Double Conversion UPS: Application and Installation Guide

A P P L I C AT I O N A N D I N S TA L L AT I O N G U I D E
Double Conversion UPS
®
Contents
Key factors in UPS installations .....................................................1
Introduction................................................................................1
Growing needs for high-quality
and high-availability power..........................................1
Using this guide.........................................................................1
Structure of this document...........................................1
UPS in electrical installations ...................................................2
Component functions and parameters........................2
Sources of information in setting
up installation specifications........................................3
Basic notions on installations with UPS ..................................5
Supply systems with UPS...................................................5
Purpose of UPS .............................................................5
Types of UPS..................................................................5
Double-conversion static UPS......................................5
The Operating Principle (Figure 2) ...............................5
Power quality of UPS ..........................................................6
Power quality of double-conversion UPS ...................6
Voltage quality for linear loads ....................................6
Voltage quality for non-linear loads ............................7
UPS power availability ......................................................10
What is meant by availability? ...................................10
How can availability be improved? ............................11
Key factors to the availability of installations
with UPS .......................................................................11
Selection of the configuration ..........................................13
Prerequisite step in establishing installation
specifications ...............................................................13
Power calculations...................................................................14
Elements required for power calculations ......................14
Installation considerations..........................................14
Power of a UPS............................................................14
UPS percent load.........................................................16
UPS efficiency..............................................................16
Ratings of single-UPS configurations ..............................17
Single-UPS configurations .........................................17
Power levels under steady-state conditions .............17
Power levels under transient conditions ...................18
Ratings of parallel-UPS configurations ...........................21
Parallel-UPS configurations........................................21
Power levels in redundant parallel
configurations..............................................................22
Control of upstream harmonics .............................................24
UPS and upstream harmonics .........................................24
Role of the input rectifier ............................................24
Standard rectifiers.......................................................24
PFC-type transitor-based controlled
active rectifiers ............................................................24
Filtering of upstream harmonics
for UPS with Graetz bridge rectifiers ...............................25
Goals of harmonic filtering.........................................25
Types of harmonics filters ..........................................26
Filtering and parallel connection ...............................26
Combination of LC filters and generator...................26
Selection of a filter ............................................................28
Selection parameters for a filter ................................28
Comparison table of solutions ...................................28
System earthing arrangements ..............................................31
Background information on system earthing
arrangements.....................................................................31
Protection of persons against electrical contact.......31
Types of system earthing arrangements (SEA) ........32
System earthing arrangements (SEA) .......................33
Comparison of system earthing arrangements
(SEA).............................................................................35
Applications in UPS installations .....................................36
Specific aspects in systems with UPS .......................36
Protection against direct contact................................36
Protection against indirect contact ............................36
Types of systems for UPS...........................................37
Protection .................................................................................39
Protection using circuit breakers......................................39
Trip units ......................................................................39
Discrimination, cascading, current limiting ..............41
Selection of circuit breakers .............................................42
Rating ...........................................................................42
Breaking capacity ........................................................42
Ir and Im thresholds ....................................................42
Special case of generator short-circuits ....................43
Example .......................................................................43
Calculation of CB1 and CB2 ratings
and breaking capacities ..............................................44
Characteristics of the most power circuit
breaker CB3 possible ..................................................47
Cables .......................................................................................49
Selection of cable sizes .....................................................49
Cable temperature rise and voltage drops................49
Temperature rise .........................................................49
Voltage drops...............................................................49
Special case for neutral conductors ..........................51
Calculation example....................................................51
Example of an installation ................................................51
Energy storage.........................................................................52
Storage technologies ........................................................52
Energy storage in UPS................................................52
Available technologies ................................................52
Comparison of technologies ......................................52
Selection of a battery ........................................................54
Types of batteries ........................................................54
Backup time .................................................................54
Service life....................................................................54
Comparison between types of batteries ...................55
Battery monitoring ............................................................55
Battery monitoring on UPS ........................................55
Detection and prevention of battery
failure for UPSs ...........................................................55
Human-machine interface and communication....................56
Human-machine interface (HMI) ......................................56
General characteristics................................................56
Example .......................................................................56
Communication .................................................................56
High availability for critical applications
requires communicating protection equipment.......56
Solutions ......................................................................57
Preliminary work......................................................................58
Installation considerations................................................58
Dimensions ..................................................................58
Ventilation, air-conditioning .......................................58
IP degree of protection and noise level.....................59
Battery room ......................................................................59
Battery installation method ........................................59
Battery room features .................................................59
Selection of possible configurations ...........................................62
Types of possible configurations............................................62
Basic diagrams ..................................................................62
Single source ...............................................................62
Multi-source.................................................................62
UPS configurations ...........................................................62
Single UPS ...................................................................62
Parallel UPS .................................................................62
Parallel connection with redundancy ........................64
Redundant distribution with an STS..........................65
Selection table and corresponding ranges............................66
Criteria for comparison .....................................................66
Availability ...................................................................66
Maintainability.............................................................66
Upgradeability .............................................................66
Discrimination and non-propagation of faults..........66
Installation operation and management ...................66
Diagram no. 1. Single UPS......................................................68
Diagram no. 2. Active redundancy
with two integrated parallel UPS units ..................................69
Diagram no. 3. Active redundancy with integrated
parallel UPS units and external maintenance bypass ..........70
Diagram no. 4. Isolated redundancy with two UPS units ....71
Diagram no. 5. Active redundancy with parallel
units and centralised static-switch cubicle (SSC)..................72
UPS units and total isolation, single busbar .........................73
UPS units and total isolation, double busbar........................74
Diagram no. 8. Active redundancy with parallel UPS
units, double SSC and total isolation, single busbar............75
units, double SSC and total isolation, double busbar ..........77
Diagram no. 10. Isolated redundancy N + 1 ..........................79
Diagram no. 11. Redundant distribution with STS ................81
Diagram no. 12 . Active redundancy with parallel
UPS and a common battery....................................................83
Elimination of harmonics in installations....................................85
Harmonics ................................................................................85
Definition, origin and types of harmonics.......................85
Harmonics....................................................................85
Non-linear loads are the cause ..................................85
Linear and non-linear loads........................................86
Types of harmonics and specific aspects of zero-
sequence harmonics ...................................................87
Characteristic harmonic values ........................................89
Rms value of harmonics .............................................89
Total rms current .........................................................89
Individual harmonics ..................................................89
Voltage and current harmonic distortion ..................90
Crest factor...................................................................90
Spectrum of the harmonic current ............................91
Power factor.................................................................91
Power............................................................................91
Non-linear load............................................................92
Effects of harmonics..........................................................92
Loss of apparent power ..............................................92
Temperature rise in cables .........................................92
Current in the neutral ..................................................93
Self-polluting loads .....................................................93
Risk of capacitor breakdown ......................................94
Derating of transformers ............................................95
Risk of disturbing generators .....................................96
Losses in asynchronous motors ................................96
Effects on other equipment ........................................96
Effect on recent UPS systems ....................................96
Conclusion ...................................................................96
Elimination of harmonics........................................................97
Strategies against harmonics...........................................97
Living with harmonics.......................................................97
Oversizing of equipment ............................................97
Solutions to eliminate harmonics ....................................98
Passive filters...............................................................98
Active filters / active harmonic conditioners ............98
Active harmonic conditioners ..............................................100
Active harmonic conditioners ........................................100
Characteristics ...........................................................100
Advantages of active harmonic conditioning .........100
Operating principle....................................................101
Operating modes .......................................................101
Installation modes .....................................................102
Position in the installation ........................................104
Position of current transformers upstream
or downstream ..........................................................105
Advantages ................................................................107
Procedure for implementing active conditioning .........108
Conclusion on active conditioning...........................108
New installations .......................................................108
Existing installations .................................................108
Methodology..............................................................109
1. Site audit.................................................................109
2. Determination of the most suitable solution......110
3. System installation and checks ............................110
Theoretical review ........................................................................111
Supplying sensitive loads ......................................................111
Types of electrical disturbances ......................................111
Origins of disturbances..............................................111
Types of disturbances................................................112
UPS..........................................................................................114
UPS....................................................................................114
Components of a UPS ...............................................114
UPS applications ..............................................................116
Types of UPS ..........................................................................118
Static or rotary UPS .........................................................118
Static or rotary UPS solutions ..................................118
Comparison ................................................................119
Static solution.............................................................119
Types of static UPS..........................................................120
Standards ...................................................................120
UPS operating in passive-standby mode................121
UPS operating in line-interactive mode ..................122
Double-conversion UPS............................................123
Conclusion .................................................................125
UPS components and operation ..........................................126
Components of a UPS.....................................................126
General diagram of a UPS........................................126
Power sources and UPS inputs ................................127
Components of a UPS...............................................127
Main characteristics of UPS components......................130
AC input power..........................................................130
Rectifier/charger.........................................................130
Battery (* energy storage means)............................131
Inverter .......................................................................133
Output voltage Un .....................................................134
Summary diagram for main characteristics..................136
Normal AC input: .......................................................136
Bypass AC input:........................................................136
Rectifier/charger:........................................................136
Battery: .......................................................................136
Inverter: ......................................................................136
UPS operating modes .....................................................137
Normal mode (on utility power, see figure 76) .......137
Backup mode (on battery power,
see figure 76) .............................................................137
Bypass mode (on static-bypass line,
see figure 77) .............................................................138
Maintenance mode (on maintenance
bypass, see figure 77) ...............................................139
UPS configurations..........................................................140
Parallel UPS with redundancy..................................140
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) ..................................142
Electromagnetic disturbances ........................................142
Electromagnetic disturbances ..................................142
Examples....................................................................142
EMC standards and recommendations .........................143
Disturbances ..............................................................143
Measured values .......................................................143
UPS standards........................................................................145
Scope and observance of standards..............................145
Scope of standards....................................................145
Observance of standards and certification..............145
CE marking.................................................................145
Main standards governing UPS .....................................146
Safety................................................................................146
Electrical environment, harmonics and
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) ......................146
Quality ........................................................................146
Ecological environment ............................................146
Acoustic noise............................................................146
Tables on harmonic-compatibility levels.................147
Energy storage .......................................................................148
Possible technologies......................................................148
Energy storage in UPS ..............................................148
Batteries............................................................................148
The battery solution ..................................................148
Types of industrial batteries .....................................149
Installation modes .....................................................149
Constraints on batteries ..................................................150
Atmospheric constraints...........................................150
Access ........................................................................150
Main battery parameters ..........................................150
Recharge mode..........................................................151
Battery management.................................................151
UPS / generator-set combination .........................................153
Use of a generator...........................................................153
Long backup times ....................................................153
UPS / generator-set compatibility ............................154
Review of inrush currents.........................................155
Motors ........................................................................155
LV/LV transformers ....................................................155
Computer loads ...............................................................156
Harmonics ..............................................................................157
Harmonics ........................................................................157
Origin of harmonics ..................................................157
Consequences of harmonics ....................................157
Precautions ................................................................158
Characteristic harmonic values ......................................159
Current values............................................................159
Example .....................................................................161
Voltage values............................................................161
Power values..............................................................162
Non-linear loads and PWM technology ...............................164
Non-linear load performance of UPS
using PWM technology ...................................................164
Importance of the UPS output impedance..............164
UPS operating principle............................................165
PWM inverters ...........................................................167
Comparison of different sources....................................169
Output impedance of various sources ....................169
Conclusion .................................................................169
Free-frequency chopping ................................................170
Free-frequency chopping ..........................................170
PFC Rectifiers .........................................................................172
Standard and PFC rectifiers ............................................172
Standard rectifiers.....................................................172
“Clean” PFC (Power Factor Correction) rectifier.....172
PFC rectifiers..............................................................172
Implementation .........................................................173
Glossary and bibliography ..........................................................176
Glossary..................................................................................176
Bibliography ...........................................................................186
Standards ...................................................................186
Foreword
This section of the Application and Installation Guide generally describes
Caterpillar Double Conversion UPS. Additional engine systems, components
and dynamics are addressed in other Application and Installation Guides.
Engine-specific information and data are available from a variety of sources.
Refer to LEBW4950 and the Introduction section (LEBW4951) for additional
references.
Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

Discretion is recommended when distributing. Materials and specifications
are subject to change without notice.
CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, “Caterpillar Yellow,” the “Power
Edge” trade dress as well as corporate and product identity used herein,
are trademarks of Caterpillar and may not be used without permission.
Battery UPS Application and Installation Guide
Key factors in UPS installations

Introduction Using this guide
Growing needs for high-quality Structure of this document
and high-availability power Finding information
Problems related to the quality and
Information may be located in the
availability of electrical power have
general contents at the start of the guide.
become vitally important due to the
key role of computers and electronics Sections
in the development of many critical 1. Key factors in UPS installations
applications. presents the role of UPS in electrical
Disturbances in distribution systems installations and indicates the main
(micro-outages, outages, voltage sags, parameters that must be taken into
etc.) can result in major losses or account. The remainder of the
safety hazards in a number of activities section guides you through the
such as: selection process for a solution by
determining the main elements of
• Sensitive process industries
an installation with a UPS.
where a malfunction in the
control/monitoring systems can 2. Selection of the UPS configuration
result in production losses. presents a number of practical
examples in view of selecting a
• Airports and hospitals where
configuration, from a simple, single-
faulty operation of equipment can
UPS unit through to installations
represent a serious danger.
offering exceptionally high levels
• Information and communication of availability.
technologies where the necessary
3. Elimination of harmonics in
level of reliability and dependability
installations presents solutions to
is even higher. Data centers require
eliminate harmonic currents in
high-quality, “no-break” power
installations.
24/365, year after year and without
halts for maintenance. 4. Theoretical review provides
background technical information
UPS protection systems are now an
for devices and notions mentioned
integral part of the value chain of many
in other parts of the guide.
companies. Their level of availability
and power quality have a direct effect Finally, to facilitate the preparation
on the service continuity of operations. of projects:
Productivity, the quality of products and 5. Glossary and bibliography defines
services, the competitiveness of the the main terms used in this guide
company and site security depend on and provides a list of standards and
the smooth operation of the UPS. documents dealing with topics
Failure is not an option. related to UPS.
©2010 Caterpillar
All rights reserved. Page 1
Application and Installation Guide Battery UPS
UPS in electrical installations

Component functions and parameters
Figure 1: Functions of the components in installations with UPS..

©2010 Caterpillar
Page 2 All rights reserved.
Sources of information in setting Table 1 indicates:

up installation specifications • The order in which the subjects
The diagram on the previous page are presented in this section,
provides a general overview of the
• The choices that must be made,
components and various parameters
in installations with UPS. • The purpose of each decision
with the indication of the pages
concerning the relevant elements
in this section,
• Where additional information on
each subject may be found
in the other sections of this
design guide.
©2010 Caterpillar
Choices Purpose See Additional information See

Examples and comparison
of 12 typical installations,
Determine the installation from single-UPS units to Page 67
Mono or
architecture and UPS high-availability
multisource
configuration best suited to architectures.
architecture and Sec. 2
your requirements in terms of
configuration of Supplying sensitive loads. Page 111
energy availability, upgrades,
UPS sources
operation and budget. UPS configurations. Page 140
Engine generator sets. Page 153
Determine the rating of the
UPS unit or parallel units (for
redundancy or capacity) Pages UPS make-up and
UPS power rating Page 14
required, taking into account 17-21 operation.
the distribution system and
load characteristics.
Reduce voltage distortion on Elimination of harmonics
Sec. 3
Control of the upstream busbars to in installations.
upstream acceptable levels, depending Page 24
harmonics on the power sources likely to Harmonics. Page 157
supply the UPS system.
Ensure installation compliance
with applicable standards for
the protection of life and
System earthing property and correct operation
Page 31
arrangements of devices. Which system
earthing arrangements are
required for which
applications?
Determine the breaking
Upstream and
capacity and the ratings of the
downstream
circuit breakers upstream and Page 39
protection using
downstream of the UPS, solve
circuit breakers
any discrimination problems.
Limit voltage drops and
temperature rise in the cables,
Connections Page 49
as well as harmonic distortion
at the load inputs.
Operation on battery power
(backup time) must last long Energy-storage solutions
Battery Page 54 Page 148
enough to meet user and batteries.
requirements.
Define UPS communication
Communication with the electrical and Page 56
computer environment.
Construction work and
Preliminary work ventilation must be planned,
Page 58
(if any) notably if there is a special
battery room.
Be aware of the main Electromagnetic
Standards Page 142
applicable UPS standards. compatibility.
Table 1..
©2010 Caterpillar
Basic notions on installations with UPS

Supply systems with UPS
Purpose of UPS Rotary UPS (with rotating mechanical
First launched in the 1970s, UPS parts, e.g. flywheels) are not included
importance has grown in step with the in the standards and remain marginal
development of digital technologies. on the market.
UPS are electrical devices that are Types of UPS, see page 118 “Types
positioned between the distribution of static UPS”.
system and sensitive loads. They Double-conversion static UPS
supply power that is much more This is the market leading technology
reliable than the distribution system used in high-power installations due
and corresponds to the needs of to their unique advantages over the
sensitive loads in terms of quality and other technologies.
availability.
• Complete regeneration of the
Types of UPS power supplied at the output,
The term UPS covers products with
• Total isolation of the load from
apparent power ratings from a few
the distribution system and its
hundred VA up to several MVA,
disturbances,
implementing different technologies.
• No-break transfer (where
That is why standard IEC 62040-3 and
applicable) to a bypass line.
its European equivalent ENV 62040-3
define three standard types The Operating Principle (Figure 2)
(topologies) of UPS. • During normal operation, a
rectifier/charger turns the AC-
UPS technologies include:
input power into DC power to
• Passive standby, supply an inverter and float
• Line interactive, charge the stored energy source,
• Double conversion. • The inverter completely
regenerates a sinusoidal signal,
For the low power ratings (< 2 kVA),
turning the DC power back into
the three technologies coexist. For
AC power that is free of all
higher ratings, the industry leading
disturbances and within strict
technology is double conversion with
amplitude and frequency
line interactive being used primarily
tolerances,
where efficiency is a concern for the
customer. • If the AC-input power fails, the
stored energy source supplies the
power required by the inverter for
a specified backup time
• A static bypass can transfer the
load without a break in the supply
of power to a bypass line to
©2010 Caterpillar
continue supplying the load if

need be due to an internal fault,
short circuit downstream, or
maintenance. This “fault-tolerant”
design makes it possible to
continue supplying power to the
load in “downgraded mode” (the
power does not transit the
inverter) during the time required
to re-establish normal conditions.
Double-conversion UPS, see page
126 “Components and operation”.
Figure 2: Double-conversion static UPS..
Power quality of UPS Voltage quality for linear loads

Power quality of double- What is a linear load?
conversion UPS A linear load supplied with a sinusoidal
By design, double-conversion solid- voltage draws a sinusoidal current
state UPS supply to the connected having the same frequency as the
loads a sinusoidal signal that is: voltage. The current may be displaced
(angle φ) with respect to the voltage
• High quality because it is (figure 3).
continuously regenerated and
Examples of linear loads
regulated (amplitude ± 1%,
Many loads are linear, including
frequency ± 0.5%),
standard light bulbs, heating units,
• Free of all disturbances from the resistive loads, motors, transformers,
distribution system (due to the etc. They do not contain any active
double conversion) and in electronic components, only resistors
particular from micro-outages (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C).
and outages (due to the battery).
UPS and linear loads
This level of quality must be ensured, For this type of load, the UPS output
whatever the type of load. signal is very high quality, i.e. the
voltage and current are perfectly
sinusoidal, 50 or 60 Hz.
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 3: Voltage and current for linear loads..
Voltage quality for non-linear a frequency that is a multiple

loads of the fundamental and which
What is a non-linear load? defines the harmonic order (e.g.
A non-linear (or distorting) load the third order harmonic has a
supplied with a sinusoidal voltage frequency 3 x 50 Hz [or 60 Hz]
draws periodic current that has the and the fifth order harmonic has
same frequency as the voltage but is a frequency 5 x 50 Hz [or 60 Hz]).
not sinusoidal. The harmonic currents are caused by
The current drawn by the load is, in the presence of power-electronic
fact, the combination (figure 4) of: components (e.g. diodes, SCRs,
IGBTs) which switch the input current.
• A sinusoidal current called the
fundamental, at the 50 or 60 Hz Examples of non-linear loads
frequency, Non-linear loads include all those that
have a switch-mode power supply at
• Harmonics, which are sinusoidal their input to supply the electronics
currents with an amplitude less (e.g. computers, variable-speed
than that of the fundamental, but drives, etc.).
Figure 4: The current drawn by non-linear loads is distorted by the harmonics..
©2010 Caterpillar
Harmonic spectrum of the current

drawn by a non-linear load
The harmonic analysis of a non-linear
current consists in determining
(figure 5):
• the harmonic orders present in
the current,
• the relative importance of each
order, measured as the
percentage of the order.
rms value of harmonic k

