Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics orquantum

theory) including quantum field theory, is a fundamental branch
of physics concerned
with
processes
involving,
for
example, atomsand photons. In such processes, said to be quantized,
the action has been observed to be only in integer multiples of
the Planck constant, a physical quantity that is exceedingly, indeed
perhaps ultimately, small. This is utterly inexplicable in classical
physics.
Quantum mechanics gradually arose from Max Planck's solution in
1900 to the black-body radiation problem (reported 1859) and Albert
Einstein's 1905 paper which offered a quantum-based theory to
explain thephotoelectric effect (reported 1887). Early quantum
theory was profoundly reconceived in the mid-1920s.
The reconceived theory is formulated in various specially developed
mathematical formalisms. In one of them, a mathematical function,
thewave function, provides information about the probability
amplitude of position, momentum, and other physical properties of a
particle.
Important
applications
of
quantum
mechanical
theory
include superconducting magnets, light-emitting diodes and the laser,
the transistor and semiconductors such
as
the microprocessor, medical and research imaging such as magnetic
resonance imaging and electron microscopy, and explanations for
many biological and physical phenomena.
THE END OF THE UNIVERSE

The ultimate fate of the universe is a topic in physical cosmology.
Many possible fates are predicted by rival scientific hypotheses,
including futures of both finite and infinite duration.
Once the notion that the universe started with a rapid inflation
nicknamed theBig Bang became accepted by the majority of
scientists,[1] the ultimate fate of the universe became a valid
cosmological question, one depending upon the physical properties of
the mass/energy in the universe, its average density, and the rate of
expansion.
There is a growing consensus among cosmologists that the universe
is flat and will continue to expand forever.[2][3] The ultimate fate of the
universe is dependent on the shape of the universe and what role
dark energy will play as the universe ages.
THE SHAPE OF THE UNIVERSE

The shape of the universe is the local and global geometry of the
Universe, in terms of both curvature and topology (though, strictly
speaking, the concept goes beyond both). The shape of the universe
is related to general relativitywhich describes how spacetime is
curved and bent by mass and energy.
There is a distinction between the observable universe and the global
universe. The observable universe consists of the part of the universe
that can, in principle, be observed due to the finite speed of light and
the age of the universe. The observable universe is understood as a
sphere around the Earth extending 93 billion light years (8.8 *1026
meters) and would be similar at any observing point (assuming the
universe is indeed isotropic , as it appears to be from our vantage
point).
According to the book Our Mathematical Universe, the shape of the
global universe can be explained with three categories:[1]
1.
Finite or infinite
2.
Flat (no curvature), open (negative curvature) or closed
(positive curvature)
3.
Connectivity, how the universe is put together, i.e., simply
connected space or multiply connected.
SPECIAL RELATIVITY
In physics, special relativity (SR, also known as the special
theory of relativity or STR) is the generally accepted and
experimentally
well
confirmedphysical
theory regarding
the
relationship between space and time. In Einstein's original
pedagogical treatment, it is based on two postulates:
1. that the laws of physics are invariant (i.e. identical)
all inertial systems(non-accelerating frames of reference).
in
2. that the speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all

observers, regardless of the motion of the light source.
It was originally proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in the paper "On
the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies".[1] The inconsistency
of Newtonian
mechanics with Maxwells
equations of electromagnetism and
the
lack
of
experimental
confirmation for a hypothesized luminiferous aether led to the
development of special relativity, which corrects mechanics to handle
situations involving motions nearing the speed of light. As of today,
special relativity is the most accurate model of motion at any speed.
Even so, the Newtonian mechanics model is still useful (due to its
simplicity and high accuracy) as an approximation at small velocities
relative to the speed of light.
Special relativity implies a wide range of consequences, which have
been experimentally verified,[2] including length contraction, time
dilation, relativistic mass, massenergy equivalence, a universal
speed limit and relativity of simultaneity. It has replaced the
conventional notion of an absolute universal time with the notion of a
time that is dependent on reference frame and spatialposition. Rather
than an invariant time interval between two events, there is an
invariant spacetime interval. Combined with other laws of physics, the
two postulates of special relativity predict the equivalence
of mass and energy,
as
expressed
in
the massenergy
2
equivalence formula E = mc , where c is the speed of light in a
vacuum.[3][4]
GENERAL RELATIVITY
General
relativity (GR,
relativity orGTR)
Einstein in 1915
[1]
is
also
known
as
the general
theory
the geometric theory of gravitation published
of
by Albert
and the current description of gravitation in modern physics.
General relativity generalizes special relativity and Newton's law of universal

gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property
of space andtime, or spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is
directly
related
to
whatever matter and radiation are
the energy and momentum of
present.
The
relation
is
specified
by
the Einstein field equations, a system of partial differential equations.

Some predictions of general relativity differ significantly from those of classical
physics, especially concerning the passage of time, the geometry of space, the
motion of bodies in free fall, and the propagation of light. Examples of such
differences
include gravitational
thegravitational
redshift of
light,
time
and
dilation, gravitational
the gravitational
time
lensing,
delay.
The
predictions of general relativity have been confirmed in all observations and

experiments to date. Although general relativity is not the only relativistic
theory of gravity, it is the simplest theory that is consistent with experimental
data. However, unanswered questions remain, the most fundamental being how
general relativity can be reconciled with the laws of quantum physics to
produce a complete and self-consistent theory of quantum gravity.
DARK MATTER
Dark matter is a hypothetical substance that is believed by most
astronomers to account for around five-sixths of the matter in
the universe. Although it has not been directly observed, its existence
and properties are inferred from its various gravitational effects: on
the motions of visible matter; via gravitational lensing; its influence
on the universe's large-scale structure, and its effects in the cosmic
microwave
background.
Dark
matter
is
transparent
to electromagnetic radiation and/or is so dense and small that it fails
to absorb or emit enough radiation to be detectable with imaging
technology.
Estimates
of masses
for galaxies
and larger
structures
via dynamical andgeneral relativistic means are much greater than
those based on the mass of the visible "luminous" matter.[2]
The standard model of cosmology indicates that the total mass
energy of the universe contains 4.9% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark
matter and 68.3% dark energy.[3][4] Thus, dark matter constitutes
84.5%[note 1] of total mass, while dark energy plus dark matter
constitute 95.1% of total massenergy content.[5][6][7][8]
The dark matter hypothesis plays a central role in state-of-the-art
modeling of cosmic structure formation and galaxy formation and
evolution and on explanations of the anisotropies observed in
the cosmic microwave background(CMB). All these lines of evidence
suggest that galaxies, clusters of galaxies and the universe as a
whole contain far more matter than that which is observable via
electromagnetic signals.[9]

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Quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics (QM; also known as quantum physics orquantum

THE END OF THE UNIVERSE

THE SHAPE OF THE UNIVERSE

2. that the speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all

the geometric theory of gravitation published

and the current description of gravitation in modern physics.

General relativity generalizes special relativity and Newton's law of universal

whatever matter and radiation are

the energy and momentum of

the Einstein field equations, a system of partial differential equations.

predictions of general relativity have been confirmed in all observations and

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