sin 2 φ + b4 sin 4 φ + ⋅⋅⋅ . (24.C.54)
2 8
The integral in Equation (24.C.53) then becomes
24-15
⎛ 1 3 ⎞ g
∫ ⎜⎝ 1+ 2 b sin 2 φ + b4 sin 4 φ +⋅⋅⋅⎟ dφ = ∫
2
dt . (24.C.55)
8 ⎠ l
Now let’s integrate over one period. Set t = 0 when θ = 0 , the lowest point of the swing,
so that sin φ = 0 and φ = 0 . One period T has elapsed the second time the bob returns to
the lowest point, or when φ = 2π . Putting in the limits of the φ -integral, we can
integrate term by term, noting that
2π 1 2 2 2π 1 1
∫ 0 2
b sin φ dφ = ∫
0
b2 (1− cos(2φ )) dφ
2 2
2π
1 1⎛ sin(2φ ) ⎞
= b2 ⎜ φ − (24.C.56)
2 2⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 0
1 1 θ
= π b2 = π sin 2 i .
2 2 2
Thus, from Equation (24.C.55) we have that
2π ⎛ 1 2 2 3 4 4 ⎞ T g
∫0
1+
⎜⎝ 2 b sin φ +
8
b sin φ +⋅⋅⋅⎟
⎠
d φ = ∫0 l
dt
, (24.C.57)
1 θ g
2π + π sin 2 i + ⋅⋅⋅ = T
2 2 l
We can now solve for the period,
l ⎛ 1 2 θi ⎞
T = 2π 1+ sin + ⋅⋅⋅⎟⎠ . (24.C.58)
g ⎜⎝ 4 2
If the initial angle θ i << 1 (measured in radians), then sin 2 (θ i / 2)  θ i 2 / 4 and the period
is approximately
l ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
T ≅ 2π ⎜ 1+ θ i 2 ⎟ = T0 ⎜ 1+ θ i 2 ⎟ , (24.C.59)
g ⎝ 16 ⎠ ⎝ 16 ⎠
where
l
T0 = 2π (24.C.60)
g
is the period of the simple pendulum with the standard small angle approximation. The
first order correction to the period of the pendulum is then
24-16
1 2
ΔT1 = θ T. (24.C.61)
16 i 0
Figure 24A.3 below shows the three functions given in Equation (24.C.60) (the
horizontal, or red plot if seen in color), Equation (24.C.59) (the middle, parabolic or
green plot) and the numerically-integrated function obtained by integrating the expression
in Equation (24.C.53) (the upper, or blue plot) between φ = 0 and φ = 2π . The plots
demonstrate that Equation (24.C.60) is a valid approximation for small values of θ i , and
that Equation (24.C.59) is a very good approximation for all but the largest amplitudes of
oscillation. The vertical axis is in units of l/g. Note the displacement of the
horizontal axis.
Figure 24A.3 Pendulum Period Approximations as Functions of Amplitude
24-17
Chapter 25 Celestial Mechanics
25.1 Introduction: The Kepler Problem ..................................................................... 2

25.2 Planetary Orbits .................................................................................................... 3
25.2.1 Reducing the Two-Body Problem into a One-Body Problem .................... 3
25.3 Energy and Angular Momentum, Constants of the Motion ............................. 5
25.3.1 The Orbit Equation for the One-Body Problem ......................................... 6
25.4 Energy Diagram, Effective Potential Energy, and Orbits .............................. 10
25.4.1 Circular Orbit E = Emin ............................................................................... 12
25.4.2 Elliptic Orbit Emin < E < 0 ........................................................................... 13

25.4.3 Parabolic Orbit E = 0 .................................................................................. 14
25.4.4 Hyperbolic Orbit E > 0 ............................................................................... 15
25.5 Orbits of the Two Bodies .................................................................................... 15
25.6 Kepler’s Laws ...................................................................................................... 17
25.6.1 Elliptic Orbit Law ........................................................................................ 17
25.6.2 Equal Area Law ........................................................................................... 18
25.6.3 Period Law .................................................................................................... 19
25.7 Worked Examples ............................................................................................... 20
Example 25.1 Elliptic Orbit ................................................................................... 20
Example 25.2 The Motion of the Star SO-2 around the Black Hole at the
Galactic Center........................................................................................................ 22
Example 25.3 Central Force Proportional to Distance Cubed ........................... 24
Example 25.4 Transfer Orbit ................................................................................. 26
Appendix 25A Derivation of the Orbit Equation ..................................................... 29
25A.1 Derivation of the Orbit Equation: Method 1 ............................................. 29
25A.2 Derivation of the Orbit Equation: Method 2 ............................................. 30
Appendix 25B Properties of an Elliptical Orbit ....................................................... 33
25B.1 Coordinate System for the Elliptic Orbit ................................................... 33
25B.2 The Semi-major Axis ................................................................................... 33
25B.2.3 The Location x0 of the Center of the Ellipse .......................................... 34
25B.2.4 The Semi-minor Axis ................................................................................ 35
25B.2.5 Constants of the Motion for Elliptic Motion ........................................... 36
25B.2.6 Speeds at Nearest and Furthest Approaches .......................................... 37
Appendix 25C Analytic Geometric Properties of Ellipses ...................................... 38
25-1
Chapter 25 Celestial Mechanics
...and if you want the exact moment in time, it was conceived mentally on
8th March in this year one thousand six hundred and eighteen, but
submitted to calculation in an unlucky way, and therefore rejected as
false, and finally returning on the 15th of May and adopting a new line of
attack, stormed the darkness of my mind. So strong was the support from
the combination of my labour of seventeen years on the observations of
Brahe and the present study, which conspired together, that at first I
believed I was dreaming, and assuming my conclusion among my basic
premises. But it is absolutely certain and exact that "the proportion
between the periodic times of any two planets is precisely the
sesquialterate proportion of their mean distances ..." 1
Johannes Kepler
25.1 Introduction: The Kepler Problem
Johannes Kepler first formulated the laws that describe planetary motion,
I. Each planet moves in an ellipse with the sun at one focus.
II. The radius vector from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time.
III. The period of revolution T of a planet about the sun is related to the semi-major
2
axis a of the ellipse by T 2 = k a 3 where k is the same for all planets.
The third law was published in 1619, and efforts to discover and solve the equation of
motion of the planets generated two hundred years of mathematical and scientific
discovery. In his honor, this problem has been named the Kepler Problem.
When there are more than two bodies, the problem becomes impossible to solve
exactly. The most important “three-body problem” in the 17th and 18th centuries involved
finding the motion of the moon, due to gravitational interaction with both the sun and the
earth. Newton realized that if the exact position of the moon were known, the longitude
of any observer on the earth could be determined by measuring the moon’s position with
respect to the stars.
In the eighteenth century, Leonhard Euler and other mathematicians spent many
years trying to solve the three-body problem, and they raised a deeper question. Do the
small contributions from the gravitational interactions of all the planets make the
planetary system unstable over long periods of time? At the end of 18th century, Pierre
1
Kepler, Johannes, Harmonice mundi Book 5, Chapter 3, trans. Aiton, Duncan and Field, p. 411
2
As stated in An Introduction to Mechanics, Daniel Kleppner and Robert Kolenkow, McGraw-Hill, 1973,
p 401.
25-2
Simon Laplace and others found a series solution to this stability question, but it was
unknown whether or not the series solution converged after a long period of time. Henri
Poincaré proved that the series actually diverged. Poincaré went on to invent new
mathematical methods that produced the modern fields of differential geometry and
topology in order to answer the stability question using geometric arguments, rather than
analytic methods. Poincaré and others did manage to show that the three-body problem
was indeed stable, due to the existence of periodic solutions. Just as in the time of
Newton and Leibniz and the invention of calculus, unsolved problems in celestial
mechanics became the experimental laboratory for the discovery of new mathematics.
25.2 Planetary Orbits
We now commence a study of the Kepler Problem. We shall determine the equation of
motion for the motions of two bodies interacting via a gravitational force (two-body
problem) using both force methods and conservation laws.
25.2.1 Reducing the Two-Body Problem into a One-Body Problem
We shall begin by showing how the motion of two bodies interacting via a gravitational
force (two-body problem) is mathematically equivalent to the motion of a single body
acted on by an external central gravitational force, where the mass of the single body is
the reduced mass µ ,
1 1 1 mm
= + ⇒µ= 1 2 . (25.2.1)
µ m1 m2 m1 + m2
Once we solve for the motion of the reduced body in this equivalent one-body problem,
we can then return to the real two-body problem and solve for the actual motion of the
two original bodies. The reduced mass was introduced in Chapter 13 Appendix A of
these notes. That appendix used similar but slightly different notation from that used in
this chapter.
Consider the gravitational interaction between two bodies with masses m1 and m2 as
Figure 25.1 Gravitational force between two bodies
25-3

Choose a coordinate system with a choice of origin such that body 1 has position r1 and
 
body 2 has position r2 (Figure 25.2). The relative position vector r pointing from body 2
    
to body 1 is r = r1 − r2 . We denote the magnitude of r by r = r , where r is the distance
between the bodies, and r̂ is the unit vector pointing from body 2 to body 1, so that

r = r r̂ .
Figure 25.2 Coordinate system for the two-body problem
The force on body 1 (due to the interaction of the two bodies) can be described by
Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
 mm
F2,1 = − F2,1 r̂ = − G 1 2 2 r̂ . (25.2.2)
r
Recall that Newton’s Third Law requires that the force on body 2 is equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to the force on body 1,
 
F1,2 = −F2,1 . (25.2.3)
Newton’s Second Law can be applied individually to the two bodies:
 
d 2r1
F2,1 = m1 2 , (25.2.4)
dt
 
d 2r2
F1,2 = m2 2 . (25.2.5)
dt
Dividing through by the mass in each of Equations (25.2.4) and (25.2.5) yields
 
F2,1d 2r1
= 2 , (25.2.6)
m1 dt
25-4
 
F1,2 d 2r2
= 2 . (25.2.7)
m2 dt
Subtracting the expression in Equation (25.2.7) from that in Equation (25.2.6) yields
    
F2,1 F1,2
d 2r1 d 2r2 d 2r
− = 2 − 2 = 2 . (25.2.8)
m1 m2 dt dt dt
Using Newton’s Third Law, Equation (25.2.3), Equation (25.2.8) becomes
 ⎛ 1 
1 ⎞ d 2r
F2,1 ⎜ + ⎟ = 2 . (25.2.9)
⎝ m1 m2 ⎠ dt
Using the reduced mass µ , as defined in Equation (25.2.1), Equation (25.2.9) becomes
 
F2,1 d 2r
= 2
µ dt
 (25.2.10)
 d 2r
F2,1 = µ 2 ,
dt

where F2,1 is given by Equation (25.2.2).
Our result has a special interpretation using Newton’s Second Law. Let µ be the

mass of a single body with position vector r = r r̂ with respect to an origin O , where r̂
is the unit vector pointing from the origin O to the single body. Then the equation of
motion, Equation (25.2.10), implies that the single body of mass µ is under the influence
of an attractive gravitational force pointing toward the origin. So, the original two-body
gravitational problem has now been reduced to an equivalent one-body problem,

involving a single body with mass µ under the influence of a central force FG = − F2,1 r̂ .
Note that in this reformulation, there is no body located at the central point (the origin
O ). The parameter r in the two-body problem is the relative distance between the
original two bodies, while the same parameter r in the one-body problem is the distance
between the single body and the central point. This reduction generalizes to all central
forces.
25.3 Energy and Angular Momentum, Constants of the Motion
The equivalent one-body problem has two constants of the motion, energy E and the
angular momentum L about the origin O . Energy is a constant because in our original
two-body problem, the gravitational interaction was an internal conservative force.
Angular momentum is constant about the origin because the only force is directed
25-5
towards the origin, and hence the torque about the origin due to that force is zero (the
vector from the origin to the single body is anti-parallel to the force vector and sin π = 0 ).
Because angular momentum is constant, the orbit of the single body lies in a plane with
the angular momentum vector pointing perpendicular to this plane.
In the plane of the orbit, choose polar coordinates (r, θ ) for the single body (see Figure
25.3), where r is the distance of the single body from the central point that is now taken
as the origin O , and θ is the angle that the single body makes with respect to a chosen
direction, and which increases positively in the counterclockwise direction.
Figure 25.3 Coordinate system for the orbit of the single body
There are two approaches to describing the motion of the single body. We can try to find
both the distance from the origin, r(t) and the angle, θ (t) , as functions of the parameter
time, but in most cases explicit functions can’t be found analytically. We can also find
the distance from the origin, r(θ ) , as a function of the angle θ . This second approach
offers a spatial description of the motion of the single body (see Appendix 25A).
25.3.1 The Orbit Equation for the One-Body Problem
Consider the single body with mass µ given by Equation (25.2.1), orbiting about a
central point under the influence of a radially attractive force given by Equation (25.2.2).
Since the force is conservative, the potential energy (from the two-body problem) with
choice of zero reference point U (∞) = 0 is given by
G m1 m2
U (r) = − . (25.3.1)
r
The total energy E is constant, and the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential
energy is
1 G m1 m2
E = µ v2 − . (25.3.2)
2 r
The kinetic energy term µv 2 / 2 is written in terms of the mass µ and the relative speed
v of the two bodies. Choose polar coordinates such that
25-6

v = vr r̂ + vθ θ̂,
 (25.3.3)
 dr
v= v = ,
dt
where vr = dr / dt and vθ = r(dθ / dt) . Equation (25.3.2) then becomes
1 ⎡⎛ dr ⎞ ⎛ dθ ⎞ ⎤ G m1 m2
2 2
E = µ ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ r ⎟ ⎥ − . (25.3.4)
2 ⎢⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎥ r
⎣ ⎦
The angular momentum with respect to the origin O is given by
   dθ
L O = rO × µ v = rr̂ × µ (vr r̂ + vθ θ̂) = µ rvθ k̂ = µ r 2 k̂ ≡ Lk̂ (25.3.5)
dt
with magnitude
dθ
L = µ r vθ = µ r 2 . (25.3.6)
dt
We shall explicitly eliminate the θ dependence from Equation (25.3.4) by using our
expression in Equation (25.3.6),
dθ L
= . (25.3.7)
dt µ r 2
The mechanical energy as expressed in Equation (25.3.4) then becomes
2
1 ⎛ dr ⎞ 1 L2 G m1 m2
E = µ⎜ ⎟ + − . (25.3.8)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠ 2 µ r 2 r
Equation (25.3.8) is a separable differential equation involving the variable r as a

function of time t and can be solved for the first derivative dr / dt ,
1
dr 2⎛ 1 L2 G m1 m2 ⎞ 2
= E − + . (25.3.9)
dt µ ⎜⎝ 2 µ r2 r ⎟⎠
Equation (25.3.9) can in principle be integrated directly for r(t) . In fact, doing the
integrals is complicated and beyond the scope of this book. The function r(t) can then,
in principle, be substituted into Equation (25.3.7) and can then be integrated to find θ (t) .
Instead of solving for the position of the single body as a function of time, we
shall find a geometric description of the orbit by finding r(θ ) . We first divide Equation
(25.3.7) by Equation (25.3.9) to obtain
25-7
dθ
dθ dt
= =
L 1/ r 2 ( .
) (25.3.10)
dr dr 2µ ⎛ L2
G m1 m2 ⎞
1/2
dt ⎜⎝ E − 2 µ r 2 + r ⎟⎠
The variables r and θ are separable;
dθ =
L (1/ r )
2
dr . (25.3.11)
1/2
2µ ⎛ L2 G m1 m2 ⎞
⎜⎝ E − +
2µ r 2 r ⎟⎠
Equation (25.3.11) can be integrated to find the radius as a function of the angle θ ; see
Appendix 25A for the exact integral solution. The result is called the orbit equation for
the reduced body and is given by
r0
r= (25.3.12)
1− ε cosθ
where
L2
r0 = (25.3.13)
µ G m1 m2
is a constant (known as the semilatus rectum) and
1
⎛ 2 E L2 ⎞ 2
ε = ⎜ 1+ 2⎟
(25.3.14)
⎝ µ (G m1 m2 ) ⎠
is the eccentricity of the orbit. The two constants of the motion, angular momentum L
and mechanical energy E , in terms of r0 and ε , are
L = ( µ G m1 m2 r0 )1/2 (25.3.15)
G m1 m2 (ε 2 − 1)
E= . (25.3.16)
2r0
The orbit equation as given in Equation (25.3.12) is a general conic section and is
perhaps somewhat more familiar in Cartesian coordinates. Let x = r cosθ and y = r sin θ ,
with r 2 = x 2 + y 2 . The orbit equation can be rewritten as
r = r0 + ε r cosθ . (25.3.17)
25-8
Using the Cartesian substitutions for x and y , rewrite Equation (25.3.17) as
(x 2 + y 2 )1/2 = r0 + ε x . (25.3.18)
Squaring both sides of Equation (25.3.18),
x 2 + y 2 = r0 2 + 2 ε x r0 + ε 2 x 2 . (25.3.19)
After rearranging terms, Equation (25.3.19) is the general expression of a conic section
with axis on the x -axis,
x 2 (1− ε 2 ) − 2 ε x r0 + y 2 = r0 2 . (25.3.20)
(We now see that the horizontal axis in Figure 25.3 can be taken to be the x -axis).
For a given r0 > 0 , corresponding to a given nonzero angular momentum as in Equation

(25.3.12), there are four cases determined by the value of the eccentricity.
Case 1: when ε = 0 , E = Emin < 0 and r = r0 , Equation (25.3.20) is the equation for a
circle,
x 2 + y 2 = r0 2 . (25.3.21)
Case 2: when 0 < ε < 1 , Emin < E < 0 , Equation (25.3.20) describes an ellipse,
y2 + A x2 − B x = k . (25.3.22)
where A > 0 and k is a positive constant. (Appendix 25C shows how this expression
may be expressed in the more traditional form involving the coordinates of the center of
the ellipse and the semi-major and semi-minor axes.)
Case 3: when ε = 1 , E = 0 , Equation (25.3.20) describes a parabola,
y 2 r0
x= − . (25.3.23)
2r0 2
Case 4: when ε > 1 , E > 0 , Equation (25.3.20) describes a hyperbola,
y2 − A x2 − B x = k , (25.3.24)
where A > 0 and k is a positive constant.
25-9
25.4 Energy Diagram, Effective Potential Energy, and Orbits
The energy (Equation (25.3.8)) of the single body moving in two dimensions can be
reinterpreted as the energy of a single body moving in one dimension, the radial direction
r , in an effective potential energy given by two terms,
L2 G m1 m2
U eff = − . (25.4.1)
2µ r 2
r
The energy is still the same, but our interpretation has changed,
2
1 ⎛ dr ⎞ L2 G m1 m2
E = K eff + U eff = µ⎜ ⎟ + − , (25.4.2)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠ 2 µ r 2
r
where the effective kinetic energy K eff associated with the one-dimensional motion is
2
1 ⎛ dr ⎞
K eff = µ⎜ ⎟ . (25.4.3)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠
The graph of U eff as a function of u = r / r0 , where r0 as given in Equation (25.3.13), is

shown in Figure 25.4. The upper red curve is proportional to L2 / (2 µr 2 )  1/ 2r 2 . The
lower blue curve is proportional to −Gm1m2 / r  −1/ r . The sum U eff is represented by
the middle green curve. The minimum value of U eff is at r = r0 , as will be shown
analytically below. The vertical scale is in units of −U eff (r0 ) . Whenever the one-
dimensional kinetic energy is zero, K eff = 0 , the energy is equal to the effective potential
energy,
L2 G m1 m2
E = U eff = − . (25.4.4)
2µ r 2
r
Recall that the potential energy is defined to be the negative integral of the work done by
the force. For our reduction to a one-body problem, using the effective potential, we will
introduce an effective force such that
B
 
B
U eff , B − U eff , A = − ∫ Feff ⋅ d r = − ∫ Freff dr (25.4.5)

A A
25-10
Figure 25.4 Graph of effective potential energy
The fundamental theorem of calculus (for one variable) then states that the integral of the
derivative of the effective potential energy function between two points is the effective
potential energy difference between those two points,
B
dU eff
U eff , B − U eff , A = ∫ dr (25.4.6)
A
dr
Comparing Equation (25.4.6) to Equation (25.4.5) shows that the radial component of the
effective force is the negative of the derivative of the effective potential energy,
dU eff
Freff = − (25.4.7)
dr
The effective potential energy describes the potential energy for a reduced body moving
in one dimension. (Note that the effective potential energy is only a function of the
variable r and is independent of the variable θ ). There are two contributions to the
effective potential energy, and the radial component of the force is then
d d ⎛ L2 G m1 m2 ⎞
Freff = − U eff = − ⎜ − (25.4.8)
dr dr ⎝ 2 µ r 2
r ⎟⎠
Thus there are two “forces” acting on the reduced body,
Freff = Fr , centifugal + Fr , gravity , (25.4.9)
with an effective centrifugal force given by
25-11
d ⎛ L2 ⎞ L2
Fr ,centrifugal = − = (25.4.10)
dr ⎜⎝ 2 µ r 2 ⎟⎠ µ r 3
and the centripetal gravitational force given by
G m1 m2
Fr , gravity = − . (25.4.11)
r2
With this nomenclature, let’s review the four cases presented in Section 25.3.
Figure 25.5 Plot of U eff (r) vs. r with four energies corresponding to circular, elliptic,
parabolic, and hyperbolic orbits
25.4.1 Circular Orbit E = Emin
The lowest energy state, Emin , corresponds to the minimum of the effective potential
energy, Emin = (U eff )min . We can minimize the effective potential energy
dU eff L2 G m1m2
0= =− + . (25.4.12)
dr r=r0
µ r0 3
r0 2
and solve Equation (25.4.12) for r0 ,

L2
r0 = , (25.4.13)
G m1m2
reproducing Equation (25.3.13). For E = Emin , r = r0 which corresponds to a circular

orbit.
25-12
25.4.2 Elliptic Orbit Emin < E < 0
For Emin < E < 0 , there are two points rmin and rmax such that E = U eff (rmin ) = U eff (rmax ) .
At these points K eff = 0 , therefore dr / dt = 0 which corresponds to a point of closest or
furthest approach (Figure 25.6). This condition corresponds to the minimum and
maximum values of r for an elliptic orbit.
(a) (b)
Figure 25.6 (a) elliptic orbit, (b) closest and furthest approach
The energy condition at these two points
L2 G m1 m2
E= − , r = rmin = rmax , (25.4.14)
2µ r 2
r
is a quadratic equation for the distance r ,
G m1 m2 L2
r2 + r− = 0. (25.4.15)
E 2µ E
There are two roots
1/2
G m1 m2 ⎛ ⎛ G m1 m2 ⎞ L2 ⎞
2
r=− ±⎜⎜ + ⎟ . (25.4.16)

2E ⎜⎝ ⎝ 2E ⎟⎠ 2 µ E ⎟⎠
Equation (25.4.16) may be simplified somewhat as
⎛ ⎛ 1/2
⎞
G m1 m2 2L2 E ⎞
r=− ⎜ 1± ⎜ 1+ ⎟ ⎟ (25.4.17)
2E ⎜ ⎝ µ (G m1 m2 )2 ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
From Equation (25.3.14), the square root is the eccentricity ε ,
25-13
1
⎛ 2EL2 ⎞2
ε = ⎜ 1+ 2⎟
, (25.4.18)
⎝ µ (G m1 m2 ) ⎠
and Equation (25.4.17) becomes
G m1 m2
r=− (1± ε ) . (25.4.19)
2E
A little algebra shows that
r0 L2 / µ G m1 m2
=
1− ε 2 ⎛ 2L2 E ⎞
1− ⎜ 1+ 2⎟
⎝ µ (G m1 m2 ) ⎠
L2 / µGm1m2
= (25.4.20)
−2L2 E / µ (Gm1m2 )2
G m1 m2
=− .
2E
Substituting the last expression in (25.4.20) into Equation (25.4.19) gives an expression
for the points of closest and furthest approach,
r0 r
r= (1± ε ) = 0 . (25.4.21)
1− ε 2
1 ε
The minus sign corresponds to the distance of closest approach,
r0
r ≡ rmin = (25.4.22)
1+ ε
and the plus sign corresponds to the distance of furthest approach,
r0
r ≡ rmax = . (25.4.23)
1− ε
25.4.3 Parabolic Orbit E = 0
The effective potential energy, as given in Equation (25.4.1), approaches zero ( U eff → 0 )
when the distance r approaches infinity ( r → ∞ ). When E = 0 , as r → ∞ , the kinetic
energy also approaches zero, K eff → 0 . This corresponds to a parabolic orbit (see
Equation (25.3.23)). Recall that in order for a body to escape from a planet, the body
must have an energy E = 0 (we set U eff = 0 at infinity). This escape velocity condition
corresponds to a parabolic orbit. For a parabolic orbit, the body also has a distance of
closest approach. This distance rpar can be found from the condition
25-14
L2 G m1 m2
E = U eff (rpar ) = − = 0. (25.4.24)
2 µ rpar 2
rpar
Solving Equation (25.4.24) for rpar yields
L2 1
rpar = = r0 ; (25.4.25)
2 µ G m1 m2 2
the fact that the minimum distance to the origin (the focus of a parabola) is half the
semilatus rectum is a well-known property of a parabola (Figure 25.5).
25.4.4 Hyperbolic Orbit E > 0
When E > 0 , in the limit as r → ∞ the kinetic energy is positive, K eff > 0 . This
corresponds to a hyperbolic orbit (see Equation (25.3.24)). The condition for closest
approach is similar to Equation (25.4.14) except that the energy is now positive. This
implies that there is only one positive solution to the quadratic Equation (25.4.15), the
distance of closest approach for the hyperbolic orbit
r0
rhyp = . (25.4.26)
1+ ε
The constant r0 is independent of the energy and from Equation (25.3.14) as the energy
of the single body increases, the eccentricity increases, and hence from Equation
(25.4.26), the distance of closest approach gets smaller (Figure 25.5).
25.5 Orbits of the Two Bodies

The orbit of the single body can be circular, elliptical, parabolic or hyperbolic, depending
on the values of the two constants of the motion, the angular momentum and the energy.
Once we have the explicit solution (in this discussion, r(θ ) ) for the single body, we can
find the actual orbits of the two bodies.
Choose a coordinate system as we did for the reduction of the two-body problem
(Figure 25.7).
25-15
Figure 25.7 Center of mass coordinate system
The center of mass of the system is given by
  
m1 r1 + m2 r2
R cm = . (25.4.27)
m1 + m2
 
Let r1′ be the vector from the center of mass to body 1 and r2′ be the vector from the
center of mass to body 2. Then, by the geometry in Figure 25.6,
    
r = r1 − r2 = r1′ − r2′ , (25.4.28)
and hence
   
    m1 r1 + m2 r2 m2 (r1 − r2 ) µ 
r1′ = r1 − R cm = r1 − = = r. (25.4.29)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1
A similar calculation shows that

 µ 
r2′ = − r . (25.4.30)
m2
Thus each body undergoes a motion about the center of mass in the same manner that the
single body moves about the central point given by Equation (25.3.12). The only
difference is that the distance from either body to the center of mass is shortened by a
factor µ / mi . When the orbit of the single body is an ellipse, then the orbits of the two
bodies are also ellipses, as shown in Figure 25.8. When one mass is much smaller than
the other, for example m1 << m2 , then the reduced mass is approximately the smaller
mass,
m1 m2 mm
µ= ≅ 1 2 = m1 . (25.4.31)
m1 + m2 m2
25-16
Figure 25.8 The elliptical motion of bodies interacting gravitationally
The center of mass is located approximately at the position of the larger mass, body 2 of
mass m2 . Thus body 1 moves according to
 µ  
r1′ = r ≅ r , (25.4.32)
m1
and body 2 is approximately stationary,
 µ  m  
r2′ = − r − 1 r ≅ 0 . (25.4.33)
m2 m2
25.6 Kepler’s Laws
25.6.1 Elliptic Orbit Law
I. Each planet moves in an ellipse with the sun at one focus.
When the energy is negative, E < 0 , and according to Equation (25.3.14),
1
⎛ 2 E L2 ⎞ 2
ε = ⎜ 1+ 2⎟
(25.5.1)
⎝ µ (G m1 m2 ) ⎠
and the eccentricity must fall within the range 0 ≤ ε < 1 . These orbits are either circles or
ellipses. Note the elliptic orbit law is only valid if we assume that there is only one
central force acting. We are ignoring the gravitational interactions due to all the other
bodies in the universe, a necessary approximation for our analytic solution.
25-17
25.6.2 Equal Area Law
II. The radius vector from the sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time.
Using analytic geometry in the limit of small Δθ , the sum of the areas of the triangles in
Figure 25.9 is given by
1 (r Δθ )
ΔA = (r Δθ )r + Δr (25.5.2)
2 2
Figure 25.9 Kepler’s equal area law.
The average rate of the change of area, ΔA , in time, Δt , is given by
1 (r Δθ )r (r Δθ ) Δr
ΔA = + . (25.5.3)
2 Δt 2 Δt
In the limit as Δt → 0 , Δθ → 0 , this becomes
dA 1 2 dθ
= r . (25.5.4)
dt 2 dt
Recall that according to Equation (25.3.7) (reproduced below as Equation (25.5.5)), the
angular momentum is related to the angular velocity dθ / dt by
dθ L
= (25.5.5)
dt µ r 2
and Equation (25.5.4) is then
dA L
= . (25.5.6)
dt 2 µ
Because L and µ are constants, the rate of change of area with respect to time is a
constant. This is often familiarly referred to by the expression: equal areas are swept out
in equal times (see Kepler’s Laws at the beginning of this chapter).
25-18
25.6.3 Period Law
III. The period of revolution T of a planet about the sun is related to the semi-major
axis a of the ellipse by T 2 = k a 3 where k is the same for all planets.
When Kepler stated his period law for planetary orbits based on observation, he only
noted the dependence on the larger mass of the sun. Because the mass of the sun is much
greater than the mass of the planets, his observation is an excellent approximation.
In order to demonstrate the third law we begin by rewriting Equation (25.5.6) in the form
dA
2µ = L. (25.5.7)
dt
Equation (25.5.7) can be integrated as
T
∫
orbit
2 µ dA = ∫ L dt ,
0
(25.5.8)
where T is the period of the orbit. For an ellipse,
Area = ∫
orbit
dA = π ab , (25.5.9)
where a is the semi-major axis and b is the semi-minor axis (Figure 25.10).
Figure 25.10 Semi-major and semi-minor axis for an ellipse
Thus we have
2 µ π ab
T= . (25.5.10)
L
Squaring Equation (25.5.10) then yields
25-19
4π 2 µ 2 a 2 b2
T2 = . (25.5.11)
L2
In Appendix 25B, Equation (25.B.20) gives the angular momentum in terms of the semi-
major axis and the eccentricity. Substitution for the angular momentum into Equation
(25.5.11) yields
4π 2 µ 2 a 2 b2
T2 = . (25.5.12)
µ Gm1 m2 a(1− ε 2 )
In Appendix 25B, Equation (25.B.17) gives the semi-minor axis which upon substitution
into Equation (25.5.12) yields
4π 2 µ 2 a 3
T = 2
. (25.5.13)
µ Gm1 m2
Using Equation (25.2.1) for reduced mass, the square of the period of the orbit is
proportional to the semi-major axis cubed,
4π 2 a 3
T =
2
. (25.5.14)
G(m1 + m2 )
Example 25.1 Elliptic Orbit
A satellite of mass ms is in an elliptical orbit around a planet of mass mp >> ms . The

planet is located at one focus of the ellipse. The satellite is at the distance ra when it is
furthest from the planet. The distance of closest approach is rp (Figure 25.11). What is (i)
the speed v p of the satellite when it is closest to the planet and (ii) the speed va of the
satellite when it is furthest from the planet?
25-20
 