Hk% = distortion of harmonic k =
rms value of the fundamental
Voltage and current harmonic
distortion
Non-linear loads cause both current
and voltage harmonics. This is
because for each current harmonic,
there is a voltage harmonic with the
same frequency. The 50 Hz (or 60 Hz)
sinusoidal voltage of the UPS is
therefore distorted by the harmonics.
The distortion of a sine wave is
presented as a percentage:
rms value of all the harmonic k
THD* % = total distortion =
rms value of the fundamental
* Total Harmonic Distortion.
The following values are defined:
• TDHU % for the voltage, based
on the voltage harmonics,
• TDHI % for the current, based on
the current harmonics (figure 5).
The higher the harmonic content, the
greater the distortion.
Practically speaking, the distortion in
the current drawn by the load is much
higher (THDI approximately 30%) than
that of the voltage at the input (THDU
approximately 5%).
©2010 Caterpillar
.Figure 5: Example of the harmonic spectrum of the current drawn by a non-linear load..
Non-linear loads, see the section Limiting the distortion of the output
“Elimination of harmonics in voltage
installations” and page 85 Due to the free-frequency chopping
“Harmonics”. technique employed, the impedance at
the output of a double conversion UPS
UPS and non-linear loads
is very low, whatever the frequency
Harmonics affect the sinusoidal
(i.e. whatever the harmonic order). This
voltage at the UPS output. Excessive
technique virtually eliminates all
distortion can disturb the linear loads
distortion in the output voltage when
connected in parallel on the output,
supplying non-linear loads. The quality
notably by increasing the current they
of the output voltage is thus constant,
draw (temperature rise).
even for non-linear loads.
To maintain the quality of the UPS
Practically speaking, installation
output voltage, it is necessary to limit
designers must:
its distortion (THDU), i.e. limit the
current harmonics that produce • check UPS output values for non-
voltage distortion. linear loads and, in particular,
make sure that the announced
In particular, it is necessary that the
level of distortion, measured for
impedance (at the UPS output and in
standardised non-linear loads as
the cables supplying the load) remain
per standard IEC 62040-3, is very
low.
low (THDU < 2 to 3%),
• limit the length (impedance) of
the output cables supplying the
loads.
UPS performance for non-linear
loads, see page 164.
©2010 Caterpillar
UPS power availability The availability of the energy supplied

by an electrical installation
What is meant by availability?
corresponds to a statistical
Availability of an electrical installation measurement (in the form of a
Availability is the probability that the percentage) of its operating time.
installation will be capable of
supplying energy with the level of The MTBF and MTTR values are
quality required by the supplied loads. calculated or measured (on the basis
of sufficiently long observations) for
It is expressed as a percentage. the components. They can then be
MTTR used to determine the availability of
Availability (%) = (1- ) x 100
MTBF the installation over the period.
What are the factors contributing
The MTTR is the mean time to repair
to availability?
the supply system following a failure
Availability depends on the MTBF and
(including the time to detect the cause
the MTTR.
of the failure, repair it and start the
system up again). • Availability would be equal to
100% if the MTTR is equal to zero
The MTBF is the mean time between
(instantaneous repair) or if the
failures, i.e. the time the supply
MTBF is infinite (operation with
system is capable of ensuring correct
no breakdowns). This is
operation of the loads.
statistically impossible;
Example
• Practically speaking, the lower
An availability of 99.9% (called thee
the MTTR and the higher the
nines) corresponds to a 99.9% chance
MTBF, the greater the availability.
that the system will effectively carry
out the required functions at any given From “3 nines” to “6 nines”
time. The difference between this The critical nature of many
probability and 1 (i.e. 1 - 0.999 = 0.001) applications has created the need for
indicates the level of non-availability much higher levels of availability for
(i.e. one chance out of 1000 that the electrical power.
system will not carry out the required • The “traditional” economy uses
functions at any given time). power from the public utility. An
What is the practical signification average-quality distribution
of availability? system with HV backup offers
Down-time costs for critical 99.9% availability (3 nines), which
applications are very high. corresponds to eight hours of
These applications must obviously non-availability per year.
remain in operation as long as • Sensitive loads require an
possible. electrical supply capable of
The same is true for their electrical providing 99.99% availability
supply. (4 nines), which corresponds to
50 minutes of non-availability
per year.
©2010 Caterpillar
• The computer and commun-

ication equipment in data centres
requires 99.9999% availability
(6 nines), which corresponds to
30 seconds of non-availability
per year. This level is the means
to ensure, without risk of major
financial loss, operation of
infrastructures 24/365, without
shutdown for maintenance. It is a
step toward a continuous supply.
.Figure 6: Evolution in the level of availability required by applications...
How can availability be Key factors to the availability of

improved? installations with UPS
To improve availability, it is necessary A few years ago, most installations
to reduce the MTTR and increase the were made up of single-UPS units,
MTBF. and the number of parallel systems
Reduce the MTTR was small. The applications requiring
Real-time fault detection, analysis by this type of installation still exist.
experts to ensure a precise diagnosis However, the shift toward high
and rapid repair all contribute to availability requires use of
reducing the MTTR. configurations offering redundancy at
These efforts depend on the key a number of levels in the installation
factors listed next. (see figure 7).
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 7: The required levels of availability have resulted in the.

use of redundancy on a number of levels in the installation.
This trend has led designers, Upgradeability

depending on the criticality of the It must be possible to upgrade the
loads and the operating requirements, installation over time, taking into
to take into account some or all of the account both the need to expand the
key factors listed below. installation gradually and operating
Reliability and availability requirements.
Propose a configuration correspon- Discrimination and non-propagation
ding to the level of availability of faults
required by the load, comprising It must be possible to limit faults to as
components with proven levels of small a part of the installation as
reliability and backed up by a suitable possible, while enabling servicing
level of service quality. without stopping operations.
Maintainability Installation operation and
Ensure easy maintenance of the management
equipment under safe conditions for Make operations easier by providing
personnel and without interrupting the means to anticipate events via
operation. installation supervision and
management systems.
©2010 Caterpillar
Selection of the
configuration
Prerequisite step in establishing
installation specifications
The selection of a configuration
determines the level of availability
that will be created for the load. It also
determines the possible solutions for
most of the factors listed previously.
The configuration may be single or
multi-source, with single or parallel
UPS units and with or without
redundancy.
Selection of the configuration is the
initial step in establishing installation
specifications. To assist in making the
right decision, section 2 is entirely
devoted to this subject. It compares the
various configurations in terms of
availability, protection of the loads,
maintainability, upgradeability and cost.
Configuration selection based on
typical installations corresponding
to different levels of availability.
©2010 Caterpillar
Power calculations
Elements required for • Disable automatic transfer
(except for internal faults), while
power calculations
maintaining the possibility of
Installation considerations
manual transfers (e.g. for
Type of load supplied maintenance).
Linear loads (cos φ) or non-linear
loads (power factor). Power of a UPS
Rated power of a UPS
These characteristics determine the
This rating, indicated in the
power factor at the UPS output.
catalogues, is in the output power. It
Maximum power drawn by the load is indicated as an apparent power Sn
under steady-state conditions in kVA, with the corresponding active
For a load, this is the power rating. power Pn in kW, for a:
If a number of loads are connected
in parallel on the UPS output, it is • Linear load,
necessary to calculate the total load • Load with a cos φ = 0.8.
when all the loads operate at the same However, last-generation UPS
time. Otherwise, it is necessary to use can supply loads with a
diversity to calculate the most cos φ = 0.9 leading.
unfavourable operation in terms of the
power drawn. Calculation of the rated power
Pn (kW) = 0.8 Sn (kVA) rated active
In-rush currents under transient power
conditions or for a short-circuit
downstream This calculation depends on the
The overload capacity of a UPS output voltage of the UPS and the
system depends on the time the current drawn by the load, where:
overload lasts. If this time limit is Sn (kVA) = UnIn √3 in three-phase
exceeded, the UPS transfers the load systems
to the Bypass AC input, if its voltage
Sn (kVA) = VnIn in single-phase
characteristics are within tolerances.
systems
In this case, the load is no longer
protected against disturbances on For a three-phase UPS, U and I are
the distribution system. rms line values, for a single-phase
UPS, V is a phase-to-neutral voltage,
Depending on the quality of the
where:
Bypass AC power, it is possible to:
Un = phase-to-phase voltage
• Use the Bypass AC input to
handle current spikes due to Vn = phase-to-neutral voltage
switching of devices or Un = Vn √3
downstream short-circuits. This
For example, if Un = 400 volts, Vn =
avoids oversizing the system;
230 volts.
©2010 Caterpillar
Power and type of load • The corresponding rms values

Table 2 presents the equations linking U and I,
the power, voltage and current, • ω = angular frequency = 2 π f
depending on the type of load (linear
or non-linear). where f is the frequency (50 or
60 Hz),
The following symbols are used:
• φ = displacement between the
• Instantaneous voltage u(t) and voltage and the current under
current i(t) values, sinusoidal conditions.
Linear loads
Three-phase Single-phase
u(t) = U √2 sin ωt between phases v(t) = V √2 sin ωt phase to neutral
Sinusoidal voltage
U = V √3
Displaced sinusoidal i(t) = I √2 sin (ωt - φ) phase current
current Current crest factor √2
Apparent power S (kVA) = UI √3 cos φ S (kVA) = VI
Active power P (kW) = UI √3 cos φ = S (kVA) cos φ P (kW) = VI cos φ = S (kVA) cos φ
Reactive power Q (kvar) = UI √3 sin φ = S (kVA) sin φ Q (kvar) = VI sin φ = S (kVA) sin φ
S = √P2 + Q2
Non-linear loads
Sinusoidal voltage u(t) = U √2 sin ωt between phases v(t) = V √2 sin ωt phase to neutral
The regulated UPS voltage
remains sinusoidal (low THDU),
whatever the type of load.
U = V √3
i(t) = i1(t) + ∑ihk(t) total phase current

i1(t) = I1 √2 sin (ωt - φ1) fundamental current
ik(t) = Ihk √2 sin (kωt - φk) k-order harmonic
I = √I 12 + I22 + I32 + I42 + .... rms value of the total current
Current with harmonics
Fc = peak current value / rms value Current crest factor
THDI = √I 12 + I22 + I32 + I42 + .... Current total harmonic distortion

I1
Apparent power S (kVA) = UI √3 S (kVA) = VI
Active power P (kW) = λ UI √3 = λ S (kVA) P (kW) = λ VI = λ S (kVA)
λ = P(kW)
Power factor
S(kVA)
Table 2..
©2010 Caterpillar
UPS percent load The installation designer must

This is the percentage of the rated therefore pay attention to two aspects
power that is effectively drawn by the of efficiency.
load. Recommendation 1: check the
Sload (kVA) efficiency for non-linear loads
Load (%) = The presence of non-linear loads
Sn (kVA)
tends to reduce the power factor to
Recommendation: take into values below 0.8. It is therefore
account growth in loads necessary to check the efficiency value
It is advised to leave a margin (excess for standardised non-linear loads. This
power) when setting the rated power, check is recommended by standards
particularly if a site expansion is IEC 62040-3 / EN 62040-3.
planned. In this case, make sure the
Recommendation 2: check the
percent load on the UPS is still
efficiency at the planned percent
acceptable after the expansion.
load
UPS efficiency Manufacturers generally indicate the
This factor determines the power efficiency at full rated load. However,
drawn by the UPS on the upstream its value may drop if the percent load
distribution system, i.e. the is lower (1). Attention must therefore
consumption. It may be calculated as: be paid to UPS operating in an active-
PUPSoutput (kW) redundancy configuration, where the
η (%) = units share the total load and often
PUPSinput (kW)
operate at 50% of their full rated load,
For a given power rating, a high level or less.
of efficiency:
(1) A UPS is optimised to operate at
• Reduces power bills, full rated load. Even though losses are
• Reduces heat losses and, at their maximum at full rated load,
consequently, ventilation the efficiency is also at its maximum.
requirements. In a standard UPS, losses are not
proportional to the percent load and
It is possible to calculate the efficiency the efficiency drops sharply when the
at full rated load, i.e. with a 100% load. percent load drops. This is because a
Pn (kW) part of the losses is constant and the
ηn (%) =
PUPSinput (kW) relative percentage of this part
increases when the load decreases.
The rated active power of the UPS is To obtain high efficiency at low load
obtained by multiplying the rated levels, the constant losses must be
apparent power Sn (kVA) by 0.8 (if λ > very low.
0.8) or by λ (if λ< 0.8).
UPS efficiency, see page 133.
The efficiency can vary significantly
depending on the percent load and
the type of load.
©2010 Caterpillar
Ratings of single-UPS Bypass AC input. If transfer is not

possible, many UPS current limit for
configurations
overloads greater than the maximum
Single-UPS configurations value (e.g. 2.33 In peak for one
These configurations comprise a second, which corresponds to a
single, double-conversion UPS unit maximum sine wave with an rms
(see figure 8). The overload capacity at value of 2.33 / √2 = 1.65 In). Beyond
the UPS output is indicated by a one second, the UPS shuts down.
diagram.
A set of disconnection switches is
In the event of an internal fault or an available to isolate the UPS for
overload exceeding UPS capacity, the maintenance in complete safety.
system automatically transfers to the
Figure 8: Single double conversion static UPS unit and example of an overload curve...
Power levels under steady-state Consequently, selection of the power
conditions rating in kVA must take into account
A UPS is sized using the apparent the active power supplied to the
rated output power Sn (kVA) and an loads.
output power factor of 0.8. These The active power is determined by
conditions correspond to an active following the following four steps.
rated power of Pn (kW) = 0.8 Sn (kVA).
1. Apparent and active power drawn
In real-life situations, a UPS supplies a by the loads
number of loads with an overall power
The first step is to evaluate the power
factor λ that is often not 0.8 due to the
requirements of the load.
presence of non-linear loads and
means to improve the power factor; Table 3 must be drawn up for the k
loads to be supplied.
• If λ ≥ 0.8, the UPS is still limited
to Pn (kW),
• If λ < 0.8, the UPS is limited to
Sn (kW) < Pn (kW).
©2010 Caterpillar
Load Apparent rated power (kVA) Input power factor λ (or cos φ) Active rated power (kW)
Load 1 S1 λ1 P1 = λ1 S1
Load 2 S2 λ2 P2 = λ2 S2
…
Load i Si λi Pi = λi Si
…
Load k Sk λk Pk = λk Sk
Total S λ P=λS
(2) λ must be measured
(1) S is not the sum of Si (3) P = λ S = ∑ λi Si
or calculated
(1) S is not the sum of Si because:
• it would be necessary to calculate the vectoral sum if all loads were linear, using the angles of the different cos φ,
• some of the loads are not linear.
(2) λ must be measured on site or evaluated on the basis of past experience.
(3) P = λ S = ∑ λi Si because the active power is added (no displacement).
Table 3..
2. Rated apparent power of the UPS power required, otherwise

(Sn) select the next highest rating.
The second step is to select a UPS • If λ < 0.8, the power supplied by
with an apparent-power rating the UPS is sufficient because Pn
sufficient to cover the load (kW) > λ Sn (kVA), i.e. the
requirements (in kVA). selection is correct.
Under the given conditions, the 4. Percent load
suitable rated apparent power for the The fourth step is a check to ensure
UPS is: that the percent load is acceptable
Sn (kVA) > S. where S = P / λ. now and in the future, given the
In the UPS range, select the UPS with desired operating conditions.
a rated power Sn (kVA) just above S. If The percent load is:
reserve power is required and the Load = S / Sn(kVA).
selected rating is too close to S, select
the next highest rating. It must be sufficient to cover any
increases in the load or if there are
3. Check on the active power plans to expand the system to become
The third step is a check to ensure that redundant.
the selected power rating can cover Power levels under transient
the load requirements in kW under
conditions
the stipulated operating conditions.
Load in-rush currents
For the selected rating, the UPS will It is necessary to know the in-rush
supply the rated active power: current of each load and the duration
Pn (kW) = 0.8 Sn (kVA) of the transient conditions. If a
• If ≥ 0.8, make sure that number of loads risk being turned on
Pn (kW) > P, i.e. that the UPS at the same time, it is necessary to
can supply the additional sum the in-rush currents.
©2010 Caterpillar
Necessary checks Example

It is then necessary to check that the The following example is simply to
planned UPS power rating can handle illustrate the point and does not
the in-rush currents. Note that the correspond to a real situation. The
UPS can operate for a few periods in purpose is to indicate the required
current-limiting mode (e.g. 2.33 In for steps. The installation is made up of
one second for some manufactures. If three 400 V three-phase loads
the UPS cannot handle the in-rush connected in parallel:
currents, it is necessary to decide • Computer system - S1 = 4 x 10
whether it is acceptable to transfer to kVA (4 identical 10 kVA loads), λ
the Bypass AC input when the = 0.6 for all the loads, in-rush
transient conditions occur. If transfer current 8 In over four periods 50
is not acceptable, it is necessary to Hz (80 ms) for each load,
increase the power rating.
• Variable-speed drive - S2 = 20
Review of in-rush currents, see kVA, λ = 0.7, in-rush current 4 In
page 159. over five periods (100 ms),
• Isolation transformer - S3 = 20
kVA, λ = cos φ = 0.8, in-rush
current 10 In over six periods
(120 ms).
Figure 9: Example of an installation...
©2010 Caterpillar
Power levels under steady-state

conditions
by the loads
Table 4 should be drawn up.
Rated apparent power Rated active power
Load Input power factor
(kVA) (kW)
Computer system 40 0.8* 32*
Variable-speed drive 20 0.7 14
LV/LV transformer 20 0.8 16
λ = 0.68 measured or
Total S P = 54 kW
estimated
* average of new top of the range systems with power factor 0.9 and older equipment with power factor between 0.7 and 0.8.
Table 4..
2. Rated apparent power of the UPS The rated currents are calculated as S
S = 54 / 0.68 = 79.4 kVA (kVA) = UI √3 , i.e.:
An 80 kVA rating would not be • Computer system - In = 10 /

sufficient, i.e. a 100 kVA rating should (400 x 1.732) = 14.4 A, i.e. 8 In ≈
be selected or higher if a site 115 A for 80 ms,
extension is planned. • Variable-speed drive - In = 20 /
3. Check on the active power (400 x 1.732) = 28.8 A, i.e. 4 In ≈
115 A for 100 ms,
• The UPS can supply the loads
100 x 0.68 = 68 kW > 54 kW. • Transformer - In = 20 /
(400 x 1.732) = 28.8 A, i.e. 10 In =
4 . Check on the percent load and 288 A for 120 ms,
rated current
• A 100 kVA UPS with an overload
• The percent load is, therefore, capacity of 120%, i.e. 151 A x
79.4 / 100 = 79.4%. 1.2 = 173 A for 1 minute and
• Rated current of the UPS - 150%, i.e. 151 A x 1.5 = 216 A for
Sn (kVA) = UI √3 , i.e. I = 100 / 1 minute,
(400 x 1.732) = 144 A. • Operation in current-limiting
In-rush currents under transient mode at 2.33 In, i.e. 335 A for one
conditions second.
The loads should be started up one
If the four computer loads (10 kVA
after the other to avoid combining the
each) are started one after the other,
in-rush currents. It is necessary to
the 20% overload capacity of the
check that the UPS can handle the
UPS is sufficient (173 A -1mn > 115 A -
in-rush currents.
80 ms).
©2010 Caterpillar
If the four loads are started comprises an automatic bypass

simultaneously, the in-rush current and a maintenance bypass that
would be 4 x 115 = 460 A > 335 A. The are common for a number of
system would current limit for 80 ms. parallel units without bypasses
For the variable-speed drive, the over- (see figure 10).
load capacity is sufficient. For the True modular parallel systems are also
isolation transformer (288 A for 120 ms), available, made up of dedicated and
the overload capacity is again sufficient. redundant modules-power, intelligence,
battery and bypass, all engineered into
Ratings of parallel-UPS a design that is easily and efficiently
configurations serviceable. Power modules can be
Parallel-UPS configurations easily added as demand grows or as
Purpose of parallel connection higher levels of availability are required.
Parallel connection of a number of There are two types of parallel
identical units is the means to: configurations:
• Increase the power rating, • Without redundancy: all the UPS
• Establish redundancy that in- units are required to supply the
creases the MTBF and availability: load. Failure of one unit means
the entire system shuts down
Types of parallel connection
(not recommended);
Two types of UPS units can be
connected in parallel. • With redundancy N + 1, N + 2,
etc.: the number of UPS units
• Integrated parallel UPS units:
required for the load is equal to
each UPS unit includes an auto-
N. All the UPS units (N + 1, N + 2,
matic bypass and a manual
etc.) share the load. If one UPS
maintenance bypass. The manual
unit shuts down, the remaining
bypass may be common to the
units (at least equal in number to
entire system (in an external
N) continue to share the load.
cubicle);
Typical configurations and
• Parallel UPS units with an SSC:
characteristics, see section 2.
the static-switch cubicle
Figure 10: UPS system with parallel-connected units and a static-switch cubicle (SSC)..
©2010 Caterpillar
Power levels in redundant Select in the UPS range the power

parallel configurations rating Sn (kVA) just above S/N. If
In a redundant parallel configuration reserve power is required or the
made up of identical units, the units selected rating is too close to S, select
share the load. The power rating of the next highest rating.
each unit does not depend on the level 3. Check on the active power
of redundancy, but must be calculated
For the selected rating, the UPS will
to continue supplying the load even if
supply the active rated power
redundancy is completely lost.
Pn (kW) = 0.8 Sn (kVA)
Active redundancy:
• If λ ≥ 0.8, make sure that Pn (kW)
• Improves availability,
> P, i.e. that the UPS can supply
• Increases the overload capacity, the additional power required,
• Reduces the percent load on otherwise select the next highest
each UPS unit. rating.
The power level is determined by • If λ < 0.8, the power supplied by
following the same four steps as for a the UPS is sufficient because Pn
single-UPS configuration. (kW) > λ Sn (kVA), i.e. the
selection is correct.
by the loads 4. Percent load
The same type of table is used as that With redundancy, the UPS units share
for a single UPS (see page 20). the load according to the equation
The result is the apparent power S S / (N+K).
that must be supplied to the load. The percent load for each unit when
2. Rated apparent power of the UPS there is redundancy is therefore:
units (Sn) in the configuration TL = S / (N + k) Sn (kVA).
Consider a level of redundancy N + K In a non-redundant system, it is
(e.g. 2 + 1), which means: calculated as:
- N units (e.g. 2) are required to TL = S / N Sn (kVA).
supply the load,
It must be sufficient to cover any
- K units (e.g. 1 extra unit) ensure increases in the load.
redundancy.
Example
Each UPS unit must be sized to enable This example will use the results from
the system as a whole to operate with- the last example, and we will suppose
out redundancy, i.e. with N operational that the loads are critical, i.e.
units and K units shut down. redundancy is required.
In this case, the N units must each • The total load is 54 kW with an
have an apparent power rating Sn overall power factor for all the
(kVA) such that: loads of 0.68, i.e. S = 54 / 0.68
Sn(kVA) > S / N. = 79.4 kVA;
©2010 Caterpillar
• If 2+1 redundancy is used, two • This is the case because 2 x 50 x

units must be capable of supply- 0.68 = 68 kW > 54 kW;
ing the load. Each must will have • During operation, the percent
to supply S / 2 = 79.4 / 2 = 39.7 load will be:
kVA;
- with redundancy, i.e. with 3
• A 40 kVA rating would not be UPS units sharing the load:
sufficient, i.e. a 50 kVA rating 79.4 / 3 x 50 = 52.9%;
should be selected or higher if a - without redundancy, i.e. with
site extension is planned; only 2 UPS units sharing the
• If redundancy is not available, load: 79.4 / 2 x 50 = 79.4%.
the two UPS units must be
capable of supplying the load;
©2010 Caterpillar
Control of upstream harmonics

UPS and upstream
harmonics
Role of the input rectifier Harmonics are controlled by using
UPS units draw power from the AC a filter (see figure 11).
distribution system via a rectifier/ PFC-type transitor-based
charger. With respect to the upstream controlled active rectifiers
system, the rectifier is a non-linear These transistor-based active rectifiers
load that causes harmonics. In terms have a regulation system that adjusts
of harmonics, there are two types of the input voltage and current to a
rectifiers. reference sine wave. This technique
Standard rectifiers ensures an input voltage and current
These are three-phase rectifiers that are:
incorporating SCRs and using a six- • Perfectly sinusoidal, i.e. free of
phase bridge (Graetz bridge) with harmonics,
standard chopping of the current.
• In phase, i.e. with a power factor
This type of bridge draws harmonic close to 1.
currents with orders of n = 6 k ± 1
With this type of rectifier, no filters are
(where k is a whole number), mainly
required.
H5 and H7, and to a lesser degree H11
and H13. Clean transitor-based rectifiers.
Figure 11: Input rectifier and harmonics..
©2010 Caterpillar
Filtering of upstream High power factor at the rectifier input