Solution: The angular momentum about the origin is constant and because rO,a ⊥ v a and
 
rO, p ⊥ v p , the magnitude of the angular momentums satisfies
L ≡ LO ,p = LO ,a . (25.6.1)
Because ms << m p , the reduced mass µ ≅ ms and so the angular momentum condition
becomes
L = ms rp v p = ms ra va (25.6.2)
We can solve for v p in terms of the constants G , m p , ra and rp as follows. Choose zero
for the gravitational potential energy, U (r = ∞) = 0 . When the satellite is at the maximum
distance from the planet, the mechanical energy is
1 Gms mp
Ea = K a + U a = ms va 2 − . (25.6.3)
2 ra
When the satellite is at closest approach the energy is
1 Gms mp
Ep = ms v p 2 − . (25.6.4)
2 rp
Mechanical energy is constant,

E ≡ Ea = E p , (25.6.5)
therefore
1 Gms mp 1 Gms mp
E= ms v p 2 − = ms va 2 − . (25.6.6)
2 rp 2 ra
From Eq. (25.6.2) we know that

va = (rp / ra )v p . (25.6.7)
Substitute Eq. (25.6.7) into Eq. (25.6.6) and divide through by ms / 2 yields
2Gmp rp 2 2Gmp
vp −
2
= v 2−
2 p
. (25.6.8)
rp ra ra
We can solve this Eq. (25.6.8) for v p :
25-21
⎛ rp 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞
v p ⎜ 1− 2 ⎟ = 2Gmp ⎜ − ⎟ ⇒
2
⎝ ra ⎠ ⎝ rp ra ⎠
⎛r 2 −r 2⎞ ⎛r −r ⎞
v p 2 ⎜ a 2 p ⎟ = 2Gmp ⎜ a p ⎟ ⇒
⎝ ra ⎠ ⎝ rp ra ⎠
(25.6.9)
⎛ (r − r )(r + r ) ⎞ ⎛r −r ⎞
v p 2 ⎜ a p 2 a p ⎟ = 2Gmp ⎜ a p ⎟ ⇒
⎝ ra ⎠ ⎝ rp ra ⎠
2Gmp ra
vp = .
(ra + rp )rp
We now use Eq. (25.6.7) to determine that
2Gmp rp
va = (rp / ra )v p = . (25.6.10)
(ra + rp )ra
Example 25.2 The Motion of the Star SO-2 around the Black Hole at the Galactic
Center
The UCLA Galactic Center Group, headed by Dr. Andrea Ghez, measured the orbits of
many stars within 0.8′′ × 0.8′′ of the galactic center. The orbits of six of those stars are
Figure 25.12 Obits of six stars near black hole at center of Milky Way galaxy.
25-22
We shall focus on the orbit of the star S0-2 with the following orbit properties given in
Table 25.13. Distances are given in astronomical units, 1au = 1.50 × 1011 m , which is the
mean distance between the earth and the sun.
Table 25.1 Orbital Properties of S0-2
Star Period Eccentricity Semi-major Periapse Apoapse

(yrs) axis (au) (au)
−3
( 10 arcsec )
S0-2 15.2 0.8763 120.7 (4.5) 119.5 (3.9) 1812 (73)
(0.68/0.76) (0.0063)
The period of S0-2 satisfies Kepler’s Third Law, given by
4π 2 a 3
T =
2
, (25.6.11)
G(m1 + m2 )
where m1 is the mass of S0-2, m2 is the mass of the black hole, and a is the semi-major
axis of the elliptic orbit of S0-2. (a) Determine the mass of the black hole that the star S0-
2 is orbiting. What is the ratio of the mass of the black hole to the solar mass? (b) What is
the speed of S0-2 at periapse (distance of closest approach to the center of the galaxy)
and apoapse (distance of furthest approach to the center of the galaxy)?
Solution: (a) The semi-major axis is given by
rp + ra 119.5au + 1812au
a= = = 965.8au . (25.6.12)
2 2
In SI units (meters), this is

1.50 × 1011 m
a = 965.8au = 1.45 × 1014 m . (25.6.13)
1au
The mass m1 of the star S0-2 is much less than the mass m2 of the black hole, and
Equation (25.6.11) can be simplified to
4π 2 a 3
T =
2
. (25.6.14)
G m2
Solving for the mass m2 and inserting the numerical values, yields
3
A.M.Ghez, et al., Stellar Orbits Around Galactic Center Black Hole, preprint arXiv:astro-ph/0306130v1,
5 June, 2003.
25-23
4π 2 a 3
m2 =
GT 2
(4π 2 )(1.45 × 1014 m)3
= (25.6.15)
(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg −2 )((15.2 yr)(3.16 × 107 s ⋅ yr -1 ))2
= 7.79 × 1034 kg.
The ratio of the mass of the black hole to the solar mass is
m2 7.79 × 1034 kg
= = 3.91× 106 . (25.6.16)
msun 1.99 × 10 kg
30
The mass of black hole corresponds to nearly four million solar masses.
(b) We can use our results from Example 25.1 that
2Gm2 ra Gm2 ra
vp = = (25.6.17)
(ra + rp )rp arp
rp 2Gm2 rp Gm2 rp
va = vp = = , (25.6.18)
ra (ra + rp )ra ara
where a = (ra + rb ) / 2 is the semi-major axis. Inserting numerical values,
Gm2 ra
vp =
a rp
(6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ kg −2 )(7.79 × 1034 kg) ⎛ 1812 ⎞

= ⎜⎝ 119.5 ⎟⎠ (25.6.19)
(1.45 × 1014 m)
= 7.38 × 106 m ⋅s −1.
The speed va at apoapse is then
rp ⎛ 1812 ⎞
va = vp = ⎜ ⎟ (7.38 × 106 m ⋅s −1 ) = 4.87 × 105 m ⋅s −1 . (25.6.20)
ra ⎝ 119.5 ⎠
Example 25.3 Central Force Proportional to Distance Cubed
A particle of mass m moves in plane about a central point under an attractive central
force of magnitude F = br 3 . The magnitude of the angular momentum about the central
25-24
point is equal to L . (a) Find the effective potential energy and make sketch of effective
potential energy as a function of r . (b) Indicate on a sketch of the effective potential the
total energy for circular motion. (c) The radius of the particle’s orbit varies between r0
and 2r0 . Find r0 .
Solution: a) The potential energy, taking the zero of potential energy to be at r = 0 , is
r b
U (r) = − ∫ (−br ′ 3 ) dr ′ = r 4
0 4
The effective potential energy is
L2 L2 b
U eff (r) = 2
+ U (r) = 2
+ r4 .
2mr 2mr 4
A plot is shown in Figure 25.13a, including the potential (yellow, right-most curve), the
term L2 / 2m (green, left-most curve) and the effective potential (blue, center curve). The
horizontal scale is in units of r0 (corresponding to radius of the lowest energy circular
orbit) and the vertical scale is in units of the minimum effective potential.
b) The minimum effective potential energy is the horizontal line (red) in Figure 25.13a.
(a) (b)
Figure 25.13 (a) Effective potential energy with lowest energy state (red line), (b) higher
energy state (magenta line)
c) We are trying to determine the value of r0 such that U eff (r0 ) = U eff (2r0 ) . Thus
L2 b 4 L2 b
2
+ r0
= 2
+ (2r0 )4 .
mr0 4 m(2r0 ) 4
25-25
Rearranging and combining terms, we can then solve for r0 ,
3 L2 1 15 4
= b r0
8 m r02 4
1 L2
r06 = .
10 mb
In the plot in Figure 25.13b, if we could move the red line up until it intersects the blue
curve at two point whose value of the radius differ by a factor of 2 , those would be the
respective values for r0 and 2r0 . A graph, showing the corresponding energy as the
horizontal magenta line, is shown in Figure 25.13b.
Example 25.4 Transfer Orbit
A space vehicle is in a circular orbit about the earth. The mass of the vehicle is
ms = 3.00 × 103 kg and the radius of the orbit is 2Re = 1.28 × 104 km . It is desired to
transfer the vehicle to a circular orbit of radius 4Re (Figure 24.14). The mass of the earth
is M e = 5.97 × 1024 kg . (a) What is the minimum energy expenditure required for the
transfer? (b) An efficient way to accomplish the transfer is to use an elliptical orbit from
point A on the inner circular orbit to a point B on the outer circular orbit (known as a
Hohmann transfer orbit). What changes in speed are required at the points of intersection,
A and B ?
Solution: (a) The mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies,
E = K +U
1 m M (25.6.21)
= ms v 2 − G s e .
2 Re
25-26
For a circular orbit, the orbital speed and orbital radius must be related by Newton’s
Second Law,
Fr = m ar
ms M e v2
−G = −ms ⇒ (25.6.22)
Re 2 Re
1 1 m M
ms v 2 = G s e .
2 2 Re
Substituting the last result in (25.6.22) into Equation (25.6.21) yields
1 m M m M 1 m M 1
E = G s e − G s e = − G s e = U (Re ) . (25.6.23)
2 Re Re 2 Re 2
Equation (25.6.23) is one example of what is known as the Virial Theorem, in which the
energy is equal to (1/2) the potential energy for the circular orbit. In moving from a
circular orbit of radius 2Re to a circular orbit of radius 4Re , the total energy increases,
(as the energy becomes less negative). The change in energy is
ΔE = E(r = 4Re ) − E(r = 2Re )

1 m M ⎛ 1 m M ⎞
= − G s e −⎜− G s e⎟ (25.6.24)
2 4Re ⎝ 2 2Re ⎠
Gms M e
= .
8Re
Inserting the numerical values,
1 m M 1 m M
ΔE = G s e = G s e
8 Re 4 2Re
1 (3.00 × 103 kg)(5.97 × 1024 kg)
= (6.67 × 10−11 m 3 ⋅ kg −1 ⋅s −2 ) (25.6.25)
4 (1.28 × 104 km)
= 2.3× 1010 J.
b) The satellite must increase its speed at point A in order to move to the larger orbit
radius and increase its speed again at point B to stay in the new circular orbit. Denote
the satellite speed at point A while in the circular orbit as v A, i and after the speed
increase (a “rocket burn”) as v A, f . Similarly, denote the satellite’s speed when it first
reaches point B as v B, i . Once the satellite reaches point B , it then needs to increase its
speed in order to continue in a circular orbit. Denote the speed of the satellite in the
circular orbit at point B by v B, f . The speeds v A, i and v B, f are given by Equation
25-27
(25.6.22). While the satellite is moving from point A to point B in the elliptic orbit (that
is, during the transfer, after the first burn and before the second), both mechanical energy
and angular momentum are conserved. Conservation of energy relates the speeds and
radii by
1 mm 1 mm
ms (v A, f )2 − G s e = ms (v B,i )2 − G s e . (25.6.26)
2 2Re 2 4Re
Conservation of angular momentum relates the speeds and radii by
ms v A, f (2Re ) = ms v B,i (4Re ) ⇒ v A, f = 2v B,i . (25.6.27)
Substitution of Equation (25.6.27) into Equation (25.6.26) yields, after minor algebra,
2 G Me 1 GM e
v A, f = , v B,i = . (25.6.28)
3 Re 6 Re
We can now use Equation (25.6.22) to determine that
1 G Me 1 G Me
v A,i = , v B, f = . (25.6.29)
2 Re 4 Re
Thus the change in speeds at the respective points is given by
⎛ 2 1 ⎞ G Me
Δv A = v A, f − v A,i = ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 3 2⎠ Re
(25.6.30)
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ G Me
Δv B = v B, f − v B,i =⎜ − ⎟ .
⎝ 4 6⎠ Re
Substitution of numerical values gives
Δv A = 8.6 × 102 m ⋅ s −2 , Δv B = 7.2 × 102 m ⋅ s −2 . (25.6.31)
25-28
Appendix 25A Derivation of the Orbit Equation
25A.1 Derivation of the Orbit Equation: Method 1
Start from Equation (25.3.11) in the form
L (1/ r 2 )
dθ = 1/2
dr . (25.A.1)
2µ ⎛ L2 G m1 m2 ⎞
⎜⎝ E − +
2µ r 2
r ⎟⎠
What follows involves a good deal of hindsight, allowing selection of convenient

substitutions in the math in order to get a clean result. First, note the many factors of the
reciprocal of r . So, we’ll try the substitution u = 1/ r , du = −(1/ r 2 ) dr , with the result
L du
dθ = − . (25.A.2)
2µ ⎛
1/ 2
L2 2 ⎞
⎜E− u + G m1 m2 u ⎟
⎝ 2µ ⎠
Experience in evaluating integrals suggests that we make the absolute value of the factor
multiplying u 2 inside the square root equal to unity. That is, multiplying numerator and
denominator by 2µ / L ,
du
dθ = − . (25.A.3)
( 2µ E / L − u )
1/2
2 2
+ 2( µG m1 m2 / L )u
2
As both a check and a motivation for the next steps, note that the left side dθ of Equation
(25.A.3) is dimensionless, and so the right side must be. This means that the factor of
µ G m1 m2 / L2 in the square root must have the same dimensions as u , or length −1 ; so,
define r0 ≡ L2 / µ G m1 m2 . This is of course the semilatus rectum as defined in Equation
(25.3.12), and it’s no coincidence; this is part of the “hindsight” mentioned above. The
differential equation then becomes
du
dθ = − . (25.A.4)
(2 µ E / L − u 2 + 2u / r0 )1/2
2
We now rewrite the denominator in order to express it terms of the eccentricity.
25-29
du
dθ = −
( 2µ E / L + 1/ r )
1/2
2
0
2
− u 2 + 2u / r0 − 1/ r0 2
du
=− (25.A.5)
( 2µ E / L + 1/ r )
1/2
2
0
2
− (u − 1/ r0 ) 2
r0 du
=− .
( )
1/2
2 µ Er0 2 / L2 + 1− (r0 u − 1)2
We note that the combination of terms 2 µ Er0 2 / L2 + 1 is dimensionless, and is in fact

equal to the square of the eccentricity ε as defined in Equation (25.3.13); more
hindsight. The last expression in (25.A.5) is then
r0 du
dθ = − . (25.A.6)
(ε − (r0 u − 1)2 )
2 1/ 2
From here, we’ll combine a few calculus steps, going immediately to the substitution
r0 u − 1 = ε cosα , r0 du = −ε sin α dα , with the final result that
−ε sin α dα
dθ = − = dα , (25.A.7)
(ε − ε 2 cos 2 α )
2 1/ 2
We now integrate Eq. (25.A.7) with the very simple result that
θ = α + constant . (25.A.8)
We have a choice in selecting the constant, and if we pick θ = α − π , α = θ + π ,

cos α = − cosθ , the result is
1 r0
r= = , (25.A.9)
u 1− ε cosθ
which is our desired result, Equation (25.3.11). Note that if we chose the constant of
integration to be zero, the result would be
1 r0
r= = (25.A.10)
u 1 + ε cosθ
which is the same trajectory reflected about the “vertical” axis in Figure 25.3, indeed the
same as rotating by π .
25A.2 Derivation of the Orbit Equation: Method 2
The derivation of Equation (25.A.9) in the form
25-30
1
u= (1 − ε cosθ ) (25.A.11)
r0
suggests that the equation of motion for the one-body problem might be manipulated to
obtain a simple differential equation. That is, start from
 
F = µa
m1m2 ⎛ d 2r ⎛ dθ ⎞ ⎞
2
(25.A.12)
−G 2 r̂ = µ ⎜ 2 − r ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ r̂.
r ⎜⎝ dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎟⎠
Setting the components equal, using the constant of motion L = µr 2 (dθ / dt) and
rearranging, Eq. (25.A.12) becomes
d 2r L2 Gm1m2
µ = − . (25.A.13)
dt 2 µ r 3 r2
We now use the same substitution u = 1/ r and change the independent variable from t to
r , using the chain rule twice, since Equation (25.A.13) is a second-order equation. That
is, the first time derivative is
dr dr du dr du dθ
= = . (25.A.14)
dt du dt du dθ dt
From r = 1/ u we have dr / du = −1/ u 2 . Combining with dθ / dt in terms of L and u ,

dθ / dt = Lu 2 / µ , Equation (25.A.14) becomes
dr 1 du Lu 2 du L
=− 2 =− , (25.A.15)
dt u dθ µ dθ µ
a very tidy result, with the variable u appearing linearly. Taking the second derivative
with respect to t ,
d 2 r d ⎛ dr ⎞ d ⎛ dr ⎞ dθ
= = . (25.A.16)
dt 2 dt ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ dθ ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ dt
Now substitute Eq. (25.A.15) into Eq. (25.A.16) with the result that
d 2r d 2u ⎛ 2 L2 ⎞
= − u . (25.A.17)
dt 2 dθ 2 ⎜⎝ µ 2 ⎟⎠
Substituting into Equation (25.A.13), with r = 1/ u yields
25-31
d 2u 2 L2 L2 3
− u = u − Gm1m2 u 2 . (25.A.18)
dθ 2 µ µ
Canceling the common factor of u 2 and rearranging, we arrive at
d 2u µGm1m2
− 2 =u− . (25.A.19)
dθ L2
Equation (25.A.19) is mathematically equivalent to the simple harmonic oscillator

equation with an additional constant term. The solution consists of two parts: the angle-
independent solution
µGm1m2
u0 = (25.A.20)
L2
and a sinusoidally varying term of the form
uH = Acos(θ − θ 0 ) , (25.A.21)
where A and θ 0 are constants determined by the form of the orbit. The expression in
Equation (25.A.20) is the inhomogeneous solution and represents a circular orbit. The
expression in Equation (25.A.21) is the homogeneous solution (as hinted by the
subscript) and must have two independent constants. We can readily identify 1/ u0 as the
semilatus rectum r0 , with the result that
1
u = u0 + uH =
r0
(1+ r0 A(θ − θ0 )) ⇒
(25.A.22)
1 r0
r= = .
u 1+ r0 A(θ − θ 0 )
Choosing the product r0 A to be the eccentricity ε and θ 0 = π (much as was done leading
to Equation (25.A.9) above), Equation (25.A.9) is reproduced.
25-32
Appendix 25B Properties of an Elliptical Orbit
25B.1 Coordinate System for the Elliptic Orbit
We now consider the special case of an elliptical orbit. Choose coordinates with the
central point located at one focal point and coordinates (r,θ ) for the position of the
single body (Figure 25B.1a). In Figure 25B.1b, let a denote the semi-major axis, b
denote the semi-minor axis and x0 denote the distance from the center of the ellipse to
the origin of our coordinate system.
(a) (b)
Figure 25B.1 (a) Coordinate system for elliptic orbit, (b) semi-major axis
25B.2 The Semi-major Axis
Recall the orbit equation, Eq, (25.A.9), describes r(θ ) ,
r0
r(θ ) = . (25.B.1)
1− ε cosθ
The major axis A = 2a is given by
A = 2 a = ra + rp . (25.B.2)
where the distance of furthest approach ra occurs when θ = 0 , hence
r0
ra = r(θ = 0) = , (25.B.3)
1− ε
and the distance of nearest approach rp occurs when θ = π , hence
r0
rp = r(θ = π ) = . (25.B.4)
1+ ε
25-33
Figure 25B.2 shows the distances of nearest and furthest approach.
Figure 25B.2 Furthest and nearest approach
We can now determine the semi-major axis
1⎛ r r ⎞ r
a= ⎜ 0 + 0 ⎟= 0 2 . (25.B.5)
2 ⎝ 1− ε 1+ ε ⎠ 1− ε
The semilatus rectum r0 can be re-expressed in terms of the semi-major axis and the
eccentricity,
r0 = a(1− ε 2 ) . (25.B.6)
We can now express the distance of nearest approach, Equation (25.B.4), in terms of the
semi-major axis and the eccentricity,
r0 a(1− ε 2 )
rp = = = a(1− ε ) . (25.B.7)
1+ ε 1+ ε
In a similar fashion the distance of furthest approach is
r0 a(1− ε 2 )
ra = = = a(1+ ε ) . (25.B.8)
1− ε 1− ε
25B.2.3 The Location x0 of the Center of the Ellipse
From Figure 25B.3a, the distance from a focus point to the center of the ellipse is
x0 = a − rp . (25.B.9)
25-34
(a) (b)
Figure 25B.3 Location of the center of the ellipse and semi-minor axis.
Using Equation (25.B.7) for rp , we have that
x0 = a − a(1− ε ) = ε a. (25.B.10)
25B.2.4 The Semi-minor Axis
From Figure 25B.3b, the semi-minor axis can be expressed as
b = (rb 2 − x0 2 ) , (25.B.11)
where
r0
rb = . (25.B.12)
1− ε cosθ b
We can rewrite Eq. (25.B.12) as
rb − rb ε cosθb = r0 . (25.B.13)
The horizontal projection of rb is given by (Figure 25B.2b),
x0 = rb cosθb , (25.B.14)
which upon substitution into Eq. (25.B.13) yields
rb = r0 + ε x0 . (25.B.15)
Substituting Equation (25.B.10) for x0 and Equation (25.B.6) for r0 into

Equation (25.B.15) yields
rb = a(1− ε 2 ) + aε 2 = a . (25.B.16)
25-35
The fact that rb = a is a well-known property of an ellipse reflected in the geometric
construction, that the sum of the distances from the two foci to any point on the ellipse is
a constant. We can now determine the semi-minor axis b by substituting Eq. (25.B.16)
into Eq. (25.B.11) yielding
b= (rb
2
− x0 2 ) = a 2 − ε 2a 2 = a 1 − ε 2 . (25.B.17)
25B.2.5 Constants of the Motion for Elliptic Motion
We shall now express the parameters a , b and x0 in terms of the constants of the motion
L , E , µ , m1 and m2 . Using our results for r0 and ε from Equations (25.3.13) and
(25.3.14) we have for the semi-major axis
L2 1
a=
µ Gm1 m2 (1− (1+ 2 E L / µ (G m1 m2 )2 ))
2
. (25.B.18)
G m1 m2
=−
2E
The energy is then determined by the semi-major axis,
G m1 m2
E=− . (25.B.19)
2a
The angular momentum is related to the semilatus rectum r0 by Equation (25.3.13).

Using Equation (25.B.6) for r0 , we can express the angular momentum (25.B.4) in terms
of the semi-major axis and the eccentricity,
L = µ Gm1 m2 r0 = µ Gm1 m2 a(1− ε 2 ) . (25.B.20)

Note that
L
(1− ε 2 ) = , (25.B.21)
µ Gm1 m2 a
Thus, from Equations (25.3.14), (25.B.10), and (25.B.18), the distance from the center of
the ellipse to the focal point is
x0 = ε a = −
G m1 m2
2E
(1 + 2E L / µ (G m m ) ) ,
2
1 2
2
(25.B.22)
a result we will return to later. We can substitute Eq. (25.B.21) for 1 − ε 2 into Eq.
(25.B.17), and determine that the semi-minor axis is
25-36
b = aL2 / µ Gm1 m2 . (25.B.23)
We can now substitute Eq. (25.B.18) for a into Eq. (25.B.23), yielding
G m1 m2 1
b = aL2 / µ Gm1 m2 = L − / µ Gm1 m2 = L − . (25.B.24)
2E 2µ E
25B.2.6 Speeds at Nearest and Furthest Approaches
At nearest approach, the velocity vector is tangent to the orbit (Figure 25B.4), so the
magnitude of the angular momentum is
L = µrp v p , (25.B.25)
and the speed at nearest approach is
v p = L / µrp . (25.B.26)
Figure 25B.4 Speeds at nearest and furthest approach
Using Equation (25.B.20) for the angular momentum and Equation (25.B.7) for rp ,
Equation (25.B.26) becomes
L µ Gm1 m2 (1− ε 2 ) Gm1 m2 (1− ε 2 ) Gm1 m2 (1+ ε )

vp = = = = . (25.B.27)
µrp µ a(1− ε ) µ a(1− ε ) 2
µ a(1− ε )
A similar calculation show that the speed va at furthest approach,
L µ Gm1 m2 (1− ε 2 ) Gm1 m21− ε 2 Gm1 m2 (1− ε )

va = = = = . (25.B.28)
µra µ a(1+ ε ) µ a(1+ ε )2 µ a(1+ ε )
25-37
Appendix 25C Analytic Geometric Properties of Ellipses
Consider Equation (25.3.20), and for now take ε < 1 , so that the equation is that of an
ellipse. We shall now show that we can write it as
(x − x0 )2 y 2
+ 2 = 1, (25.C.1)
a2 b
where the ellipse has axes parallel to the x - and y -coordinate axes, center at (x0 , 0) ,
semi-major axis a and semi-minor axis b . We begin by rewriting Equation (25.3.20) as
2ε r0 y2 r02
x2 − x + = . (25.C.2)
1− ε 2 1− ε 2 1− ε 2
We next complete the square,
2ε r0 ε 2 r02 y2 r02 ε 2 r02

x2 − x + + = + ⇒
1− ε 2 (1− ε 2 )2 1− ε 2 1− ε 2 (1− ε 2 )2
2
⎛ ε r0 ⎞ y2 r02
⎜⎝ x − + = ⇒ (25.C.3)
1− ε 2 ⎟⎠ 1− ε 2 (1− ε 2 )2
2
⎛ ε r0 ⎞
⎜⎝ x −
1− ε 2 ⎟⎠ y2
+ = 1.
( )
2
r0 / (1− ε 2 ) (r0 / 1− ε 2 )2
The last expression in (25.C.3) is the equation of an ellipse with semi-major axis
r0
a= , (25.C.4)
1− ε 2
semi-minor axis
r0
b= = a 1− ε 2 , (25.C.5)
1− ε 2
and center at
ε r0
x0 = = εa , (25.C.6)
(1− ε 2 )
as found in Equation (25.B.10).
25-38
Chapter 26 Elastic Properties of Materials
26.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

26.2 Stress and Strain in Tension and Compression ................................................. 2
26.3 Shear Stress and Strain ........................................................................................ 4
Example 26.1: Stretched wire .................................................................................. 5
26.4 Elastic and Plastic Deformation .......................................................................... 6
Example 26.2: Ultimate Tensile Strength of Bones................................................ 7
Chapter 26 Elastic Properties of Materials
26.1 Introduction
In our study of rotational and translational motion of a rigid body, we assumed that the
rigid body did not undergo any deformations due to the applied forces. Real objects
deform when forces are applied. They can stretch, compress, twist, or break. For example
when a force is applied to the ends of a wire and the wire stretches, the length of the wire
increases. More generally, when a force per unit area, referred to as stress, is applied to
an object, the particles in the object may undergo a relative displacement compared to
their unstressed arrangement. Strain is a normalized measure of this deformation. For
example, the tensile strain in the stretched wire is fractional change in length of a stressed
wire. The stress may not only induce a change in length, but it may result in a volume
change as occurs when an object is immersed in a fluid, and the fluid exerts a force per
unit area that is perpendicular to the surface of the object resulting in a volume strain
which is the fractional change in the volume of the object. Another type of stress, known
as a shear stress occurs when forces are applied tangential to the surface of the object,
resulting in a deformation of the object. For example, when scissors cut a thin material,
the blades of the scissors exert shearing stresses on the material causing one side of the
material to move down and the other side of the material to move up as shown in Figure
26.1, resulting in a shear strain. The material deforms until it ultimately breaks.
Figure 26.1: Scissors cutting a thin material1
In many materials, when the stress is small, the stress and strains are linearly proportional
to one another. The material is then said to obey Hooke’s Law. The ratio of stress to
strain is called the elastic modulus. Hooke’s Law only holds for a range of stresses, a
range referred to as the elastic region. An elastic body is one in which Hooke’s Law
applies and when the applied stress is removed, the body returns to its initial shape. Our
idealized spring is an example of an elastic body. Outside of the elastic region, the stress-
strain relationship is non-linear until the object breaks.
1
Mohsen Mahvash, et al, IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 2008, March; 55(3); 848-856.
26-1
26.2 Stress and Strain in Tension and Compression
Consider a rod with cross sectional area A and length l0 . Two forces of the same
magnitude F⊥ are applied perpendicularly at the two ends of the section stretching the
rod to a length l (Figure 26.2), where the beam has been stretched by a positive amount
δ l = l − l0 .
Figure 26.2: Tensile stress on a rod
The ratio of the applied perpendicular force to the cross-sectional area is called the tensile
stress,
F
σT = ⊥ . (26.2.1)
A
The ratio of the amount the section has stretched to the original length is called the tensile
strain,
δl
εT = . (26.2.2)
l0
Experimentally, for sufficiently small stresses, for many materials the stress and strain are
linearly proportional,
F⊥ δl
=Y (Hooke's Law) . (26.2.3)
A l0
where the constant of proportionality Y is called Young’s modulus. The SI unit for
Young’s Modulus is the pascal where 1 Pa ≡ 1 N ⋅ m −2 . Note the following conversion
factors between SI and English units: 1 bar ≡ 105 Pa , 1 psi ≡ 6.9 × 10−2 bar , and
1 bar = 14.5 psi . In Table 26.1, Young’s Modulus is tabulated for various materials.
Figure 26.3 shows a plot of the stress-strain relationship for various human bones. For
26-2
stresses greater than approximately 70 N ⋅ mm -2 , the material is no longer elastic. At a
certain point for each bone, the stress-strain relationship stops, representing the fracture
point.
Material Young’s Modulus, Y

(Pa)
Iron 21× 1010
Nickel 21× 1010
Steel 20 × 1010
Copper 11× 1010
Brass 9.0 × 1010
Aluminum 7.0 × 1010
Crown Glass 6.0 × 1010
Cortical Bone 7 × 109 − 30 × 109
Lead 1.6 × 1010
Tendon 2 × 107
Rubber 7 × 105 − 40 × 105
Blood vessels 2 × 105
Figure 26.3: Stress-strain relation for
various human bones (figure from H.
Table 26.1: Young’s Modulus for Yamada, Strength of Biological
various materials Materials)
When the material is under compression, the forces on the ends are directed towards each
other producing a compressive stress resulting in a compressive strain (Figure 26.4). For
compressive strains, if we define δ l = l0 − l > 0 then Eq. (26.2.3) holds for compressive
stresses provided the compressive stress is not too large. For many materials, Young’s
Modulus is the same when the material is under tension and compression. There are some
important exceptions. Concrete and stone can undergo compressive stresses but fail when
the same tensile stress is applied. When building with these materials, it is important to
design the structure so that the stone or concrete is never under tensile stresses. Arches
are used as an architectural structural element primarily for this reason.
26-3
Figure 26.4: Compressive Stress
26.3 Shear Stress and Strain
The surface of material may also be subjected to tangential forces producing a shearing

action. Consider a block of height h and area A , in which a tangential force, Ftan , is
applied to the upper surface. The lower surface is held fixed. The upper surface will shear
by an angle α corresponding to a horizontal displacement δ x . The geometry of the
shearing action is shown in Figure 26.5.
Figure 26.5: Shearing forces
The shear stress is defined to be the ratio of the tangential force to the cross sectional
area of the surface upon which it acts,
F
σ S = tan . (26.3.1)
A
The shear strain is defined to be the ratio of the horizontal displacement to the height of
the block,
δx
α= . (26.3.2)
h
For many materials, when the shear stress is sufficiently small, experiment shows that a
Hooke’s Law relationship holds in that the shear stress is proportional to shear strain,
26-4
Ftan δx
=S (Hooke's Law) . (26.3.3)
A h
where the constant of proportional, S , is called the shear modulus. When the
deformation angle is small, δ x / h = tan α  sin α  α , and Eq. (26.3.3) becomes
Ftan
 Sα (Hooke's Law) . (26.3.4)
A
In Table 26.2, the shear modulus is tabulated for various materials.
Table 26.2: Shear Modulus for Various Materials
Material Shear Modulus, S (Pa)
Nickel 7.8 × 1010

Iron 7.7 × 1010
Steel 7.5 × 1010
Copper 4.4 × 1010
Brass 3.5 × 1010
Lead 0.6 × 1010
Rubber 2 × 105 − 10 × 105
Example 26.1: Stretched wire
An object of mass 1.5 × 101 kg is hanging from one end of a steel wire. The wire without
the mass has an unstretched length of 0.50 m . What is the resulting strain and elongation
of the wire? The cross-sectional area of the wire is 1.4 × 10−2 cm 2 .
Solution: When the hanging object is attached to the wire, the force at the end of the wire
acting on the object exactly balances the gravitational force. Therefore by Newton’s
Third Law, the tensile force stressing the wire is
F⊥ = mg . (26.3.5)
We can calculate the strain on the wire from Hooke’s Law (Eq. (26.2.3)) and the value of
Young’s modulus for steel 20 × 1010 Pa (Table 26.1);
26-5
δ l F⊥ mg (1.5 × 101 kg)(9.8 m ⋅s −2 )
= = = = 5.3× 10−4 . (26.3.6)
l0 YA YA (2.0 × 1011 Pa)(1.4 × 10−6 m 2 )
The elongation δ l of the wire is then
mg
δl = l0 = (5.3× 10−4 )(0.50 m) = 2.6 × 10−4 m . (26.3.7)
YA
26.4 Elastic and Plastic Deformation
Consider a single sheet of paper. If we bend the paper gently, and then release the
constraining forces, the sheet will return to its initial state. This process of gently bending
is reversible as the paper displays elastic behavior. The internal forces responsible for the
deformation are conservative. Although we do not have a simple mathematical model for
the potential energy, we know that mechanical energy is constant during the bending. We
can take the same sheet of paper and crumple it. When we release the paper it will no
longer return to its original sheet but will have a permanent deformation. The internal
forces now include non-conservative forces and the mechanical energy is decreased. This
plastic behavior is irreversible.
Figure 26.5: Stress-strain relationship
When the stress on a material is linearly proportional to the strain, the material
behaves according to Hooke’s Law. The proportionality limit is the maximum value of
stress at which the material still satisfies Hooke’s Law. If the stress is increased above the
proportionality limit, the stress is no longer linearly proportional to the strain. However,
if the stress is slowly removed then the material will still return to its original state; the
material behaves elastically. If the stress is above the proportionality limit, but less then
26-6
the elastic limit, then the stress is no longer linearly proportional to the strain. Even in
this non-linear region, if the stress is slowly removed then the material will return to its
original state. The maximum value of stress in which the material will still remain elastic
is called the elastic limit. For stresses above the elastic limit, when the stress is removed
the material will not return to its original state and some permanent deformation sets in, a
state referred to as a permanent set. This behavior is referred to as plastic deformation.
For a sufficiently large stress, the material will fracture. Figure 26.5 illustrates a typical
stress-strain relationship for a material. The value of the stress that fractures a material is
referred to as the ultimate tensile strength. The ultimate tensile strengths for various
materials are listed in Table 26.3. The tensile strengths for wet human bones are for a
person whose age is between 20 and 40 years old.
Table 26.3: Ultimate Tensile Strength for Various Materials
Material Shear Modulus, S (Pa)
Femur 1.21× 108

Humerus 1.22 × 108
Tibia 1.40 × 108
Fibula 1.46 × 108
Ulna 1.48 × 108
Radius 1.49 × 108
Aluminum 2.2 × 108
Iron 3.0 × 108
Brass 4.7 × 108
Steel 5 − 20 × 108
Example 26.2: Ultimate Tensile Strength of Bones
The ultimate tensile strength of the wet human tibia (for a person of age between 20 and
40 years) is 1.40 × 108 Pa . If a greater compressive force per area is applied to the tibia
then the bone will break. The smallest cross sectional area of the tibia, about 3.2 cm 2 , is
slightly above the ankle. Suppose a person of mass 60 kg jumps to the ground from a
height 2.0 m and absorbs the shock of hitting the ground by bending the knees. Assume
that there is constant deceleration during the collision. During the collision, the person
lowers her center of mass by an amount d = 1.0 cm . (a) What is the collision time Δtcol ?
(b) Find the average force of the ground on the person during the collision. (c) Can we
effectively ignore the gravitational force during the collision? (d) Will the person break
her ankle? (e) What is the minimum distance Δdmin that she would need to lower her
center of mass so she does not break her ankle? What is the ratio h0 / Δdmin ? What factors
does this ratio depend on?
26-7
Solution: Choose a coordinate system with the positive y -direction pointing up, and the
origin at the ground. While the person is falling to the ground, mechanical energy is
constant (we are neglecting any non-conservative work due to air resistance). Choose the
contact point with the ground as the zero potential energy reference point. Then the initial
mechanical energy is
E0 = U 0 = mgh0 . (26.3.8)
The mechanical energy of the person just before contact with the ground is
1
Eb = K1 = mv 2 . (26.3.9)
2 b
The constancy of mechanical energy implies that
1
mgh0 = mvb 2 . (26.3.10)
2
The speed of the person the instant contact is made with the ground is then
vb = 2gh0 . (26.3.11)
If we treat the person as the system then there are two external forces acting on the

person, the gravitational force F g = −mgĵ and a normal force between the ground and the

person F N = N ĵ . This force varies with time but we shall consider the time average
N
Fave = N ave ĵ . Then using Newton’s Second Law,
N ave − mg = ma y,ave . (26.3.12)
The y -component of the average acceleration is equal to
N ave
a y,ave = −g. (26.3.13)
m
Set t = 0 for the instant the person reaches the ground; then v y,0 = −vb . The displacement
of the person while in contact with the ground for the time interval Δtcol is given by
1
Δy = −vb Δtcol + a y,ave Δtcol
2
. (26.3.14)
2
26-8
The y -component of the velocity is zero at t = Δtcol when the person’s displacement is
Δy = −d ,
0 = −vb + a y,ave Δtcol . (26.3.15)
Solving Eq. (26.3.15) for the collision time yields
Δtcol = vb / a y,ave . (26.3.16)
We can now substitute Δy = −d , Eq. (26.3.16), and Eq. (26.3.11) into Eq. (26.3.14) and
solve for the y -component of the acceleration, yielding
gh0
a y,ave = . (26.3.17)
d
We can solve for the collision time by substituting Eqs. (26.3.17) and Eq. (26.3.11) into
Eq. (26.3.16) and using the given values in the problem statement, yielding
2d 2(1.0 × 10−2 m)
Δtcol = = = 3.2 × 10−3 s . (26.3.18)
2gh0 2(9.8 m ⋅s )(2.0 m)
2
Now substitute Eq. (26.3.17) for the y -component of the acceleration into Eq. (26.3.13)
and solve for the average normal force
⎛ h ⎞ ⎛ (2.0 m) ⎞
N ave = mg ⎜ 1+ 0 ⎟ = (60 kg)(9.8 m ⋅s −2 ) ⎜ 1+ −2 ⎟ = 1.2 × 105 N . (26.3.19)
⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ (1.0 × 10 m) ⎠
Notice that the factor 1+ h0 / d  h0 / d so during the collision we can effectively ignore
the external gravitational force. The average compressional force per area on the person’s
ankle is the average normal force divided by the cross sectional area
N ave mg ⎛ h0 ⎞ 1.2 × 105 N

P=  = = 3.7 × 108 Pa . (26.3.20)
A A ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ 3.2 × 10−4 m 2
From Table 26.3, the tensile strength of the tibia is 1.4 × 108 Pa , so this fall is enough to
break the tibia.
In order to find the minimum displacement that the center of mass must fall in order to
avoid breaking the tibia bone, we set the force per area in Eq. (26.3.20) equal to
P = 1.4 × 108 Pa . Because at this value of tensile strength,
26-9
PA (1.4 × 108 Pa)((3.2 × 10−4 m 2 )
= = 80 (26.3.21)
mg (60 kg)(9.8 m ⋅s −2 )
and so PA >> mg . We can solve Eq. (26.3.20) for the minimum displacement
h0 mgh0 (60 kg)(9.8 m ⋅s −2 )(2.0 m)

dmin =  = = 2.6 cm , (26.3.22)
⎛ PA ⎞ PA (1.4 × 108 Pa)(3.2 × 10−4 m 2 )
⎜⎝ mg − 1⎟⎠
PA (1.4 × 108 Pa)((3.2 × 10−4 m 2 )

= = 76 (26.3.23)
mg (60 kg)(9.8 m ⋅s −2 )
and so PA >> mg . The ratio

h0 / dmin  PA / mg = 76 . (26.3.24)
This ratio depends on the compressive strength of the bone, the cross sectional area, and
inversely on the weight of the person. The maximum normal force is anywhere from two
to ten times the average normal force. A safe distance to lower the center of mass would
be about 20 cm.
26-10
Chapter 27 Static Fluids
27.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

27.2 Density.................................................................................................................... 1
27.3 Pressure in a Fluid ................................................................................................ 2
27.4 Pascal’s Law: Pressure as a Function of Depth in a Fluid of Uniform Density
in a Uniform Gravitational Field ................................................................................. 4
Example 27.1 Pressure in the Earth’s Ocean ......................................................... 6
Example 27.2 Pressure in a Sample in a Centrifuge .............................................. 6
27.5 Compressibility of a Fluid .................................................................................... 8
Example 27.3 Compressibility of Water ................................................................. 9
27.6 Archimedes’ Principle: Buoyant Force............................................................... 9
Example 27.4 Archimedes’ Principle: Floating Wood ........................................ 12
Example 27.5 Rock Inside a Floating Salad Bowl ................................................ 13
Example 27.6 Block Floating Between Oil and Water ........................................ 14
Chapter 27 Static Fluids
27.1 Introduction
Water is everywhere around us, covering 71% of the Earth’s surface. The water content
of a human being can vary between 45% and 70 % of body weight. Water can exist in
three states of matter: solid (ice), liquid, or gas. Water flows through many objects:
through rivers, streams, aquifers, irrigation channels, and pipes to mention a few.
Humans have tried to control and harness this flow through many different technologies
such as aqueducts, Archimedes’ screw, pumps, and water turbines. Water in the gaseous
state also flows. Water vapor, lighter than air, can cause convection currents that form
clouds. In the liquid state, the density of water molecules is greater than the gaseous state
but in both states water can flow. Liquid water forms a surface while water vapor does
not. Water in both the liquid and gaseous state is classified as a fluid to distinguish it from
the solid state. There is some ambiguity in the use of the term fluid. Ice flows in a glacier
but very slowly. So for a short time interval compared to the time interval involved in the
flow, glacial ice can be thought of as a solid. In ordinary language, the term fluid is used
to describe the liquid state of matter but a fluid is any state of matter that flows when
there is an applied shear stress. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to
gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress.
27.2 Density
The density of a small amount of matter is defined to be the amount of mass ΔM divided
by the volume ΔV of that element of matter,
ρ = ΔM / ΔV . (27.2.1)
The SI unit for density is the kilogram per cubic meter, kg ⋅ m −3 . If the density of a
material is the same at all points, then the density is given by
ρ = M /V , (27.2.2)
where M is the mass of the material and V is the volume of material. A material with
constant density is called homogeneous. For a homogeneous material, density is an
intrinsic property. If we divide the material in two parts, the density is the same in both
parts,
ρ = ρ1 = ρ2 . (27.2.3)
However mass and volume are extrinsic properties of the material. If we divide the
material into two parts, the mass is the sum of the individual masses
M = M1 + M 2 , (27.2.4)
27-1
as is the volume
V = V1 + V2 . (27.2.5)
The density is tabulated for various materials in Table 27.1.
Table 27.1: Density for Various Materials (Unless otherwise noted, all densities given
are at standard conditions for temperature and pressure, that is, 273.15 K (0.00 °C) and
100 kPa (0.987 atm).
Density, ρ
Material
kg ⋅ m −3
Helium 0.179
Air (at sea
1.20
level)
Styrofoam 75
Wood
Seasoned, 0.7 × 103
typical
Ethanol 0.81× 103
Ice 0.92 × 103
Water 1.00 × 103
Seawater 1.03× 103
Blood 1.06 × 103
Iron 7.87 × 103
Copper 8.94 × 103
Lead 11.34 × 103
Mercury 13.55 × 103
Gold 19.32 × 103
Plutonium 19.84 × 103
Osmium 22.57 × 103
27.3 Pressure in a Fluid
When a shear force is applied to the surface of fluid, the fluid will undergo flow. When a
fluid is static, the force on any surface within fluid must be perpendicular (normal) to
each side of that surface. This force is due to the collisions between the molecules of the
fluid on one side of the surface with molecules on the other side. For a static fluid, these
forces must sum to zero. Consider a small portion of a static fluid shown in Figure 27.1.
27-2
That portion of the fluid is divided into two parts, which we shall designate 1 and 2, by a
small mathematical shared surface element S of area AS . The force F1,2 (S) on the
surface of region 2 due to the collisions between the molecules of 1 and 2 is
perpendicular to the surface.
Figure 27.1: Forces on a surface within a fluid


The force F2,1 (S) on the surface of region 1 due to the collisions between the molecules
of 1 and 2 by Newton’s Third Law satisfies
 
F1,2 (S) = −F2,1 (S) . (27.3.1)
Denote the magnitude of these forces that form this interaction pair by
 
F⊥ (S) = F1,2 (S) = F2,1 (S) . (27.3.2)
Define the hydrostatic pressure at those points within the fluid that lie on the surface S
by
F⊥ (S)
P≡ . (27.3.3)
AS
The pressure at a point on the surface S is the limit
F⊥ (S)
P = lim . (27.3.4)
AS →0 AS
The SI units for pressure are N ⋅ m −2 and is called the pascal (Pa), where
27-3
1 Pa = 1 N ⋅ m −2 = 10−5 bar . (27.3.5)
Atmospheric pressure at a point is the force per unit area exerted on a small surface
containing that point by the weight of air above that surface. In most circumstances
atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the
weight of air above the measurement point. On a given surface area, low-pressure areas
have less atmospheric mass above their location, whereas high-pressure areas have more
atmospheric mass above their location. Likewise, as elevation increases, there is less
overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing
elevation. On average, a column of air one square centimeter in cross-section, measured
from sea level to the top of the atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kg and weight of
about 10.1 N. (A column one square inch in cross-section would have a weight of about
14.7 lbs, or about 65.4 N). The standard atmosphere [atm] is a unit of pressure such
that
1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 Pa = 1.01325 bar . (27.3.6)
27.4 Pascal’s Law: Pressure as a Function of Depth in a Fluid of

Uniform Density in a Uniform Gravitational Field
Consider a static fluid of uniform density ρ . Choose a coordinate system such that the z -
axis points vertical downward and the plane z = 0 is at the surface of the fluid. Choose an
infinitesimal cylindrical volume element of the fluid at a depth z , cross-sectional area A
and thickness dz as shown in Figure 27.3. The volume of the element is dV = A dz and
the mass of the fluid contained within the element is dm = ρ A dz .
Figure 27.2: Coordinate system for fluid
The surface of the infinitesimal fluid cylindrical element has three faces, two caps and the
cylindrical body. Because the fluid is static the force due to the fluid pressure points
27-4
inward on each of these three faces. The forces on the cylindrical surface add to zero. On
the end-cap at z , the force due to pressure of the fluid above the end-cap is downward,

F(z) = F(z)k̂ , where F(z) is the magnitude of the force. On the end-cap at z + dz , the
force due to the pressure of the fluid below the end-cap is upward,

F(z + dz) = − F(z + dz)k̂ , where F(z + dz) is the magnitude of the force. The
gravitational force acting on the element is given by
g
F = (dm)gk̂ = ( ρ dV )gk̂ = ρ A dz gk̂ . There are also radial inward forces on the
cylindrical body which sum to zero. The free body force diagram on the element is shown
in Figure 27.3.
Figure 27.3: Free-body force diagram on cylindrical fluid element
The vector sum of the forces is zero because the fluid is static (Newton’s Second Law).
Therefore in the +k̂ -direction
F(z) − F(z + dz) + ρ Adzg = 0 . (27.4.1)
We divide through by the area A of the end-cap and use Eq. (27.3.4) to rewrite
Eq. (27.4.1) in terms of the pressure
P(z) − P(z + dz) + ρ dzg = 0 . (27.4.2)

Rearrange Eq. (27.4.2) as
P(z + dz) − P(z)
= ρg . (27.4.3)
dz
Now take the limit of Eq. (27.4.3) as the thickness of the element dz → 0 ,
P(z + dz) − P(z)

lim = ρg . (27.4.4)
dz→0 dz
resulting in the differential equation

dP
= ρg . (27.4.5)
dz
Integrate Eq. (27.4.5),
27-5
P( z ) z ′ =z
∫ dP = ∫ ρ g dz ′ . (27.4.6)
P( z=0) z ′ =0
Performing the integrals on both sides of Eq. (27.4.6) describes the change in pressure
between a depth z and the surface of a fluid
P(z) − P(z = 0) = ρ gz (Pascal's Law) , (27.4.7)
a result known as Pascal’s Law.
Example 27.1 Pressure in the Earth’s Ocean
What is the change in pressure between a depth of 4 km and the surface in Earth’s
ocean?
Solution: We begin by assuming the density of water is uniform in the ocean, and so we
can use Pascal’s Law, Eq. (27.4.7) to determine the pressure, where we use
ρ = 1.03× 103 kg ⋅ m −3 for the density of seawater (Table 27.1). Then
P(z) − P(z = 0) = ρ gz
= (1.03× 103 kg ⋅ m −3 )(9.8 m ⋅s −2 )(4 × 103 m) (27.4.8)
= 40 × 10 Pa.
6
Example 27.2 Pressure in a Rotating Sample in a Centrifuge
In an ultra centrifuge, a liquid filled chamber is spun with a high angular speed ω about
a fixed axis. The density ρ of the fluid is uniform. The open-ended side of the chamber
is a distance r0 from the fixed axis. The chamber has cross sectional area A and of
length L , (Figure 27.4).
Figure 27.4: Schematic representation of centrifuge
27-6
The chamber is spinning fast enough to ignore the effect of gravity. Determine the
pressure in the fluid as a function of distance r from the fixed axis.
Solution: Choose polar coordinates in the plane of circular motion. Consider a small
volume element of the fluid of cross-sectional area A , thickness dr , and mass
dM = ρ Adr that is located a distance r from the fixed axis. Denote the pressure at one
end of the volume element by P(r) = F(r) / A and the pressure at the other end by
P(r + dr) = F(r + dr) / A . The free-body force diagram on the volume fluid element is
Figure 27.5: Free-body force diagram showing only radial forces on fluid element in
centrifuge
The element is accelerating inward with radial component of the acceleration, ar = −rω 2 .
Newton’s Second Law applied to the fluid element is then
(P(r) − P(r + dr)) A = −( ρ Adr)rω 2 , (27.4.9)
P(r + dr) − P(r)

= ρ rω 2 , (27.4.10)
dr
and take the limit dr → 0 resulting in
dP
= ρ rω 2 . (27.4.11)
dr
We can integrate Eq. (27.4.11) between an arbitrary distance r from the rotation axis and
the open-end located at r0 , where the pressure P(r0 ) = 1 atm ,
P(r0 ) r ′ =r0
∫ dP = ρω ∫ r ′ dr ′ .
2
(27.4.12)
P(r ) r ′ =r
27-7
Integration yields
1
P(r0 ) − P(r) = ρω 2 (r0 2 − r 2 ) . (27.4.13)
2
The pressure at a distance r from the rotation axis is then
1
P(r) = P(r0 ) + ρω 2 (r 2 − r0 2 ) . (27.4.14)
2
27.5 Compressibility of a Fluid
When the pressure is uniform on all sides of an object in a fluid, the pressure will squeeze
the object resulting in a smaller volume. When we increase the pressure by ΔP on a
material of volume V0 , then the volume of the material will change by ΔV < 0 and
consequently the density of the material will also change. Define the bulk stress by the
increase in pressure change
σ B ≡ ΔP . (27.5.1)
Define the bulk strain by the ratio

ΔV
εB ≡ . (27.5.2)
V0
For many materials, for small pressure changes, the bulk stress is linearly proportional to
the bulk strain,
ΔV
ΔP = − B , (27.5.3)
V0
where the constant of proportionality B is called the bulk modulus. The SI unit for bulk
modulus is the pascal. If the bulk modulus of a material is very large, a large pressure
change will result in only a small volume change. In that case the material is called
incompressible. In Table 27.2, the bulk modulus is tabulated for various materials.
27-8
Table 27.2 Bulk Modulus for Various Materials
Material Bulk Modulus, Y, (Pa)

Diamond 4.4 × 1011
Iron 1.6 × 1011
Nickel 1.7 × 1011
Steel 1.6 × 1011
Copper 1.4 × 1011
Brass 6.0 × 1010
Lead 4.1× 1010
Water (value increases 2.2 × 109
at higher pressure)
Air (adiabatic bulk 1.42 × 105
modulus)
Air (isothermal bulk 1.01× 105
modulus)
Example 27.3 Compressibility of Water
Determine the percentage decrease in a fixed volume of water at a depth of 4 km where

the pressure difference is 40 MPa , with respect to sea level.
Solution: The bulk modulus of water is 2.2 × 109 Pa . From Eq. (27.5.3),
ΔV ΔP 40 × 106 Pa
=− =− = −0.018 ; (27.5.4)
V0 B 2.2 × 109 Pa
there is only a 1.8% decrease in volume. Water is essentially incompressible even at great
depths in ocean, justifying our assumption that the density of water is uniform in the
ocean in Example 27.1.
27.6 Archimedes’ Principle: Buoyant Force
When we place a piece of solid wood in water, the wood floats on the surface. The
density of most woods is less than the density of water, and so the fact that wood floats
does not seem so surprising. However, objects like ships constructed from materials like
steel that are much denser than water also float. In both cases, when the floating object is
27-9
at rest, there must be some other force that exactly balances the gravitational force. This
balancing of forces also holds true for the fluid itself.
Consider a static fluid with uniform density ρ f . Consider an arbitrary volume element of
the fluid with volume V and mass m f = ρ f V . The gravitational force acts on the volume

element, pointing downwards, and is given by F g = − ρ f V g k̂ , where k̂ is a unit vector
pointing in the upward direction. The pressure on the surface is perpendicular to the
surface (Figure 27.6). Therefore on each area element of the surface there is a
perpendicular force on the surface.
Figure 27.7: Free-body force diagram

Figure 27.6: Forces due to pressure on
on volume element showing
surface of arbitrary volume fluid element
gravitational force and buoyant force

Let F B denote the resultant force, called the buoyant force, on the surface of the volume
element due to the pressure of the fluid. The buoyant force must exactly balance the
gravitational force because the fluid is in static equilibrium (Figure 27.7),
   
0 = F B + F g = F B − ρ f V g k̂ . (27.6.1)
Therefore the buoyant force is therefore


F B = ρ f V g k̂ . (27.6.2)
The buoyant force depends on the density of the fluid, the gravitational constant, and the
volume of the fluid element. This macroscopic description of the buoyant force that
27-10
results from a very large number of collisions of the fluid molecules is called
Archimedes’ Principle.
We can now understand why when we place a stone in water it sinks. The density of the
stone is greater than the density of the water, and so the buoyant force on the stone is less
than the gravitational force on the stone and so it accelerates downward.
Place a uniform object of volume V and mass M with density ρo = M / V within a fluid.
If the density of the object is less than the density of the fluid, ρo < ρ f , the object will
float on the surface of the fluid. A portion of the object that is a beneath the surface,
displaces a volume V1 of the fluid. The portion of the object that is above the surface
displaces a volume V2 = V − V1 of air (Figure 27.8).
Figure 27.8: Floating object on surface of fluid
Because the density of the air is much less that the density of the fluid, we can neglect the
buoyant force of the air on the object.
Figure 27.9: Free-body force diagram on floating object


The buoyant force of the fluid on the object, F fB,o = ρ f V1gk̂ , must exactly balance the
g
gravitational force on the object due to the earth, Fe,o (Figure 27.9),
  g
0 = F fB,o + Fe,o = ρ f V1 g k̂ − ρoV g k̂ = ρ f V1 g k̂ − ρo (V1 + V2 ) g k̂ . (27.6.3)
Therefore the ratio of the volume of the exposed and submerged portions of the object
must satisfy
27-11
ρ f V1 = ρo (V1 + V2 ) . (27.6.4)
We can solve Eq. (27.6.4) and determine the ratio of the volume of the exposed and
submerged portions of the object
V2 ( ρ f − ρo )
= . (27.6.5)
V1 ρo
We now also can understand why a ship of mass M floats. The more dense steel
displaces a volume of water Vs but a much larger volume of water Vw is displaced by air.
The buoyant force on the ship is then

Fs B = ρ f (Vs + Vw ) g k̂ . (27.6.6)
If this force is equal in magnitude to Mg , the ship will float.
Example 27.4 Archimedes’ Principle: Floating Wood
Consider a beaker of uniform cross-sectional area A , filled with water of density ρ w .