The goal is to increase the input
harmonics for UPS with
power factor (generally to a level
Graetz bridge rectifiers higher than 0.94). This reduces the
Goals of harmonic filtering consumption of kVA and avoids
This section concerns only a UPS with oversizing the sources.
conventional Graetz bridge rectifiers. Installation complying with standards
A “clean” upstream system The goal is to comply with standards
The goal is to ensure a level of voltage concerning harmonic disturbances
distortion (THDU) on the busbars and with the recommendations issued
supplying the UPS that is compatible by power utilities.
with the other connected loads.
• Standards on harmonic
The UTE recommends limiting the disturbances (see table 5):
THDU to:
- IEC 61000-3-2 / EN 61000-3-2
• 5% when the source is a for devices with an input
generator, current ≤ 16 A/ph,
• 3% when the source is a - IEC 61000-3-4 / EN 61000-3-4
transformer to take into account for devices with an input
1 to 2% of THDU which may current > 16 A/ph.
already be present on the HV
• Standards and recommendations
distribution system.
on the quality of distribution
This recommendation may differ for systems, notably:
each country.
- IEC 61000-3-5 / EN 61000-3-5,
Practically speaking, solutions for
- EN 50160 (Europe),
voltage distortion (THDU) must be
implemented in a manner specific to - IEEE 519-2 (United States),
the country where the installation is - ASE 3600 (Switzerland),
located.
- G5/3 (U.K.), etc.
Easy combination with an engine
Standards on harmonics, see “UPS
generator set
standards” in page 145.
The goal is to make possible a
UPS/engine generator set Table 5. Example of harmonic-current
combination with no risk of increasing limitations as per guide IEC 61000-3-4
the level of harmonics when the load / EN 61000-3-4 for devices with an
is transferred to the generator. This input current > 16 A/ph (stage 1,
risk exists because the generator has simplified connection).
a source impedance lower than that
of a transformer, which increases the
effects of harmonics.
©2010 Caterpillar
Harmonic % of H1 (fundamental) Filtering and parallel connection

H3 21.6% When a number of UPS units are
H5 10.7% connected in parallel and depending
H7 7.2% on the type of filter used, it is possible
H9 3.8% to install:
H11 3.1% • an individual filter on each UPS
H13 2.0% unit,
H15 0.7%
• a common filter for the entire
H17 1.2%
parallel configuration.
H19 1.1%
H21 ≤ 0.6% The goal is to achieve a balance
H23 0.9%
between cost and effectiveness, taking
H25 0.8%
into account the acceptable levels of
H27 ≤ 0.6%
harmonic distortion.
H29 0.7% The comparison tables for the various
H31 0.7% solutions (page 29) are helpful in
≥ H33 ≤ 0.6% making a selection.
≤ 0.6% or ≤ 8/n Combination of LC filters and
Even orders
(n even order)
generator
Table 5.. The generator can supply only
relatively low capacitive currents
Types of harmonics filters (10 to 30% of In). When an LC filter is
Harmonics filters eliminate certain installed, the main difficulty lies in the
orders or all orders, depending on gradual start-up of the rectifier on
their technology. The following types generator power, when active power
are available. is equal to zero and the generator
Passive LC filters: supplies only the capacitive current
for the filter. Consequently, the use of
• Non-compensated,
LC filters must be correctly analysed
• Compensated, to ensure that operation complies with
• Non-compensated with contactor. manufacturer specifications. Below is
a method for selection of LC filters,
Double-bridge rectifier
using as an example a generator
Phase-shift filter derating curve, similar to those
THM active filter (Active 12-pulse provided by manufacturers.
technology)
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 12: Derating curve for a generator, as a function of the installation power factor..
The curve in figure 12, provided as F: operating point at the rated load, with-
one example among many, shows the out a filter or with a phase-shift filter.
power derating as a function of the Example
operating point, for a given generator.
For a purely capacitive load λ = 0), the Consider a non-compensated filter
power available is equal to only 30% with a 300 kVA generator and a
of the rated power (point A). If we 200 kVA UPS.
assume an apparent power rating The power rating of the rectifier,
such that Pn generator = Pn rectifier, taking 87% as the efficiency value
the meaning of points A, B, C, D, E (1 / 0.87 = 1.15), is 1.15 times that of
and F is the following: the inverter, i.e. 200 x 1.15 = 230 kVA.
A: reactive power corresponding to The capacitive current of the non-
the capacitive current of a non- compensated filter is 230 x 30% (1) =
compensated filter, 69 kVA.
B: reactive power corresponding to The reactive power that the generator
the capacitive current of a can handle (point A) is 300 x 0.3 =
compensated filter, 90 kVA.
C: operating point at start-up with a The filter is therefore compatible with
non-compensated filter with the generator.
contactor, (1) The value of 30% has been
D: operating point at the rated load determined experimentally.
with a non-compensated filter,
E: operating point at the rated load
with a compensated filter,
©2010 Caterpillar
Selection of a filter Efficiency

Consumption of the filters can slightly
Selection parameters for a filter
modify the efficiency of the install-
Overall effectiveness - reduction in ation as a whole.
distortion (THDI and THDU)
The effectiveness depends on the Flexibility for set-up and upgrades
harmonic orders filtered and the Filters are generally specific to a UPS
degree to which they are attenuated or and may be factory-mounted or
eliminated. It is measured by the THDI installed after installation. The
at the rectifier input. The impact on the conditioner provides overall
THDI determines the level of the elimination of harmonics and great
THDU. It is necessary to check the flexibility in the configuration.
performance at the planned percent Dimensions
load, given that many UPS systems It is necessary to check whether the
operate at percent loads between 50 filter can be installed in the UPS
and 75%. cabinet or in a second cabinet.
Improvement in the power factor λ Cost
The filter improves the power factor It impacts on the effectiveness of the
(generally to a level higher than 0.92). filter and must be weighed against the
Compatibility with an engine advantages obtained.
generator set Compliance with standards
It is also necessary to check the It is necessary to determine
performance with the planned compliance with standards, in
source(s), either a transformer or an particular IEC 61000-3-4, in terms of
engine generator set. This is because the individual harmonic levels
the generator has an output indicated in the texts.
impedance lower than that of a Comparison table of solutions
transformer, which increases the
The following tables list the elements
effects of harmonics.
for comparison, with a general
Suitable for parallel-UPS comment on use of each type of
configurations solution.
Depending on the type of filter, it is
Table 6 presents individual solutions
possible to install one on each UPS
for single-UPS configurations. These
unit or set up a single filter for overall
solutions may also be used in parallel
elimination of harmonics.
configurations.
Table 7 presents overall solutions for
entire configurations.
©2010 Caterpillar
Type of filter LC non- LC LC with

Double ridge Built-in THM
Criterion compensated compensated contactor
AC input AC input AC input AC input AC input
THM
C L C L C L
Diagram Rectifier Rectifier UPS

UPS
UPS UPS Inverter
Load Load
Load Load Load
Figure A Figure B Figure C Figure D Figure E

Reduction in
distortion
THDI at 100% load 7 to 8% 7 to 8% 7 to 8% 10% 4%
THDI at 50% load 10% 10% 10% 15% 5%
Harmonics H5, H7,
H5, H7 H5, H7 H5, H7 H2 to H25
eliminated H17, H19
Power factor
λ at 100% load 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.85 0.94
λ at 50% load 1 1 1 0.8 0.94
Compatibility
* ** ** ** ***
with generator
Efficiency of filter *** *** *** * **
Flexibility,
* * * * ***
upgradeability
Cost *** *** *** * **
Dimensions *** *** *** * ***
* * * * **
Connection in
Rectifier Rectifier Rectifier Rectifier
parallel with UPS UPS UPS UPS
Inverter Inverter
UPS UPS UPS UPS
Figure F Figure G Figure H Figure I Figure J

Compliance with
no no no no yes
guide IEC 61000-3-4
Solution suitable Solution suitable Solution suitable Solution suitable Solution suited
for installations for installations for installations for installations to sensitive
without an engine with an engine comprising an with gensets installations or
generator set. generator set. engine generator with changing load
The added set with a power levels. The most
inductor load rating lower than effective and the
reduces the that of the UPS. The most flexible
capacitive power LC line is switched solution. Does not
General comment that must be in by the contactor depend on the
supplied by the at a preset value percent load
engine-generator corresponding to or the type of
set. an inverter percent upstream source.
load that is
acceptable for the
engine generator
set.
*** Excellent ** Good *Sufficient
Table 6: Comparison of individual harmonic-filtering solutions..
©2010 Caterpillar
Type of filter
SineWave Phase-shift filter
Criterion
AC input AC input AC input AC input
SW
Diagram
Load
Load Load Load
Figure AA Figure BB Figure CC Figure DD

Reduction in
< 10% < 5% < 4%
distortion
35% with 1 UPS 19% with 1 UPS 12% with
THDI at 100% load 4%
shut down shut down 1 UPS shut down
THDI at 50% load 5%
Harmonics
H2 to H25
eliminated
Power factor
λ at 100% load 0.95 0.8
λ at 50% load 1 0.8
Compatibility
*** **
with generator
Efficiency of filter *** **
Flexibility,
*** *
upgradeability
Cost *** ***
Dimensions *** *
Compliance with
yes yes
guide IEC 61000-3-4
Solution suited to sensitive Solution cannot be modified. Suited to installations with more than
installations or with changing two parallel-connected UPS units.
load levels. The most effective
General comment and the most flexible solution.
Does not depend on the
percent load or the type of
upstream source.
*** Excellent ** Good * Sufficient
Table 7: Comparison of overall solutions..
©2010 Caterpillar
System earthing arrangements

Background information exposed conductive parts (ECP) a
potential that may be sufficient to
on system earthing
cause a dangerous current to flow
arrangements through the body of the person in
Protection of persons against contact with the exposed conductive
electrical contact parts (see figure 13).
International standards require that This protection includes the points
electrical installations implement two listed below.
types of protection of persons against
the dangers of electrical currents. • Mandatory earthing of all
exposed conductive parts (ECP)
Protection against direct contacts
that may be accessed by the
The purpose of this form of protection
user.
is to avoid “direct” contact between
persons and intentionally live parts The protective conductor is used for
(see figure 13). connection to the earth. It must never
be interrupted (no breaking devices on
It includes the points listed below.
the protective conductor).
• Isolation of live parts using
The interconnection and earthing
barriers or enclosures offering a
techniques for the exposed conductive
degree of protection at least
parts (ECP) determine the system
equal to IP2X or IPXXB.
earthing arrangement (SEA) for the
• Opening of the enclosure (doors, installation.
racks, etc.) must be possible only
• Disconnection of the supply
using a key or a tool, or
when the potential of the ECPs
following de-energising of the
risks reaching dangerous levels.
live parts or automatic
Interruption is carried out by a
installation of a screen.
protection device that depends
• Connection of the metal on the selected system earthing
enclosure to a protective arrangement (SEA). It often
conductor. requires residual-current devices
Protection against indirect contacts (RCD) because the insulation-
and system earthing arrangements fault currents are generally too
The purpose of this form of protection low to be detected by standard
is to avoid “indirect” contact between overcurrent protection devices.
persons and exposed conductive
parts (ECP) that have become live
accidentally due to an insulation fault.
The fault current creates in the
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 13: Direct and indirect contacts..
Types of system earthing

arrangements (SEA)
There are three types of system
earthing arrangements (SEA):
• Isolated neutral (IT),
• Earthed neutral (TT),
• Exposed conductive parts
connected to the neutral (TN
with TN-C and TN-S). The first
two letters indicate how the
neutral and the ECPs of the loads
are connected.
First letter Second letter Third letter (for TN)

Connection of the neutral Connection of the ECPs Type of protective conductor
T = exposed conductive parts C = Common neutral and
T = earthed neutral
earthed protective conductor (PEN)
N = exposed conductive parts S = Separate neutral (N) and
I = isolated neutral
connected to the neutral protective conductor (PE)
IT, TT or TN systems TN-C or TN-S
Table 8..
©2010 Caterpillar
System earthing arrangements

(SEA)
Isolated neutral (IT)
Figure 14: IT system..
Earthed neutral (TT)
Figure 15: TT system..
©2010 Caterpillar
Exposed conductive parts connected

to the neutral (TN)
Figure 16: TN-S system (the basic principle is identical for the TN-C system)..
©2010 Caterpillar
Comparison of system earthing arrangements (SEA)

TT (earthed TN-S (ECP to TN-C (ECP to
Type of SEA IT (isolated neutral)
neutral) neutral) neutral)
• Signalling of first • Disconnection • Disconnection • Disconnection
insulation fault. for the first for the first for the first
• Location and insulation fault. insulation fault insulation fault.
Operation elimination of the occurs. • Common neutral
first fault. • Separate neutral and protective
• Disconnection for (N) and protective conductor (PEN).
the second fault. conductor (PE).
• Interconnection and • Earthing of ECPs • Interconnection • Interconnection
earthing of ECPs. combined with and earthing of and earthing of
• First fault: use of residual- ECPs and neutral ECPs and neutral
- very low current, current devices imperative. imperative.
- monitoring/indication (RCD). • First fault: • First fault:
by an IMD. • First fault: - fault current, - fault current,
• Second fault: - leakage current - interruption - interruption
Protection - potentially is dangerous, by overcurrent by overcurrent
of persons dangerous current, but too low to be protection devices protection devices
- interruption by detected by the (e.g. circuit (e.g. circuit
overcurrent overcurrent breaker). breaker).
protection devices protection devices,
(e.g. circuit breaker). - detection by the
RCDs combined
with breaking
devices.
Specific Insulation-monitoring Residual-current For long distances,

equipment device (IMD) and devices (RCD). RCDs must be used.
fault-locating device.
• Solution offering the • Easiest solution • High installation • Reduced
best continuity of to design and costs for high installation costs
service (the first install. power ratings. (one less
fault is signalled). • Mandatory use • Difficult to design conductor).
• Requires competent of RCDs. (calculation of the • Difficult to design
Advantages surveillance • Different earth loop impedances). (calculation of the
and personnel (location electrodes • Flow of high fault loop impedances).
disadvantages of the first fault). (distant sources). currents. • Flow of high fault
EMC • High EMC • Highly sensitive • High EMC currents.
performance, very to lightning performance, low • Low EMC
low currents in the strikes. current in the PE performance, high
earth cable. during normal currents in the
operation. PEN (connections
between ECPs).
• Installations • Commercial • Large commercial • Large commercial
requiring continuity and residential premises, tall premises, tall
of service, e.g. premises, public buildings, etc. buildings, etc.
hospitals, airports, lighting, schools, • Industries without • Industries without
industrial processes, etc. continuous continuous
Use ships. processes processes
• Installations and (IT system). (IT system).
premises where • Supply of • Supply of
there is a risk of fire computer systems. computer
or explosion, i.e. systems.
mines, etc.
Table 9..
©2010 Caterpillar
Applications in UPS downstream system, either the same

or a different one, depends on its
installations
compatibility with sensitive loads.
Specific aspects in systems
with UPS Table 9 provides the necessary
elements to compare the various
Implementation of the afore-
standardised system earthing
mentioned protection systems
arrangements.
in installations comprising a UPS
requires a number of precautions for Caution, local regulations may
a number of reasons: prohibit certain types of system
earthing arrangements.
• The UPS plays two roles:
Selection of the breaking devices
- a load for the upstream system,
Above and beyond the inter-
- a power source for the connection and earthing of the
downstream system, exposed conductive parts in
• When the battery is not installed compliance with a standardised
in a cabinet, an insulation fault system earthing arrangement, the
on the DC system can lead to the protection of persons must be
flow of a residual DC component. ensured by breaking devices selected
This component can disturb according to the system earthing
operation of certain protection arrangement. These devices must
devices, notably RCDs used for cause tripping of the overcurrent
the protection of persons. protection devices in the event of an
insulation fault.
Protection against direct contact
When the battery is not installed in a Tripping may:
cabinet (generally in a special room), • be directly provoked by suitable
the measures presented at the end of settings on the overprotection
this section should be implemented. devices (circuit breakers, fuses),
Protection against indirect • or require (mandatory for the IT
contact system) use of residual-current
Selection of a system earthing devices (RCD) that may or may
arrangement not be built into the circuit
A basic protection measure required breaker.
by the standards is the creation of a The RCDs are required to detect the
standardised system earthing insulation-fault currents that are often
arrangement both upstream and too low to trip standard overcurrent
downstream of the UPS. The two protection devices.
systems can be the same or different
Check local requirements
if certain precautions are taken. In an
concerning the safety of electrical
existing installation to which the UPS
installations.
is added, the upstream system is
already determined. Selection of the
©2010 Caterpillar
Types of systems for UPS UPS are increasingly designed

The possible systems depend on: without transformers, offering
advantages in terms of weight, size
• The existing or selected system
and efficiency. Transformerless
upstream of the UPS,
technology also makes it possible to
• The system downstream of the modulate the voltage for improved
UPS for which selection may be adapatation to all types of loads, in
determined by: particular nonlinear loads with
- reuse of the same system as harmonics.
upstream,
Transformerless technology has an
- the presence of isolation
impact on the use of system earthing
transformers upstream or
arrangements. For more information
downstream which make it
see White Paper - WP 98: “The
possible to change the system
Elimination of Isolation Transformers
earthing arrangement,
in Data Center Power Systems”).
- the loads (e.g. computer
systems require a TN-C or Many different cases may be
TN-s system), encountered depending on the
- the organisation of the upstream and downstream earthing
downstream distribution arrangements and the type of UPS.
system, with static transfer Your Caterpillar representative has
switches (STS), a complete set of diagrams for all
system earthing arrangements and
• Certain requirements imposed by
UPS ranges concerned.
standards, e.g. the protective
conductor PE or PEN must never The ranges are designed with isola-
be interrupted to ensure flow of tion transformers. All the other ranges
the fault current. A TN-C system use transformless technology with the
(non-interrupted PEN) can be neutral recreated electronically.
installed upstream of a TN-S The following pages show some
system (separate N and PE examples, contact your Caterpillar
conductors), but not the contrary. representative to obtain the applicable
diagram.
Figure 17: Standard diagrams..
©2010 Caterpillar
Identical systems upstream

and downstream
Figure 18: A few examples with the same system upstream and downstream..
Different systems upstream

and downstream
Figure 19: A few examples with different systems downstream..
©2010 Caterpillar
Protection
Protection using circuit
breakers
The protection system for installations Comparison
with UPS units presented here will Thermal-magnetic trip units are
implement circuit breakers. Below simple and inexpensive.
is a presentation of the main Electronic trip units offer more precise
characteristics of circuit breakers and comprehensive settings for better
and their trip units. adaptation to installations and their
Trip units requirements.
Technology Table 10 sums up the characteristics
There are two types of trip units: of both types of trip units for circuit-
• Thermal-magnetic, breakers from 1 to 630 A and should
enable you to solve most of the
• Electronic.
problems commonly encountered
Construction (from 1 to 400 kVA).
• Built-in (thermal-magnetic only),
Figure 20 presents the characteristic
• Interchangeable. curves for the trip units.
Protection Symb. Definition Availability

Overload protection
Ir Overload current setting. All trip units.
(thermal or long delay) (1)
Applies a long tripping delay Electronic trip units
Long delay (2) tr
(e.g. for motor starting). (e.g. Micrologic 2, 5, 6).
Short-circuit current setting.
Short-circuit protection
Im or Isd On electronic trip units, Isd is a All trip units.
(magnetic or short delay) (3)
function of Ir (generally 2 to 10 Ir).
Applies a short tripping delay
Electronic trip units
Short delay (4) tm or tsd (e.g. for time discrimination with
(e.g. Micrologic 5, 6).
downstream circuit breaker).
Instantaneous short-circuit
Short-circuit protection, setting. Depends exclusively on Electronic trip units
Ii
instantaneous trip (5) trip-unit rating (e.g. protection of (e.g. Micrologic 5, 6).
static switches).
(1) Ir is the thermal protection threshold (sometimes written Ith) of thermal-magnetic trip units or the long-delay protection
threshold of electronic trip units. These thresholds are defined by an inverse time curve that depends on the selected setting.
(2) tr is the time delay of the long-delay thermal protection for a given value of Ir.
(3) Im is the magnetic threshold of thermal-magnetic trip units and Isd the short-delay threshold of electronic trip units.
(4) tm is the time delay (adjustable or fixed) of the magnetic protection of thermal-magnetic trip units and tsd the time delay
(generally adjustable) of the short-delay protection of electronic trip units.
(5) Ii is the instantaneous tripping threshold.
Table 10..
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 20: Circuit-breaker time/current curves (Icu is the ultimate breaking capacity)..
©2010 Caterpillar
Discrimination, cascading, Current limiting

current limiting When a high fault current hits the
Discrimination circuit breaker, the breaker contacts
Discrimination results from correct separate under the electrodynamic
circuit-breaker selection and setting forces, an arc is created and its
such that, if a fault occurs, it trips only resistance limits the shortcircuit
the first upstream circuit breaker. energy.
Discrimination thus limits the part of Cascading
the installation affected by the fault to When a short-circuit occurs down-
a strict minimum. There are a number stream of the installation (see figure 21),
of types of discrimination summed up the fault current also flows through
in table 11 and illustrated in figure 20. the upstream circuit breaker which
current limits, thus attenuating the
current applied to the downstream
circuit breaker. The breaking capacity
of the latter is thus reinforced.
Discrimination Concerns Principle
The fault current is lower than the
upstream threshold setting.
Current
All types of trip units. Ir upstream > Ir downstream and
discrimination
Im or Isd upstream > Im or Isd
downstream.
Time Delays upstream tripping by the long-
Electronic trip units only (e.g. Micrologic).
discrimination time (Ir) and short-time (Im or Isd) delay.
Arc pressure upstream is not sufficient
Energy to trip the upstream circuit breaker, but
Compact NSX and NS.
discrimination it is sufficient to trip the downstream
circuit breaker.
Delays upstream tripping if the short-
Zone-selective Compact NSX 100 to Masterpact with circuit is also detected downstream. A
interlocking Micrologic trip units. pilot wire connects the upstream and
downstream trip units.
Table 11..
©2010 Caterpillar
Breaking capacity
The breaking capacity must be
selected just above the short-circuit
current that can occur at the point of
installation.
Ir and Im thresholds
Table 12 indicates how to determine
the Ir and Im thresholds to ensure
discrimination, depending on the
upstream and downstream trip units.
Remark: Time discrimination must be
implemented by qualified personnel
because time delays before tripping
Figure 21: Upstream/downstream. increase the thermal stress (I2t)
discrimination and cascading. downstream (cables, semiconductors,
etc.). Caution is required if tripping of
Selection of circuit CB2 is delayed using the Im threshold
breakers time delay.
Rating Energy discrimination does not
The selected rating (rated current) for depend on the trip unit, only on the
the circuit breaker must be the one circuit breaker.
just above the rated current of the
Ir and Im thresholds depending on the
protected downstream cable.
upstream and downstream trip units
Ir upstream / Ir Im upstream / Im Im upstream / Im