When a rectangular block of wood of cross sectional area A2 , height, and mass M b is
placed in the beaker, the bottom of the block is at an unknown depth z below the surface
of the water. (a) How far below the surface z is the bottom of the block? (b) How much
did the height of the water in the beaker rise when the block was placed in the beaker?
Solution: We neglect the buoyant force due to the displaced air because it is negligibly
small compared to the buoyant force due to the water. The beaker, with the floating block
of wood, is shown in Figure 27.10.
Figure 27.10 Block of wood floating in a beaker of water
(a) The density of the block of wood is ρb = M b / Vb = M b / Ab h . The volume of the

submerged portion of the wood is V1 = Ab z . The volume of the block above the surface is
given by V2 = Ab (h − z) . We can apply Eq. (27.6.5), and determine that
27-12
V2 Ab (h − z) (h − z) ( ρ w − ρb )
= = = . (27.6.7)
V1 Ab z z ρb
We can now solve Eq. (27.6.7) for the depth z of the bottom of the block
ρb ( M b / Ab h) Mb
z= h= h= . (27.6.8)
ρw ρw ρ w Ab
(b) Before the block was placed in the beaker, the volume of water in the beaker is
Vw = Asi , where si is the initial height of water in the beaker. When the wood is floating
in the beaker, the volume of water in the beaker is equal to Vw = As f − Ab z , where s f is
the final height of the water, in the beaker and Ab z is the volume of the submerged
portion of block. Because the volume of water has not changed
Asi = As f − Ab z . (27.6.9)
We can solve Eq. (27.6.9) for the change in height of the water Δs = s f − si , in terms of
the depth z of the bottom of the block,
Ab
Δs = s f − si = z. (27.6.10)
A
We now substitute Eq. (27.6.8) into Eq. (27.6.10) and determine the change in height of
the water
M
Δs = s f − si = b . (27.6.11)
ρw A
Example 27.5 Rock Inside a Floating Salad Bowl
A rock of mass mr and density ρ r is placed in a salad bowl of mass mb . The salad bowl
and rock float in a beaker of water of density ρ w . The beaker has cross sectional area A .
The rock is then removed from the bowl and allowed to sink to the bottom of the beaker.
Does the water level rise or fall when the rock is dropped into the water?
27-13
Figure 27.11: Rock in a floating salad bowl
Solution: When the rock is placed in the floating salad bowl, a volume V of water is

displaced. The buoyant force F B = ρ wVgk̂ balances the gravitational force on the rock
and salad bowl,
(mr + mb )g = ρ wVg = ρ w (V1 + V2 )g . (27.6.12)
where V1 is the portion of the volume of displaced water that is necessary to balance just
the gravitational force on the rock, mr g = ρ wV1g , and V2 is the portion of the volume of
displaced water that is necessary to balance just the gravitational force on the bowl,
mb g = ρ wV2 g , Therefore V1 must satisfy the condition that V1 = mr g / ρ w . The volume of
the rock is given by Vr = mr / ρr . In particular
ρr
V1 = V . (27.6.13)
ρw r
Because the density of the rock is greater than the density of the water, ρr > ρ w , the rock
displaces more water when it is floating than when it is immersed in the water, V1 > Vr .
Therefore the water level drops when the rock is dropped into the water from the salad
bowl.
Example 27.6 Block Floating Between Oil and Water
A cubical block of wood, each side of length l = 10 cm , floats at the interface between air
and water. The air is then replaced with d = 10 cm of oil that floats on top of the water.
a) Will the block rise or fall? Briefly explain your answer.
After the oil has been added and equilibrium established, the cubical block of wood floats
at the interface between oil and water with its lower surface h = 2.0× 10−2 m below the
interface. The density of the oil is ρo = 6.5 × 102 kg ⋅ m −3 . The density of water is
ρ w = 1.0 × 103 kg ⋅ m −3 .
27-14
b) What is the density of the block of wood?
Solution: (a) The buoyant force is equal to the gravitational force on the block. Therefore
ρb gV = ρ w gV1 + ρ a g(V − V1 ) , (27.6.14)
where V1 is the volume of water displaced by the block, V2 = V − V1 is the volume of air
displaced by the block V is the volume of the block, ρb is the density of the block of
wood, and ρ a is the density of air (Figure 27.12(a)).
Figure 27.12: (a) Block floating on water, (b) Block floating on oil-water interface
We now solve Eq. (27.6.14) for the volume of water displaced by the block
( ρb − ρ a )
V1 = V. (27.6.15)
( ρw − ρa )
When the oil is added, we can repeat the argument leading up to Eq. (27.6.15) replacing
ρ a by ρo , (Figure 27.12(b)), yielding
ρb gV = ρ w gV1′+ ρo gV2′ , (27.6.16)
where V1′ is the volume of water displaced by the block, V2′ is the volume of oil
displaced by the block, V is the volume of the block, and ρb is the density of the block
of wood. Because V2′ = V − V1′ , we rewrite Eq. (27.6.16) as
ρb gV = ρ w gV1′+ ρo g(V − V1′) , (27.6.17)
We now solve Eq. (27.6.17) for the volume of water displaced by the block,
27-15
( ρb − ρo )V
V1′ = . (27.6.18)
( ρ w − ρo )
Because ρo >> ρ a , comparing Eqs. (27.6.18) and (27.6.15), we conclude that V1′ > V1 .
The block rises when the oil is added because more water is displaced.
(b) We use the fact that V1′ = l 2 h , V2′ = l 2 (l − h) , and V = l 3 , in Eq. (27.6.16) and solve for
the density of the block
ρ wV1′+ ρoV2′ ρ wl 2 h + ρo l 2 (l − h) h
ρb = = 3
= ( ρ w − ρo ) + ρo . (27.6.19)
V l l
We now substitute the given values from the problem statement and find that the density
of the block is
(2.0× 10−2 m)
ρb = ((1.0 × 103 kg ⋅ m −3 ) − (6.5 × 102 kg ⋅ m −3 )) −1
+ (6.5 × 102 kg ⋅ m −3 )
(1.0× 10 m) (27.6.20)
ρb = 7.2 × 102 kg ⋅ m −3 .
Because ρb > ρo , the above analysis is valid.
27-16
Chapter 28 Fluid Dynamics
28.1 Ideal Fluids ............................................................................................................ 1

28.2 Velocity Vector Field ............................................................................................ 1
28.3 Mass Continuity Equation ................................................................................... 3
28.4 Bernoulli’s Principle ............................................................................................. 5
28.5 Worked Examples: Bernoulli’s Equation ........................................................... 8
Example 28.1 Venturi Meter .................................................................................... 8
Example 28.2 Water Pressure ................................................................................ 10
28.6 Laminar and Turbulent Flow ............................................................................ 12
28.6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 13
28.6.2 Viscosity ........................................................................................................ 13
Example 28.3 Couette Flow .................................................................................... 14
Example 28.4 Laminar flow in a cylindrical pipe. ............................................... 15
Chapter 28 Fluid Dynamics
28.1 Ideal Fluids
An ideal fluid is a fluid that is incompressible and no internal resistance to flow (zero
viscosity). In addition ideal fluid particles undergo no rotation about their center of mass
(irrotational). An ideal fluid can flow in a circular pattern, but the individual fluid
particles are irrotational. Real fluids exhibit all of these properties to some degree, but we
shall often model fluids as ideal in order to approximate the behavior of real fluids. When
we do so, one must be extremely cautious in applying results associated with ideal fluids
to non-ideal fluids.
28.2 Velocity Vector Field

When we describe the flow of a fluid like water, we may think of the movement of
individual particles. These particles interact with each other through forces. We could
then apply our laws of motion to each individual particle in the fluid but because the
number of particles is very large, this would be an extremely difficult computation
problem. Instead we shall begin by mathematically describing the state of moving fluid
by specifying the velocity of the fluid at each point in space and at each instant in time.
For the moment we will choose Cartesian coordinates and refer to the coordinates of a
point in space by the ordered triple (x, y, z) and the variable t to describe the instant in
time, but in principle we may chose any appropriate coordinate system appropriate for
describing the motion. The distribution of fluid velocities is described by the vector

function v(x, y, z,t) . This represents the velocity of the fluid at the point (x, y, z) at the

instant t . The quantity v(x, y, z,t) is called the velocity vector field. It can be thought of
at each instant in time as a collection of vectors, one for each point in space whose
direction and magnitude describes the direction and magnitude of the velocity of the fluid
at that point (Figure 28.1). This description of the velocity vector field of the fluid refers
to fixed points in space and not to moving particles in the fluid.
Figure 28.1: Velocity vector field for fluid flow at time t
We shall introduce functions for the pressure P(x, y, z,t) and the density ρ (x, y, z,t) of
the fluid that describe the pressure and density of the fluid at each point in space and at
28-1
each instant in time. These functions are called scalar fields because there is only one
number with appropriate units associated with each point in space at each instant in time.
In order to describe the velocity vector field completely we need three functions
vx (x, y, z,t) , v y (x, y, z,t) , and vz (x, y, z,t) to describe the components of the velocity
vector field

v(x, y, z,t) = vx (x, y, z,t) î + v y (x, y, z,t) ĵ+ vz (x, y, z,t)k̂ . (28.2.1)
The three component functions are scalar fields. The velocity vector field is in general
quite complicated for a three-dimensional time dependent flow. We can sometimes make
some simplifying assumptions that enable us to model a complex flow, for example
modeling the flow as a two-dimensional flow or even further assumptions that one
component function of a two-dimensional flow is negligible allowing us to model the
flow as one-dimensional.
For most flows, the velocity field varies in time. For some special cases we can model the
flow by assuming that the velocity field does not change in time, a case we shall refer to
as steady flow,

∂ v(x, y, z,t) 
=0 (steady flow) . (28.2.2)
∂t
For steady flows the velocity field is independent of time,


v(x, y, z) = vx (x, y, z) î + v y (x, y, z) ĵ+ vz (x, y, z)k̂ (steady flow) . (28.2.3)
For a non-ideal fluid, the differential equations satisfied by these velocity component
functions are quite complicated and beyond the scope of this discussion. Instead, we shall
primarily consider the special case of steady flow of a fluid in which the velocity at each
point in the fluid does not change in time. The velocities may still vary in space (non-
uniform steady flow).
. v(A) .
B
v(B)
. v(C) . v(A) .B
v(B)
A C A
(a) trajectory of particle that is located at: (b) trajectory of particle 2 that is located at:
point A at time t1 ; point B at time t2 ; and point A at time t 2 ; and point B at time t 3 .
point C at time t3 .
Figure 28.2: (a) trajectory of particle 1, (b) trajectory of particle 2
Let’s trace the motion of particles in an ideal fluid undergoing steady flow during a
succession of intervals of duration Δt . Consider particle 1 located at point A with
! !
coordinates (xA , yA , zA ) . At the instant t1 , particle 1 has velocity v(xA , yA , zA ) = v(A) .
28-2
During the time [t1 ,t2 ] , where t2 = t1 + Δt1 , the particle moves to point B arriving there at
! !
the instant t2 . At point B , the particle now has velocity v(xB , yB , z B ) = v(B) . During the
next interval [t2 ,t3 ] , where t3 = t2 + Δt , particle 1 will move to point C arriving there at
! !
instant t3 , where it has velocity v(xC , yC , zC ) = v(C) . (Figure 28.2(a)). Because the flow
has been assumed to be steady, at instant t2 , a different particle, particle 2, is now located
!
at point A but it has the same velocity v(xA , yA , zA ) as particle 1 had at point A and
hence will arrive at point B at the end of the next interval, at the instant t3 (Figure
28.2(b)). In this way every particle that lies on the trajectory that our first particle traces
out in time will follow the same trajectory. This trajectory is called a streamline. The
particles in the fluid will not have the same velocities at points along a streamline
because we have not assumed that the velocity field is uniform.
28.3 Mass Continuity Equation
A set of streamlines for an ideal fluid undergoing steady flow in which there are no
sources or sinks for the fluid is shown in Figure 28.3.
end-cap 2
end-cap 1
Figure 28.4: Flux Tube associated with

Figure 28.3: Set of streamlines for an set of streamlines
ideal fluid flow
We also show a set of closely separated streamlines that form a flow tube in Figure 28.4
We add to the flow tube two open surface (end-caps 1 and 2) that are perpendicular to
velocity of the fluid, of areas A1 and A2 , respectively. Because all fluid particles that
enter end-cap 1 must follow their respective streamlines, they must all leave end-cap 2. If
the streamlines that form the tube are sufficiently close together, we can assume that the
velocity of the fluid in the vicinity of each end-cap surfaces is uniform.
28-3
Figure 28.5: Mass flow through flux tube
Let v1 denote the speed of the fluid near end-cap 1 and v2 denote the speed of the fluid
near end-cap 2. Let ρ1 denote the density of the fluid near end-cap 1 and ρ2 denote the
density of the fluid near end-cap 2. The amount of mass that enters and leaves the tube in
a time interval dt can be calculated as follows (Figure 28.5): suppose we consider a
small volume of space of cross-sectional area A1 and length dl1 = v1dt near end-cap 1.
The mass that enters the tube in time interval dt is
dm1 = ρ1dV1 = ρ1 A1dl1 = ρ1 A1v1dt . (28.3.1)
In a similar fashion, consider a small volume of space of cross-sectional area A2 and

length dl2 = v2 dt near end-cap 2. The mass that leaves the tube in the time interval dt is
then
dm2 = ρ2 dV2 = ρ2 A2 dl2 = ρ2 A2 v2 dt . (28.3.2)
An equal amount of mass that enters end-cap 1 in the time interval dt must leave end-cap
2 in the same time interval, thus dm1 = dm2 . Therefore using Eqs. (28.3.1) and (28.3.2),
we have that ρ1 A1v1dt = ρ2 A2 v2 dt . Dividing through by dt implies that
ρ1 A1v1 = ρ2 A2v2 (steady flow) . (28.3.3)
Eq. (28.3.3) generalizes to any cross sectional area A of the thin tube, where the density
is ρ , and the speed is v ,
ρ Av = constant (steady flow) . (28.3.4)
Eq. (28.3.3) is referred to as the mass continuity equation for steady flow. If we assume
the fluid is incompressible, then Eq. (28.3.3) becomes
A1v1 = A2 v2 (incompressable fluid, steady flow) . (28.3.5)
28-4
Consider the steady flow of an incompressible with streamlines and closed surface
formed by a streamline tube shown in Figure 28.5. According to Eq. (28.3.5), when the
spacing of the streamlines increases, the speed of the fluid must decrease. Therefore the
speed of the fluid is greater entering end-cap 1 then when it is leaving end-cap 2. When
we represent fluid flow by streamlines, regions in which the streamlines are widely
spaced have lower speeds than regions in which the streamlines are closely spaced.
28.4 Bernoulli’s Principle
Let’s again consider the case of an ideal fluid that undergoes steady flow and apply
energy methods to find an equation of state that relates pressure, density, and speed of the
flow at different points in the fluid. Let’s examine the case of a steady horizontal flow in
as seen in the overhead view shown in Figure 28.6. We represent this flow by streamlines
and a flow tube associated with the streamlines. Let’s consider the motion of a fluid
particle along one streamline passing through points A and B in Figure 28.6. The cross-
sectional area of the flow tube at point A is less than the cross-sectional area of the flow
tube at point B .
Figure 28.6 Overhead view of steady horizontal flow: in regions where spacing of the
streamlines increases, the speed of the fluid must decrease
According to Eq. (28.3.5), the particle located at point A has a greater speed than a fluid
particle located at point B . Therefore a particle traveling along the streamline from point
A to point B must decelerate. Because the streamline is horizontal, the force
responsible is due to pressure differences in the fluid. Thus, for this steady horizontal
flow in regions of lower speed there must be greater pressure than in regions of higher
speed.
Now suppose the steady flow of the ideal fluid is not horizontal, with the y -representing
the vertical directi. The streamlines and flow tube for this steady flow are shown in
Figure 28.7.
28-5
Figure 28.7: Non-horizontal steady flow
In order to determine the equation relating the pressure, speed and height difference of
the tube, we shall use the work-energy theorem. We take as a system the mass contained
in the flow tube shown in Figure 28.7. The external forces acting on our system are due
to the pressure acting at the two ends of the flow tube and the gravitational force.
Consider a streamline passing through points 1 and 2 at opposite ends of the flow tube.
Let’s assume that the flow tube is narrow enough such that the velocity of the fluid is
uniform on the cross-sectional areas of the tube at points 1 and 2 . At point 1 , denote the
speed of a fluid particle by v1 , the cross-sectional area by A1 , the fluid pressure by P1 ,
and the height of the center of the cross-sectional area by y1 . At point 2 , denote the
speed of a fluid particle by v2 , the cross-sectional area by A2 , the fluid pressure by P2 ,
and the height of the center of the cross-sectional area by y2 .
Consider the flow tube at time t as illustrated in Figure 28.7. At the left end of the flow,
in a time interval dt , a particle at point 1 travels a distance dl1 = v1dt . Therefore a small
volume dV1 = A1dl1 = A1v1dt of fluid is displaced at the right end of the flow tube. In a
similar fashion, at particle at point 2 , travels a distance dl2 = v2 dt . Therefore a small
volume of fluid dV2 = A2 dl2 = A2 v2 dt is also displaced to the right in the flow tube during
the time interval dt . Because we are assuming the fluid is incompressible, by Eq.(28.3.5),
these volume elements are equal, dV ≡ dV1 = dV2 .
There is a force of magnitude F1 = P1 A1 in the direction of the flow arising from the fluid
pressure at the left end of the tube acting on the mass element that enters the tube. The
work done displacing the mass element is then
dW1 = F1dl1 = P1 A1dl1 = P1dV . (28.4.1)
There is also a force of magnitude F2 = P2 A2 in the direction opposing the flow arising
from the fluid pressure at the right end of the tube. The work done opposing the
displacement of the mass element leaving the tube is then
28-6
dW1 = − F2 dl2 = − P2 A2 dl2 = − P2 dV . (28.4.2)
Therefore the external work done by the force associated with the fluid pressure is the
sum of the work done at each end of the tube
dW ext = dW1 + dW2 = (P1 − P2 )dV . (28.4.3)
In a time interval dt , the work done by the gravitational force is equal to
dW g = −dm g( y2 − y1 ) = − ρ dVg( y2 − y1 ) . (28.4.4)

Because we only chose the mass in the flow tube as our system, and we assumed that the
fluid was ideal (no frictional losses due to viscosity) the change in the potential energy of
the system is
dU = −W g = ρ dVg( y2 − y1 ) . (28.4.5)
At time t , the kinetic energy of the system is the sum of the kinetic energy of the small
mass element of volume dV = A1dl1 moving with speed v1 and the rest of the mass in the
flow tube. At time t + dt , the kinetic energy of the system is the sum of the kinetic energy
of the small mass element of volume dV = A2 dl2 moving with speed v2 and the rest of
the mass in the flow tube. The change in the kinetic energy of the system is due to the
mass elements at the two ends and therefore
1 1 1
dK = dm2 v2 2 − dm1v12 = ρ dV (v2 2 − v12 ) . (28.4.6)
2 2 2
The work-energy theorem dW ext = dU + dK for system is then
1
(P1 − P2 )dV = ρ dV (v2 2 − v12 ) + ρ g( y2 − y1 )dV . (28.4.7)
2
We now divide Eq. (28.4.7) through by the volume dV and rearrange terms, yielding
1 1
P1 + ρ gy1 + ρ v12 = P2 + ρ gy2 + ρ v2 2 . (28.4.8)
2 2
Because points 1 and 2 were arbitrarily chosen, we can drop the subscripts and write
Eq. (28.4.8) as
1
P + ρ gy + ρ v 2 = constant (ideal fluid, steady flow) . (28.4.9)
2
28-7
Eq. (28.4.9) is known as Bernoulli’s Equation.
28.5 Worked Examples: Bernoulli’s Equation
Example 28.1 Venturi Meter
Figure 28.8 shows a Venturi Meter, a device used to measure the speed of a fluid in a
pipe. A fluid of density ρ f is flowing through a pipe. A U-shaped tube partially filled
with mercury of density ρ Hg lies underneath the points 1 and 2.
Figure 28.8: Venturi Meter
The cross-sectional areas of the pipe at points 1 and 2 are A1 and A2 respectively.
Determine an expression for the flow speed at the point 1 in terms of the cross-sectional
areas A1 and A2 , and the difference in height h of the liquid levels of the two arms of
the U-shaped tube.
Solution:
Figure 28.8: Coordinate system for Venturi tube
28-8
We shall assume that the pressure and speed are constant in the cross-sectional areas A1
and A2 . We also assume the fluid is incompressible so the density ρ f is constant
throughout the tube. The two points 1 and 2 lie on the streamline passing through the
midpoint of the tube so they are at the same height. Using y1 = y2 in Eq. (28.4.8), the
pressure and flow speeds at the two points 1 and 2 are related by
1 1
P1 + ρ f v12 = P2 + ρ f v2 2 . (28.4.10)
2 2

1
P1 − P2 = ρ f (v2 2 − v12 ) . (28.4.11)
2
Let h1 and h2 denote the heights of the liquid level in the arms of the U-shaped tube
directly beneath points 1 and 2 respectively. Pascal’s Law relates the pressure difference
between the two arms of the U-shaped tube according to in the left arm of the U-shaped
tube according to
Pbottom = P1 + ρ f gd1 + ρ Hg gh1 . (28.4.12)
In a similar fashion, the pressure at point 2 is given by
Pbottom = P2 + ρ f gd2 + ρ Hg gh2 . (28.4.13)
Therefore, setting Eq. (28.4.12) equal to Eq. (28.4.13), we determine that the pressure
difference on the two sides of the U-shaped tube is
P1 − P2 = ρ f g(d2 − d1 ) + ρ Hg g(h2 − h1 ). (28.4.14)
From Figure 28.8, d2 + h2 = d1 + h1 , therefore d2 − d1 = h1 − h2 = −h . We can rewrite

Eq. (28.4.14) as
P1 − P2 = ( ρ Hg − ρ f )gh. (28.4.15)
1
ρ (v 2 − v12 ) = ( ρ Hg − ρ f )gh . (28.4.16)
2 f 2
The mass continuity condition (Eq.(28.3.5)) implies that v2 = ( A1 / A2 )v1 and so we can
rewrite Eq. (28.4.16) as
28-9
1
ρ f (( A1 / A2 )2 − 1)v12 = ( ρ Hg − ρ f )gh . (28.4.17)
2
We can now solve Eq. (28.4.17) for the speed of the flow at point 1;
2( ρ Hg − ρ f )gh
v1 = . (28.4.18)
ρ f (( A1 / A2 )2 − 1)
Example 28.2 Water Pressure
A cylindrical water tower of diameter 3.0 m supplies water to a house. The level of
water in the water tower is 35 m above the point where the water enters the house
through a pipe that has an inside diameter 5.1cm . The intake pipe delivers water at a
maximum rate of 2.0 × 10−3 m 3 ⋅s −1 . The pipe is connected to a narrower pipe leading to
the second floor that has an inside diameter 2.5 cm . What is the pressure and speed of the
water in the narrower pipe at a point that is a height 5.0 m above the level where the pipe
enters the house?
Figure 28.9: Example 28.2 (not to scale)
Solution: We shall assume that the water is an ideal fluid and that the flow is a steady
flow and that the level of water in the water tower is constantly maintained. Let’s choose
three points, point 1 at the top of the water in the tower, point 2 where the water just
28-10
enters the house, and point 3 in the narrow pipe at a height h2 = 5.0 m above the level
where the pipe enters the house.
We begin by applying Bernoulli’s Equation to the flow from the water tower at point 1,
to where the water just enters the house at point 2. Bernoulli’s equation (Eq. (28.4.8))
tells us that
1 1
P1 + ρ gy1 + ρ v12 = P2 + ρ gy2 + ρ v2 2 . (28.4.19)
2 2
We assume that the speed of the water at the top of the tower is negligibly small due to
the fact that the water level in the tower is maintained at the same height and so we set
v1 = 0 . The pressure at point 2 is then
1
P2 = P1 + ρ g( y1 − y2 ) − ρ v2 2 . (28.4.20)
2
In Eq. (28.4.20) we use the value for the density of water ρ = 1.0 × 103 kg ⋅ m −3 , the
change in height is ( y1 − y2 ) = 35 m , and the pressure at the top of the water tower is
P1 = 1atm . The rate R that the water flows at point 1 satisfies R = A1v1 = π (d1 / 2)2 v1 .
Therefore, the speed of the water at point 1 is
R 2.0 × 10−3 m 3 ⋅s −1
v1 = = = 2.8 × 10−4 m ⋅s −1 , (28.4.21)
π (d1 / 2) 2
π (1.5 m) 2
which is negligibly small and so we are justified in setting v1 = 0 . Similarly the speed of
the water at point 2 is
R 2.0 × 10−3 m 3 ⋅s −1
v2 = = = 1.0 m ⋅s −1 , (28.4.22)
π (d2 / 2)2 π (2.5 × 10−2 m)2
We can substitute Eq. (28.4.21) into Eq. (28.4.22), yielding
v2 = (d12 / d2 2 )v1 , (28.4.23)
a result which we will shortly find useful. Therefore the pressure at point 2 is
1
P2 = 1.01× 105 Pa + (1.0 × 103 kg ⋅ m −3 )(9.8 m ⋅s −2 )(35 m) − (1.0 × 103 kg ⋅ m −3 )(1.0 m ⋅s −1 )2
2
P2 = 1.01× 10 Pa + 3.43× 10 Pa − 5.1× 10 Pa = 4.4 × 10 Pa.
5 5 2 5
28-11
(28.4.24)
The dominant contribution is due to the height difference between the top of the water
tower and the pipe entering the house. The quantity (1/ 2) ρ v2 2 is called the dynamic
pressure due to the fact that the water is moving. The amount of reduction in pressure
due to the fact that the water is moving at point 2 is given by
1 2 1
ρ v2 = (1.0 × 103 kg ⋅ m −3 )(1.0 m ⋅s −1 )2 = 5.1× 103 Pa , (28.4.25)
2 2
which is much smaller than the contributions from the other two terms.
We now apply Bernoulli’s Equation to the points 2 and 3,
1 1
P2 + ρ v22 + ρ gy2 = P3 + ρ v32 + ρ gy3 . (28.4.26)
2 2
Therefore the pressure at point 3 is
1
P3 = P2 + ρ (v22 − v32 ) + ρ g( y2 − y3 ) . (28.4.27)
2
The change in height y2 − y3 = −5.0 m . The speed of the water at point 3 is
R 2.0 × 10−3 m 3 ⋅s −1
v3 = = = 3.9 m ⋅s −1 , (28.4.28)
π (d3 / 2)2 π (1.27 × 10−2 m)2
Then the pressure at point 3 is
1
P3 = (4.4 × 105 Pa) + (1.0 × 103 kg ⋅ m −3 )((1.0 m ⋅s −1 )2 − (3.9 m ⋅s −1 )2 )
2
−(1.0 × 10 kg ⋅ m )(9.8 m ⋅s −2 )(5.0 m)
3 −3
. (28.4.29)
= (4.4 × 10 Pa) − (7.1× 10 Pa) − 4.9 × 10 Pa
5 3 4
= 3.8 × 105 Pa
Because the speed of the water at point 3 is much greater than at point 2, the dynamic
pressure contribution at point 3 is much larger than at point 2.
28.6 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
28-12
28.6.1 Introduction
During the flow of a fluid, different layers of the fluid may be flowing at different speeds
relative to each other, one layer sliding over another layer. For example consider a fluid
flowing in a long cylindrical pipe. For slow velocities, the fluid particles move along
lines parallel to the wall. Far from the entrance of the pipe, the flow is steady (fully
developed). This steady flow is called laminar flow. The fluid at the wall of the pipe is at
rest with respect to the pipe. This is referred to as the no-slip condition and is
experimentally holds for all points in which a fluid is in contact with a wall. The speed
of the fluid increases towards the interior of the pipe reaching a maximum, vmax , at the
center. The velocity profile across a cross section of the pipe exhibiting fully developed
flow is shown in Figure 28.10. This parabolic velocity profile has a non-zero velocity
gradient that is normal to the flow.
vmax
Figure 28.10 Steady laminar flow in a pipe with a non-zero velocity gradient
28.6.2 Viscosity
Due to the cylindrical geometry of the pipe, cylindrical layers of fluid are sliding with
respect to one another resulting in tangential forces between layers. The tangential force
per area is called a shear stress. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the resistance to
this sliding motion of one layer of the fluid with respect to another layer. A perfect fluid
has no tangential forces between layers. A fluid is called Newtonian if the shear forces
per unit area are proportional to the velocity gradient. For a Newtonian fluid undergoing
laminar flow in the cylindrical pipe, the shear stress, σ S , is given by
dv
σS =η , (28.4.30)
dr
where η is the constant of proportionality and is called the absolute viscosity, r is the
radial distance form the central axis of the pipe, and dv / dr is the velocity gradient
normal to the flow.
The SI units for viscosity are poise = 10−1 Pa ⋅s . Some typical values for viscosity for
fluids at specified temperatures are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Coefficients of absolute viscosity
28-13
fluid Coefficient of absolute viscosity η
oil 1− 10 poise
Water at 0o 1.79 × 10−2 poise
Water at 100o 0.28 × 10−2 poise
Air at 20o 1.81× 10−4 poise
At a certain flow rate, this resistance suddenly increases and the fluid particles no
longer follow straight lines but appear to move randomly although the average motion is
still along the axis of the pipe. This type of flow is called turbulent flow. Osbourne
Reynolds was the first to experimentally measure these two types of flow. He was able to
characterize the transition between these two types of flow by a parameter called the
Reynolds number that depends on the average velocity of the fluid in the pipe, the
diameter, and the viscosity of the fluid. The transition point between flows corresponds to
a value of the Reynolds number that is associated with a sudden increase in the friction
between layers of the fluid. Much after Reynolds initial observations, it was
experimentally noted that a small disturbance in the laminar flow could rapidly grow and
produce turbulent flow.
Example 28.3 Couette Flow
Consider the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two very long parallel plates, each plate
of width w , length s , and separated by a distance d . The upper plate moves with a
constant relative speed v0 with respect to the lower plate, (Figure 28.11).
v0
F(x)
d
x
F0
l
Figure 28.11 Laminar flow between two plates moving with relative speed v0
Choose a reference frame in which the lower plate, located on the plane at x = 0 , is at
rest. Choose a volume element of length l and cross sectional area A , with one side in
contact with the plate at rest, and the other side located a distance x from the lower plate.
The velocity gradient in the direction normal to the flow is dv / dx . The shear force on
the volume element due to the fluid above the element is given by
dv
F(x) = η A . (28.4.31)
dx
28-14
The shear force is balanced by the shear force F0 of the lower plate on the element, such
that F(x) = F0 . Hence
dv
F0 = η A . (28.4.32)
dx
The velocity of the fluid at the lower plate is zero. The integral version of this differential
equation is then
x ′= x v ′ = v( x )
1
η A x′∫= 0 0
F dx ′ = ∫ dv ′ . (28.4.33)
v ′= 0
Integration yields
F0
x = v(x) . (28.4.34)
ηA
The velocity of the fluid at the upper plate is v0 , therefore the constant shear stress is
given by
F0 ηv0
= , (28.4.35)
A d
hence the velocity profile is
v
v(x) = 0 x . (28.4.36)
d
This type of flow is known as Couette flow.
Example 28.4 Laminar flow in a cylindrical pipe.
Let’s consider a long cylindrical pipe of radius r0 in which the fluid undergoes laminar
flow with each fluid particle moves in a line parallel to the pipe axis. Choose a cylindrical
volume element of length dl and radius r , centered along the pipe axis as shown in
Figure 28.12. There is a pressure drop dp < 0 over the length of the volume element
resulting in forces on each end cap. Denote the force on the left end cap by FL = p / A
and the force on the right end cap by FR = ( p + dp) / A on the right end cap, where
A = π r 2 is the cross sectional area of the end cap.
28-15
r0 dl
FL = p / A FR = ( p + dp) / A
cylindrical volume element
Figure 28.12 Volume element for steady laminar flow in a pipe
The forces on the volume element sum to zero and are due to the pressure difference and
the shear stress; hence
FL − FR + σ S 2π rdl = 0 . (28.4.37)
Using our Newtonian model for the fluid (Eq. (28.4.30) and expressing the force in terms
of pressure, Eq. (28.4.37) becomes
dp dv
r= . (28.4.38)
2η dl dr
Eq. (28.4.38) can be integrated by the method of separation of variables with boundary
conditions v(r = 0) = vmax and v(r = r0 ) = 0 . (Recall that for laminar flow of a Newtonian
fluid the velocity of a fluid is always zero at the surface of a solid.)
r ′ =r0 v ′ (r=r0 )=0

dp
2η dl ∫
r ′ =r
r ′ dr ′ = ∫
v ′ =v(r )
dv ′ . (28.4.39)
Integration then yields

dp
v(r) = − (r0 2 − r 2 ) . (28.4.40)
4η dl
Recall that the pressure drop dp < 0 . The maximum velocity at the center is then
dp 2
vmax = v(r = 0) = − r . (28.4.41)
4η dl 0
To determine the flow rate through the pipe, choose a ring of radius r and thickness r ,
oriented normal to the flow. The flow through the ring is then
dpπ 2 2
v(r)2π rdr = − (r − r )rdr . (28.4.42)
2η dl 0
Integrating over the cross sectional area of the pipe yields
28-16
r=r0
Q= ∫
r=0
v(r)2π r dr
r=r0
(28.4.43)
dpπ dpπ 2 2 πr 4
∫r=0 (r0 − r )r dr = − 2ηdl (r0 r / 2 − r / 4)
r=r0
Q=− 2 2 4
= 0 dp
2η dl r=0
8η dl
The average velocity is then

Q dp 2
vave = =− r (28.4.44)
π r0 2
8η dl 0
Notice that the pressure difference and the volume flow rate are related by
8η dl
dp = Q (28.4.45)
π r0 4
which is equal to one half the maximum velocity at the center of the pipe. We can rewrite
Eq. (28.4.45) in terms of the average velocity as
8η dl 64η dl
dp = Q= v 2 (28.4.46)
π r0 4
vave 2d 2 ave
where d = 2r0 is the diameter of the pipe. For a pipe of length l and pressure difference
Δp , the head loss in a pipe is defined as the ratio
Δp 64 vave 2 l
hf = = , (28.4.47)
ρ g ( ρ vave d / η ) 2g d
where we have extended Eq. (28.4.46) for the entire length of the pipe. Head loss is also
written in terms of a loss coefficient k according to
vave 2
hf = k , (28.4.48)
2g
For a long straight cylindrical pipe, the loss coefficient can be written in terms of a factor
f times an equivalent length of the pipe
l
k= f . (28.4.49)
d
The factor f can be determined by comparing Eqs. (28.4.47)-(28.4.49) yielding
28-17
64 64
f = = , (28.4.50)
( ρ vave d / η ) Re
where Re is the Reynolds number and is given by
Re = ρ vave d / η . (28.4.51)
28-18
Chapter 29: Kinetic Theory of Gases:
Equipartition of Energy and the Ideal Gas Law
29.1 Introduction: Gas .................................................................................................. 1

29.1.1 Macroscopic vs. Atomistic Description of a Gas ......................................... 1
29.1.2 Atoms, Moles, and Avogadro’s Number ...................................................... 1
29.2 Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium ............................................................ 2
29.2.1 Thermometers and Ideal-Gas Temperature ............................................... 2
29.2.3 Ideal-Gas Temperature ................................................................................. 4
29.2.4 Temperature Scales ....................................................................................... 4
29.3 Internal Energy of a Gas ...................................................................................... 5
29.3.1 Degrees of Freedom ....................................................................................... 5
29.3.2 Equipartition of Energy ................................................................................ 6
Example 29.1: Diatomic Nitrogen Gas .................................................................... 7
29.4 Ideal Gas ................................................................................................................ 7
29.4.1 Internal Energy of a Monatomic Gas........................................................... 7
29.4.2 Pressure of an Ideal Gas ................................................................................ 8
29.5 Atmosphere.......................................................................................................... 12
29.5.1 Isothermal Ideal Gas Atmosphere .............................................................. 14
Example 29.2 Ideal Gas Atmospheric Pressure ................................................... 15
29.5.2 Earth’s Atmosphere ..................................................................................... 16
Chapter 29: Kinetic Theory of Gases:
Equipartition of Energy and the Ideal Gas Law
29.1 Introduction: Gas
A gas consists of a very large number of particles (typically 1024 or many orders of
magnitude more) occupying a volume of space that is very large compared to the size
( 10−10 m ) of any typical atom or molecule. The state of the gas can be described by a few
macroscopically measurable quantities that completely determine the system. The volume
of the gas in a container can be measured by the size the container. The pressure of a gas
can be measured using a pressure gauge. The temperature can be measured with a
thermometer. The mass, or number of moles or number of molecules, is a measure of the
quantity of matter.
29.1.1 Macroscopic vs. Atomistic Description of a Gas
How can we use the laws of mechanics that describe the motions and interactions of
individual atomic particles to predict macroscopic properties of the system such as
pressure, volume, and temperature? In principle, each point-like atomic particle can be
specified by its position and velocity (neglecting any internal structure). We cannot know
exactly where and with what velocities all the particles are moving so we must take
averages. In addition, we need quantum mechanical laws to describe how particles
interact. In fact, the inability of classical mechanics to predict how the heat capacity of a
gas varies with temperature was the first experimental suggestion that a new set of
principles (quantum mechanics) operates at the scale of the size of atoms. However, as a
starting point we shall use classical mechanics to deduce the ideal gas law, with only a
minimum of additional assumptions about the internal energy of a gas.
29.1.2 Atoms, Moles, and Avogadro’s Number
Avogadro’s number was originally defined as the number of molecules in one gram of
hydrogen. The number was then redefined to be the number of atoms in 12 grams of the
carbon isotope carbon-12. The results of many experiments have determined that there
are 6.02214129 × 1023 ± 0.00000027 × 1023 ≡ 6.02214129(27) × 1023 molecules in one
mole of carbon-12 atoms. Recall that the mole is a base unit in the SI system of units that
is a unit for an amount of substance with symbol [mol] . The mole is defined as the
amount of any substance that contains as many atoms as there are in 12 grams of carbon-
12. The number of molecules per mole is called the Avogadro constant, and is
N A = 6.0221415 × 1023 mol−1 . (29.1.1)
As experiment improved the determination of the Avogadro constant, there has been a
proposed change to the SI system of units to define the Avogadro constant to be exactly
N A = 6.02214X × 1023 mol−1 where the X means one or more final digits yet to be agreed
29-1
upon. Avogadro’s number is a dimensionless number but in the current SI system, the
Avogadro constant has units of [mol−1 ] and its value is equal to Avogadro’s number.
29.2 Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium
On a cold winter day, suppose you want to warm up by drinking a cup of tea. You start
by filling up a kettle with water from the cold water tap (water heaters tend to add
unpleasant contaminants and reduce the oxygen level in the water). You place the kettle
on the heating element of the stove and allow the water to boil briefly. You let the water
cool down slightly to avoid burning the tea leaves or creating bitter flavors and then pour
the water into a pre-heated teapot containing a few teaspoons of tea; the tea leaves steep
for a few minutes and then you enjoy your drink.
When the kettle is in contact with the heating element of the stove, energy flows
from the heating element to the kettle and then to the water. The conduction of energy is
due to the contact between the objects. The random motions of the atoms in the heating
element are transferred to the kettle and water via collisions. We shall refer to this
conduction process as ‘energy transferred thermally’. We can attribute different degrees
of “hotness” (based on our experience of inadvertently touching the kettle and the water).
Temperature is a measure of the “hotness” of a body. When two isolated objects that are
initially at different temperatures are put in contact, the “colder” object heats up while the
“hotter” object cools down, until they reach the same temperature, a state we refer to as
thermal equilibrium. Temperature is that property of a system that determines whether or
not a system is in thermal equilibrium with other systems.
Consider two systems A and B that are separated from each other by an adiabatic
boundary (adiabatic = no heat passes through) that does not allow any thermal contact.
Both A and B are placed in thermal contact with a third system C until thermal
equilibrium is reached. If the adiabatic boundary is then removed between A and B, no
energy will transfer thermally between A and B. Thus
Two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system are in thermal

equilibrium with each other.
29.2.1 Thermometers and Ideal-Gas Temperature
Any device that measures a thermometric property of an object, for instance the
expansion of mercury, is called a thermometer. Many different types of thermometers can
be constructed, making use of different thermometric properties; for example: pressure of
a gas, electric resistance of a resistor, thermal electromotive force of a thermocouple,
magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic salt, or radiant emittance of blackbody
radiation.
29.2.2 Gas Thermometer
29-2
The gas thermometer measures temperature based on the pressure of a gas at constant
volume and is used as the standard thermometer, because the variations between different
gases can be greatly reduced when low pressures are used. A schematic device of a gas
thermometer is shown in Figure 29.1. The volume of the gas is kept constant by raising or
lowering the mercury reservoir so that the mercury level on the left arm in Figure 29.1
just reaches the point I . When the bulb is placed in thermal equilibrium with a system
whose temperature is to be measured, the difference in height between the mercury levels
in the left and right arms is measured. The bulb pressure is atmospheric pressure plus the
pressure in mercury a distance h below the surface (Pascal’s Law). A thermometer needs
to have two scale points, for example the height of the column of mercury (the height is a
function of the pressure of the gas) when the bulb is placed in thermal equilibrium with
ice water and in thermal equilibrium with standard steam.
Figure 29.1 Constant volume gas thermometer
At constant volume, and at ordinary temperatures, the pressure of gases is proportional to

the temperature,
T ∝ P. (29.1.2)
We define a linear scale for temperature based on the pressure in the bulb by
T = aP (29.1.3)
where a is a positive constant. In order to fix the constant a in Eq. (29.1.3), a standard
state must be chosen as a reference point. The standard fixed state for thermometry is the
triple point of water, the state in which ice, water, and water vapor coexist. This state
occurs at only one definite value of temperature and pressure. By convention, the
temperature of the triple point of water is chosen to be exactly 273.16 K on the Kelvin
scale, at a water-vapor pressure of 610 Pa . Let PTP be the value of the pressure P at the
triple point in the gas thermometer. Set the constant a according to
273.16 K
a= . (29.1.4)
PTP
29-3
Hence the temperature at any value of P is then
273.16 K
T ( P) = a P = P. (29.1.5)
PTP
The ratio of temperatures between any two states of a system is then measured by the
ratio of the pressures of those states,
T1 P1
= . (29.1.6)
T2 P2
29.2.3 Ideal-Gas Temperature
Different gases will have different values for the pressure P , hence different
temperatures T ( P ) . When the pressure in the bulb at the triple point is gradually reduced
to near zero, all gases approach the same pressure reading and hence the same
temperature. The limit of the temperature T (P) as PTP → 0 is called the ideal-gas
temperature and is given by the equation
273.16 K
T ( P) = lim P. (29.1.7)
PTP →0 PTP
This definition of temperature is independent of the type of gas used in the gas
thermometer. The lowest possible temperatures measured in gas thermometers use 3 He ,
because this gas becomes a liquid at a lower temperature than any other gas. In this way,
temperatures down to 0.5 K can be measured. We cannot define the temperature of
absolute zero, 0 K , using this approach.
29.2.4 Temperature Scales
The commonly used Celsius scale employs the same size for each degree as the Kelvin
scale, but the zero point is shifted by 273.15 degrees so that the triple point of water has
a Celsius temperature of 0.01 C ,
T (  C) = θ (K) − 273.15  C , (29.1.8)
and the freezing point of water at standard atmospheric pressure is 0  C . The Fahrenheit
scale is related to the Celsius scale by
9
T (  F) = T (  C) + 32  F . (29.1.9)
5
29-4
The freezing point of pure water at standard atmospheric pressure occurs at 0  C and
32  F . The boiling point of pure water at standard atmospheric pressure is 100  C and
212  F .
29.3 Internal Energy of a Gas
The internal energy of a gas is defined to be the total energy of the gas when the center of
mass of the gas is at rest. The internal energy consists of the kinetic energy, K , of the
center-of-mass motions of the molecules; the potential energy U inter associated with the
intermolecular interactions, U inter ; and the potential energy U intra associated with the
intramolecular interactions such as vibrational motion;
Einternal = K + U inter + U intra . (29.3.1)
Generally, the intermolecular force associated with the potential energy is repulsive for
small r and attractive for large r , where r is the separation between molecules. At low
temperatures, when the average kinetic energy is small, the molecules can form bound
states with negative energy Einternal < 0 and condense into liquids or solids. The
intermolecular forces act like restoring forces about an equilibrium distance between
atoms, a distance at which the potential energy is a minimum. For energies near the
potential minimum, the atoms vibrate like springs. For larger (but still negative) energies,
the atoms still vibrate but no longer like springs and with larger amplitudes, undergoing
thermal expansion. At higher temperatures, due to larger average kinetic energies, the
internal energy becomes positive, Einternal > 0 . In this case, molecules have enough energy
to escape intermolecular forces and become a gas.
29.3.1 Degrees of Freedom
Each individual gas molecule can translate in any spatial direction. In addition, the
individual atoms can rotate about any axis. Multi-atomic gas molecules may undergo
rotational motions associated with the structure of the molecule. Additionally, there may
be intermolecular vibrational motion between nearby gas particles, and vibrational
motion arising from intramolecular forces between atoms that form the molecules.
Further, there may be more contributions to the internal energy due to the internal
structure of the individual atoms. Any type of motion that contributes a quadratic term in
some generalized coordinate to the internal energy is called a degree of freedom.
Examples include the displacement x of a particle undergoing one-dimensional simple
harmonic motion position with a corresponding contribution of (1/ 2) kx 2 to the potential
energy, the x -component of the velocity vx for translational motion with a
corresponding contribution of (1/ 2) mvx 2 to the kinetic energy, and z -component of
29-5
angular velocity ω z for rotational motion with a corresponding contribution of
(1/ 2) I zω z 2 to the rotational kinetic energy where I z is the moment of inertia about the
z -axis. A single atom can have three translational degrees of freedom and three
rotational degrees of freedom, as well as internal degrees of freedom associated with its
atomic structure.
29.3.2 Equipartition of Energy
We shall make our first assumption about how the internal energy distributes itself
among N gas molecules, as follows:
Each independent degree of freedom has an equal amount of energy equal to (1/ 2) kT ,
where the constant k is called the Boltzmann constant and is equal to
k = 1.3806505 × 10-23 J ⋅ K −1 .
The total internal energy of the ideal gas is then
1
Einternal = N (# of degrees of freedom) kT . (29.3.2)
2
This equal division of the energy is called the equipartition of the energy. The
Boltzmann constant is an arbitrary constant and fixes a choice of temperature scale. Its
value is chosen such that the temperature scale in Eq. (29.3.2) closely agrees with the
temperature scales discussed in Section 29.2.
According to our classical theory of the gas, all of these modes (translational, rotational,
vibrational) should be equally occupied at all temperatures but in fact they are not. This
important deviation from classical physics was historically the first instance where a
more detailed model of the atom was needed to correctly describe the experimental
observations.
Not all of the three rotational degrees of freedom contribute to the energy at all
temperatures. As an example, a nitrogen molecule, N 2 , has three translational degrees of
freedom but only two rotational degrees of freedom at temperatures lower than the
temperature at which the diatomic molecule would dissociate (the theory of quantum
mechanics in necessary to understand this phenomena). Diatomic nitrogen also has an
intramolecular vibrational degree of freedom that does not contribute to the internal
energy at room temperatures. As discussed in Section 29.6, N 2 constitutes most of the
earth’s atmosphere (  78% ).
29-6
Example 29.1: Diatomic Nitrogen Gas
What is the internal energy of the diatomic N 2 gas?
Solution: At room temperature, the internal energy is due to only the five degrees of
freedom associated with the three translational and two rotational degrees of freedom,
5
Einternal = N kT . (29.3.3)
2
As discussed above, at temperatures well above room temperature, but low enough for
nitrogen to form diatomic molecules, there is an additional vibrational degree of freedom.
Therefore there are six degrees of freedom and so the internal energy is
1
Einternal = N (# of degrees of freedom) kT = 3N kT . (29.3.4)
2
29.4 Ideal Gas
Consider a gas consisting of a large number of molecules inside a rigid container. We

shall assume that the volume occupied by the molecules is small compared to the volume
occupied by the gas, that is, the volume of the container (dilute gas assumption). We also
assume that the molecules move randomly and satisfy Newton’s Laws of Motion. The
gas molecules collide with each other and the walls of the container. We shall assume
that all the collisions are instantaneous and any energy converted to potential energy
during the collision is recoverable as kinetic energy after the collision is finished. Thus
the collisions are elastic and have the effect of altering the direction of the velocities of
the molecules but not their speeds. We also assume that the intermolecular interactions
contribute negligibly to the internal energy.
29.4.1 Internal Energy of a Monatomic Gas
An ideal monatomic gas atom has no internal structure, so we treat it as point particle.
Therefore there are no possible rotational degrees of freedom or internal degrees of
freedom; the ideal gas has only three degrees of freedom, and the internal energy of the
ideal gas is
3
Einternal = N kT . (29.4.1)
2
Eq. (29.4.1) is called the thermal equation of state of a monatomic ideal gas. The average
kinetic energy of each ideal gas atom is then
29-7
1 3
m(v 2 )ave = kT (29.4.2)
2 2
where (v 2 )ave is the average of the square of the speeds and is given by
3kT
(v 2 )ave = . (29.4.3)
m
The temperature of this ideal gas is proportional to the average kinetic of the ideal gas
molecule. It is an incorrect inference to say that temperature is defined as the mean
kinetic energy of gas. At low temperatures or non-dilute densities, the kinetic energy is
no longer proportional to the temperature. For some gases, the kinetic energy depends on
number density and a more complicated dependence on temperature than that given in
Eq. (29.4.2).
29.4.2 Pressure of an Ideal Gas
Consider an ideal gas consisting of a large number N of identical gas molecules, each of
of mass m , inside a container of volume V and pressure P . The number of gas
molecules per unit volume is then n = N / V . The density of the gas is ρ = nm . The gas
molecules collide elastically with each other and the walls of the container. The pressure
that the gas exerts on the container is due to the elastic collisions of the gas molecules
with the walls of the container. We shall now use concepts of energy and momentum to
model collisions between the gas molecules and the walls of the container in order to
determine the pressure of the gas in terms of the volume V , particle number N and
Kelvin temperature T .
Figure 29.2 Collision of a gas molecule with a wall of a container
We begin by considering the collision of one molecule with one of the walls of the
container, oriented with a unit normal vector pointing out of the container in the positive
î -direction (Figure 29.2). Suppose the molecule has mass m and is moving with velocity

v = vx î + v y ĵ + vz k̂ . Because the collision with the wall is elastic, the y -and z -
components of the velocity of the molecule remain constant and the x -component of the
29-8
velocity changes sign (Figure 29.2), resulting in a change of momentum of the gas
molecule;
  
Δp m = p m, f − p m,i = −2mvx î . (29.4.4)
Therefore the momentum transferred by the gas molecule to the wall is


Δp w = 2mvx î . (29.4.5)
Now, let’s consider the effect of the collisions of a large number of randomly moving
molecules. For our purposes, “random” will be taken to mean that any direction of
motion is possible, and the distribution of velocity components is the same for each
direction.
Figure 29.3 Small volume adjacent to the wall of container
Consider a small rectangular volume ΔV = AΔx of gas adjacent to one of the walls of the
container as shown in Figure 29.3. There are nAΔx gas molecules in this small volume.
Let each group have the same x -component of the velocity. Let n j denote the number of
gas molecules in the j th group with x -component of the velocity vx, j . Because the gas
molecules are moving randomly, only half of the gas molecules in each group will be
moving towards the wall in the positive x -direction. Therefore in a time interval
Δt j = Δx / vx, j , the number of gas molecules that strike the wall with x -component of the
velocity vx, j is given by
1
Δn j = n AΔx . (29.4.6)
2 j
(During this time interval some gas molecules may leave the edges of the box, but
because the number that cross the area per second is proportional to the area, in the limit
as Δx → 0 , the number leaving the edges also approaches zero.) The number of gas
molecules per second is then
29-9
Δn j 1 Δx 1
= nj A = n Av . (29.4.7)
Δt j 2 Δt j 2 j x, j
The momentum per second that the gas molecules in this group deliver to the wall is

Δp j Δn j
= 2mvx, j î = n j mAvx,2 j î . (29.4.8)
Δt j Δt j
By Newton’s Second Law, the average force on the wall due to this group of molecules is
equal to the momentum per second delivered by the gas molecules to the wall;

 Δp j
(Fj,w )ave = = n j mAvx,2 j î . (29.4.9)
Δt j
The pressure contributed by this group of gas molecules is then


(Fj,w )ave
Pj = = n j mvx,2 j . (29.4.10)
A
The pressure exerted by all the groups of gas molecules is the sum
j= N g j= N g
P= ∑ (P ) j ave
= m ∑ n j vx,2 j . (29.4.11)
j=1 j=1
The average of the square of the x -component of the velocity is given by
j= N g
1
(v )2
x ave
=
n
∑n v j
2
x, j
, (29.4.12)
j=1
where n is the number of gas molecules per unit volume in the container. Therefore we
can rewrite Eq. (29.4.11) as
P = mn(vx2 )ave = ρ (vx2 )ave , (29.4.13)
where ρ is the density of the gas. Because we assumed that the gas molecules are
moving randomly, the average of the square of the x -, y - and z -components of the
velocity of the gas molecules are equal,
(vx2 )ave = (v 2y )ave = (vz2 )ave . (29.4.14)
29-10
The average of the square of the speed (v 2 )ave is equal to the sum of the average of the
squares of the components of the velocity,
(v 2 )ave = (vx2 )ave + (v 2y )ave + (vz2 )ave . (29.4.15)

Therefore
(v 2 )ave = 3(vx2 )ave . (29.4.16)
Substituting Eq. (29.4.16) into Eq. (29.4.13) for the pressure of the gas yields
1
P = ρ (v 2 )ave . (29.4.17)
3
The square root of (v 2 )ave is called the root-mean-square (“rms”) speed of the
molecules.
ρ kT
P= . (29.4.18)
m
Recall that the density of the gas
M Nm
ρ= = . (29.4.19)
V V
Therefore Eq. (29.4.18) can be rewritten as
NkT
P= . (29.4.20)
V
Eq. (29.4.20) can be re-expressed as
PV = N kT . (29.4.21)
Eq. (29.4.21) is known as the ideal gas equation of state also known as the Perfect Gas
Law or Ideal Gas Law.
The total number of molecules in the gas N = nm N A where nm is the number of moles
and N A is the Avogadro constant. The ideal gas law becomes
PV = nm N A kT . (29.4.22)
The universal gas constant is R = k N A = 8.31 J ⋅ K −1 ⋅ mol−1 . The ideal gas law can be re-
expressed as
PV = nm RT . (29.4.23)
29-11
Although we started with atomistic description of the collisions of individual gas
molecules satisfying the principles of conservation of energy and momentum, we ended
up with a relationship between the macroscopic variables pressure, volume, number of
moles, and temperature that are measurable properties of the system.
One important consequence of the Ideal Gas Law is that equal volumes of different ideal
gases at the same temperature and pressure must contain the same number of molecules,
1 PV
N= . (29.4.24)
k T
When gases combine in chemical reactions at constant temperature and pressure, the
numbers of each type of gas molecule combine in simple integral proportions. This
implies that the volumes of the gases must always be in simple integral proportions.
Avogadro used this last observation about gas reactions to define one mole of a gas as a
unit for large numbers of particles.
29.5 Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a very complex dynamic interaction between many different species of
atoms and molecules. The average percentage compositions of the eleven most abundant
gases in the atmosphere up to an altitude of 25 km are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Average composition of the atmosphere up to an altitude of 25 km.
Gas Name Chemical Formula Percent Volume

Nitrogen N2 78.08%
Oxygen O2 20.95%
*Water H2 O 0 to 4%
Argon Ar 0.93%
*Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.0360%
Neon Ne 0.0018%
Helium He 0.0005%
*Methane CH4 0.00017%
Hydrogen H2 0.00005%
*Nitrous Oxide N2 O 0.00003%
*Ozone O3 0.000004%
* variable gases
29-12
In the atmosphere, nitrogen forms a diatomic molecule with molar mass
M N = 28.0 g ⋅ mol−1 and oxygen also forms a diatomic molecule O 2 with molar mass
2
M O = 32.0 g ⋅ mol−1 . Since these two gases combine to form 99% of the atmosphere, the
2
average molar mass of the atmosphere is
M atm  (0.78)(28.0 g ⋅ mol−1 ) + (0.21)(32.0 g ⋅ mol−1 ) = 28.6 g ⋅ mol−1 . (29.5.1).
The density ρ of the atmosphere as a function of molar mass M atm , the volume V , and
number of moles nm contained in the volume is given by
M total nm M molar
ρ= = . (29.5.2)
V V
How does the pressure of the atmosphere vary a function of height above the surface of
the earth? In Figure 29.4, the height above sea level in kilometers is plotted against the
pressure. (Also plotted on the graph as a function of height is the density in kilograms per
cubic meter.)
Figure 29.4 Total pressure and density as a function of geometric altitude
29-13
29.5.1 Isothermal Ideal Gas Atmosphere
Let’s model the atmosphere as an ideal gas in static equilibrium at constant temperature
T = 250 K . The pressure at the surface of the earth is P0 = 1.02 ×105 Pa . The pressure of
an ideal gas, using the ideal gas equation of state (Eq. (29.4.23)) can be expressed in
terms of the pressure P , the universal gas constant R , molar mass of the atmosphere
M atm , and the temperature T ,
T M total RT RT
P = nm R = =ρ . (29.5.3)
V V M atm M atm
Thus the equation of state for the density of the gas can be expressed as
M atm
ρ= P. (29.5.4)
RT
We use Newton’s Second Law determine the condition on the forces that are acting on a
small cylindrical volume of atmosphere (Figure 29.5a) in static equilibrium of cross
section area A located between the heights z and z + Δz .
Figures 29.5 (a) (left), mass element of atmosphere, and

(b) (right), force diagram for the mass element
The mass contained in this element is the product of the density ρ and the volume
element ΔV = AΔz ,
Δm = ρ ΔV = ρ AΔz . (29.5.5)
The force due to the pressure on the top of the cylinder is directed downward and is equal

to F(z + Δz) = − P(z + Δz) A k̂ (Figure 29.5(b)) where k̂ is the unit vector directed
upward. The force due to the pressure on the bottom of the cylinder is directed upward

and is equal to F(z) = P(z) A k̂ . The pressure on the top P(z + Δz) and bottom P(z) of
this element are not equal but differ by an amount ΔP = P(z + Δz) − P(z) . The force
diagram for this element is shown in the Figure 29.5b.
29-14
Because the atmosphere is in static equilibrium in our model, the sum of the forces on the
volume element are zero,
  
F total = Δm a = 0 . (29.5.6)
Thus the condition for static equilibrium of forces in the z -direction is
− P(z + Δz) A + P(z) A − Δm g = 0 . (29.5.7)
The change is pressure is then given by
ΔPA = −Δm g . (29.5.8)
Using Eq. (29.5.5) for the mass Δm , substitute into Eq. (29.5.8), yielding
M atm g
ΔP A = − ρ AΔz g = − AΔz P . (29.5.9)
RT
The derivative of the pressure as a function of height is then linearly proportional to the
pressure,
dP ΔP M g
= lim = − atm P . (29.5.10)
dz Δz→0 Δz RT
This is a separable differential equation; separating the variables,
dP M g
= − atm dz . (29.5.11)
P RT
Integrate Eq. (29.5.11) to yield
P( z ) dP ⎛ P(z) ⎞ z M g M g
∫ P0 P
= ln ⎜
⎝ P0 ⎠
⎟ = − ∫0
atm
RT
dz = − atm z .
RT
(29.5.12)
Exponentiate both sides of Eq. (29.5.12) to find the pressure P(z) in the atmosphere as a
function of height z above the surface of the earth,
⎛ M g ⎞
P(z) = P0 exp ⎜ − atm z ⎟ . (29.5.13)
⎝ RT ⎠
Example 29.2 Ideal Gas Atmospheric Pressure
What is the ratio of atmospheric pressure at z = 9.0 km to the atmospheric pressure at the
surface of the earth for our ideal-gas atmosphere?
29-15
P(9.0 km) ⎛ (28.6 × 10 −3 kg ⋅ mol−1 )(9.8 m ⋅ s −2 ) ⎞
=exp ⎜ − (9.0 × 10 m)⎟
3
P0 ⎝ (8.31 J ⋅ K ⋅ mol )(250 K) ⎠ (29.5.14)