Type of downstream circuit
downstream ratio downstream ratio downstream ratio
Downstream trip unit all types magnetic electronic
Distribution > 1.6 >2 > 1.5
Asynchronous motor >3 >2 > 1.5
Table 12..
©2010 Caterpillar
Special case of generator short- Example

circuits Consider the example used to
Figure 22 shows the reaction of a determine the UPS power rating
generator to a short-circuit. (page 17) with a number of parallel-
To avoid any uncertainty concerning connected 400 V three-phase loads,
the type of excitation, we will trip at namely:
the first peak (3 to 5 In as per X"d) • Computer system - S1 = 4 x 10
using the Im protection setting kVA, λ = 0.6, in-rush current 8 In
without a time delay. over four periods (80 ms),
• Variable-speed drive - S2 = 20
kVA, λ = 0.7, in-rush current 4 In
over five periods (100 ms),
• Isolation transformer - S3 = 20
kVA UPS was selected, λ = 0.8,
in-rush current 10 In over six
periods (120 ms).
The three loads represent 54 kW with
a power factor of 0.68.
On page 20, 100 kVA UPS was
selected, I = 100 / (400 x √3) = 144 A.
Figure 22: Generator during a short-circuit..
Figure 23: Example of an installation..
©2010 Caterpillar
The goal is to select circuit breakers Calculation of CB1 and CB2

CB1 and CB2, and the most powerful ratings and breaking capacities
circuit breaker CB3 compatible with The breaking capacity depends on the
discrimination requirements, given short-circuit currents downstream of
that the upstream installation includes CB1 and CB2 at the level of the main
the following: low-voltage switchboard (MLVS). Most
• 20 kV / 400 V transformer with often, this upstream short-circuit value
a power rating of 630 kVA, is supplied by the utility. It can also be
calculated. It is necessary to determine
• 400 V engine generator set with
the sum R of the resistances upstream
a power rating of 400 kVA,
and the sum X of the reactances
• Transformer to MLVS link, five upstream of the considered point.
meters of aluminium cable
The three-phase short-circuit current
4 x 240 mm2 per phase,
is calculated as:
• Busbars to circuit breaker link,
U
four meters using three copper Isc 3-ph =
bars 400 mm2 per phase. √3 √R2 + X2
U is the phase-to-phase no-load
voltage (load voltage + 3 to 5%).
R = Σ Rupstream and X = Σ Xupstream
In this example, we simply indicate
the general method with a number
of simplifications to shorten the
calculations.
Figure 24: Calculation of short-circuit current for CB1 and CB2..
It is necessary to calculate the

resistances and reactances upstream
of CB1 and CB2 in figure 23.
©2010 Caterpillar
Distribution system upstream of the transformer

• Psc = upstream short-circuit power = 500 MVA = 500 x 106 VA
• U20 = phase-to-phase no-load voltage on the transformer secondary
winding = 400 V, + 3%, i.e. 410 V
• Rup = resistance upstream ≈ 15% Xup, negligible given Xup
• Xup = reactance upstream with respect to transformer secondary winding
U202 4102
Xup = = = 0.288 mΩ
Psc 500 x 106
Rup ≈ 0 and Xup = 0.33 mΩ.
Transformer
• Sn = rated apparent power 630 kVA
• In = rated current = 630 / U √3 = 630 103 / (400 x √3) = 909 A
• Usc = transformer short-circuit voltage = 4%
• Pcu = transformer copper losses in VA
Pcu
Rtr = transformer resistance = ≈ 20% Xtr, negligible given Ztr
3 In2
U202
Xtr ≈ Ztr = transformer impedance = x Usc = 4102 x 0.04 / 630 103 = 10.7 mΩ
Sn
Rtr ≈ 0 and Xtr = 10.7 mΩ.
Cables linking the transformer to the MLVS
• Length 5 meters
• Cross-section 240 mm²
• ρ = resistivity at the normal temperature of the conductors copper:
ρ = 22.5 mΩ.mm2/m, aluminium: ρ = 36 mΩ.mm2/m
• Xc = conductor reactance (typically 0.08 mΩ/m) = 0.08 x 5 = 0.4 mΩ
L
Rc = cable resistance (copper) = ρ = 22.5 x 5 / (4 x 240) = 0.12 mΩ
S
Rc = 0.12 mΩ and Xc = 0.4 mΩ.
General circuit breaker
Typical values
Rd ≈ 0 et Xd = 0.15 mΩ.
Busbars
• Xb = busbar reactance (typically 0.15 mΩ/m) = 0.15 x 4 = 0.6 mΩ
• Rb = busbar resistance = ρ L / S= 22.5 x 4 / (3 x 400) = 0.075 mΩ (negligible)
Rb ≈ 0 and Xb = 0.6 mΩ.
©2010 Caterpillar
Transformer Isc at the level of CB1 and CB2

• R = Total upstream resistance = 0.12 mΩ
• X = Total upstream reactance = 0.33 + 10.7 + 0.4 + 0.15 + 0.6 =12.18 mΩ
R can be neglected, given X.
U U 410 = 19.4 kA
Isc 3-ph = ≈
√3 √R2 + X2 √3 X √3 x 12.18 x 10-3
Note: A rough estimate is provided by the short-circuit current on the transformer
terminals, assuming that the upstream short-circuit power is infinite.
ISCT = on transformer terminals = In / Usc = 20 In = 20 x 909 = 18.2 kA
Generator Isc at the level of CB1 and CB2
• Rated apparent power of the generator = 400 kVA
• Rated current of the generator = 400 / U √3 = 400 103 / (400 x √3) = 577 A
• X"d = short-circuit voltage of the generator = 10%
It is decided to trip at 5 In (figure 22).
ISCG = on the generator terminals = 5 In = 5 x 577 = 2.9 kA
Continuous current of CB1
This is the current at the UPS input. It is necessary to multiply the UPS rating by
1.2 to take into account the efficiency, i.e. 120 kVA.
Iinput = 120 / U √3 = 120 103 / (400 x √3) = 173 A
Continuous current of CB2
This is the continuous current of the loads supplied via the bypass, i.e. 54 kW
with a power factor of 0.68 for an apparent power S = 54 / 0.68 = 67.5 kVA.
Iload = 67.5 / U √3 = 120 103 / (400 x √3) = 97 A
Energising current of the largest load
The loads must be energised at different times. The highest inrush current is that
of the 20 kVA transformer, i.e. In = 28.8 A and 10 In = 288 A - 120 ms.
Calculation of the maximum static-switch current
This is the short-circuit current at the level of CB3, which is practically that of CB2.
Selection parameters
Table 13 sums up the various values calculated.
©2010 Caterpillar
Parameter Value
Transformer short-circuit current 19.4 kA
Generator short-circuit current 2.9 kA
Rectifier current (UPS input) 173 A
Continuous load current downstream of the UPS 97 A
Energizing current of the largest load 288 A - 120 ms
Maximum static-switch current 19.4 kA
Characteristics of CB1 and CB2

Characteristic D1 D2
Breaking capacity > 19.4 kA, i.e. 25 kA > 19.4 kA, i.e. 25 kA
Continuous current > 173 A, i.e. 200 A > 97 A, i.e. 125 A
Ir threshold > 173 A +20% > 97 A + 20%
> 173 A + 20% and > 288 A +20% and
Im threshold
< 2.9 kA - 20% < 2.9 kA - 20%
20% represents here the typical tolerance range of circuit-breaker settings.
Table 13..
Characteristics of the most power

circuit breaker CB3 possible
Figure 25: Calculation of the short-circuit current at CB3..
©2010 Caterpillar
Operation with bypass power • Settings

• Breaking capacity A majority of the loads is of the
The highest short-circuit current distribution type, i.e. the Ir
downstream of CB3 is virtually threshold of CB3 must be less
that of CB2 because it is assumed than 97 A / 1.6, i.e. < 61 A.
that the outgoing circuits are The Im threshold must be less
near the UPS. than 1847 / 2, i.e. < 900 A.
Consequently, the breaking Operation without bypass power
capacity of CB3 is also 25 kA. In this case, the short-circuited UPS
• The rating is determined by the limits its current to 2.33 In for one
largest load, i.e. the 4 x 10 kVA second.
of the computer system with a
continuous current of:
Iload = 40 / U √3 = 40 103 /
(400 x √3) = 57 A
A 60 A device should be selected.
©2010 Caterpillar
Cables
Selection of cable sizes Voltage drops
Cable temperature rise and Maximum values
voltage drops The maximum permissible voltage
The cross section of cables depends on: drops are:
• Permissible temperature rise, • 3% for AC circuits (50 or 60 Hz),
• Permissible voltage drop. • 1% for DC circuits.

Selection tables
For a given load, each of these
Table 14 indicates the voltage drop in
parameters results in a minimum
percent for a circuit made up of 100
permissible cross section. The larger
meters of copper cable. To calculate
of the two must be used.
the voltage drop in a circuit with a
When routing cables, care must be length L, multiply the value in the
taken to maintain the required table by L/100.
distances between control circuits and
If the voltage drop exceeds 3% on a
power circuits, to avoid any
three-phase circuit or 1% on a DC
disturbances caused by HF currents.
circuit, increase the cross section of
Temperature rise the conductors until the value is
Permissible temperature rise in cables within tolerances.
is limited by the withstand capacity of
Voltage drop for 100-meter cables
cable insulation.
• Sph - the cross section of the
Temperature rise in cables depends on: conductors,
• The type of core (Cu or Al), • In - rated current of the protection
• The installation method, devices on the circuit.
• The number of touching cables.

Standards stipulate, for each type of
cable, the maximum permissible
current.
©2010 Caterpillar
Three-phase circuit (copper conductors)

50-60 Hz - 400 V three-phase, cos φ = 0.8, balanced 3-ph + N system
Sph (mm2) 10 16 25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300
In (A) 10 0.9
16 1.2
20 1.6 1.1
25 2.0 1.3 0.9
32 2.6 1.7 1.1
40 3.3 2.1 1.4 1.0
50 4.1 2.6 1.7 1.3 1.0
63 5.1 3.3 2.2 1.6 1.2 0.9
70 5.7 3.7 2.4 1.7 1.3 1.0 0.8
80 6.5 4.2 2.7 2.1 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.7
100 8.2 5.3 3.4 2.6 2.0 2.0 1.1 0.9 0.8
125 6.6 4.3 3.2 2.4 2.4 1.4 1.1 1.0 0.8
160 5.5 4.3 3.2 3.2 1.8 1.5 1.2 1.1 0.9
200 5.3 3.9 3.9 2.2 1.8 1.6 1.3 1.2 0.9
250 4.9 4.9 2.8 2.3 1.9 1.7 1.4 1.2
320 3.5 2.9 2.5 2.1 1.9 1.5
400 4.4 3.6 3.1 2.7 2.3 1.9
500 4.5 3.9 3.4 2.9 2.4
600 4.9 4.2 3.6 3.0
800 5.3 4.4 3.8
1000 6.5 4.7
For a three-phase 230 V circuit, multiply the result by √3.
For a single-phase 208/230 V circuit, multiply the result by 2.
DC Circuit (Copper Conductors)

Sph (mm2) 25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300
In (A) 100 5.1 3.6 2.6 1.9 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.4
125 4.5 3.2 2.3 1.6 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.5
160 4.0 2.9 2.2 1.6 1.2 1.1 0.6 0.7
200 3.6 2.7 2.2 1.6 1.3 1.0 0.8
250 3.3 2.7 2.2 1.7 1.3 1.0
320 3.4 2.7 2.1 1.6 1.3
400 3.4 2.8 2.1 1.6
500 3.4 2.6 2.1
600 4.3 3.3 2.7
800 4.2 3.4
1000 5.3 4.2
1250 5.3
Table 14..
©2010 Caterpillar
Special case for neutral Example of an installation

conductors
In three-phase systems, the third-
order harmonics (and their multiples)
of single phase loads add up in the
neutral conductor (sum of the currents
on the three phases).
For this reason, the following rule
is applied - neutral cross section =
1.5 x phase cross section.
Calculation example
Consider a 70-meter 400 V three-phase
circuit, with copper conductors and a
rated current of 600 A.
Standard IEC 60364 indicates,
depending on the installation method
and the load, a minimum cross Figure 26: Connection of cables..
section. We shall assume that the
minimum cross section is 95 mm2.
It is first necessary to check that the
voltage drop does not exceed 3%.
The table for three-phase circuits
indicates, for a 600 A current flowing
in a 300 mm2 cable, a voltage drop of
3% for 100 meters of cable, i.e. for 70
meters:
3 x 70/100 = 2.1%, less than the 3%
limit.
A identical calculation can be run for
a DC current of 1000 A in a 10-meter
cable with a cross section of 240 mm².
The voltage drop for 100 meters is
5.3%, i.e. for ten meters:
5.3 x 10/100 = 0.53%, less than the 1%
limit.
©2010 Caterpillar
Energy storage
Storage technologies
Energy storage in UPS Available technologies
A UPS requires an energy-storage The various technologies currently
system to supply the inverter with available are the following:
power if utility power fails or is no • Batteries:
longer within tolerances. - sealed lead-acid,
The stored energy must have the - vented lead-acid,
following characteristics: - nickel cadmium,
• Electricity that is immediately • Ultracapacitors,
available to ride through micro- • Flywheels:
breaks, short voltage drops and
utility outages, - traditional units turning at
low speeds (1500 rmp) and
• Sufficient power level to supply combined with engine
the entire load, i.e. a rating generator sets,
equivalent to that of the UPS
system itself, - medium-speed (7000 rpm) or
high-speed (30 to 100 000 rpm)
• Backup time, generally about ten units.
minutes, suited to the needs of
the loads and to any other Comparison of technologies
sources available (e.g. an engine Batteries are by far the most
generator set for long backup commonly employed solution today.
times). They are the dominant solution due
to low cost, proven effectiveness and
storage capacity, but nonetheless
have a number of disadvantages in
terms of size, maintenance and the
environment.
Ultracapacitors do not yet offer the
necessary performance levels.
Figure 27: Simplified diagram of a.
Flywheels operating at high speeds
UPS with backup energy storage.
constitute a possible technology in
terms of their power ratings (40 to
500 kW), for short backup times
(12 seconds to 1 minute).
Figure 28 shows the fields of
application for the different
technologies.
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 28: Characteristics in terms of power ratings and backup times..
Table 15 compares the different solutions

in terms of their capacity to meet the energy-
storage requirements of static UPS.
Criteria for comparison Technology

Sealed lead- Vented lead- Ni/Cad
Ultracapacitors Flywheels
acid batteries acid batteries batteries
Power **** **** **** * ***
*** **** * * **
5 minutes up 5 minutes up 5 minutes up a few seconds a few dozen
Backup time to several to several to several seconds
hours hours dozen
minutes
***
**** ** * *
Purchase price low to
low medium high high
medium
Implementation / *** ** * **** **
installation / start-up no yes yes no no
Requires a special
room
Temperature * * ** **** ***
Service life ** ** *** **** ***
Footprint ** ** ** **** ***
Maintenance ** ** * **** ***
Frequency / time medium medium high none low
required
Maturity of the
**** **** **** ** ***
technology for UPS
**** Excellent *** Good ** Fair * Poor
Table 15,.
©2010 Caterpillar
Selection of a battery The following general rules apply.

Types of batteries • Computer systems
The batteries most frequently used in Battery backup time must be
a UPS are: sufficient to cover file-saving and
• Sealed lead-acid, also called gas- system-shutdown procedures
recombination batteries, required to ensure a controlled
shutdown of the computer
• Vented lead-acid,
system. Generally speaking, the
• Nickel cadmium. computer department determines
Lithium-polymer batteries are currently the necessary backup time,
being studied for use in also. Solutions depending on its specific
using this technology should be requirements.
available in two to three years. • Industrial processes
Types of batteries, see page 149 The backup-time calculation
“Energy storage - Types of should take into account the
batteries”. economic cost incurred by an
Selection of a battery depends on the interruption in the process and
following factors: the time required to restart.
• Operating conditions and • Applications requiring long
requirements (special room, backup times
battery cabinet, racks, etc.), An engine generator set can back
• Required backup time, up a battery if long outages
occur, thus avoiding the need for
• Cost considerations.
very large batteries. Generally
Backup time speaking, use of an engine
Manufactures typically offer: generator set becomes feasible
• Standard backup times of 5, 10, for backup times greater than
15 or 30 minutes, 30 minutes to one hour. The
combination must be carefully
• Custom backup times that can studied to optimise the generator
reach a number of hours. rating and ensure correct
Selection depends on: operation.
• The average duration of power- Combination with an engine
system failures, generator set, see page 153
• Any available sources offering “Engine generator set”.
long backup times (engine Service life
generator set, etc.), Battery manufactures provide
• The type of application. batteries with service lives of 5 or 10
years or longer.
Battery service life, see page 150.
©2010 Caterpillar
Comparison between types • Limitation of the battery current,

of batteries • Continuous evaluation of
Sealed lead-acid batteries (gas- available power taking into
recombination) account the battery age, the
These are the most commonly used temperature and the percent load,
batteries for the following reasons: • Forecast of battery service life,
• No maintenance, • Periodic, automatic tests on the
• Easy implementation, battery, including a check on the
• Installation in all types of rooms battery circuit, an open-circuit
(computer rooms, technical test, a partial-discharge test, etc.
rooms not specifically intended DigiBat, see page 151 “Battery
for batteries, etc.). Management”.
Vented batteries Environment sensor unit
This type of battery (lead-acid or Battery operating parameters and
Ni/Cad) offers certain advantages: particularly the temperature affect
• Long service life, battery life. The Environment Sensor,
easy to install and combined with a
• Long backup times, Network Management card
• High power ratings. (SNMP/Web), makes possible
Vented batteries must be installed in monitoring of temperature/humidity
special rooms complying with precise and the status of two contacts via
regulations (see page 58 “Preliminary SNMP or the web. It also initiates
work”) and require appropriate equipment shutdown if necessary.
maintenance. Detection and prevention of
battery failure for UPSs
Battery monitoring
In spite of the advantages of sealed
Battery monitoring on UPS
lead-acid batteries, over time, all
DigiBatTM batteries will fail due to aging. Without
The DigiBatTM battery-monitoring rigorous monitoring, the true integrity
system is an assembly of hardware and capacity of a battery remains
and software, which offers the unknown.
following functions:
Battery-monitoring techniques have a
• Automatic entry of battery major impact on reliability and can be
parameters, used to define the best strategy for
• Optimised battery service life, replacement, resulting in a better level
of protection.
• Protection against excessive
discharges,
• Regulation of the battery floating
voltage depending on the
temperature,
©2010 Caterpillar
Human-machine interface and communication

Human-machine interface A screen providing:
• Access to measurements:
(HMI) - input power (voltage, current,
General characteristics frequency),
The human-machine interface on the - battery (voltage, charge and
UPS must be user-friendly, easy to use discharge currents, remaining
and multi-lingual (adjustable to the backup time, temperature),
user's language). - inverter output (phase-to-
It is generally made up of a mimic neutral voltage, current,
panel, a status and control panel, and frequency, active and apparent
an alphanumeric display. A password- power, crest factor),
protected personalisation menu may • Access to history logs:
be available for entry of installation - log containing time-stamped
parameters and access to detailed events,
information. - curves and bargraphs of the
Example measured values.
The HMI typically offers the following
functions:
Communication
High availability for critical
On and Off buttons:
applications requires commun-
• Delayed to avoid erroneous
icating protection equipment
operations,
The UPS system, essential for
• With an option for a remote EPO mission-critical equipment, must
(emergency power off), include communication features that
• Independent with respect to the keep operators continously informed,
rest of the display. wherever they may be, of any risk of
compromising the operating security
Status LEDs that clearly identify:
of the system so that they can take
• Normal operation (load protected),
immediate action.
• Downgraded operating mode
To ensure power availability, the UPS
(malfunction),
communication features provide the
• Dangerous situations for the load following four essential functions:
(load not protected),
Supervision / monitoring of all
• Operation on battery power. installed UPS via software.
Alarms: Notification via the network and
• Alarm buzzer and buzzer reset the Internet.
button,
Controlled shutdown (local or
• Battery shutdown warning, remote, automatic or manual) of
• General alarm, protected applications.
• Battery fault.
©2010 Caterpillar
Solutions • Modbus – Jbus card (RS232 and

Communication cards RS485)
• Network management card - monitoring
(Ethernet) • Relay card (Contacts)
- web monitoring - indications
- email notification
- SNMP MIB and Traps
- server protection with Network
Shutdown Module
- supervision with Enterprise
Power Manager or ISX Central
- environment monitoring with
Environment Sensor (T°, H%,
Inputs)
©2010 Caterpillar
Preliminary work
Installation considerations Ventilation, air-conditioning
The main elements that must be taken Ventilation requirements
into account for the UPS installation UPS are designed to operate within a
are the following: given temperature range (typically 0
to 40°C) that is sufficient for most
• Plans for site modifications, any
operating conditions without
preliminary work (notably for a
modifications.
battery room), taking into account:
- the dimensions of equipment, However, UPS and their auxiliary
- operating and maintenance equipment produce heat losses that
conditions (accessibility, can, if no steps are taken, increase the
clearances, etc.), temperature of a poorly ventilated
- temperature conditions that room.
must be respected, What is more, the service life of a
- safety considerations, battery is heavily dependent on the
- applicable standards and ambient temperature. The service life is
regulations, optimal for temperatures between 15°
• Ventilation or air-conditioning C and 25° C. This factor must be taken
of rooms, into account if the battery is installed in
the same room as the UPS.
• Creation of a battery room.
A further consideration is the fact that
Dimensions
a UPS may be installed in the same
Layout of UPS cabinets and enclosures
room as computer equipment which
should be based on precise plans.
often has more severe requirements
For each range: concerning operating-temperature
• The dimensions and weights of: ranges.
- UPS and centralised-bypass Selecting a type of ventilation
cabinets; For all the above reasons, a minimum
- battery cabinets, amount of ventilation is required, and
- any auxiliary cabinets where applicable air-conditioning, to
(autotransformers, avoid any risk of excessive tempera-
transformers, filters, etc.), ture rise in the room due to the heat
• Minimum clearances required for losses.
cabinets and enclosures to Ventilation can be by:
ensure optimal ventilation and
• Natural convection,
sufficient access.
• Forced exchange by a ventilation
system,
• Installation of an air-conditioning
unit.
©2010 Caterpillar
Selection depends on: Battery installation method

• The heat losses that must be The criteria determining the battery-
evacuated, installation method are the following:
• The size of the room. • Available floor space,
The thermal characteristics of a UPS • The weight that the floor can
may be used to calculate ventilation handle (kg/m2),
needs. They mention for each range: • Ease of access and maintenance.
• The heat losses of cabinets and The following three methods are used.
any filters installed,
Battery installed directly on floor
• The volume of air output by a This is the most simple arrangement.
ventilation system. However, a large battery room is
IP degree of protection and required, given:
noise level • The large amount of floor space
Degree of protection (IP) occupied by the battery,
A UPS must operate in an environment • The insulated flooring (duck
that is compatible with their degree of board), which is mandatory if
protection (IP 20 for a UPS from the voltage exceeds 150 volts.
Caterpillar), defined by standard IEC
60529/EN 60529. The presence of dust, Battery on racks
water and corrosive substances must The battery cells are installed on a
be avoided. number of different levels, off the floor.
Noise level When determining the height between