−1 −1
= 0.30.
29.5.2 Earth’s Atmosphere
We made two assumptions about the atmosphere, that the temperature was uniform and
that the different gas molecules were uniformly mixed. The actual temperature varies
according to the specific region of the atmosphere. A plot of temperature as a function of
height is shown in Figure 29.6.
Figure 29.6 Temperature-height profile for U.S. Standard Atmosphere
In the troposphere, the temperature decreases with altitude; the earth is the main heat
source in which there is absorption of infrared (IR) radiation by trace gases and clouds,
and there is convection and conduction of thermal energy. In the stratosphere, the
temperature increases with altitude due to the absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation
from the sun by ozone. In the mesosphere, the temperature decreases with altitude. The
atmosphere and earth below the mesosphere are the main source of IR that is absorbed by
ozone. In the thermosphere, the sun heats the thermosphere by the absorption of X-rays
29-16
and UV by oxygen. The temperatures ranges from 500 K to 2000 K depending on the
solar activity.
The lower atmosphere is dominated by turbulent mixing which is independent of the

molecular mass. Near 100 km, both diffusion and turbulent mixing occur. The upper
atmosphere composition is due to diffusion. The ratio of mixing of gases changes and the
mean molar mass decreases as a function of height. Only the lightest gases are present at
higher levels. The variable components like water vapor and ozone will also affect the
absorption of solar radiation and IR radiation from the earth. The graph of height vs.
mean molecular weight is shown in Figure 29.7. The number density of individual
species and the total number density are plotted in Figure 29.8.
Figure 29.7 Mean molecular weight Figure 29.8 Number density of

as a function of geometric height individual species and total number
as a function of geometric altitude.
(Note that in the above axis label and caption for Figure 29.8, the term “molecular
weight” is used instead of the more appropriate “molecular mass” or “molar mass.”)
29-17
Chapter 30 Navier-Stokes Equations
29.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 2

29.2 Acceleration Vector Field ..................................................................................... 2
29.4 Fluid Kinematics ................................................................................................... 4
29.4.1 Translational Motion ..................................................................................... 4
29.4.2 Linear Deformation ....................................................................................... 4
29.4.3 Rotational Motion and Angular Deformation ............................................. 6
29.5 Forces on Fluid Element....................................................................................... 7
29.5.1 Surfaces Forces............................................................................................... 8
29.5.2 Body Forces .................................................................................................. 11
29.5.3 Non-viscous Fluids ....................................................................................... 12
29.6 Euler Equations of Motion for a Non-Viscous Fluid ....................................... 12
29.6.1 Steady Flow................................................................................................... 13
29.6.2 Incompressible Steady Flow........................................................................ 13
29.6.3 Irrotational Incompressible Steady Flow: Bernoulli Equation ............... 13
29.10 Navier-Stokes Equations for an Incompressible Newtonian Fluid .............. 14
29.10.1 Stress and Deformation for an Incompressible Newtonian Viscous Fluid
................................................................................................................................... 14
29.10.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for an Incompressible Newtonian Fluid ....... 15
29-1
Chapter 29 Navier-Stokes Equations
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Acceleration Vector Field
Consider the path of a fluid particle, which we shall designate by the label 1, as shown in
the figure below when the particle is located at the point with coordinates (x, y, z,t) . The
position vector of the fluid particle is given by

r1 (x, y, z,t) = x1 (x, y, z,t) î + y1 (x, y, z,t) ĵ+ z1 (x, y, z,t)k̂ . (29.1.1)
where x1 (x, y, z,t) , y1 (x, y, z,t) , and z1 (x, y, z,t) are the component functions of the

particle. If the fluid flow is described by the velocity field v(x, y, z,t) , then the velocity
of particle 1 at the point (x, y, z,t) is given by

v1 (x, y, z,t) = v1x (x, y, z,t) î + v1y (x, y, z,t) ĵ+ v1z (x, y, z,t)k̂ . (29.1.2)
The acceleration of the particle can be found by differentiating the velocity. The velocity
vector of the particle is a function of both time and the position of particle 1. Therefore
the change of velocity of particle 1 can depend on how the velocity is changing in time
and how the position of the particle is changing in space. In order to account for both of
these changes, we need the chain rule for differentiation. The acceleration of particle 1 is
then
    
 dv1 ∂ v1 ∂ v1 dx1 ∂ v1 dy1 ∂ v1 dz1
a1 = = + + + , (29.1.3)
dt ∂t ∂x dt ∂ y dt ∂z dt
where we have suppressed the reference to the coordinates (x, y, z,t) . In the above
expression for the acceleration, the derivatives of the coordinate position functions of
particle 1 are just the respective component functions of the velocity of particle 1,
dx1 dy dz
v1x = , v1y = 1 , v1z = 1 . (29.1.4)
dt dt dt
Therefore the acceleration of particle 1 is

    
 dv1 ∂ v1 ∂ v1 ∂ v1 ∂ v1
a1 = = + v + v + v . (29.1.5)
dt ∂t ∂x 1x ∂ y 1y ∂z 1z
Eq. (29.1.5) applies to all fluid particles, so we can drop the reference to particle 1, and
therefore the acceleration vector field associated with the flow is given by
29-2
! ! ! ! !
! dv ∂ v ∂ v ∂v ∂v
a(x, y, z,t) = = + v + v + v . (29.1.6)
dt ∂t ∂x x ∂ y y ∂z z
!
Note that the dv / dt does not correspond to the rate of change of the velocity field at a
fixed point in space, but corresponds to the rate of change of the velocity of a fluid
particle as it moves about it space. The first term corresponds to how the velocity is
changed at a fixed point in space during a small time interval dt . The second term
corresponds to the difference in velocities at the same instant in time between two points
!
in space that are connected by the displacement dr of the fluid particle in the time
interval dt .
Recall that the gradient partial differential vector operator is defined in Cartesian
coordinates by the expression
 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇= î + ĵ + k̂ . (29.1.7)
∂x ∂y ∂z
In particular, consider the scalar partial differential operator given by
 
( ) ⎛ ∂
v ⋅ ∇ = vx î + v y ĵ + vz k̂ ⋅ ⎜ î +
⎝ ∂x
∂
∂y
∂ ⎞
ĵ + k̂ ⎟
∂z ⎠
. (29.1.8)
∂ ∂ ∂
= vx + vy + vz
∂x ∂y ∂z
It acts on functions. For example, the action of this operator on the components of the
velocity vector field are
  ∂v ∂v ∂v
( v ⋅ ∇)vx = vx x + v y x + vz x ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
  ∂v ∂v ∂v
( v ⋅ ∇)v y = vx y + v y y + vz y , (29.1.9)
∂x ∂y ∂z
  ∂v ∂v ∂v
( v ⋅ ∇)vz = vx z + v y z + vz z .
∂x ∂y ∂z
We can combine these three scalar expressions into one vector expression
  
   ∂v ∂v ∂v
( v ⋅ ∇) v = vx + vy + vz . (29.1.10)
∂x ∂y ∂z
The expression in Eq.(29.1.10) measures the difference in velocity at a given instant in

!
time between two points in space that are connected by the displacement dr of the fluid
particle in the time interval dt .
29-3
The vector expression for the acceleration field (Eq. (29.1.6) can now be rewritten as

 ∂v   
a(x, y, z,t) = + ( v ⋅ ∇) v . (29.1.11)
∂t
The derivative operator
D ∂   ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
≡ + ( v ⋅ ∇) = + vx + vy + vz . (29.1.12)
Dt ∂t ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
 
is called the material derivative. The term v ⋅ ∇ is called the convective derivative. The
expression for the acceleration field in terms of the material derivative is given by
 
 Dv ∂ v   
a(x, y, z,t) = ≡ + ( v ⋅ ∇) v . (29.1.13)
Dt ∂t
The material derivative can be applied to any variable that changes in time for a given
particle (as seen by an observer moving along with the particle). For example for a given

flow v(x, y, z,t) with varying pressure P(x, y, z,t) , the rate of change of pressure of a
fluid particle is
Dρ ∂ ρ   ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
= + ( v ⋅ ∇) ρ = + vx + vy + vz . (29.1.14)
Dt ∂t ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
29.4 Fluid Kinematics
Consider a small cubic volume element of fluid as shown in the figure below. The motion
of the fluid between time t and time t + δ t may consist of a combination of different
motions. The fluid element may translate through space while maintaining its shape. The
element may undergo a linear deformation resulting in a volume change. The element
may undergo a rotation. The element may undergo angular deformation resulting in a
change in shape. The general motion is some complicated combination of all of these
individual motions. We shall begin by studying each motion separately.
29.4.1 Translational Motion
Consider the point P located in the fluid element at time t undergoing a uniform flow

v(x, y, z,t) , which means that all spatial derivatives of the components of the velocity are
zero. The fluid element will simply translate in the direction of the velocity and not
undergo any change in shape.
29.4.2 Linear Deformation
29-4
Now assume that the velocity field is non-uniform. For simplicity, let’s assume that

v(x, y, z,t) = vx (x,t) î ; there is only a non-zero x -component of the velocity and the only
non-zero change is in the x -direction. Consider a fluid element of volume δ V = δ x δ y δ z
Then the fluid element will undergo a change in volume. Consider the segments AB and
CD of the fluid at time t . At time t + δ t the fluid element has both translated and
deformed. As it moves, segment AB has moved to the position x + vx (x)δ t . Segment
CD has moved to the position x + δ x + vx (x + δ x)δ t . The change in volume of the
element is then
Δ(δ V ) = ( ((x + δ x + vx (x + δ x)δ t) − (x + vx (x)δ t))δ yδ z ) − δ x δ yδ z

(29.2.1)
= ((vx (x + δ x) − vx (x))δ t)δ yδ z.
Now apply the Taylor formula to the x -component of the velocity keeping terms of first
order in δ x with the result that the change
∂vx
vx (x + δ x) − vx (x) = δx. (29.2.2)
∂x
Then the change in the volume element is
∂vx ∂v
Δ(δ V ) = δ t δ xδ yδ z = x δ tδ V . (29.2.3)
∂x ∂x
The rate that the volume of the fluid is changing divided by the original volume of the
fluid element is called the volumetric dilatation rate and is given by
1 Δ(δ V ) ∂vx
lim = . (29.2.4).
δ V δ t→0 δ t ∂x
If there are non-zero changes in the component of the velocity in the two other directions
then the volume dilatation rate can be generalized to the expression
1 Δ(δ V ) ∂vx ∂v y ∂vz  

lim = + + = ∇⋅v . (29.2.5)
δ V δ t→0 δ t ∂x ∂ y ∂z
Recall that the density of an incompressible fluid cannot change. Therefore there can be
no volume change only translational displacement of the fluid element. Therefore the
velocity field for an incompressible fluid must satisfy the condition that
! !
∇ ⋅ v = 0, (incompressible fluid) . (29.2.6)
29-5
29.4.3 Rotational Motion and Angular Deformation
For simplicity we will begin by considering a two-dimensional flow with


v(x, y, z,t) = vx ( y,t) î + v y (x,t) ĵ . (29.2.7)
.
The non-zero derivative of the velocity components are
∂vx ( y,t) ∂vx ( y,t)

≠ 0 and ≠0 . (29.2.8)
∂y ∂y
The line segments AB and CD of the fluid will now undergo a rotation as shown in the
figure below. The point A located at time t at (x, y) will move to the new point
(x + vx ( y)δ t, y + v y (x)δ t) . The change in position of point A is therefore
Δ rA = (x + vx ( y)δ t, y + v y (x)δ t) − (x, y)

(29.2.9)
= (vx ( y)δ t,v y (x)δ t).
The point B located at time t at (x, y + δ y) will move to the new point located at
(x + vx ( y + δ y)δ t, y + δ y + v y (x)δ t) . The change in position of point B is
Δ rB = (x + vx ( y + δ y)δ t, y + δ y + v y (x)δ t) − (x, y + δ y)

(29.2.10)
= (vx ( y + δ y)δ t,v y (x)δ t).
Notice that both points A and B translate in the y -direction by the same amount but
point B has translating an additional distance in the x -direction given by
∂vx
Δ rB,x − Δ rA,x = (vx ( y + δ y) − vx ( y))δ t = δ yδ t . (29.2.11)
∂y
Line segment AB has undergone a rotation with angular displacement
ΔrB,x − Δ rA,x ∂vx

Δ θ AB = = δt . (29.2.12)
δy ∂y
.
The rate of angular displacement is clockwise and given by
Δ θ AB ∂vx
ω AB = lim = . (29.2.13)
δ t→0 δ t ∂y
29-6
We can make a similar calculation (try this as an exercise) for the line segment CD and
shown that the rate of angular displacement is counterclockwise and given by
Δ θ CD ∂v y
ω CD = lim = . (29.2.14)
δ t→0 δ t ∂x

If we define the angular velocity, ω = ω z k̂ , as the average of these two rotations, where
clockwise rotations have a negative component and counterclockwise rotations have a
positive component, then the z -component of the angular velocity is given by
1 ⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞
ωz = ⎜ y − x ⎟ . (29.2.15)
2 ⎝ ∂x ∂ y ⎠
We can generalize this argument to three dimensional flow where
1 ⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞
ωx = ⎜ z − y ⎟ ,
2 ⎝ ∂ y ∂z ⎠
(29.2.16)
1 ⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞
ωy = ⎜ x − z ⎟.
2 ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠
In general, the angular rotation can be written as a vector product
 1  
ω = (∇ × v) (29.2.17)
2
The vorticity of the velocity flow is defined to be the twice the angular rotation vector
   
ζ = 2ω = (∇ × v) (29.2.18)
For our two-dimensional flow, ω z = 0 when ∂v y / ∂x = − ∂vx / ∂ y ; the fluid will only
undergo pure rotation. When ∂v y / ∂x = ∂vx / ∂ y , then ω z = 0 , and the fluid will only
undergo angular deformation and not rotate. For the general case, if the velocity field
satisfies the condition that   
∇ × v = 0 (irrotational) , (29.2.19)
then the flow is said to be irrotational.
29.5 Forces on Fluid Element
29-7
29.5.1 Surfaces Forces
Consider the forces acting on the surface of a fluid element as shown in Figure 29. .
Figure 29. Forces on the surface of a fluid volume element
The surface force can be decomposed into normal and tangential components,
  
δ Fs = δ Fn + δ Ft . (29.3.1)
Let Fn denote the magnitude of the normal force. Let δ A denote the area of the surface
element. The magnitude of the normal stress is defined to be
δ Fn
σ n = lim . (29.3.2)
δ A→0 δ A
We shall assign a sign for the normal stress as follows. For each surface on the fluid
element, let n̂ out denote the outward pointing unit normal on that surface. The normal
 
stress is defined to be positive if δ Fn ⋅ n̂ out > 0 , and negative if δ Fn ⋅ n̂ out < 0 .
The magnitude of the shear stress is defined to be
δ Ft
τ t = lim . (29.3.3)
δ A→0 δ A
Choose a set of unit vectors ( ê1 , ê 2 ) on the surface such that ê1 × ê 2 = n̂ out . Decompose
the surface tangential force into components with respect to these surface unit vectors
  
δ Ft = δ Fe + δ Fe . (29.3.4)
1 2
Then the shear stress on the surface has two components with magnitude
29-8
δ Fe
τ 1 = lim 1
. (29.3.5)
δ A→0 δA
δ Fe
τ 2 = lim 2
. (29.3.6)
δ A→0 δA
!
Our sign convention for the shear stress is that τ 1 > 0 if δ Fe ⋅ ê1 > 0 , and
! 1
τ 2 > 0 if δ Fe ⋅ ê 2 > 0 . Because there are three pairs of surfaces on the fluid element,
2
there are nine different stresses. We shall introduce the following notation. Suppose we
choose a cubic fluid element aligned with the Cartesian axes. Consider the plane defined
by x = x0 . Let σ xx (x0 ) denote the normal stress, σ xy (x0 ) denote the shear stress in the y
-direction, and σ xz (x0 ) denote the shear stress in the z -direction (Figure 29. ).
Let’s now consider the surface forces on our cubic fluid element.
We begin by considering the forces in the x -direction. We first consider the forces acting
on the two surfaces with fixed values of x and x + δ x (Figure 29.).
29-9
The contribution to the x -component of the force is only due to the normal stress times
the area of the surface element δ z δ y , and is given by
∂σ xx ∂σ
(σ xx (x + δ x) − σ xx (x)) δ z δ y = δ x δ z δ y = xx δ V . (29.3.7)
∂x ∂x
Now let’s consider the pair of top and bottom surfaces as shown in Figure 29. .
The contribution to the x -component of the force is due to the shear stresses tiems the
surface area δ x δ y
∂σ zx ∂σ
(σ zx (z + δ z) − σ zx (z))δ x δ y = δ zδ x δ y = zx δ V . (29.3.8)
∂z ∂z
The forces on the front and back facing planes are shown in the Figure 29. .
29-10
The contribution to the x -component of the force is due to the shear stresses times the
surface area δ zδ x
∂σ yx ∂σ yx
(σ yx ( y + δ y) − σ yx ( y))δ zδ x = δ zδ xδ y = δV . (29.3.9)
∂y ∂y
The total x -component of the force on all of the surface faces of the cubic fluid element
is then
⎛ ∂σ ∂σ ∂σ ⎞
δ Fs,x = ⎜ xx + zx + yx ⎟ δ V . (29.3.10)
⎝ ∂x ∂z ∂y ⎠
In a similar calculation, the total y - and z -component of the force on all of the surface
faces of the cubic fluid element is
⎛ ∂σ ∂σ ∂σ ⎞
δ Fs,y = ⎜ yy + zy + xy ⎟ δ V , (29.3.11)
⎝ ∂y ∂z ∂x ⎠
⎛ ∂σ ∂σ ∂σ ⎞
δ Fs,z = ⎜ zz + yz + xz ⎟ δ V (29.3.12)
⎝ ∂z ∂y ∂x ⎠
29.5.2 Body Forces
In addition to surfaces forces there may be body forces acting on the entire fluid element.
The gravitational force on the fluid element is an example of such a body force and is
given by  
δ Fg = ρg δ V (29.3.13)
The combined body and surface forces on the fluid element is then
29-11
⎛ ∂σ ∂σ ∂σ ⎞
δ Fx = ⎜ ρ g x + xx + zx + yx ⎟ δ V ,
⎝ ∂x ∂z ∂y ⎠
⎛ ∂σ ∂σ ∂σ ⎞
δ Fy = ⎜ ρ g y + yy + zy + xy ⎟ δ V , (29.3.14)
⎝ ∂y ∂z ∂x ⎠
⎛ ∂σ ∂σ ∂σ ⎞
δ Fz = ⎜ ρ g z + zz + yz + xz ⎟ δ V .
⎝ ∂z ∂y ∂x ⎠
29.5.3 Non-viscous Fluids
For many fluids in which the viscosity is very small, the shearing stresses are negligible.
The flow fields associated with negligible shearing stresses are said to be non-viscous or
inviscid,
σ ij = 0, i ≠ j (non-viscous) (29.3.15)
When there are no shearing stresses the normal stresses on any fluid element are
independent of direction. The pressure is defined to be the negative of the normal stress.
Recall that the normal stress is positive if the normal surface force is directed outward
from the fluid element,
− p = σ xx = σ yy = σ zz (non-viscous) . (29.3.16)
For a non-viscous fluid the total force on the fluid element is then
⎛ ∂p⎞
δ Fx = ⎜ ρ g x − ⎟ δ V
⎝ ∂x ⎠
⎛ ∂p⎞
δ Fy = ⎜ ρ g y − ⎟ δ V (29.3.17)
⎝ ∂y⎠
⎛ ∂p⎞
δ Fz = ⎜ ρ g z − ⎟ δ V .
⎝ ∂z ⎠
The vector expression for the total force is then

  
( )
δ F = ρg − ∇p δ V . (29.3.18)
29.6 Euler Equations of Motion for a Non-Viscous Fluid


Consider a non-viscous flow (no shearing stresses) v(x, y, z,t) with pressure p(x, y, z,t) ,
 
and density ρ (x, y, z,t) . We can now apply Newton’s Second Law, δ F = δ ma to a small
29-12
fluid element of mass δ m = ρδ V . The force on the fluid element is given by Eq.
(29.3.18), and the acceleration is given by Eq. (29.1.13). Therefore Newton’s Second
Law, after dividing through by the volume δ V is

  ⎛ ∂v    ⎞
ρg − ∇p = ρ ⎜ + ( v ⋅ ∇) v ⎟ . (29.4.1)
⎝ ∂t ⎠
Eq. (29.4.1) is called Euler’s Equations of Motion for a non-viscous fluid. This is a non-
 
linear equation that arises due to the convective derivative v ⋅ ∇ .
29.6.1 Steady Flow
For steady flow,


∂v 
=0 (steady flow) (29.4.2)
∂t
We can rewrite Eq. (29.4.1) using the vector identity
   1     
( v ⋅ ∇) v = ∇( v ⋅ v) − v × (∇ × v) . (29.4.3)
2
Recall that the gravitational field is the gradient of the potential function
 
g = −∇φ g . (29.4.4)
Then for steady flow Eq. (29.4.1) becomes
  ⎛1       ⎞
− ρ∇φ g − ∇p = ρ ⎜ ∇( v ⋅ v) − v × (∇ × v)⎟ (steady non-viscous flow) . (29.4.5)
⎝2 ⎠
29.6.2 Incompressible Steady Flow
Let’s now consider an incompressible fluid. Then we can rearrange Eq. (29.4.5) as
 p 1   
ρ∇(φ g + + v 2 ) = v × (∇ × v) (incompressible steady non-viscous flow) . (29.4.6)
ρ 2
29.6.3 Irrotational Incompressible Steady Flow: Bernoulli Equation

  
Recall that for irrotational flow (Eq. (29.2.19), ∇ × v = 0 . Therefore for steady
irrotational flow, the Euler Equations of Motion become
29-13
 p 1 
ρ∇(φ g + + v 2 ) = 0 (irrotational incompressible steady non-viscous flow) . (29.4.7)
ρ 2
Define a new potential function

p 1 2
φ ≡ φg + + v . (29.4.8)
ρ 2
Then Eq. (29.4.7) can be rewritten after dividing through by the density ρ
 
∇φ = 0 (irrotational incompressible steady non-viscous flow) (29.4.9)
This implies that
p 1 2
φg + + v = φ0 (irrotational incompressible steady non-viscous flow) (29.4.10)
ρ 2
.
Eq. (29.4.10) is called the Bernouilli Equation. Consider any two points A and B . Then
the constancy of φ implies that
pA 1 2 p 1
φ g ,A + + v A = φ g ,B + B + v B 2
ρA 2 ρB 2 (29.4.11)
(irrotational incompressible steady non-viscous flow).
29.10 Navier-Stokes Equations for an Incompressible Newtonian Fluid

29.10.1 Stress and Deformation for an Incompressible Newtonian Viscous Fluid
For a viscous fluid, the normal stress on each face of the small fluid element are no
longer necessary equal. When the normal stresses are related to the pressure and the rate
of change of the velocity gradient by
∂vx
σ xx = − p + 2 µ
∂x
∂v y
σ yy = − p + 2 µ (29.4.12)
∂y
∂v
σ zz = − p + 2 µ z
∂z
29-14
the fluid is called Newtonian, where µ is the viscosity and has SI units
[N ⋅ /(m 2 ⋅(m/s)/m)] = N ⋅s ⋅ m -2 = kg ⋅ m −1 ⋅s −1 . If we add the three normal stresses we have
that
⎛ ∂v ∂v ∂v ⎞
σ xx + σ yy + σ zz = −3p + 2 µ ⎜ x + y + z ⎟ . (29.4.13)
⎝ ∂x ∂ y ∂z ⎠
Recall that the continuity equation for the incompressible fluid element is given by
  ∂v ∂v ∂v
∇⋅v = x + y + z = 0. (29.4.14)
∂x ∂ y ∂z
Therefore the pressure is the negative of the average value of the three normal stresses,
1
p = − (σ xx + σ yy + σ zz ) (incompressible Newtonian Fluid) . (29.4.15)
3
The shear stresses for a Newtonian fluid are related

 to  the rate of shearing strain (the
gradient of the components of the velocity vector, ∇vx , ∇v y , ∇vz by
∂v y ∂vx
σ yx = σ xy = µ ( + ),
∂x ∂y
∂vz ∂v
σ zy = σ yz = µ ( + y ), (29.4.16)
∂y ∂z
∂v ∂v
σ xz = σ zx = µ ( x + z ).
∂z ∂x
For a non-Newtonian fluid, the shear and normal components are proportional to higher
order partial derivatives of the components of the velocity field.
Derive this.
29.10.2 Navier-Stokes Equations for an Incompressible Newtonian Fluid
We can now substitute Eqs. (29.4.12) and (29.4.16) into Eqs. (29.3.14) to determine the
components of the force on the fluid element. We begin with the
x -component of the force on the fluid element
⎛ ∂p ∂2 vx ∂2 vx ∂2 vz ∂2 v y ∂2 vx ⎞
δ Fx = ⎜ ρ g x − + 2µ 2 + µ 2 + µ +µ + µ 2 ⎟ δ V , (29.4.17)
⎝ ∂x ∂x ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂ y ∂x ∂y ⎠
29-15
which we can rewrite as
⎛ ∂p ∂ ⎛ ∂vx ∂v y ∂vz ⎞ ∂2 vx ∂2 vx ∂2 vx ⎞
δ Fx = ⎜ ρ g x − +µ ⎜ + + + µ 2 + µ 2 + µ 2 ⎟ δ V .(29.4.18)
⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎝ ∂x ∂ y ∂z ⎟⎠ ∂x ∂z ∂y ⎠
Recall that the continuity equation for the incompressible fluid element is given by
  ∂v ∂v ∂v
∇⋅v = x + y + z = 0 (29.4.19)
∂x ∂ y ∂z
Therefore the x -component of the force on the fluid element
⎛ ∂p ∂2 v ∂2 v ∂2 v ⎞
δ Fx = ⎜ ρ g x − + η 2x + η 2x + η 2x ⎟ δ V . (29.4.20)
⎝ ∂x ∂x ∂z ∂y ⎠
We can calculate the y -component of the force on the fluid element in a similar fashion
⎛ ∂p ∂2 v y ∂ ∂v ∂v ∂ ∂v ∂v ⎞
δ Fy = ⎜ ρ g y − + 2µ 2 + µ( z + y ) + µ ( y + x )⎟ δ V
⎝ ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂ y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂ y ⎠
⎛ ∂p ∂ ⎛ ∂vx ∂v y ∂vz ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 v y ∂2 v y ∂2 v y ⎞ ⎞
δ Fy = ⎜ ρ g y − +µ ⎜ + + + µ⎜ 2 + + ⎟ ⎟ δ V . (29.4.21)
⎜⎝ ∂y ∂ y ⎝ ∂x ∂ y ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂ y 2 ∂z 2 ⎠ ⎟⎠
⎛ ∂p ⎛ ∂2 v ∂2 v y ∂2 v y ⎞ ⎞
δ Fy = ⎜ ρ g y − + µ ⎜ 2y + + ⎟ ⎟ δV
⎜⎝ ∂y ⎝ ∂x ∂ y 2 ∂z 2 ⎠ ⎟⎠
The z -component of the force on the fluid element is
⎛ ∂σ ∂σ ∂σ ⎞
δ Fz = ⎜ ρ g z + zz + yz + xz ⎟ δ V
⎝ ∂z ∂y ∂x ⎠
⎛ ∂p ∂2 vz ∂ ∂v ∂v ∂ ∂v ∂v ⎞
δ Fz = ⎜ ρ g z − + 2µ 2 + µ ( z + y ) + µ ( x + z )⎟ δ V
⎝ ∂z ∂z ∂ y ∂ y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ⎠
. (29.4.22)
⎛ ∂p ∂ ⎛ ∂v ∂v ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 v ∂2 vz ∂2 vz ⎞ ⎞
δ Fz = ⎜ ρ g z − + µ ⎜ x + y + z ⎟ + µ ⎜ 2z + + ⎟ δV
⎝ ∂z ∂z ⎝ ∂x ∂ y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂ y 2 ∂z 2 ⎟⎠ ⎠
⎛ ∂p ⎛ ∂2 vz ∂2 vz ∂2 vz ⎞ ⎞
δ Fz = ⎜ ρ g z − + µ⎜ 2 + + ⎟ δV
⎝ ∂z ⎝ ∂x ∂ y 2 ∂z 2 ⎟⎠ ⎠
The vector expression for the force acting on the fluid element is then
29-16
  
( 
)
δ F = ρg − ∇p + µ∇ 2 v δ V (incompressible Newtonian Fluid) . (29.4.23)
We now use Eq. (29.1.11) for the acceleration field in Newton’s Second Law and after
dividing through by the volume δ V becomes

  2 ∂v   
ρg − ∇p + µ∇ v = ρ + ρ ( v ⋅ ∇) v (incompressible Newtonian Fluid) . (29.4.24)
∂t
Eq. (29.4.24) is called the Navier-Stokes equations and applies to an incompressible