A UPS must produce a low level of each rack, it is necessary to take into
noise, suited to the room where they account the space required to check
are installed. Measurement conditions battery levels and fill the battery cells
for the level of noise indicated by the easily. A minimum height of 450 mm
manufacturer must comply with stan- is recommended.
dard ISO 3746 (measurement of noise). Battery on tiers
This installation method is similar
Battery room to the preceding. It is the most
Where possible and if desired, the convenient method for checking
battery should be installed in a cabinet. battery levels.
Battery-cabinet dimensions are Battery room features
indicated for each UPS range,
Whatever the installation method
depending on the rated power.
selected, the battery installation
However, for very high-power UPS, must comply with the following
batteries are generally installed in requirements (the numbers indicate
special rooms (electrical room). the elements shown in figure 29).
Batteries must be installed in compli-
ance with international standards, local
regulations and standard IEC 60364.
©2010 Caterpillar
Floor and walls (1) Layout of cells (3)

• The floor must slope to an Layout must inhibit simultaneous
evacuation trough which leads contact with two bare parts presenting
to a holding tank, a voltage greater than or equal to 150 V.
• Protection coating against acid If the condition listed before cannot be
on the floor and walls, up to a met, terminal shields must be installed
height of at least 0.5 meters. and connections must be made using
insulated cables.
For example, asphalt for lead-acid
batteries, PVC or chlorine-based paint Service flooring (4)
for alkaline batteries. If the voltage exceeds 150 V, special
flooring is required. It must offer sure
Ventilation (2) footing, be insulated from the floor
• Calculation of throughput and offer at least one meter of
The volume of air to be walkway around the battery.
evacuated depends on the Battery connection (5)
maximum load current and the Connections must be as short a
type of battery. In installations possible.
comprising a number of batteries,
Battery-protection circuit breaker (6)
the quantities of air that must be
The circuit breaker is generally
evacuated are cumulative.
installed in a wall-mounted enclosure.
- vented batteries
Fire-fighting equipment (7)
d = 0.05 x N x Im, where Authorized fire extinguishers include
d - throughput in cubic meters power, CO2 or sand.
per hour, Safety equipment (8)
N - number of battery cells, The safety equipment must include
protective glasses, gloves and a
Im - maximum load current in
source of water.
amperes.
Inspection equipment (9)
- sealed battery • Hydrometer,
The ventilation conditions in a • Filling device,
general-purpose room are sufficient.
• Thermometer.
• Safety
Sensors (10)
An automatic device must stop • Hydrogen detector,
battery charging if the ventilation
system fails. • Temperature sensor.
• Location
Air must be drawn out from the
top of the battery room.
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 29: Layout of battery room..
©2010 Caterpillar
Selection of possible configurations

Types of possible configurations
Basic diagrams
Single source Multi-source
The load is supplied by a single set The load is supplied by more than one
of UPS. set of UPS.
Figure 30: Basic diagrams..
UPS configurations Parallel UPS

Single UPS Purpose of parallel connection
This is the standard double-conversion Parallel connection of a number of
UPS (see figure 31). A single UPS can identical UPS units is the means to:
be used to form redundant configur- • Increase the power rating,
ations as shown in diagrams 4 and 11. • Establish redundancy that
Single UPS, see page 5 and page increases MTBF and availability,
126 “UPS components and • Make the installation scalable.
operation”.
Two types of UPS units can be
Standard diagrams (see table 16): connected in parallel:
No. 1
• Integrated parallel UPS units:
No. 4
each UPS unit includes an
No. 11
automatic bypass and a manual
maintenance bypass (figure 31).
The manual bypass may be
common to the entire system
and located in an external
cubicle (e.g. figure 32);
• Parallel UPS units with a
centralised static-switch cubicle
(SSC) (e.g. figure 33).
Figure 31: Double-conversion single UPS..
©2010 Caterpillar
Integrated parallel UPS

This configuration is upgradeable,
starting for instance with one
integrated parallel UPS unit equipped
with an automatic bypass and a
manual maintenance bypass. When
starting with two units or when
expanding to two units or more, a
common maintenance bypass is
installed in an external enclosure
(see figure 32).
Standard diagrams (see table 16):
No. 2
No. 3
Figure 32: Installation with three integrated parallel UPS.

units and a common maintenance bypass.
©2010 Caterpillar
Parallel UPS units with a centralised Upgrading of this configuration

static-switch cubicle (SSC) depends on the rating of the static
The static-switch cubicle comprises an switch. It offers the highest level of
automatic bypass and a maintenance reliability (SSC with independent UPS
bypass that are common for a number units).
of modules without a bypass (see
Standard diagrams (see table 16):
figure 33). It is possible to have two
No. 5
redundant SSCs.
No. 6
No. 7
No. 8
No. 9
Figure 33: Three parallel UPS units with a centralised static-switch cubicle (SSC)..
Parallel connection with With active redundancy (N + 1, N + 2,

redundancy etc.)
The parallel configurations presented Only N UPS units are required to
earlier may or may not be redundant. supply the load, even though N + 1,
N + 2 or more units are installed. This
Without redundancy
ensures a secure supply of power to
All the UPS units are required to
the load even if one (for N + 1
supply the load. Failure of one unit
redundancy) or two (for N + 2
means the entire system shuts down.
redundancy) UPS units fail or require
maintenance.
©2010 Caterpillar
Optimum redundancy of non-modular Power distribution units (PDUs) can be

UPS used to complete this distribution
For non-modular systems, differences configuration, offering:
in the lengths or tightening torques of • Load management,
cables connecting the different units
can lead to problems concerning the • Multi-channel supply of power
impedance upstream and downstream to the loads (dual attach),
of each UPS. For this reason, the high- • Isolation of parts of the installation
est MTBF is obtained for redundant for maintenance or upgrading.
systems with just two UPS (figure 34).
This type of configuration ensures a
For modular UPS systems, module
very high degree of availability and
interconnections are an integral part of
offers a number of installation-
the system, thereby eliminating
upgrade possibilities.
installation problems that can lower
the MTBF as more units are added. Standard diagrams (see table 16):
No. 11
No. 12
Figure 34: For non-modular redundant UPS systems,.

the best MTBF is obtained with two units.
Redundant distribution with

an STS
All the loads are supplied by more than
one UPS source (two single UPS units).
Figure 35: Redundant distribution with an STS..
Each source can be made up of a
number of parallel-connected units
offering active redundancy. Use of a
static transfer switch (STS) ensures
transfer of the load between the sources
in the event of a downstream fault
(while avoiding any risk of fault
propagation) or for maintenance.
©2010 Caterpillar
Selection table and corresponding ranges

Criteria for comparison Upgradeability
Table 16 compares the standard dia- It must be possible to upgrade the
grams of this section, mainly related installation over time, taking into
to UPS, according to the following account both the need to expand the
criteria. installation gradually and operating
requirements.
Availability
A level of availability meeting the Discrimination and
needs of the application. Figures are non-propagation of faults
based on: It must be possible to limit faults to
as small a part of the installation as
• An estimated level of utility-
possible, while enabling servicing
power availability of 99.9%
without stopping operations.
(the European average),
• An MTTR of ten hours as per
Installation operation
standard MIL-HDB-217-F level 2 and management
(U.S. military) and IEEE. Make operations easier by providing
the means to anticipate events via
Maintainability installation supervision and
Ensure easy maintenance of the management systems.
equipment under safe conditions for
personnel and without interrupting
operation.
©2010 Caterpillar
Single-source configurations
Standard Criteria for comparison
diagram
number Availability MTBF Maintainability Upgradeability Comment
4-parallel-
Reference for
1. Single UPS 99.99790% M1 = 475 000 h * connected UPS
calculations
units
2. 2 integrated 4-parallel-
parallel UPS 99.99947% up to 4 x M1 ** connected UPS
units units
3. Integrated
parallel units 4-parallel-
and external 99.99947% up to 4 x M1 ** connected UPS
maintenance units
bypass
4. Isolated
99.99970% 6.8 x M1 ** Flexible
redundancy
6-parallel-
5. Centralised
99.99968% 6.5 x M1 ** connected UPS
SSC
units
6. Total
6-parallel-
isolation,
99.99968% 6.5 x M1 *** connected UPS
single
units
busbar
7. Total
6-parallel-
isolation,
99.99968% 6.5 x M1 *** connected UPS
double
units
busbar
8. Total
6-parallel-
isolation,
99.99968% 6.5 x M1 **** connected UPS
single
units
busbar
9. Total
6-parallel-
isolation,
99.99968% 6.5 x M1 **** connected UPS
double
units
busbar
Multi-source configurations
Standard Criteria for comparison
diagram
number Availability MTBF Maintainability Upgradeability Comment
10. Isolated
99.99970% 7 x M1 ** No limit
redundancy
No limit to the No propagation
11. With STS 99.99970% 7 x M1 ****
power rating of faults
The highest
No limit to the + load
12. STS + PDU 99.99930% level of ****
power rating management
availability
**** Excellent *** Good ** Fair * Poor
Table 16..
©2010 Caterpillar
Diagram no. 1. Single UPS
Figure 36: Double-conversion single-UPS unit..

This is the basic solution for UPS
installations. The double-conversion
UPS unit supplies high-quality voltage,
whatever the level of disturbances in
the utility power.
Availability of power for the load
99.99790% and an MTBF of 475 000
hours, compared to a utility MTBF of
96 hours.
UPS maintenance
Made easy due to the built-in bypass
for supply of power to the load during
servicing.
Possible upgrades
On site by connecting several identical
UPS units in parallel.
©2010 Caterpillar
Diagram no. 2. Active redundancy with two integrated

parallel UPS units
Figure 37: Active redundancy with two integrated parallel UPS units..
A simple solution where the UPS Possible upgrades
units share the load. Several identical UPS units can be
Availability of power for the load connected in parallel and equipped
99.99947% and an MTBF up to four with an external maintenance bypass.
times higher than that for a single Special characteristics:
UPS. • The automatic-bypass function is
UPS maintenance ensured by managing the static
During maintenance on one unit, the switches,
load remains protected by the other. • Centralised monitoring of the
various modules,
• Can be used only with two
identical units.
©2010 Caterpillar
Diagram no. 3. Active redundancy with integrated

parallel UPS units and external maintenance bypass
Figure 38: Active redundancy with integrated parallel.

UPS units and external maintenance bypass.
An upgradeable solution where the Easy upgrades
power rating can be increased up to Several identical UPS units can be
4000 kVA*. connected in parallel for a low cost
Availability solution with small dimensions.
99.99947% and an MTBF up to four Special characteristics
times higher than that for a single • The UPS units share the load,
UPS. • The automatic-bypass function is
UPS maintenance ensured by managing the static
During maintenance on one unit, the switches,
load remains protected by the other • Centralised monitoring of the
units. various modules,
• Identical modules must be used.
©2010 Caterpillar
Diagram no. 4. Isolated redundancy with two UPS units
Figure 39: Isolated redundancy with two UPS units..
An extremely flexible solution that can UPS maintenance

combine heterogeneous and distant During maintenance on one unit,
UPS units. It also offers improved the load remains protected.
backup time and is perfectly suited Special characteristics
to the technology implemented by • For a single load, the two UPS
Caterpillar which provide excellent units have the same power
withstand capacity for load step rating, but if there is a second
changes. load (possible load), the rating
Availability of the backup UPS unit must be
99.99970% and an MTBF 6.8 times adapted correspondingly;
higher than that of a single UPS. • No control wires between the
UPS units.
©2010 Caterpillar
Diagram no. 5. Active redundancy with parallel units

and centralised static-switch cubicle (SSC)
Figure 40: Active redundancy with parallel units and centralised static-switch cubicle (SSC)..
The solution for centralised install- UPS maintenance

ations up to 4 MVA*. Excellent During maintenance on one unit,
reliability due to the independence the load remains protected by the
between the units and the static- other units and the SSC. During
switch cubicle (SSC). maintenance on the SSC, redundancy
Availability of the UPS units is maintained.
99.99968% and an MTBF up to 6.5 Easy upgrades
times higher than that for a single Up to eight UPS units.
UPS. Special characteristics
The UPS units share the load.
* Power rating for N + 1 reduncancy.
©2010 Caterpillar

units and total isolation, single busbar
Figure 41: Active redundancy with parallel UPS units and total isolation, single busbar..
A solution that can evolve with needs Easy upgrades

up to 4 MVA*. Excellent reliability and Up to eight UPS units.
improved maintainability due to the Special characteristics:
total independence between the UPS • Total isolation of the UPS units
units and the static-switch cubicle or the SSC for maintenance,
(SSC).
• The UPS units can be tested
Availability using a test load,
99.99968% and an MTBF up to 6.5
• Isolation of each UPS unit and
times higher than that for a single
the SSC, thus eliminating the
UPS.
single point of failure in the SSC.
UPS maintenance * Power rating for N + 1 redundancy.
During maintenance on one unit,
the load remains protected by the
other units and the SSC. During
maintenance on the SSC, redundancy
of the UPS units is maintained.
©2010 Caterpillar

units and total isolation, double busbar
Figure 42: Active redundancy with parallel UPS units, double SSC and total isolation, double busbar..
A solution that can evolve with needs Easy upgrades
up to 4 MVA*. Excellent reliability and Up to eight UPS units.
improved maintainability due to the Special characteristics:
total independence between the UPS • Transfer from one busbar to the
units, the static-switch cubicle (SSC) other without disturbing the
and the busbars. load,
Availability • Total isolation of the UPS units
99.99968% and an MTBF up to 6.5 or the SSC for maintenance,
times higher than that for a single
• Isolation of each UPS unit and
UPS.
the SSC, thus eliminating the
UPS maintenance single point of failure in the SSC.
During maintenance on the UPS units * Power rating for N + 1 redundancy.
and one busbar, the load remains
protected by the other units and the
SSC, which are parallel-connected to
the second busbar. During
maintenance on the SSC, redundancy
of the UPS units is maintained.
©2010 Caterpillar

units, double SSC and total isolation, single busbar
Figure 43: Active redundancy with parallel UPS units, double SSC and total isolation, single busbar..
An upgradeable solution offering UPS maintenance
improved maintainability due to the During maintenance on the UPS
total redundancy of the UPS units and units and one SSC, the load remains
the static-switch cubicles (SSC). protected by the other units and the
Availability second SSC. During maintenance on
99.99968% and an MTBF up to 6.5 one SSC, redundancy of the UPS
times higher than that for a single UPS. units is maintained.
©2010 Caterpillar
Easy upgrades • Total isolation of each SSC for

Up to eight UPS units. maintenance,
Special characteristics: • Parallel connection of the UPS
• Only one SSC is active, the other units in the output cabinet
is on stand-by and transfer of the eliminates the single point of
UPS units from one to the other failure in an SSC,
takes place without disturbing • The possibility of installing the
the load, SSCs in two separate rooms
• During operation on the bypass, increases system availability in
the load is split 50/50 between the event of fire or other
the two SSCs, problems.
©2010 Caterpillar

units, double SSC and total isolation, double busbar
Figure 44: Active redundancy with parallel UPS units, double SSC and total isolation, single busbar..
A solution for two evolving loads with UPS maintenance
different needs in terms of power During maintenance on one UPS
ratings and redundancy. unit and one SSC, the load remains
Availability protected by the other units and the
99.99968% and an MTBF up to 6.5 second SSC. During maintenance on
times higher than that for a single one SSC, redundancy of the UPS units
UPS. is maintained.
Easy upgrades
Up to eight UPS units.
©2010 Caterpillar
Special characteristics: • Parallel connection of the UPS

• During operation of only one units in the output cabinet
load, only one SSC is active, the eliminates the single point of
other is on stand-by and transfer failure in an SSC,
of the UPS units from one to the • The possibility of installing the
other takes place without SSCs in two separate rooms
disturbing the load, increases system availability
• During operation of the two in the event of fire or other
different loads, both SSCs are problems.
active, each with a number of
assigned UPS units,
©2010 Caterpillar
Diagram no. 10. Isolated redundancy N + 1
Figure 45: Isolated redundancy N + 1..

Solution combining heterogeneous UPS maintenance
and distant UPS units to protect a During maintenance on one UPS unit,
number of independent loads. the load remains protected. However,
Availability of power for the load the UPS units are not totally isolated
Greater than 99.99970% and an MTBF (servicing under energised
up to seven times higher than that for conditions).
a single UPS. Possible upgrades
No limit to the power rating.
©2010 Caterpillar
Short-circuit propagation UPS units downstream, their

Impossible between the sources. power ratings and their criticality,
Special characteristics: as well as any future plans for
• Short-circuit capacity is lower the installation (generally
than in a configuration with speaking, the backup UPS
parallel UPS units, has a parallel configuration),
• (Isc, discrimination, crest factor, • All the advantages of isolated

etc.), redundancy (diagram no. 4).
• Sizing of the backup UPS must

take into account the number of
©2010 Caterpillar
Diagram no. 11. Redundant distribution with STS
Figure 46: Redundant distribution with STS units..

The best solution in terms of UPS maintenance
availability, site operation and safety. Total distribution redundancy and
It is the only solution that deals with servicing under no-load conditions
power distribution through to the make for maximum safety during
loads. It is particularly flexible and maintenance.
makes for easy adaptation of Easy upgrades
redundancy to the needs of the load. Using single-UPS units and with no
Availability of power for the load limit to the total power rating, up-
Greater than 99.9999%, the highest grading is made easy by the capacity
level of availability! to partially isolate distribution
subassemblies.
©2010 Caterpillar
Fault propagation Special characteristics:

Load segmenting and the technology • The synchronisation module
employed in STS units (break- ensures perfect source
beforemake source transfer with no synchronisation under all
interruption to the loads) ensures conditions (long outages, etc.),
isolation of loads from disturbances • Selection of the load distribution
caused by other, faulty loads. for the UPS units,
Easy operation • The UPS units can be hetero-
Automatic or manual source transfer. geneous and remote from the
Continuous monitoring of the sources load.
(11 parameters and internal circuits).
Secure transfer of desynchronised
sources.
©2010 Caterpillar
Diagram no. 12 . Active redundancy with parallel UPS

and a common battery
Figure 47: Redundant distribution with STS units and PDU..
©2010 Caterpillar
Redundancy is built into each level, Same advantages as diagram no. 11,
including the PDUs, the STS units, the plus:
UPS units and the synchronisation • Capacity to enhance the
modules. reliability of a particular point
in the installation,
• Four different supply channels
to dual-attach servers.
©2010 Caterpillar
Elimination of harmonics in installations

Harmonics
Definition, origin and types Harmonics are generally identified as
Hk, where k is the harmonic order.
of harmonics
Harmonics • IHk or UHk indicate the type of
harmonic (current or voltage).
Harmonics are sinusoidal currents or
voltages with a frequency that is a • IH1 or UH1 designates the
whole multiple (k) of the frequency of sinusoidal current or voltage at
the distribution system, called the 50 or 60 Hz that exists when
fundamental frequency (50 or 60 Hz). there are no harmonics (the
fundamental current or voltage).
When combined with the sinusoidal
fundamental current or voltage
respectively, harmonics distort the
current or voltage waveform (see
figure 48).
Figure 48: Distortion of H1 (the fundamental) by H3 (third-order harmonic)..
Non-linear loads are the cause Other loads distort the current due
Equipment implementing power to their operating principle and also
electronics is the main cause of cause harmonics.
harmonics. To supply the electronics Examples are fluorescent lamps,
with DC power, the equipment has a discharge lamps, welding machines
switch-mode power supply with a and devices with a magnetic core that
rectifier at the input that draws can be saturated.
harmonic currents.
All the loads that distort the normal
Examples are computers, variable- sinusoidal current cause harmonics
speed drives, etc. and are called non-linear loads.
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 49: Examples of non-linear loads that cause harmonics..

Linear and non-linear loads Non-linear loads
Utility power supplies 50/60 Hz • The current drawn by the load is
sinusoidal voltage to loads. The periodic, but not sinusoidal. The
current waveform supplied by the current waveform is distorted by
source in response to the needs of the the harmonic currents.
load depends on the type of load. • Ohm's law defining the relation
Linear loads between the total voltage and
The current drawn is sinusoidal with current (1) is no longer valid
the same frequency as the voltage. because the impedance of the
The current may be displaced (angle load varies over one period (see
φ) with respect to the voltage. figure 50). The relation between
the current and the voltage is not
• Ohm's law defines a linear relation
linear.
between the voltage and the
current (U = ZI) with a constant • The current drawn by the load is,
coefficient, the load impedance. in fact, the combination of:
The relation between the current - a sinusoidal current called the
and the voltage is linear. fundamental, at the 50 or 60 Hz
frequency,
Examples are standard light bulbs,
- harmonics, which are
heating units, resistive loads, motors,
sinusoidal currents with an
transformers.
amplitude less than that of the
• This type of load does not fundamental, but a frequency
contain any active electronic that is a multiple of the
components, only resistors (R), fundamental and which defines
inductors (L) and capacitors (C). the harmonic order (e.g. the
third order harmonic has a
frequency 3 x 50 Hz [or 60 Hz]).
©2010 Caterpillar
(1) Ohm's law applies to each

voltage and current of the same
harmonic order, Uk = Zk Ik, where
Zk is the load impedance for the
given order, but is no longer valid
for the total voltage and current.
Linear loads, non-linear loads, see
page 6 “Power quality of UPS”.
Figure 50: Voltage and current for non-linear loads..
Types of harmonics and specific

aspects of zero-sequence
harmonics
Types of harmonics
Non-linear loads cause three types of
harmonic currents, all in odd orders
(because the sinusoidal is an “odd”
function).
• Harmonics H7 - H13 - …. :
positive sequence,
negative sequence,
zero sequence.
©2010 Caterpillar
Specific aspects of zero-sequence

harmonics (H3 and multiples)
Zero-sequence harmonic currents (H3
and odd multiples, written 3(2k + 1)
where k is an integer) in three-phase
systems add up in the neutral
conductor.
This is because their order 3(2k + 1) is
a multiple of the number of phases
(3), which means they coincide with
the displacement (one third of a
period) of the phase currents.
Figure 51 illustrated this phenomenon
over one period. The currents of the
three phases are displaced one third
of a period (T/3), i.e. the respective IH3
harmonics are in phase and the
instantaneous values add up.
Consequently:
• When there are no harmonics,
the current in the neutral is equal
to zero:
IN = I1 + I2+ I3 = 0
• When there are harmonics, the
current in the neutral is equal to:
I1 + I2 + I3 = 3 IH3.
It is therefore necessary to pay Figure 51: The third-order harmonics and.
particular attention to this type of their multiples add up in the neutral.
harmonics in installations with a
distributed neutral (commercial
and infrastructure applications).
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 52: When there are H3 harmonics and their odd multiples, the current in the.
neutral is no longer equal to zero, it is the sum of the zero-sequence harmonics.
Characteristic harmonic • IH1 is the fundamental component
(50 or 60 Hz),
values
The harmonic analysis of a non-linear • IHk is the harmonic component
current consists in determining: where k is the harmonic order
(k times 50 or 60 Hz).
• The harmonic orders present in
the current, Harmonic analysis is used to
determine the values.
• The relative importance of each
harmonic order. Total rms current
Irms √IH12 + IH22 + IH32 + ... IHk2 + ...
Below are a few characteristic
harmonic values and fundamental Individual harmonics
relations used in harmonic analysis. Each harmonic is expressed as a
Further information on harmonics, percentage, i.e. the ratio of its rms
see the explanations in White Paper value to the rms value of the
no. 17 “Understanding Power fundamental. This ratio is the level
Factor, Crest Factor and Surge of the individual harmonic.
Factor”. 100 IHk
Hk% = distortion of harmonic k =
IH1
Rms value of harmonics
It is possible to measure the rms value
of each harmonic order because the
various harmonic currents are
sinusoidal, but with different
frequencies that are multiples
of the fundamental frequency.
©2010 Caterpillar
Voltage and current harmonic

distortion
Non-linear loads cause both current
and voltage harmonics. This is because
for each load current harmonic, there
is a supply voltage harmonic with the
same frequency. As a result, the
voltage is also distorted by harmonics.
The distortion of a sine wave is
presented as a percentage:
100 rms value of all harmonics
THD* % = total distortion =
rms value of fundamental
* Total Harmonic Distortion.

The following values are defined:
• TDHU % for the voltage, based
on the voltage harmonics,
• TDHI % for the current, based
on the current harmonics.
The THDI (or the THDU using the UHk
values) is measured using the equation:
√IH22 + IH32 + IH42 + ... + Hk2 + ...
THDI% = 100
IH1
Crest factor
The crest factor (Fc), used to characterise
the form of the signal (current or voltage),
is the ratio between the peak value and
the rms value.
peak value
Fc =
rms value
Below are typical values for different loads:

• Linear load: Fc = √2 = 1.414,
• Main frame: Fc = 2 to 2.5,
• Microcomputers: Fc = 2 to 3.
©2010 Caterpillar
Spectrum of the harmonic

current
Defining the spectrum of a harmonic
current consists in determining the
current waveform and the individual
harmonics, as well as certain values
such as the THDI and Fc.
Figure 53: Harmonic spectrum of the current drawn by a non-linear load..
Power factor Distortion factor

Power factor The distortion factor is defined as:
The power factor is the ratio between λ
ν = √THDI2 = (as defined by IEC 60146).
the active power (kW) and the cos φ1
apparent power S (kVA) across the
terminals of a given non-linear load. When there are no harmonics, this factor
is equal to 1 and the power factor is
P (kW) simply the cos φ.
λ=
S (kVA)
Power
It is not the phase displacement Linear load
between the voltage and the current, Across the terminals of a balanced, three-
because they are no longer sinusoidal. phase linear load, supplied with a
Displacement between the phase-to-phase voltage U and a current I,
fundamental current and voltage where the displacement between U and
The phase displacement φ1 between I is φ, the power values are:
the fundamental current and voltage, • P apparent = S = UI, in kVA,
both sinusoidal, can be defined as:
• P active = S cos φ, in kW,
P (kW)
cos φ1 = 1 • P reactive = Q = S sin φ, in kVAr,
S1 (kVA)
S = √P2 + Q2
where P1 and S1 are the active and
apparent power, respectively, of the
fundamental.
©2010 Caterpillar
Non-linear load pulsating torque exists, creating

Across the terminals of a non-linear vibrations,
load, the equation for P is much more • The only active power present
complex because U and I contain during a voltage drop is the
harmonics. It can however be heating produced by the
expressed simply as: harmonic current (Ihk) in a
• P = S ( = power factor) conductor with a resistance r
(r IHk2).
For the fundamentals U1 and I1,
displaced by φ1:
• P apparent fundamental =
S1 = U1I1í3
• P active fundamental = P1 =
S1 cos 1
• P reactive fundamental Q1 =
S1 sin 1
S = √P12 + Q12 + D2 where D is the
distortion power, due to the
harmonics.
Effects of harmonics
In electrical devices, harmonics
produce neither active nor
reactivepower, only losses through
the Joule effect (ri2).
Loss of apparent power
Figure 54 shows that the product of a
voltage at the fundamental frequency
without harmonics multiplied by a
third-harmonic current is zero at
the end of one period. This is true
whatever the phase and order of the
harmonic.
This is expressed by the relation Figure 54: U x I products for fundamentals (top)
S = √P12 + Q12 + D2 and for fundamentals with harmonics (bottom).
A part of the apparent power is Temperature rise in cables
consumed by the harmonics, to no Temperature rise due to harmonic
effect. currents adds to the temperature
• In rotating machines, the rise due to the fundamental
resulting motor torque is equal current.
to zero and only a parasitic
©2010 Caterpillar
Temperature rise in cables is

expressed as:
∞
Losses = r + Σ IHn2
n=1
Current in the neutral

The neutral must be oversized to
take into account the third-order
harmonic currents and their
multiples.
All third-order harmonic currents and
their odd multiples add up in the
neutral (see figure 55). The current in
Figure 55: The third-order harmonics and.
the neutral can reach 1.7 times that in their multiples add up in the neutral.
the phases.
Consequences
Self-polluting loads
Significant losses in the neutral Voltage distortion mirrors that of
the current and increases in step
r Ineutral2 = temperature rise in the with the sum of the impedances
neutral. upstream of the non-linear load.
Current distortion THDI, caused by the
load, results in voltage distortion THDU
caused by the harmonic currents flowing
through the various impedances from
the source on down. Figure 56 shows the
various forms of distortion throughout a
common electrical installation.
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 56: Effects of harmonics throughout the installation..
Risk of capacitor breakdown What is more, for a harmonic

In conclusion, the higher the frequency, there can also be
content of high-order components resonance (1) of the capacitor
in the voltage, the worse the (capacitance C) with the equivalent
situation for the capacitor. It is inductance (L) of the source
often necessary to use reinforced (transformer, essentially inductive) in
capacitors. parallel with that of the other supplied
loads.
The value of a current in a capacitor
is equal to: This resonant circuit (see figure 57)
significantly amplifies the harmonic
.I = U C ω
current of the corresponding order,
For a harmonic current of order k, the thus worsening the situation for the
angular frequency is equal to ω = 2π k capacitor.
f, and the current is equal to:
(1) This is the case if, for a harmonic
.I = 2 π k f U C order k, with a frequency fk = k x 50
where f = the fundamental frequency (or 60) Hz, LCωk2 - 1, where ω = 2 π fk.
and k = the harmonic order.
It follows that the value of the current
increases with k.
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 57: Effects of harmonics with capacitors, risk of resonance..
Consequences Consequences
• Risk of capacitor breakdown, In compliance with standard NFC
• Risk of resonance due to the 52-114, transformers must be
presence of the inductors. derated by applying a coefficient k
to their rated power, such that:
Certain limitations must be respected:
• U max = 1.1 Un,
1
k=
√
• I max = 1.3 In, n= ∞
• THDU max = 8%, 1 + 0,1Σ H2nn1,6
n=2
• Selection of capacitor type,
depending on the situation, i.e.
standard, class h (reinforced This is an empirical equation.
isolation), with harmonic Other national standards recommend
inductors. derating using a similar k factor that
Derating of transformers depends on the country (e.g. BS 7821
Generally speaking, harmonics Part 4, IEE 1100-1992).
result in source derating that is Example
inversely proportional to the load A 1000 kVA transformer supplies a six-
power factor, i.e. the lower the pulse rectifier bridge drawing the
power factor, the more the source following harmonics:
must be derated.
H5 = 25%, H7 = 14%, H11 = 9%, H13 = 8%.
A number of effects are combined:
The derating coefficient is k = 0.91.
• Due to the skin effect, the
The apparent power of the
resistance of a transformer
transformer is therefore 910 kVA.
winding increases with the order
of the harmonics,
• Losses due to hysteresis are
proportional to the frequency,
• Losses due to Foucault currents
are proportional to the square of
the frequency.
©2010 Caterpillar
Risk of disturbing generators • Automatic telephone exchanges,

Practically speaking, the THDI of • Alarms,
the current in the generator must
• Sensitive electronic equipment,
not exceed 20%. Above, derating is
necessary. • Remote-control systems.
Similar to transformers, generators Effect on recent UPS systems
suffer greater losses due to hysteresis Modern UPS systems have high
and Foucault currents. chopping frequencies (PWM) and very
• The subtransient reactance X"d low output impedance (equivalent to
increases as a function of the a transformer five times more
frequency, powerful).
• The “harmonic” rotating field When confronted with non-linear

sweeps the rotor at a frequency loads, these UPS offer:
other than the synchronism • Limited losses,
frequency (50 or 60 Hz). • Current-limiting operation,
Consequences • Very low voltage distortion
• Creation of parasitic torque (THDU < 3%).
resulting in lower efficiency of
the mechanical to electrical UPS are an excellent means
conversion, to supply non-linear loads.
• Additional losses in the inductor Conclusion

windings and the rotor damper, Harmonics may have damaging
effects on electrical installations and
• Presence of vibration and
on the quality of operation.
abnormal noise.
That is why international standards
Losses in asynchronous motors stipulate increasingly precise
Harmonics produce the following harmonic-compatibility levels for
effects in asynchronous motors: equipment and set limits for the
• Increases in Joule and iron harmonic content on public
losses (stator losses), distribution systems.
• Pulsating torque (rotor losses Standards on harmonics, see page
with a drop in mechanical 145 “UPS standards”.
efficiency). On the following pages are a
The THDU must be less than 10% presentation of the various strategies
to limit these phenomena. concerning harmonics and the
Effects on other equipment usefulness of active harmonic
conditioners.
Harmonics can disturb operation of
the following equipment as well:
• Non-rms trip units, resulting
in nuisance tripping of circuit
breakers,
©2010 Caterpillar
Elimination of harmonics
Strategies against Figure 59 shows that for the strongest
harmonic currents (H3 to H7), the L /R
harmonics
ratio is equal to 1 for cables with a
There are two strategies:
cross-section of 36 mm².
• Accept and live equipment to take, Consequently, above 36 mm², it is
• Eliminate the harmonics, necessary to reduce the impedance
conditioners. by using multicore cable to create
parallel impedances.
Living with harmonics
For Data Centers, see “Harmonic
Oversizing of equipment Currents in the Data Center: A Case
Given that the negative effects of Study”.
harmonic currents increase with the
cumulative impedance of cables and
sources, the obvious solution is to
limit the total impedance in order to
reduce both voltage distortion and
temperature rise.
Figure 58 shows the results when
cable cross-sections and the power
rating of the source are doubled.
Given that the THDU depends primarily
on the inductive component and thus
on the length of the cables, it is clear
that this solution is not very effective
and results simply in limiting
temperature rise. Figure 58: Increased cable cross-sections.
to limit distortion and losses.
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 59: Influence of cable cross-section on L /R..
Solutions to eliminate Active filters / active harmonic

harmonics conditioners
There are different types of solutions Active filters, also called active
to eliminate harmonics. harmonic conditioners, cancel
harmonics by injecting exactly equal
Filters, see page 28 “Selection of harmonic currents where they arise.
a filter”. This type of filter reacts in real time
Passive filters (i.e. actively) to the existing harmonics
LC passive filters are tuned to the in order to eliminate them. More
frequency requiring elimination or effective and flexible than passive
attenuate a band of frequencies. filters, they avoid their disadvantages
Harmonic recombination systems and, in comparison, constitute a
(double bridge, phase shifting) can solution that:
also be grouped in this category. • offers greater performance (total
Passive filters have two major elimination of all harmonics is
disadvantages: possible, up to the 50th order),
• Elimination of harmonics is • is flexible, adaptable (action can
effective only for a specific be configured) and reusable.
installation, i.e. the addition
or removal of loads can disrupt
the filtering system,
• it is often difficult to implement
them in an existing installation.
©2010 Caterpillar
Table summing up the possible strategies against harmonics

Strategy Advantages Disadvantages Solutions
Live with harmonics
Difficult in existing solutions. Costly

solution limited to reducing the
Reduction in
resistive component for small cross-
Increase the supply THDU by
sections (the inductance remains
ratings of sources reducing the
constant). Requires parallel cables
and/or the cross- source impedance.
for large cross-sections. Does not
sections of cables. Reduction in Joule
avoid disturbances upstream of the
losses.
installation. Does not comply with
standards.
Limits disturbances
Special supply for to neighboring
Same as above.
non-linear loads. loads through
decoupling.
Partially eliminate harmonics
Only for one or two harmonic
Range of passive filters
orders. Wide-band filters are not
Tuned passive Including double-bridge
Simple solution. very effective. Possibility of
filters. and phase-shifting
resonance. Costly design work is
solutions.
required.
Reduction in
Inductors upstream harmonic currents.
Increase in THDU across the
of the non-linear Limits the effects of
terminals of the load.
loads. transient
overvoltages.
Elimination of only certain
Special
harmonic orders. Non-standard
transformers.
construction.
Completely eliminate harmonics
Total elimination of all harmonics
Active harmonic Simple and flexible is possible (up to the 25th order),
Active conditioners
conditioners. solution. adaptable (action configured) and
reusable system.
Table 17.
©2010 Caterpillar
Active harmonic conditioners

Active harmonic conditioners Active harmonic conditioners are
particularly well suited to medium-
Characteristics
power industrial and infrastructure
Active harmonic conditioners applications, offering conditioning
Active harmonic conditioners currents from 20 to 480 A in three-
constitute a more general approach phase systems with a neutral.
to the problem of harmonics. These
active filters are not only for a UPS These solutions are presented in
unit, but are designed to eliminate the following section.
harmonics throughout the installation. Table 18 sums up the main
characteristics.
50/60 Hz
Range Power level Main characteristics Applications
systems
• Filtering up to H25
• Digital active
Filtering of medium-power
conditioning with:
Active commercial, infrastructure
380 to 415 V - analysis and
harmonic 20 to 480 A and industrial systems,
3 Ph+N and 3 Ph conditioning of
conditioner 3Ph+N and 3 Ph, single-
individual orders,
phase loads.
- response time 40 ms
for load fluctuations.
Table 18..
Advantages of active harmonic • Compatible with all system

conditioning earthing arrangements,
• Wide-band solution from H2 to • Power factor correction,
H25 with individual conditioning
• Economic, when harmonics are
of each phase,
cut in half, losses are reduced by
• It is possible to select individual four,
harmonic orders for conditioning,
• Can be reused in other
• No risk of overloads, condition- installations,
ing limits to the maximum power
• Upgradeable with parallel-
rating, even if the load power
connected units,
exceeds the rating,
• Very compact,
• Automatically adapts to all types
of loads, single-phase and three- • Simple installation, with current
phase, transformers upstream or
downstream.
©2010 Caterpillar
Operating principle
The source supplies exclusively the
fundamental component (IF) of the
load current.
The active conditioner measures in
real time the harmonics (IH) drawn
by the load and supplies them.
Upstream of point A, where the
conditioner is connected, the
fundamental current IF is not altered,
downstream the load draws the non-
linear current IF + IH.
Figure 60: Harmonic conditioning..
Operating modes Operating diagram

Digital mode, conditioning of The power required for conditioning is
individual orders drawn on the three-phase distribution
The basic operating mode is digital, system and stored in the inductor L
with a current sensor, analogue/digital and the capacitors charged to +Vm
conversion of the current measure- and -Vm respectively (see figure 61).
ments and real-time calculation of the Depending on the sign of the
harmonic spectrum. This information harmonic current required, the pulse
is supplied to the inverter for width of one capacitor or the other is
compensation of the individual modulated. This means the same
harmonic orders. connection to the supply system can
The response time to load fluctuations be used to draw power and inject the
is 40 ms (two cycles). harmonics.
©2010 Caterpillar
The power sent to the load depends on: selecting program, a processor
• The harmonic values measured, prepares the commands for the
inverter, for execution one phase after
• User requirements, set during the measurements.
system configuration: harmonic
orders to be eliminated and Power factor correction is obtained by
power-factor correction (yes generating a fundamental current +90°
or no). out of phase with the voltage
The current transformer, combined

with an analogue/digital converter,
determines the spectrum
(fundamental and harmonics)
of the current supplying the load.
Depending on these values and the
Figure 61: Operation..

Options For parallel installations, a single
On 3Ph or 3 ph+N systems, the user set of sensors is required on the
can decide to condition: conditioned circuit and a wire link
• All or only certain harmonics is used to send the load-current
up to H25, measurements to the various
conditioners. If one conditioner shuts
• The power factor down, the remaining conditioners
Installation modes continue to condition the harmonics,
Parallel mode within the limits of their rated
Up to four active harmonic conditioners conditioning capacity.
can be connected in parallel at the
same point of installation. This the
means to increase harmonic
conditioning capacity and/or system
availability.
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 62: Parallel operation of three.

active harmonic conditioners. Figure 63: Active harmonic conditioners.
in cascade mode.
Cascade or in-series mode
“Cascade” or “in-series” operation is Multi-circuit mode
possible, but simply requires special In this mode, a single conditioner
settings to avoid any interaction can condition up to three outgoing
between the different conditioners. circuits. A set of sensors is required
for each circuit conditioned and all
The downstream conditioner are connected to active harmonic
generally conditions a high-power conditioners . This configuration is
load. The upstream device conditions very useful when the harmonics are
other low-power outgoing circuits concentrated on a small number of
and, where applicable, any residual circuits.
harmonics not conditioned by the first
conditioner.
Figure 64: One active conditioner for several circuits..
©2010 Caterpillar
Position in the installation

Total (or centralised) conditioning
The active harmonic conditioner is
connected just downstream of the
sources, generally at the main low-
voltage switchboard (MLVS) level.
Partial conditioning
connected at the main or secondary
switchboard level and conditions a set
of loads.
Local conditioning
connected directly to the terminals of
each load
Figure 65: Three possible installation points,

depending on user requirements.
©2010 Caterpillar
Comparison of installation possibilities

Type of conditioning Advantages Disadvantages Applications
• Economical. • Harmonics remain in • Compliance with utility
Total • Relieves generators the downstream part requirements.
(MLVS level) (transformers, of the installation. • Avoid injecting
generators). • Cables must be harmonics upstream
oversized. of the installation.
• Avoids oversizing the • Harmonics remain • Large buildings.
cables between the between the secondary • Conditioning regularly
main and secondary switchboard and the spaced on each floor
Partial switchboards. non-linear load. or set of floors.
(secondary-switchboard • Recombination of • Outgoing cable to the • Several circuits
level) certain harmonics may load must be supplying non-linear
make it possible to oversized. loads.
reduce conditioner
rating.
• Eliminates harmonics Costly when a number • For installations where
where they occur. of conditioners are non-linear loads are
• Reduces losses in all required. few in number and
cables, up to the high-powered iwth
source. respect to the other
loads (example: large
Local
variable-speed drives,
(load level)
high-power UPS):
- Examples: server
bays, lighting, high-
power UPS,
fluorescent lighting
systems.
Table 19..
Practically speaking Position of current transformers

• Total conditioning does not pose upstream or downstream
any calculation problems, In most of the installation modes,
• Partial conditioning requires a previously listed, two different types
few precautions, of current-transformer (CT) installation
can be used with active harmonic
• For all non-compensated RCD
conditioners.
loads (high-power variable-
speed drives without inductors
for variable-torque applications),
local conditioning can guarantee
only a THDU not exceeding
certain limits to ensure proper
load operation.
©2010 Caterpillar
CT upstream of the load

This is the most common situation.
Figure 66: Installation with one CT upstream of the load..