Newtonian fluid. The continuity equation and the Navier-Stokes equations are four
independent equations in four unknowns, p , vx , v y , and vz . This is a set of non-linear
equations partial differential equations that in principle are enough to solve for our four
unknowns but there are only a few special cases in which there is exact analytic solutions.
When we compare the Navier-Stokes equations to the Euler equations of motion for the

incompressible non-viscous fluid we see that the new term due to viscosity, µ∇ 2 v , is
proportional to the Laplacian of the velocity field.
29.10.2 Navier-Stokes Equation in Polar Coordinates
There are many vector flow fields that exhibit cylindrical symmetry, for example flow in
a cylindrical pipe. If we choose polar coordinates (r,θ , z) , (Figure 29. ) then the gradient
operator is given by the expression
 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇ = r̂ + θ̂ + k̂ . (29.4.25)
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
The Laplacian operator is given by
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂ ⎞ 1 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = r + + . (29.4.26)
r ∂r ⎜⎝ ∂r ⎟⎠ r 2 ∂θ 2 ∂z 2
Example Laminar Flow in a Cylindrical Pipe
Consider a pipe of length L and radius R . A Newtonian fluid with viscosity µ

undergoes steady irrotational flow. Choose cylindrical coordinate with the origin located
at the center of the pipe and the positive z -direction in the direction of the flow. The only

non-zero component in the velocity field is in the z -direction, thus v = vz (r)k̂ . Let’s
neglect the effect of the gravitational force on the flow. The Navier-Stokes equations in
the positive z -direction becomes
∂p 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂vz ⎞
− +µ r = 0. (29.4.27)
∂z r ∂r ⎜⎝ ∂r ⎟⎠
29-17
∂p
− ρ g sin θ − = 0. (29.4.28)
∂r
1 ∂p
− ρ g cosθ − = 0. (29.4.29)
r ∂θ
We begin by integrating Eq. (29.4.28)
r p(r ,θ )
−g sin θ ∫ dr ′ = ∫ dp′ . (29.4.30)
0 p(0)
resulting in
−gr sin θ = p(r,θ ) − p(0) . (29.4.31)
Integrating Eq. (29.4.29) yields
θ ′ =θ p(θ )
− ρ gr ∫ cosθ ′ dθ ′ = ∫ dp′
θ ′ =0 p(0) . (29.4.32)
− ρ gr sin θ = p(θ ) − p(0)
Recall that r sin θ = h , therefore

− ρ gh = p(r,θ ) − p(0) . (29.4.33)
We can also integrate Eq. (29.4.27)
r∂p r ∂ ⎛ ∂vz ⎞
∫ r ′ dr ′ = ∫ µ r′ dr ′
0 ∂z 0 ∂r ′ ⎜⎝ ∂r ′ ⎟⎠
. (29.4.34)
1 ∂ p 2 ⎛ ∂vz ⎞
r = ⎜r
2 µ ∂z ⎝ ∂r ⎟⎠
where we used the fact that ∂ p / ∂z is independent of r and so can be treated as a

constant with regards to the integration. Integration again yields
vz (r ) ⎛
1 ∂p r ∂vz ⎞
∫ r ′ d r ′ = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ dr ′
2 µ ∂z 0 vz (0) ⎝ ∂ r ′ ⎠
. (29.4.35)
1 ∂p 2
r = vz (r) − vz (0)
4 µ ∂z
Therefore the z -component of the velocity field is
29-18
vz (r ) ⎛
1 ∂p r ∂vz ⎞
∫ r ′ d r ′ = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ dr ′
2 µ ∂z 0 vz (0) ⎝ ∂ r ′ ⎠
. (29.4.36)
1 ∂p 2
vz (r) = r + vz (0)
4 µ ∂z
At the walls of the pipe where r = R there is no slippage of the fluid and so we have the
boundary condition that at r = R , vz (R) = 0 . From Eq. (29.4.36) this implies that
vz (r ) ⎛
1 ∂p r ∂vz ⎞
∫ r ′ dr ′ = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ dr ′
2 µ ∂z 0 vz (0) ⎝ ∂ r ′ ⎠
. (29.4.37)
1 ∂p 2
vz (0) = − R
4 µ ∂z
Therefore the velocity field is
 1 ∂p 2
v(r) = vz (r) k̂ = (r − R 2 ) k̂ . (29.4.38)
4 µ ∂z
29-19
Chapter 31 Non-Inertial Rotating Reference Frames
31.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 2
31.2 Linearly Accelerating Reference Frames ......................................................................... 2
Example 1: Accelerating Car with Hinged Roof ........................................................ 3
31.3 Angular Velocity of a Rigid Body ........................................................................................ 4
31.4 Non-inertial Rotating Reference Frame ........................................................................... 6
31.4.1 Kinematics in Rotating Reference Frames ...................................................... 7
Example 2: Moving tangentially on rotating platform ............................................. 10
Example 3: Moving radially inward on rotating platform ........................................ 11
31.4.2 Acceleration in a Rotating Reference Frame ................................................. 12
Example 4: Mass at Rest on a Rotating Platform ..................................................... 13
Example 5: Rotating Water Bucket .......................................................................... 14
31.5 Motion on the Earth ............................................................................................................. 16
31.5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 16
31.5.2 Centrifugal Fictitious Force on Earth ......................................................................... 17
Example 6 The Centrifugal Force and Corrections to g ........................................... 17
31.5.3 Coriolis Fictitious Force .................................................................................................. 20
Example 7: Direction of Coriolis Force in Northern Hemisphere ............................ 21
Example 8: Direction of Coriolis Force in Southern Hemisphere ............................ 22
31.6 Trajectories of a Particle in an Inertial and Rotating Frame ................................. 23
31.7 Pendulum on a Rotating Platform ................................................................................... 25
Appendix 31.A: Algebraic Derivation of Time Derivative of Vector in Rotating
Reference Frame ............................................................................................................................ 27
Appendix 31.B Acceleration in Polar Coordinates .............................................................. 32
Chapter 31 Non-Inertial Rotating Reference Frames
31.1 Introduction
An object is called an isolated object if there are no physical interactions between

the object and the surroundings. According to Newton’s First Law an isolated object will
undergo uniform motion. Choose a coordinate system such that the isolated body is at
rest or is moving with a constant velocity. That coordinate system is called an inertial
reference frame. Do such coordinate systems exist? Newton’s First Law states ! that it is
!
always possible to find such a coordinate system. Newton’s Second Law Fphysical = ma
!
only holds in inertial reference frames, where Fphysical are the forces that arise from the
interactions of objects.
31.2 Linearly Accelerating Reference Frames
Let O designate an inertial reference frame and !O′ designate a second reference frame
that is accelerating with a linear acceleration A with respect to the inertial frame O
(Figure 1).
path of moving object in reference frame O
r r
R
O
O
Figure 31.1 Two reference frames
!
At t = 0 , the origins of the two reference frames coincide. Let R(t) denote the position
! !
vector of the origin in O′ as seen by an observer located at O . Then V(t) = dR(t) / dt
! !
and A(t) = dV(t) / dt are the velocity and acceleration of reference frame O′ with
respect to O .
!
Suppose a particle undergoes an acceleration a(t) in O . The path of the moving
!
particle in reference frame O is shown in Figure 1. The position vector r(t) of the object
!
in O is related to the position vector r′(t) of the object in O′ by
! ! !
r(t) = r ′(t) + R(t) . (31.1)
.
Differentiating Eq. (31.1) yields the relationship between the velocities of the object in
the two frames: !
! !
v(t) = v ′(t) + V(t) . (31.2)
Eq. (31.2) is called the Law of Addition of Velocities. Differentiating Eq. (31.2) yields the
relationship between the accelerations of the object in the two frames:
! ! !
a(t) = a ′(t) + A . (31.3)
! !
Recall that in the inertial reference frame O , ma = Fphysical . In the non-inertial frame O′ ,
Newton’s Second Law needs to be modified, because
! ! ! ! !
ma ′ = ma − mA = Fphysical − mA . (31.4)
Define a fictitious force by ! !

Ffictitious = −mA . (31.5)
Then the modified Newton’s Second Law in the non-inertial reference frame O′
becomes ! ! !
Fphysical + Ffictitious = ma ′ . (31.6)
Concept Question 1: Inertial or Non-inertial Reference Frame
You are in a spaceship with the engines turned off in a zero gravitational field. You are
standing on a frictionless floor at rest. Suppose you start to slide backwards. Which of the
following statements is true immediately after you start to slide backwards.
1. The spaceship is still an inertial reference frame and has not changed its speed.
2. The spaceship is accelerating backwards.
3. The spaceship is accelerating forwards.
Answer 3. Initially the spaceship defined an inertial reference frame because you, as an
isolated, body, remained at rest. Once you start to slide backwards, you conclude that a
fictitious force is acting on you in the direction you are moving and hence the spaceship
is accelerating in the opposite (forward) direction.
Example 1: Accelerating Car with Hinged Roof
A uniform thin rod of length L and mass  m is pivoted at one end. The pivot is attached
to the top of a car accelerating at rate A . What is the equilibrium value of the angle θ
between the rod and the top of the car?
A
g
Solution: The free body force diagram on the hinged roof in the accelerating reference
frame is shown in the figure below,
Fpivot
F fic = mA
mg
 
where we have added a fictitious force F fic = −mA . Because the rod is at rest in the
accelerating reference frame, Newton’s Second Law becomes
   
mg − mA + Fpivot = 0 .
       
Therefore the pivot force must satisfy mg − mA + Fpivot = −m(g − A) . Note that g′ = g − A
acts like an effective gravitational field point in the direction given by
θ = tan −1 (g / A)
which is the direction that the hinged roof is angled.
31.3 Angular Velocity of a Rigid Body

!
In Chapter 6 we defined the angular velocity vector ω of a point object undergoing
circular motion about the z -axis by
! dθ
ω = z k̂ = ω z k̂ . (31.1.7)
dt
where θ z is the angle that the position vector of the object makes with the positive x -
axis as shown in Figure 31.2.
+z d z
z = >0
dt
O
+x
z r
. k̂
r̂
ˆ
v
+y
Figure 31.2 Angular velocity for circular motion about z-axis
Now consider a rigid body at time t that is instantaneously rotating about an axis, with
unit normal n̂ , angle θ , and angular velocity as shown in Figure 31.3.
! dθ
ω= n̂ . (31.8)
dt
d n̂
= n̂
dt
Figure 31.3: Rigid body undergoing rotation about the instantaneous axis of rotation
Introduce angular coordinates θ x , θ y , and θ z , corresponding to angles about the x , y ,

and z axes. The angular velocity vector in this coordinate system is then
! dθ dθ y dθ
ω = x î + ĵ + z k̂ ≡ ω x î + ω y ĵ + ω z k̂ . (31.1.9)
dt dt dt
The velocity of the rigid body and the angular velocity are related as follows. Every
particle in the rigid body is instantaneously ! undergoing circular motion about the
instantaneous axis of rotation (Figure 31.3), ω = (dθ / dt) n̂ . Recall that the position
!
vector r of the particle is constant in length and hence the velocity is given by the
derivative
!
! dr ! dθ
v= = r sin φ θ̂ , (31.10)
dt dt
! !
where θˆ is a unit vector tangent to the circular path. Note also that n̂ × r = r sin φ θ̂ .
Therefore the velocity is given by the vector product
! ! !
v = ω×r . (31.11)
! ! ! dθ ! ! dθ
(Note that v = ω × r = n̂ × r = r sin φ θ̂ .)
dt dt
31.4 Non-inertial Rotating Reference Frame
! frame and O′ a rotating reference frame that is

Let O designate an inertial reference
rotating with an angular velocity ω with respect to O . We shall consider two types of
rotating reference frames. The first example is a reference frame fixed to a platform that
!
is rotating with angular velocity ω = ω k̂ with respect to an inertial frame O (Figure
31.4).
z z
= k̂
v
r r
m m
v
inertial frame O
non-inertial frame O rotating with angular velocity
with respect to O
Figure 31.4: Non-inertial reference frame fixed to a rotating platform

!
The second example is the earth rotating with an angular velocity ω with respect to an
inertial frame at rest with respect to the distant stars (Figure 31.5).
Figure 31.5: Non-inertial reference frame fixed to the earth
31.4.1 Kinematics in Rotating Reference Frames
Let O denote an inertial reference ! frame. Let O′ denote a reference frame that is
rotating with an angular velocity ω respect to O . Choose a Cartesian coordinate systems
for O , with coordinates (x, y, z) , and O′ , with coordinates ( x ′, y ′, z ′ ) , such that the
origins of O and O′ coincide at time t , and the axis of rotation of O′ passes through the
!
origin in the positive k̂ -direction, therefore ω = ω k̂ . During the time interval [t, t + Δt] ,
the x′ - and y′ -axes have rotated by the angle Δθ = ω Δt as shown in the Figure 31.6.
z z = k̂
y
t y
x t x
Figure 31.6: Instantaneous rotation about z and z ′ -axes
Consider the motion of a particle as seen by an observer in reference frame O . Suppose

at time t , the position of the particle is located in the (x, z) plane. Denote the position
!
vector by r(t) = x(t) î + y(t) ĵ (Figure 31.7a). During the time interval Δt , the particle
! ! ! !
has moved to the position r(t + Δt) , with displacement Δr = r(t + Δt) − r(t) (Figure
31.7b).
z z = k̂ z z r
= k̂
r(t + t)
r(t) r(t) y
y y
y
x x t x
x
Figure 31.7a: position at time t Figure 31.7b: position at time t + Δt
In the reference frame O′ , the position of the particle at time t is given by

!
r ′(t) = x ′(t) î + y ′(t) ĵ . Because the axes of the two coordinate systems overlap at time t ,
x(t) = x′(t) and y(t) = y′(t) . At time t + Δt , the position of the particle is given by
! ! ! !
r′(t + Δt) . The displacement of the particle in O′ is given by Δr′ = r′(t + Δt) − r′(t) ,
(Figure 31.8).
z z
= k̂ r
r r (t + t)
r(t) r (t)
y
x =
t x
Figure 31.8: Displacement vectors in O and O′

! !
This displacement Δr′ is not equal to the displacement Δr in O because the x′ and y′
!
axes have rotated by an angle Δθ = ω Δt . The initial position vector r′(t) still lies in the
( x′, z ′ ) plane in O′ but at time t + Δt , this vector has rotated with respect to the position
! !
r(t) as seen by an observer in O (Figure 31.8). The lengths of the two vectors r(t) and
! ! !
r′(t) are equal, r(t) = r′(t) . The difference between the displacement vectors satisfies
the vector equality (Figure 31.9a):
! ! ! !
Δr − Δr′ = r(t) − r′(t) (31.12)
The vector in Eq. (31.12) is perpendicular to the axes of rotation (Figure 31.9b).
z z
= k̂
r
r(t) r (t) = k̂
r r (t + t)
k̂ r(t) sin
r(t) r (t) ˆ
y r̂
r(t) r (t)
y
r(t) r (t)
x t x

! !
The magnitude of r(t) − r ′(t) is given by
! ! !
r(t) − r′(t) = 2 r(t) sin(φ )sin(Δθ / 2) (31.13)
In the limit as Δθ → 0 , sin(Δθ / 2) → Δθ / 2 , and thus in the limit the magnitude is given
by
! ! !
r(t) − r′(t) = r(t) sin(φ )Δθ . (31.14)
! !
Introduce a set of unit vectors (r̂, θ̂, k̂) as shown in Figure 31.9b. The vector r(t) − r ′(t)
is in the θ̂ − direction, hence the difference in displacement vectors is given by
! ! ! ! !
Δr − Δr′ = r(t) − r′(t) = r(t) sin(φ)Δθ θ̂ (31.15)
Dividing both sides by Δt and taking the limit as Δt → 0 yields

! !
! ! Δr Δr ′ ! Δθ
v(t) − v ′(t) = lim − lim = lim r(t) sin(φ) θ̂ (31.16)
Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt Δt→0 Δt
Thus
! ! !
v(t) = v ′(t) + r(t) sin(φ)ω θ̂ , (31.17)
! ! !
where ω = dθ / dt . In cylindrical coordinates, the vector r(t) = r(t) sin φ r̂ + r(t) cosφ k̂ .
The vector cross product
! ! ! ! !
ω × r(t) = ω k̂ × ( r(t) sin φ r̂ + r(t) cos φ k̂) = ω r(t) sin φ θ̂ . (31.18)
Substituting Eq. (31.18) into Eq. (31.17) yields
! ! ! !
v(t) = v ′(t) + ω × r(t) , (31.19)
! ! !
where v = (dr / dt)in is the derivative of the position vector r(t) in the inertial frame and
! ! !
v ′ = (dr ′ / dt)rot is the derivative of the position vector r ′(t) . Eq. (31.19) is the rotational
version of Eq. (31.2).
Example 2: Moving tangentially on rotating platform

!
(a) Consider a platform that is rotating about the z -axis with angular velocity ω = ω k̂ in
the inertial reference frame O . Let O′ denote a reference frame that is rotating with the
platform. An object of mass m is moving in a circle of radius r on the platform with a
!
constant tangential velocity v = v θ̂ in the inertial frame O , such that v > rω (Figure
!
31.10a and Figure 31.10b). What is the velocity of the object v ′ in the reference frame
O′ ?
z z
= k̂
v in, v
k̂ k̂
ˆ m ˆ
m
r̂ r̂
inertial frame O frame O is rotating

with angular velocity
with respect to inertial frame O
Solution: In the instant shown in Figure 31.10a and Figure 31.10b, the unit vectors in the
two frames are equal, and therefore Eq. (31.19) can be written as
! ! ! !
v ′(t) = v(t) − ω × r(t) = v θ̂ − (ω k̂ × r r̂) = (v − rω) θ̂ .
Note that if v = rω , then the object is at rest in O′ .
(b) An object of mass m is moving in a circle of radius r on the platform with a constant
!
tangential velocity v ′ = − v ′ θˆ ′ in the rotating frame O′ (Figure 31.11a and Figure
!
31.11b). What is the velocity of the object v in the reference frame O ?
z z
= k̂
k̂ k̂
m ˆ m ˆ
v
r̂ v r̂


! !
Solution: v ′ = −v θ̂ . The velocity v in the reference frame O is given by
! ! ! !
v(t) = v ′(t) + ω × r(t) = −v θ̂ + (ω k̂ × r r̂) = (−v+ rω) θ̂ .
Note that if v = rω , then the object is at rest in O .
Example 3: Moving radially inward on rotating platform
!
Consider a platform that is rotating about the z -axis with angular velocity ω = ω k̂ in the
inertial reference frame O . Let O′ denote a reference frame that is rotating with the
platform. An object of mass m is connected to a string that is pulled radially inward
along the surface of the platform at a constant speed v in O′ . At the instant shown in
Figure 31.12a and Figure 31.12b, the object is at a distance r = r ′ from the center of the
!
platform. What is the velocity of the object v in the reference frame O ?
z z
= k̂
v in,
k̂ v k̂
ˆ m ˆ
v in,r m
r̂ r̂

! !
Solution: v ′ = −v rˆ ′ . The velocity v in the reference frame O is given by
! ! ! !
v(t) = v ′(t) + ω × r(t) = −v r̂+ (ω k̂ × r r̂) = −v r̂ + rω θ̂ .
31.4.2 Acceleration in a Rotating Reference Frame
The result in Eq. (31.19) that describes the transformation law for the time derivative of
the position
! vector! in the two reference frames O and O′ holds ! for the derivative of any
vector C . Let (dC / dt)in denote the derivative of the vector C in the inertial frame O ,
!
and let (dC / dt)rot denote the derivative of the vector in the rotating reference frame O′ .
Then ! ! ! !
(dC / dt)in = (dC / dt)rot + ω × C . (31.20)
!
In particular the derivative of the velocity v is then
! ! ! !
(dv / dt)in = (dv / dt)rot + ω × v . (31.21)
! ! ! !
Now v = v ′ + ω × r , therefore Eq. (31.21) becomes
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
a = (dv / dt)in = (d( v ′ + ω × r) / dt)rot + ω × ( v ′ + ω × r)
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! . (31.22)
a = a ′ + (d( ω × r) / dt)rot + ω × v ′ + ω × ( ω × r).
! !
where a = (dv / dt)in is the acceleration of the particle has seen in the inertial frame O
! !
and a ′ = (dv ′ / dt)rot is the acceleration of the particle has seen in the inertial frame O′
!
We have assumed that ω is constant and therefore
! ! ! ! ! !
(d( ω × r) / dt)rot = ω × (dr / dt)rot = ω × v ′ . (31.23)
So Eq. (31.22) becomes the transformation law for the acceleration of an object in the
two reference frames O and O′ is given by
! ! ! ! ! ! !
a = a ′ + 2ω × v ′ + ω × ( ω × r) . (31.24)
31.4.3 Newton’s Second Law in Rotating Reference Frames

!
Let Fphy denote the sum of the physical forces acting on a particle. Recall that in an
inertial reference frame O , Newton’s Second Law is given by
! !
Fphy = ma . (31.25)
In a non-inertial rotating reference frame O′ , the Second Law becomes, using Eq.
(31.24),
! ! ! ! ! ! !
Fphy = m(a ′ + 2ω × v ′ + ω × ( ω × r)) . (31.26)
Rewrite Eq. (31.26) as ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Fphy − 2mω × v ′ − m( ω × ( ω × r) = ma ′ . (31.27)
Define two ‘fictitious forces’, the centrifugal fictitious force:

! ! ! !
Fcentrifugal = −m( ω × ( ω × r)) , (31.28)
and the Coriolis fictitious force: !

! !
Fcoriolis = −2mω × v ′ . (31.29)
Then the modified Newton’s Second law in the rotating frame becomes
! ! ! !
Fphysical + Fcoriolis + Fcentrifugal = ma ′ . (31.30)
Eq. (31.30) will be the starting point for analyzing the motion of particles in a rotating
reference frame.
! !
The centrifugal force Fcentrifugal is perpendicular to both terms in the cross product ω and
! !
ω × r , and therefore is perpendicular to the axis of rotation. It is a simple exercise to
show that it is also
! pointing in the radially outward direction from the axis of rotation.The
! !
Coriolis force Fcoriolis is perpendicular to ω and the velocity v ′ of the particle in the
rotating frame.
Because of these two fictitious forces, the motion of particles in rotating reference frames
like the earth are far more complicated to analyze. For example, air molecules moving
along the surface or water molecules in the ocean of the earth experience both of these
fictitious forces as seen in the earth rotating reference frame. Thus the study of
atmospheric physics, ocean physics on the earth, and the study of extraterrestrial spinning
objects like stars, planets, or rotating gas clouds require an understanding of the
centrifugal and the Coriolis forces.
Example 4: Mass at Rest on a Rotating Platform

z z
= k̂
v k̂ k̂
r ˆ r
m ˆ
m
r̂ r̂
inertial frame O rotating non-inertial frame O

!
A platform is rotating about the z -axis with angular velocity ω = ω k̂ in the inertial
reference frame O (Figure 31.13a). Choose a set of cylindrical unit vectors (r̂,θˆ, k̂) . An
object of mass m that lies on the platform a distance r from the center is rotating with
!
the platform, hence in the reference frame O , the object has angular velocity ω = ω k̂
!
and velocity v = rω θˆ . The force keeping the object from moving on the platform is a
!
radially inward static friction force fs = − f s r̂ . The object is accelerating towards the
!
center with a = −rω 2r̂ . Newton’s Second Law in the inertial reference frame O is then
− f s r̂ = −mrω 2r̂ ⇒ f s = mrω 2 . (31.31)
Let O′ denote a reference frame that is rotating with the platform (Figure 31.13b). The
! !
object is at rest in the rotating frame O′ , v ′ = 0 , and therefore the Coriolis force is zero.
Choose a set of cylindrical unit vectors (rˆ′ ,θˆ ′ , k̂) . The centrifugal force is non-zero and
points in the outward radial direction and is given by
! ! ! !
Fcentrifugal = −m( ω × ( ω × r′ ) = −m(ω k̂ × (ω k̂ × r rˆ ′ )) = −m(ω k̂ × rω θˆ′ ) = mrω 2rˆ ′ .
The acceleration of the object is zero in O′ , and the modified Newton’s Second Law Eq.
(31.30) is then ! ! !
fs + Fcentrifugal = 0 .
Using our results above, the static friction force is then

!
− f s rˆ ′ + mrω 2rˆ ′ = 0 ⇒ f s = mrω 2 ,
in agreement with Eq. (31.31).
Example 5: Rotating Water Bucket
+z z
FS
Fcent
r
+r
mg

In an inertial reference frame O , consider a water bucket that is rotating about the
!
vertical z -axis with angular velocity ω = ω k̂ . The rotational motion of the bucket is
transformed to the fluid contained
! within and after a period of time, the fluid is rotating
with the same angular velocity ω and the surface of the fluid takes on a concave shape
shown in Figure 31.14b.
In a reference frame O′ rotating with the bucket, the water is in static equilibrium. The
forces acting on a small surface element of mass Δm , located at the point (r, z) , are the
! ! !
gravitational force Δmg , the fictitious centrifugal force Fcent , and a hydrostatic force FS
that the rest of the fluid exerts on the fluid element (Figure 31.14b). Choose a cylindrical
coordinate system with unit vectors (rˆ′ ,θˆ ′ , k̂) as shown in Figure 31.15.
z
dr
FS k̂
dz
r̂
Fcent
r ˆ
mg
Figure 31.15
The tangent line to the surface element makes an angle φ with respect to the horizontal
axis such that the slope is given by
dz
= tan φ (31.32)
dr
The centrifugal force is given by

! ! ! !
Fcent = −m( ω × ( ω × r′ ) = −m(ω k̂ × (ω k̂ × (r rˆ ′ + zk̂)) = −m(ω k̂ × rω θˆ′ ) = mrω 2rˆ ′ .
Newton’s modified Second Law is the rˆ ′ -direction is given by
− Fs sin φ + mrω 2 = 0 , (31.33)

and in the k̂ -direction is given by
Fs cosφ − mg = 0 . (31.34)
Eqs. (31.33) and (31.34) can be solved for tan φ :
rω 2
tan φ = . (31.35)
g
Therefore the slope of the surface at the point (r, z) is given by
dz rω 2
= . (31.36)
dr g
Separate variables and form an integral equation
z r
ω2
∫ dz =
g ∫ rdr (31.37)
z =0 r =0
which upon integration yields the equation for the surface of the fluid
1ω2 2
z= r . (31.38)
2 g
31.5 Motion on the Earth

31.5.1 Introduction
In an inertial reference frame O fixed with respect to the distant stars, the earth is
rotating with a period of 23 hours, 53 minutes and 4 seconds corresponding to an angular
2π rad
speed ω = = 7.307 × 10−5 rad/sec . Choose the positive z -direction to point in the
85984 s
!
direction of the angular velocity ω . In a non-inertial reference frame O′ that is rotating
with the earth, consider a point located on the surface of the earth at latitude λ . Choose a
spherical coordinate system with coordinates (r,θ ,φ ) with associated unit
vectors, (r̂,θˆ,φ̂ ) , as shown in Figure 31.17.
Figure 31.17
31.5.2 Centrifugal Fictitious Force on Earth
At the latitude λ , the angular velocity vector can be written as the vector sum (Figure
31.17)
! ! !
ω = ω sin λ r̂ − ω cos λθˆ = ω ⊥ + ω " . (31.39)
!
where ω ⊥ = ω sin λ r̂ is the component of the angular velocity perpendicular to the
!
surface of the earth and ω " = −ω cos λθˆ is the component of the angular velocity tangent
to the surface of the earth.
Figure 31.18
Example 6 The Centrifugal Force and Corrections to g
(a) Show that in the rotating reference frame the centrifugal force points radially
away from the axis of rotation. In particular show that
!
Fcentrifugal = mRE ω 2 cos λ ρ̂ , (31.40)
where ρ̂ = cos λ r̂ + sin λ θ̂ is the unit vector pointing radially away from the
rotation axis (Figure 31.18).
(b) The acceleration due to gravity measured in an earthbound rotating coordinate

! !
system is denoted by g . However, because of the earth’s rotation, g is different
!
from the true acceleration due to gravity g 0 = −g0r̂ , where g0 = GM E / RE 2 .
Assuming that the earth is perfectly round, with radius Re and angular velocity
!
Ωe , find g = g as a function of latitude λ . (Assuming the earth to be round is
actually not justified; the contributions to the variation of g due to the polar
flattening is comparable to the effect calculated here.)
Solution:
(a) Choose coordinates in the rotating frame as shown in Figure 31.18. At the latitude λ ,
!
the angular velocity vector is given by ω = ω sin λ r̂ − ω cos λθˆ . The position vector is
!
r = RE r̂ . Note that θ̂ × φ̂ = r̂ . Therefore the centrifugal fictitious force is given by
! ! ! ! !
Fcentrifugal ≡ Fcf = −m( ω × ( ω × r))
= −m((ωsin λ r̂ − ω cos λ θ̂) × ((ωsin λ r̂ − ω cos λ θ̂) × RE r̂)))
= −m(ωsin λ r̂ − ω cos λ θ̂) × ω cos λRE φ̂)
= m(ω 2 sin λ cos λRE θ̂ + ω 2 cos 2 λRE r̂)
= mRE ω 2 cos λ(cos λ r̂ + sin λ θ̂)
= mRE ω 2 cos λ ρ̂
where we used the fact that ρ̂ = cos λ r̂ + sin λ θ̂ . The centrifugal force points radially
away from the axis of rotation as we expect. For future use note that in spherical
coordinates the centrifugal force is given by
!
Fcentrifugal = mRE ω 2 cos λ(cos λ r̂ + sin λ θ̂) (31.41)
(b) The force diagram on the object in the rotating frame is shown in the figure below.
N g = g 0 + (Fcf / m)
r̂ ˆ
Fcf
ˆ
m g0
The acceleration due to gravity measured in an earthbound rotating coordinate system is

! ! !
denoted by g = g 0 + (Fcf / m) = (REω 2 cos 2 λ − g0 )r̂ + REω 2 cos λ sin λ θˆ . The magnitude of
!
g is then
!
g = g = ((REω 2 cos 2 λ − g0 )2 + (REω 2 cos λ sin λ )2 )1/2
= ((REω 2 cos 2 λ )2 − 2g0 REω 2 cos 2 λ + g0 2 + (REω 2 cos λ sin λ )2 )1/2
1/2
⎡⎛ R ω 2 cos 2 λ ⎞ 2 REω 2 ⎛ REω 2 cos λ sin λ ⎞
2
⎤
= g0 ⎢ ⎜ E
⎟ − 2 g cos λ + 1+ ⎜
2
⎟ ⎥
⎢⎝ g0 ⎠ ⎝ g0 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ 0
⎦
To simplify the calculation, let y = REω 2 / g0 . (Note that y = REω 2 / g0 = RE 3ω 2 / GM E ).