Installation with one CT upstream of
the active harmonic conditioners and
one CT on the switchboard incomer
This configuration simplifies matters
when it is difficult to install a CT on
the line just upstream of the load. The
two CTs must have compatible and
complementary characteristics. The
difference between the measured
currents determines the necessary
compensation current.
Figure 67: Installation with two CTs, one on the switchboard.

incomer and the other upstream of the conditioner.
©2010 Caterpillar
Advantages The harmonic currents IHn that

Elimination of the conditioned previously flowed through impedances
harmonic currents Zs and ZL1 upstream of the active
For the selected harmonics, active harmonic conditioners point of
harmonic conditioners are designed installation, are eliminated.
to provide a path for the harmonic The source now supplies exclusively
currents with virtually zero impedance the fundamental current If.
with respect to that of the source.
It is the active harmonic conditioners
This eliminates their flow upstream that supplies the harmonic currents
towards the source. IHn to the load, by continuously
Figure 68 shows active harmonic measuring the harmonics drawn
conditioners between two line by the load.
sections ZL1 and ZL2, supplying a
standard RCD load that can be either
single or three-phase (switch-mode
power supply or variable-speed drive).
Figure 68: Modifies the current upstream of its point of installation..
©2010 Caterpillar
Reduction in THDU at the point Procedure for implementing

of installation
Upstream of active harmonic
active conditioning
conditioners, the selected harmonic Conclusion on active
currents IHn (all or only some of the conditioning
harmonics up to the 25th) are Precise conditioning calculations
eliminated. require:
Total harmonic distortion upstream of • Precise and in-depth knowledge
the point of installation is calculated on the installation (sources, lines
as (see page 158, figure 94): and installation method),
• Precise knowledge on the loads
√Σ
∞ (harmonic and displacement
THDU% = 100 UHn2 curves depending on the source
n=2
impedance),
UH1
• Special calculation tools,
where UHn is the voltage drop • Analysis and simulation.
corresponding to harmonic IHn.
New installations
Elimination of the harmonic current for The standard rules governing
a given order eliminates the harmonic electrical installations remain valid,
voltage for the same order (1). but an evaluation of the voltage
The result is a major reduction in the distortion (THDU) is required where
THDU, by selecting the most harmonic currents flow.
significant harmonics. This evaluation is very complex and
Given that above the 25th order, requires special calculation software
individual harmonics are negligible, as well as in-depth knowledge of the
the THDU is practically equal to zero non-linear loads, in particular the
and distortion is totally eliminated if it harmonic distribution as a function of
is decided to condition all harmonics the upstream impedance.
up to the 25th.
Existing installations
(1) In that UHn and IHn are sinusoidal For existing installations, a precise
components at frequency nf (where f evaluation of the site is the
is the frequency of the fundamental), indispensable prerequisite to any
they are related by the Ohm law, corrective action. The mathematical
taking into account the value of the relationship between current and
concerned impedances (Zs and ZL1) voltage distortion is complex and
with an angular frequency nω. depends on the various components
Therefore: of the installation.
UHn = (Zs(nω) + ZL1(nω)) IHn.
For all the conditioned harmonics, IHn
= 0 and consequently, UHn = 0.
©2010 Caterpillar
Control over harmonic phenomena • Operating modes:

requires know-how and experience, as - on utility power,
well as specialised tools and software
(spectrum analyser, calculation - on engine generator sets
software for distortion in cables, (standby power or
simulation software, etc.). cogeneration),
However, even if each solution is - on UPS.

specific to a given site, proper • Downgraded operating modes:
professional techniques and rigorous - without redundancy,
methods ensure maximum probability
that the installation will operate - on engine generator set power.
correctly. This diagram should enable you to
Methodology locate the different measurement
Three-step approach: points and identify critical operating
phases (for evaluation by simulation
1. Site audit, or calculation).
2. Determination of the most suitable Measurements
solution, Following the previous indispensable
3. System installation and checks. step, the measurement phase can
begin, starting preferably at the source
1. Site audit
and working downstream toward the
Installation diagram
loads drawing the harmonics, in order
Before initiating a series of
to limit the number of measurements.
measurements, we suggest you draft
a simplified diagram of the The quality of measurements is more
installation, indicating the following. important than their quantity and
makes the next step easier.
• Types of equipment:
Preliminary installation study
- generators: type, power rating, This first step ends with a preliminary
voltage, Usc, X"d (engine study of the installation:
generator set),
• Point(s) of installation of the
- isolation transformers: voltage, conditioner(s),
power rating, type, Usc,
coupling, • Installation conditions for the
protection circuit breakers,
- distribution: type of cables,
length, cross-section, • Installation of sensors (energised
installation method, conditions or not),
- loads: power rating, type, • Possibility of shutting down

the load,
- system earthing arrangements
at the various points in the • Available space,
installation. • Evacuation of losses (ventilation,
air-conditioning, etc.),
• Environmental constraints
(noise, EMC, etc.).
©2010 Caterpillar
2. Determination of the most 3. System installation

suitable solution and checks
The previous elements are used to This last step includes:
determine the optimum solution • Implementation of the selected
through: solutions,
• Analysis of the measurement • Checks on performance levels
results, with respect to the guaranteed
• Simulation of different solutions results,
for the problem encountered, • Drafting of a system start-up
• Determination of the most report.
suitable solution,
• Drafting of a summary report
with the proposed solutions.
©2010 Caterpillar
Theoretical review
Supplying sensitive loads
Types of electrical Origins of disturbances
disturbances Utility power
Power distribution systems, both Utility power can be disturbed or even
public and private, theoretically cut by the following phenomena:
supply electrical equipment with a • Atmospheric phenomena
sinusoidal voltage of fixed amplitude affecting overhead lines or
and frequency (e.g. 400 volts rms, buried cables:
50 Hz, on low-voltage systems). - lightning which can produce a
In real-life conditions however, utilities sudden voltage surge in the
indicate the degree of fluctuation system,
around the rated values. Standard EN - frost which can accumulate on
50160 defines the normal fluctuations overhead lines and cause them
in the LV supply voltage on European to break,
distribution systems as follows: • Accidents:
• Voltage +10% to -15% (average - a branch falling on a line, which
rms values over 10-minute may produce a short-circuit or
intervals), of which 95% must be break the line,
in the +10% range each week, - cutting of a cable, for example
during trench digging or other
• Frequency +4 to 6% over one
construction work,
year with ±1% for 99.5% of the
- a fault on the utility power
time (synchronous connections
system,
in an interconnected system).
• Phase unbalance,
Practically speaking, however, in
addition to the indicated fluctuations, • Switching of protection or
the voltage sine-wave is always control devices in the utility
distorted to some degree by various power system, for load shedding
disturbances that occur on the system. or maintenance purposes.
©2010 Caterpillar
User equipment Types of disturbances

Some equipment can disturb the Disturbances that are due to the
utility power system, e.g.: previously listed causes are summed
• Industrial equipment: up in the following table, according to
- motors, which can cause the definitions contained in standards
voltage drops due to inrush EN 50160 and ANSI 1100-1992.
currents when starting,
- equipment such as arc furnaces
and welding machines, which
can cause voltage drops and
high-frequency interference,
• Power electronics equipment
(switch-mode power supplies,
variable speed drives, electronic
ballasts, etc.), which often cause
harmonics,
• Building facilities such as lifts
which provoke inrush currents or
fluorescent lighting which causes
harmonics.
©2010 Caterpillar
Disturbances Characteristics Main causes Main consequences

Power outages
Micro-outages Total absence of voltage ≤ 10 ms. Atmospheric conditions, switching, Faulty operation and loss of
faults, work on the utility. data (computer systems) or
interrupted production
(continuous processes).
Outages Total absence of voltage for more Atmospheric conditions, switching, Depending on the duration,
than one period: faults, incidents, line breaks, work shutdown of machines and risks
• short outage: < 3 minutes (70% of on the utility. for people (e.g. lifts), loss of data
outages last less than 1 s) (computer systems) or
• long outage: > 3 minutes interrupted production
(continuous processes).
Voltage variations
Voltage sags Reduction in the rms value of Atmospheric phenomena, load Shutdown of machines,
voltage to less than 90% of the rated fluctuations, short-circuit on a malfunctions, damage to
value (but greater than 0%), with neighboring circuit. equipment and loss of data.
return to a value greater than 90%
within 10 ms to 1 minute.
Overvoltage Temporary increase to more than • Quality of utility generators and • For computer systems:
10% over the rated voltage, for a transmission systems. corruption of data, processing
duration of 10 ms to a few seconds. • Interaction between generators errors, system shutdown,
and load fluctuations on the utility stress on components.
power system. • Temperature rise and
• Switching on the utility power premature aging of equipment.
system.
• Stopping of high-power loads (e.g.
motors, capacitor banks).
Undervoltage Drop in voltage lasting from a few Peak in consumption, when the utility • Shutdown of computer systems.
minutes to days. cannot meet demand and must • Corruption or loss of data.
reduce its voltage to limit power. • Temperature rise.
• Premature aging of equipment.
Voltage spike Sudden major jump in voltage (e.g. Close lightning strikes, static • Processing errors, corruption
6 kV). discharges. of data system shutdown.
• Damage to computers,
electronic boards.
Condition where the rms value of the • Induction furnaces. • Temperature rise.
Voltage unbalance
phase voltages or the unbalances • Unbalanced single-phase loads. • Disconnection of a phase.
(in three-phase systems)
between phases are not equal.
Frequency variations
Frequency fluctuations Instability in the frequency. Typically • Regulation of generators. --These variations exceed the
+5%, -6% (average for ten-second • Irregular operation of generators. tolerances of certain instruments
time intervals). • Unstable frequency source. and computer hardware (often
±1%) and can therefore result in
the loss or corruption of data.
Flicker in lighting systems due to a Welding machines, motors, arc Physiological disturbances.
Flicker drop in voltage and frequency (< 35 furnaces, X-ray machines, lasers,
Hz). capacitor banks.
Other disturbances
HF transients Sudden major and very short jump Atmospheric phenomena (lightning) Destruction of equipment,
in voltage. Similar to a voltage spike. and switching. accelerated aging, breakdown
of components or insulators.
Short duration < 1 μs. Starting of small inductive loads,

Amplitude < 1 to 2 kV at frequencies repeated opening and closing of
of several tens of MHz. low-voltage relays and contactors.
Medium duration < 1 μs and ≤ 100 μs. Faults (lightning) or high-voltage

Peak value 8 to 10 times higher than switching transmitted to the low-
the rated value up to several MHz. voltage by electromagnetic coupling.
Long duration > 100 μs. Stopping of inductive loads or high-
Peak value 5 to 6 times higher than voltage faults transmitted to the
the rated value up to several low-voltage system by
hundred MHz. electromagnetic coupling.
Harmonic distortion Distortion of the current and voltage Electric machines with magnetic Oversizing of equipment,
sine-waves due to the harmonic cores (motors, off-load transformers, temperature rise, resonance
currents drawn by non-linear loads. etc.), switch-mode power supplies, phenomena with capacitors,
The effect of harmonics above the arc furnaces, variable speed drives. destruction of equipment
25th order is negligible. (transformers).
Electromagnetic Electromagnetic or electrostatic Switching of electronic components Malfunctions of sensitive
compatibility (EMC) conducted or radiated disturbances. (transistors, thyristors, diodes), electronic devices.
The goal is to ensure low emission electrostatic discharges.
and high immunity levels.
Table 20..
©2010 Caterpillar
UPS
UPS Inverter
A UPS (uninterruptible power system) It completely regenerates a high-
is used to supply sensitive quality voltage output sine-wave:
applications with secure power. • Free of all utility-power disturb-
A UPS is an electric device positioned ances, notably micro-outages,
between the utility and the sensitive • Within tolerances compatible
loads that supplies voltage offering: with the requirements of
• High quality: the output sine- sensitive electronic devices
wave is free of any and all (e.g. tolerances in amplitude
disturbances in utility power ± 0.5% and frequency ± 1%,
and within strict amplitude and compared to ± 10% and ± 5%
frequency tolerances, in utility power systems, which
correspond to improvement
• High availability: the continuous factors of 20 and 5, respectively.
supply of voltage, within the
specified tolerances, is ensured Note: The term inverter is sometimes
by a backup supply of power. used to designate a UPS, when in
The backup supply is generally reality it is only a part of the UPS.
a battery that, if necessary, steps Energy Storage

in without a break in the supply The energy storage provides sufficient
to replace utility power and operating backup time (seconds to
provide the backup time required a number of hours) by stepping in to
by the application. replace utility power as needed.
These characteristics make UPSs the Static bypass

ideal power supply for all sensitive The static bypass ensures no-break
applications because they ensure transfer of the load from the inverter
power quality and availability, to direct utility power and back. No-
whatever the state of utility power. break transfer is carried out by a
device implementing SCRs
Components of a UPS (sometimes called a static switch).
A UPS generally comprises the main
The static bypass makes it possible to
components listed as follows.
continue supplying the load even if an
Rectifier/charger internal fault occurs or during
It draws utility power and produces a maintenance on the rectifier/charger
DC current to supply the inverter and and inverter modules. It can also serve
charge or recharge the battery. for transfers to call on the full power
available upstream in the event of
overloads (e.g. short circuits)
exceeding UPS capacity.
©2010 Caterpillar
During operation on the static bypass,

the load is supplied directly by utility
power and is no longer protected
(operation in downgraded mode).
Maintenance bypass
This bypass may be used to supply
the load directly with utility power,
without calling on the inverter or
the static switch. Transfer to the
maintenance bypass is user initiated
with switches. By actuating the
necessary switches, it is the means
to isolate the static bypass and the
inverter for maintenance, while
continuing to supply the load in
downgraded mode.
Figure 69: The UPS solution..
©2010 Caterpillar
UPS applications The applications requiring this type

UPS are used for a wide range of of installation are:
applications requiring electrical power • Computer systems,
that is available at all times and not
• Telecommunications,
affected by disturbances on the utility
power system. Table 21 presents a • Industry and instruments,
number of applications. • Other applications.
For each, it indicates the sensitivity of The required UPS typologies are
the application to disturbances. presented on page 5, “Types of static
UPS”.They include static UPS
implementing the following typologies:
• Passive standby,
• Line interactive,
• Double conversion.
©2010 Caterpillar
UPS Applications
Protection required against
Application Protected devices Micro- Voltage Frequency
Outages Other
outages variations variations
Computer systems
• Large bays for rack-mounted
Data centers servers ***** ***** ***** ***** *****
• Internet data centers
• Sets of computers with
terminals and peripheral
Company networks ***** ***** ***** ***** *****
devices (tape storage units,
disk drives, etc).
• Networks made up of PCs
Small networks or workstations, server
networks (WAN, LAN) **** **** *** *** **
and servers
• PCs, workstations
Stand-alone computers • Peripheral devices: printers, ** ** * * **
plotters, voice mail
Telecommunications
Telecommunications • Digital PABXs ***** ***** ***** ***** *****
Industry and instruments

• Process control
• PLCs
• Numerical control systems
Industrial processes • Control systems *** ***** *** *** ****
• Robot control/monitoring
systems
• Automatic machines
Medical and • Instrumentation
**** ***** **** **** ***
laboratories • Scanners (60 Hz)
• Machine-tools
• Welding robots
• Plastic-injection presses
• Precise regulation devices
Industrial equipment (textile, paper, etc.) *** **** *** *** ***
• Heating equipment for
manufacture of semi-
conductors, glass, pure
materials
• Public buildings (elevators,
safety equipment)
Lighting systems • Tunnels ** **** *** *** **
• Runway lighting in airports
Other applications
• Frequency conversion
Special frequencies • Power supplies for aircraft **** **** **** ***** ***
(400 Hz)
* low sensitivity to disturbances

***** high sensitivity to disturbances
Table 21..
©2010 Caterpillar
Types of UPS
Static or rotary UPS The inverter filters out utility-power
disturbances and regulates only
Static or rotary UPS solutions
the frequency of its output voltage
There are two main types of UPS
(generally in “square-wave” form),
which basically differ in the way the
which supplies a regulated
UPS inverter function is implemented.
motor/generator set that is sometimes
Static solution combined with a flywheel.
These UPS use only electronic
The motor/generator set generates an
components to perform the inverter
output voltage sine-wave, taking the
function. A “static-inverter function”
inverter output frequency as the
is obtained.
reference.
Rotary solution
These UPS use rotary machines to
perform the inverter function.
These UPS in fact combine a motor
and a generator with a highly
simplified static inverter.
Figure 70: Static and rotary UPS..
©2010 Caterpillar
Comparison • 150% overload capacity (of the

Rotary solution rated current) for one minute.
The arguments often put forward in The two-minute overload capacity is
favour of this solution are as follows: of no practical use because most
• High generator short-circuit overloads are very short (less than
current on the order of 10 In (ten one second, e.g. in-rush currents of
times the rated current) that motors, transformers and power
makes setting of protection electronics).
devices easier, • Galvanic isolation, when
• 150% overload capacity (of the required, by means of an
rated current) over a longer period isolating transformer,
(two minutes instead of one), • Double-conversion operation
• Downstream installation which completely isolates the
galvanically isolated from load from utility power and
upstream AC source due to the regenerates the output voltage
motor/generator set, with precise regulation of the
voltage amplitude and the
• Internal impedance providing
frequency,
high tolerance to the non-linear
loads frequently encountered • Very low internal impedance for
with the switch-mode power higher performance with non-
supplies used by computer linear loads due to the use of
systems. power-transistor technologies.
Static solution Other advantages
Static solutions provide many other
Compared to the advantages of rotary
solutions advantages as well, due to power-
The static UPS offers the advantages transistor technology combined
listed below. with a PWM chopping technique.
• Operation in current-limiting mode • Simplified overall design, with a

with discrimination ensured for reduction in the number of parts
circuits rated up to In/2. and connections, and in the
number of possible causes of
These features, which are more failure;
than sufficient in practice,
prevent the disadvantages of • Capacity to react instantaneously
rotary systems: to utility-power amplitude and
- overheating of cables, frequency fluctuations by means
- the effects of an excessive of microprocessor-controlled
short-circuit current and the switching regulation based on
corresponding voltage drop on digital sampling techniques. The
sensitive devices, during the voltage amplitude returns to
time taken by protective regulated conditions (± 0.5% or
devices to clear the fault. ± 1% depending on the model) in
less than 10 milliseconds for load
©2010 Caterpillar
step changes up to 100%. Within Conclusion

the indicated time interval, such Given the advantages just presented,
a load step change produces a static UPS are used in the vast
load voltage variation of less majority of cases, and for high-power
than for example ± 2%; applications in particular.
• High, constant efficiency what- In the following pages, the term
ever the percent load, which is a uninterruptible power supply
major advantage for redundant (UPS) is taken to mean the static
UPS units with low percent loads. solution.
A static UPS unit with a 50% load
maintains high efficiency (94%),
Types of static UPS
whereas the efficiency of a rotary Standards
UPS drops to the 88-90% range UPS
(typical value), which directly Due to the vast increase in the number
impacts on operating costs; of sensitive loads, the term “UPS”
• Redundant configurations now includes devices ranging from a
providing high availability in the few hundred VA for desktop
framework of ultrareliable supply computers up to several MVA for data
systems (e.g. for data centres); centres and telecommunications sites.
• Possible integration in redundant At the same time, different typologies

architectures with separate have been developed and the names
functions that facilitate used for the products on the market
maintenance by isolating parts are not always clear (or even
of the installation. misleading) for end users.
Rotary systems integrate the UPS, the That is why the IEC (International
backup power and the generator as a Electrotechnical Commission)
single component, thus making it established standards governing the
impossible to separate the functions. types of UPS and the techniques used
to measure their performance levels,
Consider also the following non- and those criteria were adopted by
negligible advantages: Cenelec (European standardisation
• No wear on rotating parts, hence commission).
easier and faster maintenance. Standard IEC 62040-3 and its
For example, rotary systems European equivalent EN 62040-3
require checks on the alignment define three standard types
of the rotating parts and the (topologies) of UPS and their
replacement of the bearings after performance levels.
2 to 6 years is a major operation
(lifting equipment, heating and
cooling of the bearings during
the replacement).
©2010 Caterpillar
UPS technologies include: Operating principle

• Passive standby, • Normal mode:
- The inverter operates in
• Line interactive, passive standby mode,
• Double conversion. - The load is supplied by utility
AC input power power via a filter which
These definitions concern UPS eliminates certain disturbances
operation with respect to the power and provides some degree of
source including the distribution voltage regulation,
system upstream of the UPS. - The standards do not mention
this filter and speak simply of a
The standards define the following “UPS switch”.They also indicate
terms: that “additional devices may be
• Primary power: power normally incorporated to provide power
continuously available which is conditioning, e.g. ferroresonant
usually supplied by an electrical transformer or automatic tap-
utility company, but sometimes changing transformer”.
by the user's own generation, • Battery backup mode:
• Standby power: power intended - When the AC input voltage is
to replace the primary power in outside specified tolerances for
the event of primary-power the UPS or the utility power
failure. fails, the inverter and the
Practically speaking, a UPS has one or battery step in to ensure a
two inputs: continuous supply of power to
the load following a very short
• Normal AC input (or Mains 1), transfer time (generally less
supplied by primary power, than 10 ms). The standards do
• Bypass AC input (or Mains 2), not stipulate a time, but do
supplied by standby power indicate that “the load [is]
(generally speaking via a transferred to the inverter
separate cable from the same directly or via the UPS switch
main low-voltage switchboard (which may be electronic or
(MLVS). electromechanical)“,
- The UPS continues to operate
UPS operating in passive-
on battery power until the end
standby mode
of battery backup time or utility
The UPS is installed in parallel
power returns to normal, which
to the utility and backs it up. The
provokes transfer of the load
battery is charged by a charger that
back to the AC input (normal
is separate from the inverter.
mode).
©2010 Caterpillar
Usage
This configuration is in fact a
compromise between an acceptable
level of protection against
disturbances and cost.
The mentioned disadvantages mean
that, practically speaking, this type of
UPS can be used only for low power
ratings (< 2 kVA) and cannot be used
as a frequency converter.
UPS operating in line-interactive
mode
The inverter is connected in
parallel with the AC input in a
Figure 71: UPS operating in.. standby configuration, and also
passive-standby mode. charges the energy storage. It thus
interacts (reversible operation)
Advantages with the AC-input source.
• Simple diagram,
Operating principle
• Reduced cost. • Normal mode
Disadvantages The load is supplied with
• No real isolation of the load conditioned power via a parallel
with respect to the upstream connection of the AC input and
distribution system, the inverter. As long as the input
• Transfer time. It operates without power is within tolerances, the
a real static switch, so a certain inverter regulates fluctuations in
time is required to transfer the the input voltage. Otherwise
load to the inverter. This time is (reversible operation), it charges
acceptable for certain individual the battery. The output frequency
applications, but incompatible depends on the AC-input
with the performance required frequency.
by more sophisticated, sensitive • Backup mode
systems (large computer centres, - When the AC input voltage is
telephone exchanges, etc.), outside specified tolerances for
• No regulation of the output the UPS or the input power
frequency, which is simply that fails, the inverter and the
of the utility power. energy storage step in to
ensure a continuous supply of
power to the load. The power
switch (e.g. static switch) also
disconnects the AC input to
prevent power from the
inverter from flowing
upstream.
©2010 Caterpillar
- The UPS continues to operate Disadvantages

on backup power until the end • No real isolation of the load with
of energy storage backup time respect to the upstream
or input power returns to distribution system, thus:
within tolerance, which - sensitivity to variations in the
provokes transfer of the load utility voltage and frequent
back to the AC input (normal demands placed on the
mode). inverter;
• Bypass mode - influence of downstream non-
linear loads on the upstream
This type of UPS may be equipped input voltage;
with a bypass. If one of the UPS
functions fails, the load can be Usage
transferred to the bypass AC input This product is primarily used where
via the maintenance bypass. efficiency is a driving factor in the
product purchase.
Double-conversion UPS
The inverter is connected in series
between the AC input and the
application. The power supplied
to the load continuously flows
through the inverter.
Operating principle
• Normal mode
During normal operation, all
the power supplied to the load
passes through the
rectifier/charger and inverter
Figure 72: UPS operating in. which together perform a double
line-interactive mode. conversion (AC-DCAC), hence the
name. The voltage is continuously
Advantages
regenerated and regulated.
• The product has improved
efficiencies due the fact that not • Backup mode
all power is being broken down - When the AC-input voltage is
and rebuilt as with a double outside specified tolerances for
conversion UPS. the UPS or the input power
fails, the inverter and the
energy storage step in to
ensure a continuous supply of
power to the load.
©2010 Caterpillar
- The UPS continues to operate The presence of a static bypass

on backup power until the end assumes that the input and output
of energy storage backup time frequencies are identical, which
or input power returns to means it cannot be used as a
normal, which provokes frequency converter. If the voltage
transfer of the load back to the levels are not the same, a bypass
AC input (normal mode). transformer is required.
• Bypass mode The UPS is synchronised with the
This type of UPS comprises a bypass AC input to ensure no-break
static bypass (sometimes called transfers from the inverter to the
a static switch) that ensures no- bypass line.
break transfer of the load from Note. Another bypass line, often called
the inverter to direct utility power the maintenance bypass, is available
and back. for maintenance purposes. It is closed
The load is transferred to the by a manual switch.
static bypass in the event of the
following:
- UPS failure,
- load-current transients (inrush
or fault currents),
- overloads,
- end of energy storage backup
time.
Figure 73: Double-conversion UPS..
©2010 Caterpillar
Advantages Disadvantages
• Complete regeneration of the • Reduced efficiency driving higher
output power, whether it comes owning and operating cost and
from the utility or the battery, increased heat rejection.
• Total isolation of the load from Usage
the distribution system and its This configuration is the most
disturbances, complete in terms of load protection,
• Very wide input-voltage range, regulation possibilities and
yet precise regulation of the performance levels. It notably ensures
output voltage, independence of the output voltage
and frequency with respect to the
• Independence of the input and input voltage and frequency.
output frequencies, thus ensuring
an output frequency within strict Conclusion
tolerances. Capacity to operate as Double-conversion UPSs represent
a frequency converter (if planned the vast majority of the medium
as such), by disabling the static to high-power systems sold (90% of
switch, the overall UPS market). This is due to
their numerous strong points in
• Much higher performance levels meeting the needs of sensitive loads
under steady-state and transient at these power ratings and is largely
conditions, the result of the inverter positioned in
• Instantaneous shift to backup series with the AC input.
mode if input power fails,
• No-break transfer to a bypass
line (bypass mode),
• Manual bypass (generally
standard) to facilitate maintenance.
©2010 Caterpillar
UPS components and operation