Then
( )
1/2
g = g0 ⎡ y cos 2 λ − 2 y cos 2 λ + 1+ ( y cos λ sin λ ) ⎤
2 2
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
1/2
= g0 ⎡⎣1− (2 y − y 2 )cos 2 λ ⎤⎦
At the latitude of MIT, λ = 42.36! N . The mean radius of the earth is RE = 6.371× 106 m ,
the angular speed ω = 7.307 × 10−5 rad ⋅s −1 , the mass of the earth M E = 5.972 × 1024 kg
and the universal gravitational constant is G = 6.674 × 10−11 m 3 ⋅ kg −1 ⋅s −2 . Then
g0 = (6.674 × 10−11 m 3 ⋅ kg −1 ⋅s −2 )(5.972 × 1024 kg) / (6.371× 106 )2 = 9.82 m ⋅s −2

and
y = (6.371× 106 m)3 (7.307 × 10−5 rad ⋅s −1 )2 / (6.674 × 10−11 m 3 ⋅ kg −1 ⋅s −2 )(5.972 × 1024 kg)
= 3.461× 10−3.
Therefore
( )
1/2
g = g0 ⎡ y cos 2 λ − 2 y cos 2 λ + 1+ ( y cos λ sin λ ) ⎤
2 2
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ .
1/2
= g0 ⎡⎣1− (2 y − y 2 )cos 2 λ ⎤⎦ = 9.801 m ⋅s-2 .
The actual value of the acceleration due to gravitation at the latitude of MIT based on
the International Gravity Formula IGF) 1980 from the parameters of the Geodetic
Reference System 1980 (GRS80), which determines the gravity from the position of
latitude, is g = 9.80381 m ⋅s-2 .
31.5.3 Coriolis Fictitious Force
Figure 31.19
Consider a particle traveling in the northern hemisphere tangent to the surface of the earth
!
with velocity (in the earth rotating reference frame) v = vθθˆ + vφ φ̂ , where ( r̂,θˆ,φ̂ ) are
unit vectors in the rotating frame, (vθ ,vφ ) are the components of the velocity with speed
v = (vθ 2 + vφ 2 )1/2 . The Coriolis force is given by
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Fcor = −2mω × v = −2m( ω ⊥ + ω " ) × v = −2mω ⊥ × v − 2mω " × v (42)
! !
The contribution from the term −2mω ⊥ × v is tangent to the surface of the earth,
perpendicular to the velocity, and has magnitude 2mω ⊥ v = 2mω sin λ . The contribution
! !
from the term − 2mω " × v is perpendicular to the surface of the earth, and has magnitude
2mω cos λ . This term is quite small compared to the gravitational force and we shall
usually ignore its contribution to the fictitious force acting on particles that are moving
tangential to the surface of the earth. The full vector expression for the Coriolis force is
given by
! ! !
Fcoriolis = −2mω × v = −2m(ω sin λ r̂ − ω cos λθˆ ) × (vθθˆ + vφ φ̂ )
(43)
= 2mω sin λ (−vθφ̂ + vφθˆ ) + 2mω cos λ vφ r̂
The component of the Coriolis force tangential to the surface of the earth is given by
!
Fcor," = 2mω sin λ (−vθφ̂ + vφθˆ ) (44)
with magnitude
!
Fcor," = 2mω sin λ (vλ 2 + vφ 2 )1/2 = 2mω sin λ v (45)
in agreement with our discussion above. The component perpendicular to the surface of
the earth is given by !
Fcor,⊥ = 2mω cos λ r̂ . (46)
Example 7: Direction of Coriolis Force in Northern Hemisphere
Consider a particle moving in the northern hemisphere at north latitude λ . Note that
r̂ × θ̂ = φ̂ .
a) If the particle is moving along a longitude line towards the North Pole with
!
velocity v = −v θ̂ , where v is the speed of the particle, find a vector expression
for the Coriolis force? Does it point east, west, or some other direction?
b) If the particle is moving along a longitude line away from the North Pole with
!
velocity v = v θ̂ , where v is the speed of the particle, find a vector expression for
the Coriolis force? Does it point east, west, or some other direction?
Solution:
a) In the northern hemisphere the angular velocity of the earth is given by
!
ω = ω sin λ r̂ − ω cos λθ̂ . The Coriolis force acting on a particle that is moving
along a longitude line towards the North Pole is given by
! ! !
Fcor = −2mω ⊥ × v = −2m(ω sin λ r̂ − ω cos λθ̂) × (−vθ θ̂) = 2mω sin λ vθ φ̂ .
It points in the positive φ̂ -direction, which is east.
b) The Coriolis force acting on a particle that is moving along a longitude line
away from the North Pole is given by
! ! !
Fcor = −2mω ⊥ × v = −2m(ω sin λ r̂ − ω cos λθ̂) × (vθ θ̂) = −2mω sin λ vθ φ̂ .
It points due west, in the negative φ̂ -direction.

Example 8: Direction of Coriolis Force in Southern Hemisphere
Consider a particle moving in the southern hemisphere at south latitude λ > 0 . Note that
r̂ × θ̂ = φ̂ .
r̂
ˆ ˆ
a) If the particle is moving along a longitude line away from the South Pole with
!
velocity v = −v θ̂ , where v is the speed of the particle, find a vector expression
for the Coriolis force? Does it point east, west, or some other direction?
b) If the particle is moving along a longitude line towards the South Pole with
!
velocity v = v θ̂ , where v is the speed of the particle, find a vector expression for
the Coriolis force? Does it point east, west, or some other direction?
Solution:
a) In the southern hemisphere the angular velocity of the earth is given by

!
ω = −ω sin λ r̂ − ω cos λθ̂ . The Coriolis force acting on an object moving along a
longitude line away from the South Pole is
! ! !
Fcor = −2mω × v = −2m(−ω sin λ r̂ − ω cos λθ̂) × (−v θ̂) = −2mω v sin λφ̂ .
It points in the negative φ̂ -direction, which is west.
b) The Coriolis force on an object moving along a longitude line towards the South
Pole is
! ! !
Fcor = −2mω × v = −2m(−ω sin λ r̂ − ω cos λθ̂) × (v θ̂) = +2mω v sin λφ̂ ,
which is due east in the positive φ̂ -direction.

31.6 Trajectories of a Particle in an Inertial and Rotating Frame
Consider an object that is moving at constant velocity in an inertial reference frame O .

The trajectory of that object is a straight line. Now consider a platform that is rotating
!
with angular velocity ω = ω k̂ that lies beneath that object such that the object passes
over the center of the platform. Let O′ denote the non-inertial reference frame fixed to
!
the platform i.e. O′ is rotating with angular velocity ω = ω k̂ with respect to O . Choose
!
cylindrical coordinates (r,θ , z) in O′ . Let v ′ = (v θˆ + v r̂) denote the velocity of the
θ r
object along the trajectory in O′ . (We are dropping the primes for coordinates and
component functions in O′ to simplify the notation). Note that when the object is moving
inward in the inertial frame, vr < 0 and vθ < 0 , and when the object is moving outward,
vr > 0 and vθ < 0 . In both cases the tangential velocity in the rotating frame is negative.
The Coriolis force is given by
! ! !
Fcor = −2mω × v ′ = −2mω k̂ × (vθ θ̂ + vr r̂) = 2mω vθ r̂ − 2mω vr θ̂ = Fcor,r r̂ + Fcor,θ θ̂ (47)
Thus when the object is moving inward with Error! Objects cannot be created from
editing field codes. and vθ < 0 , the θ̂ -component of the Coriolis force is positive,
Fcor,θ > 0 , and the radial component of the Coriolis force is negative Fcor,r < 0 . When
the object is moving outward with vr > 0 and vθ < 0 , the θ̂ -component of the Coriolis
force is negative, Fcor,θ < 0 and the radial component of the Coriolis force remains
negative Fcor,r < 0 , gradually increasing in magnitude as vθ gradually increases. There
is also a centrifugal force in the radial direction
! ! ! !
Fcf = −m( ω × ( ω × r) = −m(ω k̂ × (ω k̂ × rr̂)) = −m(ω k̂ × rω θ̂) = mrω 2r̂ . (48)
In the inertial frame, O , the object is moving with a constant velocity, therefore
! ! ! total ! ! !
Ftotal
phy = 0 . Newton’s Second Law, F phy + Fcor + Fcf = ma ′ , applied to the object in the
rotating frame O′ is then
!
(2mω vθ + mrω 2 )r̂ − 2mω vr θ̂ = ma ′ (49)
Recall that in polar coordinates, the expression for the acceleration of an object is
!
a ′ = (dvr / dt − r(dθ / dt)2 )r̂ + (2vr (dθ / dt) + r(d 2θ / dt 2 ))θ̂ , (50)
where vr = dr / dt and dvr / dt = d 2r / dt 2 . (See Appendix 31.B for a derivation). The

equations of notion in the rotating frame are
in the radial direction:
2ω vθ + rω 2 = dvr / dt − r(dθ / dt)2 (51)
and in the tangential direction:
−2ω vr = 2vr (dθ / dt) + r(d 2θ / dt 2 ) . (52)
Let’s consider the case in which the initial conditions are given by (dθ / dt)0 = −ω and
vr,0 = (dr / dt)0 = vin . Then there is a unique solution to Eqs. (51) and (52) given by
dθ / dt = −ω . (53)
Using that result in Eq. (51), implies dvr / dt = 0 : the radial component of the velocity in
O′ is constant. This is the condition that the radially component of the Coriolis force and
the centrifugal force are equal to the centripetal acceleration. In Figure 31.20, we show
the orbit in the two frames under these special conditions.
path of object in inertial reference frame path of object in rotationg reference frame
v
r̂
Fcor
ˆ
Fcor v
Figure 31.20
The object is moving across a rotating platform at a constant speed vin . The object
traverses the platform in time Ttransit = 2R / vin . In Figure 31.20, the platform is rotating
with angular speed ω = 2π / 5Ttransit hence with period Trot = 2π / ω = 5Ttransit . In the
inertial reference frame, as the object travels Δs = (1/ 3)R (the distance between two
adjacent circles), the platform rotates Δθ platform = 12! . During each of the these intervals,
Δt = (1/ 3)R / vin , in the reference frame rotating with the platform, the object appears to
decrease it’s angular position by Δθ object = −12! .
!
The velocity v ′ of the object O′ is no longer constant. The tangent line at any point on
trajectory in O′ (red line moving inward, green line moving outward) indicates the
! !
direction of the velocity v ′ . The direction of v ′ at various points along the trajectory in
O′ is shown in Figure 13. Initially, in the frame O the object is moving radially inward.
Because the platform is rotating, an observer on the platform also observes that the
!
particle is moving in the negative θ̂ -direction. Hence the velocity v ′ at the initial
position in O′ has component inward and also in the negative θ̂ -direction. As the object
moves inward in O′ , the θ̂ -component of the velocity becomes less negative indicating
that there is a positive angular acceleration in the θ̂ -direction. The observer in O′
! ! !
attributes this angular acceleration to the Coriolis force Fcor = −2mω × v ′ , which is
!
perpendicular to the velocity v ′ . As the object moves outward, the θ̂ -component of the
velocity decreases (becomes more negative) indicating that there is a negative θ̂ -
component to the acceleration.
31.7 Pendulum on a Rotating Platform
z z
= k̂
vz
v
m k̂ vr
m
r0 cos( r0 cos( 0t)
0t) r̂
ˆ
Figure 12a Figure 112b
Now let’s consider a pendulum consisting of a bob of mass φ at the end of a string of
length l . Choose polar coordinates on the rotating platform. Suppose the bob is released
from rest at a small angle φ0 with respect to the vertical axis In the frame O , the bob
undergoes linear simple harmonic motion with distance from the center varying in time
!
according to r(t) = r(t) r̂ + z(t) k̂ , where ω 0 = g / l , r(t) = l sin(φ0 )cos(φ (t)) ,
z(t) = l(1− cosφ (t)) , and φ (t) = φ0 cos(ω 0t) . In a frame O′ rotating with angular velocity
!
ω = ω k̂ with respect to O , the motion of the bob is no longer in the radial direction
because the platform is rotating underneath the bob. The velocity of the bob in O′ has
radial, tangential, and vertical components
!
v ′(t) = (dr / dt)r̂ + (rdθ / dt) θ̂ + (dz / dt) k̂ .
The acceleration in the rotating cylindrical coordinates is given by

!
a(t) = (d 2r / dt 2 − r(dθ / dt)2 ) r̂ + (2(dr / dt)(dθ / dt) + r(d 2θ / dt 2 )) θ̂
+ (d 2 z / dt 2 ) k̂.
Note for simplicity we have dropped the primes on all coordinates and unit vectors in the
rotating frame). There is a nonzero Coriolis force given by
! ! !
Fcor = −2mω × v = −2m(ω k̂ × ((dr / dt) r̂ + r(dθ / dt) θ̂ + (dz / dt) k̂))
= −2mω ((dr / dt) θ̂ − r(dθ ′ / dt))r̂.
There is also a centrifugal force given by

! ! ! !
Fcf = −m( ω × ( ω × r) = −m(ω k̂ × (ω k̂ × r r̂)) = −m(ω k̂ × rω θ̂) = mrω 2r̂ .
The physical forces are given by

!
Fphy = (T cosφ − mg)k̂ − T sin φ r̂ .
The Coriolis force is in the θ̂ -direction, so Newton’s Second Law in the θ̂ -direction is
−2mω (dr / dt) θ̂ = (2m(dr / dt)(dθ / dt) + r(d 2θ / dt 2 )) θ̂ .
This is a complicated equation but if we make the assumption that d 2θ / dt 2 ! 0 , then we

can solve this equation dθ / dt :
dθ ′ / dt = −ω .
In the frame O′ , the bob is precessing in the clockwise direction (as seen from above)
with angular speed ω . This should not be surprising because in the frame O , the bob is
undergoing linear simple harmonic motion and the platform is rotating beneath the bob in
the counterclockwise direction with angular speed ω .
Appendix 31.A: Algebraic Derivation of Time Derivative of Vector in Rotating
Reference Frame
!
The components of a vector C(t) can be expressed in any coordinate system, even a
rotating coordinate system. However the time derivative of a vector will differ in inertial
and rotating coordinate systems. Consider an inertial reference frame and a reference
frame O′ such that the origins and z and z ′ axes of O and O′ coincide, and O′ is
!
rotating with angular frequency ω = (dθ / dt)k̂ with respect to an inertial frame O .
+y
C
Cy
+y +x
Cy Cx
0 Cx +x
Figure 31.C.1
!
Let C(t) be a non-constant vector lying in the x − y plane (also lying in the x ′ − y ′
!
plane). The vector expression for C(t) in O is given by
!
C(t) = Cx (t) î + C y (t) ĵ , (54)
and in O′ by
!
C(t) = Cx′ (t)î′ + C y′ (t)ˆj′ . (55)
Recall the vector decomposition expression for î′(t) and ˆj′(t) in terms of î and ĵ are
given by
î′(t) = cos(θ ) î + sin(θ ) ĵ , (56)
ˆj′(t) = − sin(θ ) î + cos(θ ) ĵ (57)
Then
!
C = Cx′ î′ + C y′ ˆj′
= Cx′ (cos(θ ) î + sin(θ ) ĵ) + C y′ (− sin(θ ) î + cos(θ ) ĵ) . (58)
= Cx î + C y ĵ
Hence
Cx = Cx′ cos(θ ) − C y′ sin(θ )
. (59)
C y = Cx′ sin(θ ) + C y′ cos(θ )
The derivatives of the components with respect to time are therefore
dCx dCx′ dθ dC y′ dθ
= cos(θ ) − Cx′ sin(θ ) − sin(θ ) + C y′ cos(θ )
dt dt dt dt dt . (60) (61)
dC y dCx′ dθ dC y′ dθ
= sin(θ ) + Cx′ cos(θ ) + cos(θ ) − C y′ (t)sin(θ )
dt dt dt dt dt
!
The time derivative of the vector C in the inertial reference frame O is
!
⎛ dC ⎞ d dCx dC y
⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ = (C x î + C y ĵ) = î + ĵ
in
dt dt dt
⎛ dC dθ dC y′ dθ ⎞
x′
⎜ cos(θ ) − Cx′ sin(θ ) − sin(θ ) + C y′ cos(θ ) ⎟ î , (62)
⎝ dt dt dt dt ⎠
⎛ dC dθ dC y′ dθ ⎞
+ ⎜ x′ sin(θ ) + Cx′ cos(θ ) + cos(θ ) − C y′ (t)sin(θ ) ⎟ ĵ
⎝ dt dt dt dt ⎠
!
The time derivative of the vector C in the rotating reference frame O′ is
!
⎛ dC ⎞ dCx′ ˆ dC y′ ˆ
⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ = i′ + j′
rot
dt dt
dCx′ dC y′
= (cos(θ ) î + sin(θ ) ĵ) + (− sin(θ ) î + cos(θ ) ĵ) (63)
dt dt
⎛ dC dC y′ ⎞ ⎛ dC dC y′ ⎞
= ⎜ x′ cos(θ ) − sin(θ )⎟ î + ⎜ x′ sin(θ ) + cos(θ )⎟ ĵ
⎝ dt dt ⎠ ⎝ dt dt ⎠
Now
! ! dθ dθ ˆ dθ
ω×C= k̂ × (Cx′ î′ + C y′ ˆj′ ) = C j′ − C î′
dt dt x′ dt y′
dθ dθ
= (Cx′ (− sin(θ ) î + cos(θ ) ĵ) − C (cos(θ ) î + sin(θ ) ĵ) (64)
dt dt y′
⎛ dθ dθ ⎞ ⎛ dθ dθ ⎞
= ⎜ − Cx′ (sin(θ ) − C y′ cos(θ )⎟ î + ⎜ Cx′ cos(θ ) − C y′ sin(θ )⎟ ĵ
Claim:
! !
⎛ dC ⎞ ⎛ dC ⎞ ! !
⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ + ω ×C (65)
in rot
Proof: The right-hand-side of Eq. (65) is
!
⎛ dC ⎞ ! !
⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ + ω ×C=
rot
⎛ dC dC y′ ⎞ ⎛ dC dC y′ ⎞
= ⎜ x′ cos(θ ) − sin(θ )⎟ î + ⎜ x′ sin(θ ) + cos(θ )⎟ ĵ
⎛ dθ dθ ⎞ ⎛ dθ dθ ⎞
+ ⎜ − Cx′ (sin(θ ) + C y′ cos(θ )⎟ î + ⎜ Cx′ cos(θ ) − C y′ sin(θ )⎟ ĵ
(66)
⎛ dC dθ dθ dC y′ ⎞
= ⎜ x′ cos(θ ) − Cx′ sin(θ ) + C y′ cos(θ ) − sin(θ )⎟ î
⎝ dt dt dt dt ⎠
⎛ dC dθ dθ dC y′ ⎞
+ ⎜ x′ sin(θ ) + Cx′ cos(θ ) − C y′ sin(θ ) + cos(θ )⎟ ĵ
⎝ dt dt dt dt ⎠
!
dCx dC y ⎛ dC ⎞
= î + ĵ = ⎜
dt dt ⎝ dt ⎟⎠ in
Alternative derivation in terms of the unit vectors in the rotating frame
+y
C
Cy
+y +x
Cy Cx
0 Cx +x
Figure 31.C.1
The component functions in Eqs. (54) and (55) are related by

! ! !
Cx = C cos(θ + φ ) = C cos(θ )cos(φ ) − C sin(θ )sin(φ )
, (67)
= Cx′ cos(θ ) − C y′ sin(θ )
and
! ! !
C y = C sin(θ + φ ) = C sin(θ )cos(φ ) − + C cos(θ )sin(φ )
, (68)
= Cx′ sin(θ ) + C y′ cos(θ )
The corresponding inverse transformations are

Cx′ = Cx cos(θ ) + C y sin(θ ) , (69)
and
C y′ = −Cx sin(θ ) + C y cos(θ ) , (70)
Recall the vector decomposition expression for î′ and ˆj′ in terms of î and ĵ are given
by
î′ = cos(θ ) î + sin(θ ) ĵ , (71)

ˆj′ = − sin(θ ) î + cos(θ ) ĵ (72)
Note that
!
C = Cx′ î′ + C y′ ˆj′
= (Cx cos(θ ) + C y sin(θ ))(cos(θ ) î + sin(θ ) ĵ)
. (73)
+(−Cx sin(θ ) + C y cos(θ ))(− sin(θ ) î + cos(θ ) ĵ)
= Cx î + C y ĵ
!
Let’s now compare the time derivatives of the vector! C in the inertial and rotating
reference frames. The time derivative of the vector C in the inertial reference frame O is
!
⎛ dC ⎞ d dCx dC y
⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ = (C î + C ĵ) = î + ĵ , (74)
in
dt x y
dt dt
!
because the unit vectors are constant in time . The time derivative of the vector C in the
inertial reference frame O expressed in terms of the rotating frame coordinate system is
!
⎛ dC ⎞ dCx′ ˆ dC y′ ˆ dî′ dˆj′
⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ = i ′ + j′ + C x′ + C y′ . (75)
in
dt dt dt dt
Recall that
dî′ dθ dθ dθ ˆ
= − sin(θ ) î + cos(θ ) ĵ = j′ , (76)
dt dt dt dt
and
dˆj′ dθ dθ dθ ˆ
= − cos(θ ) î − sin(θ ) ĵ = − i′ (77)
dt dt dt dt
Therefore
!
⎛ dC ⎞ dCx′ ˆ dC y′ ˆ dθ ˆ dθ ˆ
⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ = dt i′ + dt j′ + Cx′ dt j′ − C y′ dt i′ (78)
in
!
The time derivative of the vector C in the rotating reference frame O′ is given by
!
⎛ dC ⎞ dCx′ ˆ dC y′ ˆ
⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ = i′ + j′ (79)
rot
dt dt
Hence
! !
⎛ dC ⎞ ⎛ dC ⎞ dθ ˆ dθ ˆ
⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ + Cx′ dt j′ − C y′ dt i′ (80)
in rot
! ! dθ dθ
The second term in Eq. (80) is just ω × C = k̂ × (Cx′ î′ + C y′ ˆj′ ) = (Cx′ ˆj′ − C y′ î′ ) .
dt dt
Therefore Eq. (80) becomes
! !
⎛ dC ⎞ ⎛ dC ⎞ ! !
⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ + ω ×C . (81)
in rot
Eq. (81) is then the general result for the time derivative of a vector in a rotating
reference frame.
! ! !
Example 31.A.1: Let r(t) be the position vector of an object, let v(t) = (dr / dt)in denote
! !
the velocity of the object in the inertial frame O , and let v ′(t) = (dr / dt)rot denote the
velocity of the object in the rotating frame O′ , Then using Eq. (81), the two velocities
are related by
! ! !
v = v′ + ω × r , (82)
in agreement with Eq. (31.19).
Appendix 31.B Acceleration in Polar Coordinates
+y ĵ r̂(t)
ˆ (t)
r P
. î
(t) +x
Figure 31.E1
Let’s now consider central motion in a plane that is non-circular. In polar coordinates, the
key point is that the time derivative dr / dt of the position function r is no longer zero.
The second derivative d 2 r / dt 2 also may or may not be zero. In the following calculation
we will drop all explicit references to the time dependence of the various quantities. The
position vector is given by
!
r = r r̂ . (83)
Because dr / dt ≠ 0 , when we differentiate Eq. (83), we need to use the product rule
!
! d r dr d r̂
v= = r̂ + r . (84)
dt dt dt
At the point P , consider two sets of unit vectors ( r̂(t) , θ̂(t) ) and ( î , ĵ ), as shown in the
figure above. The vector decomposition expression for r̂(t) and θ̂(t) in terms of î and ĵ
is given by
r̂(t) = cosθ (t) î + sin θ (t) ĵ , (85)
θ̂(t) = − sin θ (t) î + cosθ (t) ĵ . (86)
The time derivative of the unit vectors are given by
d r̂ dθ dθ
= (− sin θ (t) î + cosθ (t) ĵ ) = θ̂ . (87)
dt dt dt
d θ̂ dθ dθ
=− (cosθ (t) î + sin(t) ĵ ) = − r̂ . (88)
dt dt dt
Substituting Eq. (87) into Eq. (84) yields

!
! dr dr dθ
v= = r̂ + r θ̂ = vr r̂ + vθ θ̂ . (89)
dt dt dt
The velocity is no longer tangential but now has a radial component as well
dr
vr = . (90)
dt
In order to determine the acceleration, we now differentiate Eq. (89), again using the
product rule, which is now a little more involved:
!
! d v d 2r dr d r̂ dr dθ d 2θ dθ d θ̂
a= = 2 r̂ + + θ̂ + r 2 θ̂ + r . (91)
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
Now substitute Eqs. (87) and (88) for the time derivatives of the unit vectors in Eq. (91),
and after collecting terms yields
! ⎛ d 2r ⎛ dθ ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ dr dθ d 2θ ⎞
2
a = ⎜ 2 − r ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ r̂ + ⎜ 2 + r 2 ⎟ θ̂
⎝ dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ dt dt dt ⎠ . (92)
= ar r̂ + aθ θ̂
The radial and tangential components of the acceleration are now more complicated than
then in the case of circular motion due to the non-zero derivatives of dr / dt and
d 2 r / dt 2 . The radial component is
⎛ dθ ⎞
2
d 2r
ar = 2 − r ⎜ ⎟ . (93)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
and the tangential component is
dr dθ d 2θ
aθ = 2 +r 2 . (94)
dt dt dt
The second term in the radial component of acceleration is called the centripetal
acceleration. The first term in the tangential component of the acceleration,
2(dr / dt)(dθ / dt) has a special name, the coriolis acceleration,
dr dθ
acor = 2 . (95)
dt dt

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Chapter 1 The History and Limitations of Classical Mechanics

Chapter 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1

During this period, the experimental methodology and mathematical tools of

In the twentieth century, as experimental observations led to a more detailed

2.1 International System of Units ................................................................................ 3

2.1 International System of Units

Base Quantity Base Unit

Table 2.2 Defining Constants

2.1.1 Definition of the second

Isaac Newton, in the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (“Mathematical

The development of clocks based on atomic oscillations allowed measures of

Δν Cs = 9 192 631 770 Hz = 9 192 631 770 s −1 (2.1)

Therefore the unit second is equal to

9 192 631 770

2.1.2 Definition of the meter

The meter, symbol m , is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the

The definition of the speed of light states that

c = 299 792 458 m ⋅s−1 (2.3)

The meter is therefore defined by

The second is defined by Eq. (2.2). Therefore Eq. (2.4) becomes

c 9 192 631 770 c

2.1.2.1 Worked Example: Krypton Frequency Transition

c 299 792 458 m ⋅s −1

c 299 792 458 m ⋅s−1

2.1.3 Definition of the kilogram

The kilogram, symbol kg , is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the

Thus the Planck constant h is exactly h = 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 J ⋅s . This

Example 2.1.3.1 Definition of the kilogram in terms of the SI constants

Answer: The Planck constant is exactly defined as

h = 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 J ⋅s = 6.626 070 15 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −1 (2.6)

Therefore the kilogram is defined to be

The internal energy E of an object is proportional to the rest mass according to

hΔν Cs (6.62607015 × 10−34 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s-1 )(9192631770 s −1 )

2.1.4 Definition of the ampere

The ampere, symbol A , is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by

Example 2.1.4.1 Ampere

Answer: The exact definition of the elementary charge is

e = 1.602176634 × 10−19 C = 1.602176634 × 10−19 A ⋅s . (2.17)

Therefore the unit ampere is defined to be

2.1.5 Definition of the kelvin

The kelvin, symbol K , is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. It is

This definition implies the exact relation k = 1.380649 × 10−23 J ⋅ K −1 . Its

2.1.5.1 Example Kelvin

Answer: The Boltzmann constant is exactly

k = 1.380649 × 10−23 kg ⋅ m 2 ⋅s −2 ⋅ K −1 (2.20)

Therefore the unit kelvin is defined as

⎛ 1.380649 × 10−23 ⎞ ⎛ hΔν Cs ⎞

One kelvin is then equal to

2.1.6 Definition of the mole

The amount of substance, symbol n , of a system is a measure of the number of

Example 2.1.6.1 Mole

The Avogadro number is exactly defined as

N A = 6.02214076 × 1023 mol (2.24)

Therefore, 1 mole is given by the expression:

Figure 2.2 Radians compared to trigonometric functions.

θ [rad] θ [deg] sin(θ ) tan(θ ) (θ − sin θ ) / θ (θ − tan θ ) / θ

sin(θ ) ! tan(θ ) ! θ , (2.27)

Example 2.1.7.1 Parsec

Figure 2.3 Example 2.1.7.1