Components of a UPS
The information that follows concerns
the double-conversion UPS, the
technology most commonly used for
power ratings greater than 10 kVA.
General diagram of a UPS
The various items in figure 74 have
been assigned numbers that
correspond to the sections on the
following pages.
Figure 74: Components of a UPS..
©2010 Caterpillar
Power sources and UPS inputs Components of a UPS

Practically speaking, a UPS has one or Rectifier/charger (1)
two inputs: Transforms the AC power from the
• Normal AC input (or Mains 1), primary-power source into DC voltage
supplied by primary power, and current used to:
• Bypass AC input (or Mains 2), • Supply the inverter,

supplied by standby power • Charge and float charge the
(generally speaking via a separate battery.
cable from the same main low- Inverter (2)
voltage switchboard (MLVS). Using the DC power supplied by the:
AC Input Power, see page 121 • Rectifier during normal
UPS connection to both the primary operation,
and standby-power sources (UPS • Battery during autonomous
inputs supplied by two separate operation, the inverter
circuits from the MLVS) is completely regenerates a
recommended because overall system sinusoidal output signal, within
reliability is increased. However, if two strict amplitude and frequency
separate circuits from the MLVS are not tolerances.
available, it is possible to have both AC
inputs (normal and bypass) supplied Battery (3)
by primary power (second cable). Makes the UPS autonomous with
respect to the utility in the event of:
Management of transfers between the
two input lines is organised as follows. • A utility outage,
• The UPS synchronises the • Utility-power characteristics

inverter output voltage with that outside specified tolerances for
of the bypass line as long as the the UPS.
latter is within tolerances. It is Battery backup times range from 6 to
thus possible, if necessary, for 30 minutes as standard and can be
the static switch to transfer the extended on request. Depending on
load to the bypass AC input, the duration of the backup time, the
without a break (because the two battery is housed in the UPS cabinet
voltages are synchronised and in or in a separate cabinet.
phase) or disturbances (because Static bypass (4)
the standby power is within A static switch is used to transfer the
tolerances) for the load; load from the inverter to the bypass
• When standby power is not without any interruption* in the
within tolerances, the inverter supply of power to the load (no break
desynchronises and transfer is because the transfer is performed by
disabled. It can, however, by electronic rather than mechanical
carried out manually. components). The switch is possible
when the frequencies upstream and
downstream of the UPS are identical.
©2010 Caterpillar
Transfer takes place automatically for Upstream isolating transformer (10)

any of the following reasons: (optional equipment)
• Voluntary shutdown of the UPS, Provides UPS input/output isolation
• An overload exceeding the when the downstream installation is
limiting capacity of the inverter supplied via the bypass.
(this transfer can be disabled), It is particularly useful when the
• An internal fault. upstream and downstream system
earthing arrangements are different.
It can also be carried out manually.
Voltage-matching transformer (11)
* No-break transfer is possible when (optional equipment)
the voltages at the inverter output and
on the bypass AC input are Adapts the voltage to the desired
synchronised. The UPS maintains value.
synchronisation as long as the Filters (12)
standby power is within tolerances. (optional equipment)
Manual bypass (5) • Upstream of the rectifier/charger,
A manual switch is used to transfer the when it is of the thyristor-based
load to the bypass for maintenance Graetz bridge type, a harmonic
purposes. The switch is possible when filter (see page 25) reduces the
the frequencies upstream and current harmonics resulting from
downstream of the UPS are identical. the switching of the rectifier
The shift to manual-bypass mode is thyristors. This reduces the
carried out using manual switches. voltage distortion on the
upstream busbars resulting from
Manual switches (6, 7, 8) the flow of harmonic currents
These devices isolate the (the level required is generally
rectifier/charger and inverter modules <5%). What is more, these UPS
and/or the bypass line for servicing or from Caterpillar are equipped
maintenance. with an oversized neutral
Battery circuit breaker (9) conductor installed as standard
The battery circuit breaker protects the to overcome the consequences
battery against excessive discharge, of third-order harmonics and
and the rectifier/charger and inverter their multiples which flow in the
against a battery short-circuit. neutral conductor;
• Downstream, UPS implementing
new PWM-chopping techniques
may be directly connected to
non-linear loads. This technique
makes it possible for UPS from
Caterpillar to maintain the THDU
below 3%.
©2010 Caterpillar
Built-in communication (13) (14) • A large selection of

In addition to the need for a user- communication cards compatible
friendly human/machine interface for with market standards:
effective monitoring of UPS operation, - Network Management Card
it is today increasingly important for (Ethernet);
UPS to communicate with their - Modbus – Jbus card (RS232
electrical and computing environment and RS485);
(supervision systems, building - Relay card (dry contacts) for
management systems (BMS), indications;
computer management systems, etc.). These cards can be used to implement
UPS from Caterpillar are designed supervision, notification, controlled
with built-in capacity for total shutdown and Teleservice functions.
communication and include: Human-machine interface and
• A user-friendly human/machine Communication: see page 56.
interface (HMI) with an advanced Upstream and/or downstream
graphic display and mimic panel. distribution and protection devices
The interface is built up around (15) (16)
self-monitoring and self- (optional equipment)
diagnostic systems that The UPS can be supplied with the
continuously indicate the status following equipment:
of the various UPS components,
• Upstream LV circuit-breakers for
in particular the batteries.
the AC inputs (normal and
For example: bypass),
- the Digibat system • Upstream LV switchboard with
continuously monitors the circuit-breaker protection for the
status of the battery with full AC inputs (normal and bypass),
battery management features,
• Downstream LV switchboard
with circuit-breaker protection
for the different outgoing
circuits.
©2010 Caterpillar
Main characteristics of UPS • Example: 400 V rms ± 15% at a

frequency of 50 or 60 Hz ± 5%,
components
three-phase.
These characteristics are based on
the main technical specifications Bypass AC input
presented in the IEC 62040-3 / The bypass AC input is supplied with
EN 62040-3 standards on UPS standby power. Practically speaking,
performance requirements. this a cable connected to a utility
feeder in the MLVS other than the
Certain terms used here differ from the
one supplying the normal AC input.
common jargon and a number of new
features have not yet been assimilated In general, it supplies voltage with the
by manufacturers. New terms or same characteristics as that of the
characteristics used by the standard primary power.
are indicated between parentheses • Example: 400 V rms ± 15% at a
and preceded by an asterisk. frequency of 50 or 60 Hz ± 5%,
For example, the title of a section and a short-circuit current Isc2 =
“input current during battery float 12.5 kA. The short-circuit current
charging”, a commonly used term, is is important information for the
followed by (*rated input current), the downstream protection devices
term used in the standard. in the event of operation via the
static or maintenance bypass.
Note that a number of numerical
values are indicated as examples. Supply of separate primary and
standby power is recommended
They are, for the most part, drawn
because it increases overall system
from the technical characteristics of
reliability, but is not mandatory.
the corresponding UPS or indicated
However, if two separate circuits
simply for the purposes of the
from the MLVS are not available,
example.
it is possible to have both AC inputs
AC input power (normal and bypass) supplied by
Number of phases and system primary power (second cable).
earthing arrangement
Rectifier/charger
The AC-input supply (primary power)
Floating voltage
is three-phase + neutral. Single-phase
This is the voltage supplied by the
inputs are not used for the power
rectifier/charger which keeps the
levels dealt with here.
battery fully charged.
The system earthing arrangement is
It depends on the batteries used and
generally imposed by standards (IT,
the manufacturer's recommendations.
TT, TNS or TNC).
Input current during battery float
Normal AC input
charging (* rated input current)
The normal AC input is supplied with
This is the current, under normal
utility power for the rectifier/charger,
operating conditions, required to
within the specified tolerances.
supply the inverter at its rated power
while float charging the battery.
©2010 Caterpillar
Example: for a 100 kVA UPS with a Battery (* energy storage means)
battery backup time of 10 minutes, Type
this current is A battery is characterised by its type
I input float = 166 A while float (vented or sealed lead acid, or
charging the battery. nickel/cadmium) and how it is
Input current during battery charging installed. Caterpillar proposes sealed
This corresponds to the current lead-acid batteries mounted in
required to supply the inverter at its cabinets.
rated power while charging the Service life
battery. It is consequently higher than This is defined as the operating
the previous current and is used to period, under normal usage
size the charger input cables. conditions, for which the battery
Example: for the same UPS as supplies at least 50% of the initial
above, the input current is I input backup time.
float = 182 A, i.e. higher than For example, if a UPS is supplied
above because it is necessary to as standard with sealed lead-acid
charge the battery. batteries with a service life of ten
Maximum input current years or more. This type of battery,
This is the input current with the UPS rated for 30 minutes of backup
operating under worst-case conditions time, will contractually supply
of permitted overload, with the battery only 15 minutes at the end of the
discharged. It is higher than the above specified service life.
input current during battery charging It may supply more if it has been
(due to the overload current) but is used under optimum conditions
limited in time (as is the overload). (notably concerning the temperature).
Example: for the same UPS as However, it is contractually
above, can accept a 25% overload guaranteed not to supply less, unless
for ten minutes and a 50% used improperly.
overload for one minute. In the Operating modes
worst-case situation with the The battery may be:
battery charging, the input current
• Charging. It draws a charge
can reach:
current (I1 charge) supplied by
I input max. = 182 A x 1.25 = 227.5 A the rectifier/charger,
for ten minutes,
• Float charging.The battery draws
I input max. = 182 A x 1.5 = 273 A for a low, so-called floating current
one minute. (I1 floating), supplied by the
Beyond the above limits, the UPS rectifier/charger, which maintains
initiates no-break transfer of the load its charge by compensating for
to the bypass line and automatically open-circuit losses,
transfers back when the overload has • Discharging.The battery supplies
ended or been cleared by the the inverter until its shutdown
corresponding protection devices. voltage is reached.
©2010 Caterpillar
When this voltage, set by the battery • For a UPS operating at full rated
manufacturer, is reached, the battery load (100% of rated power), the
is automatically disconnected to avoid end of the battery backup time is
damage by deep discharge. reached when the battery voltage
Rated voltage drops to the shutdown voltage
This is the DC output voltage that the specified by the manufacturer. This
battery supplies to the inverter. provokes automatic shutdown of
the UPS.
Example: 450 V DC.
• For a UPS operating at a lower
Capacity percent load (e.g. 75%), the
Battery capacity is expressed in actual backup time may be
ampere/hours. longer. However, it always ends
Example: for a 100 kVA UPS when the battery shutdown
equipped with a battery offering voltage is reached.
ten minutes of backup time and a Recharge time (* rated restored
service life of five years, the energy time)
capacity is 85 A/h. This is the time required by the battery
Number of cells to recover 80% of its backup time (90%
Number of single battery cells making of its capacity), starting from the
up the entire battery string. battery shutdown voltage. The
Example: the battery of a 100 kVA rectifier/charger supplies the power.
UPS comprises, for a given type of Example: for a 100 kVA UPS, the
battery, 33 cells providing 13.6 V recharge time is eight to ten
each, for a backup time of ten hours, depending on the battery
minutes. and the backup time. Note that the
Floating voltage probability of the battery being
This is the DC voltage used to called on to supply power twice
maintain the battery charge, supplied within such a short period
by the rectifier/charger. is low. This means the indicated
recharge time is representative
Example: for a 100 kVA UPS, the of actual performance.
floating voltage is between 423
and 463 V DC. Maximum battery current (Ib)
When discharging, the battery
Backup time (* stored energy time) supplies the inverter with a current Ib
This is the time, specified at the which reaches its maximum value at
beginning of the battery service life, the end of discharging. This value
that the battery can supply the inverter determines battery protection and
operating at full rated load, in the cable dimensions.
absence of the AC-input supply.
Example: for a 100 kVA UPS, this
This time depends on the UPS percent current is Ib max = 257 A.
load.
©2010 Caterpillar
Inverter This value is a fraction of the rated

Rated power (Sn) power, depending on the percent load.
(* rated output apparent power) Su ≤ Sn. and
This is the maximum apparent power Tc = Percent load (%) = Su / Sn.
Sn (kVA) that the inverter can deliver Example: for the UPS mentioned
to a linear load at a power factor of above, if the inverter supplies 3/4
0.8, during normal operation under of its rated power (75% load), it
steady-state conditions. delivers an apparent power of
The standards also define this 75 kVA, which under standard
parameter for operation on battery operating conditions (PF = 0.8)
power. corresponds to an active load
power of
Theoretically speaking, it is the same
if the battery is correctly sized. Pa = Su x PF = 75 x 0.8 = 60 kW.
Active output power (Pa) Load current (Iu)
(* rated output active power for This is the current corresponding to
linear or reference non-linear load) the load power, that is, to the percent
load in question. It is calculated from
This is the active power Pa (kW)
Pu as for the rated current, where the
corresponding to the apparent
voltage is the rated voltage Un (value
output power Sn (kVA), under the
regulated by the inverter).
measurement conditions mentioned
above. This value may also be Example: for the UPS mentioned
indicated for a standardised reference above (75% load)
non-linear load. Su 75000
lu = = = 108.2 A
Example: the previous UPS, with a Un √3 400 x 1,732
rated power of 100 kVA supplies an which is the same as:
active power of Pa = Sn x 0.8 = 80
Iu = In x Tc = 144.3 x 0.75 = 108.2 A
kW.
Efficiency (η)
Rated current (In)
This is the ratio of active power Pu
This is the current corresponding to
(kW) supplied by the UPS to the load
the rated power.
to the power Pin (kW) that it draws at
Example: again for a 100 kVA UPS its input, either by the rectifier or from
and an output voltage of 400 V, the battery.
this current is:
η= Pu / Pin.
Sn 100000
In = = = 144.3 A For most UPS, efficiency is optimum
Un √3 400 x 1,732
at full rated load and drops sharply
Apparent load power (Su) and percent with lower percent loads. Due to their
load low output impedance and no-load
This is the apparent power Sn (kVA) losses.
actually supplied by the inverter to the
load, under the selected operating
conditions.
©2010 Caterpillar
Output voltage Un Frequency synchronisation with

Number of phases primary power
The output can be three-phase (3ph- The inverter supplies an output voltage
3ph UPS) or single-phase (3ph-1ph within the previously mentioned
UPS), depending on the situation. tolerances, regardless of the disturb-
Note that the upstream and ances affecting the upstream power.
downstream system earthing To that end, the UPS:
arrangements may be different.
• Monitors the voltage parameters
Rated output voltage (amplitude, frequency, phase) for
In general, it is the same as that of the primarypower source to
the AC input. However, a voltage- determine whether they are
matching transformer may be within specified tolerances,
installed.
• Reacts to any drift in parameters
Static characteristics so as to:
These are the tolerances (maximum - readjust the inverter (phase and
permissible variations) for the frequency) to the standby power,
amplitude and frequency of the output as long as the drift remains with-
voltage under steady-state conditions. in tolerances, in view of load
Stricter than those applying to utility transfer, if necessary,
power, they are measured for normal - transfer the load to battery
operation on AC-input power and for power as soon as the drift goes
operation in battery backup mode. outside tolerances.
• Output voltage variation The new IGBT and PWM chopping
The amplitude tolerance is expressed technologies used in UPS allow an
as a percentage of the nominal rms excellent adaptation to these
value and may be adjustable. variations.
Example: for a 100 kVA UPS, the Example: for UPSs, the maximum
voltage 400 V rms ± 1% may be variation in frequency
adjusted to ± 3%. corresponding to the tolerance is
50 Hz x 0.5% = 0.25 Hz.
The standards also stipulate a rated
peak output voltage and the tolerance Frequency synchronisation with
with respect to the rated value. bypass AC power is possible from 0.25
to 2 Hz, in 0.25 Hz steps. Practically
• Output frequency variation
speaking, this signifies that frequency
The tolerance is expressed as a variations may be monitored at dF/dt
percentage of the rated frequency. = 0.25 Hz/s and readjustment carried
Example: for a 100 kVA UPS, 50 or out within 0.25 to 1 second.
60 Hz ± 0.1% during normal
operation on primary power and
± 0.5% in battery backup mode.
©2010 Caterpillar
Dynamic characteristics Beyond this value, the inverter

These are the tolerances under transfers the load to standby power or
transient load conditions. performs a static shutdown (self-
Some UPSs are capable of protection feature).
withstanding the following conditions. Total output-voltage distortion
• Load unbalance UPSs must guarantee performance
levels for all types of loads, including
For unbalance in the load voltage non-linear loads.
(phase-to-neutral or phase-to-
phase) of: Example: some UPSs limit the
voltage total harmonic distortion
- 30%, the output voltage (THDU) in output power to the
variation is less than 0.1%, following levels for:
- 100% (one phase at Pn and the • 100% linear loads:
others at 0), the output voltage - THDU ph/ph < 1.5 %,
does not vary more than 0.2%. - THDU ph/N < 2%,
• Load step changes (voltage • 100% non-linear loads:
transients) - THDU ph/ph < 2 %,
For load steps from 0 to 100% or - THDU ph/N < 3%.
from 100 to 0% of the rated load, General note.The standard specifies
the voltage does not vary more certain of the previously mentioned
than: performance levels for output power
± 2% on utility power; during normal operation and
operation on backup power. In
+ 2% to -4 % on battery power.
general, they are identical.
Overload and short-circuit capacity
• Overloads
- 1.1 In for 2 hours,
- 1.5 In for 1 minute,
with no change in the output
tolerances.
• Short-circuits
Beyond 1.65 In, inverters may
operate in current-limiting mode
up to 2.33 In for 1 second,
corresponding to:
I peak max. = √2 x 1.65 In = 2.33 In.
©2010 Caterpillar
Summary diagram for main

characteristics
Figure 75: Diagram showing the main characteristics (see the following list)..
Normal AC input: Inverter:
• Voltage Un + 10% to - 15%, • Apparent output power:
• Frequency f + 4% to - 6%. - rated: Sn (kVA),
- load power: Su (kVA) = Sn x Tc%.
Bypass AC input:
• UPS percent load Tc% = Su / Sn,
• Voltage Un + 10% to - 15%,
• Active output power:
• Frequency f + 4% to - 6%,
- rated: Pn (kW) = Sn (kVA) x 0.8,
• Short-circuit current Isc2 - load power: Pu (kW) = Su (kVA)
(withstand capacity of the static x PF = Sn x Tc% x PF = Un Iu PF,
bypass).
• Efficiency: η Pu / Pn = 93%,
Rectifier/charger:
• Static characteristics (output-
• Floating voltage,
voltage tolerances under
• Input currents: steady-state conditions):
- rated (battery float charging), - amplitude: Un ± 1% adjustable
- maximum (battery charging). to ± 3%,
Battery: - frequency: f ± 1% during normal
• Backup time: standard 5, 6, 8, 10, operation, f ± 0.5% in battery
15, 20, 30, 60 minutes, longer backup mode,
times on request), - inverter output voltage
synchronised (frequency and
• Service life: 10 years or longer, phase) with that of the standby
• Maximum current Ib max. power as long as the latter is
within tolerances,
©2010 Caterpillar
• Dynamic characteristics The remaining current is supplied to

(tolerances under transient the inverter with generates an output-
conditions): voltage sine-wave within the specified
- maximum voltage and amplitude and frequency tolerances.
frequency variations for load Backup mode (on battery power,
step changes from 0% to
see figure 76)
100% or 100% to 0%: Un ± 2%,
The energy storage steps in to replace
f ± 0.5%,
primary power and supplies the
• Output voltage distortion: power required by the inverter for the
- 100% non-linear loads load, with the same tolerances as in
THDU < 2%, normal mode.
• Overload and short circuit This takes place through immediate
capacity: transfer (the energy storage is parallel
- overloads: 1.5 In for 1 minute, connected) in the event of:
- short-circuits: current limiting
• Normal AC-input failure
to 2.33 In for 1 second.
(utility-power outage),
Load:
• Normal AC input outside
• Load current (Iu), tolerances (degradation
• Power factor PF. of utility-power voltage).
UPS operating modes

Normal mode (on utility power,
see figure 76)
The UPS draws the AC utility power
required to operate via the rectifier/
charger which provides DC current.
Part of the utility power drawn is used
to charge or float charge the battery:
• I1 floating, if the battery is
already fully charged,
• I1 charge if the battery is not fully
charged (i.e. charging following a
recent discharge).
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 76: Normal mode and battery backup mode..
Bypass mode (on static-bypass - without a break in the supply of

line, see figure 77) power. Because the voltages
A static switch (SS) ensures no-break are in phase, the SCRs on the
transfer of the load to the bypass AC two channels of the static
input for direct supply of the load by switch have zero voltage at the
standby power. same time,
- without disturbing the load. The
Transfer is automatic in the event of:
load is transferred to a bypass
• An overload downstream of the line that is within tolerances.
UPS exceeding its overload
• When standby power is not
capacity,
within tolerances, the inverter
• An internal fault in the rectifier/ desynchronises and operates
charger and inverter modules. autonomously with its own
Transfer always takes place for frequency. Transfer is disabled.
internal faults, but otherwise is It can, however, by carried out
possible only if the voltage of the manually.
standby power is within tolerances
Note 1. This function greatly
and in phase with the inverter.
increases reliability due to the very
To that end: small probability of a downstream
• The UPS synchronises the overload and a standby-power failure
inverter output voltage with that occurring at the same time.
of the bypass line as long as the
latter is within tolerances.
Transfer is then possible:
©2010 Caterpillar
Note 2. To ensure correct operation Maintenance mode

of the bypass line, discrimination (on maintenance bypass,
must be ensured between the see figure 77)
protection device upstream of the Maintenance is possible without
bypass AC input (on the MLVS interrupting load operation. The load
outgoer) and those on the UPS is supplied with standby power via the
outgoing circuits (see information maintenance bypass. Transfer to the
on discrimination that follows). maintenance bypass is carried out
using manual switches.
The rectifier/charger, inverter and
static switch are shut down and
isolated from power sources. The
battery is isolated by its protection
circuit breaker.
Figure 77: Bypass mode and maintenance mode..
©2010 Caterpillar
UPS configurations • Modular UPSs

Parallel UPS with redundancy UPSs of the modular range are
“Types of possible configurations” is made up of dedicated and
entirely devoted to a presentation of redundant modules (power,
the various configurations. Below is intelligence, battery and bypass).
some additional information on Modular design with plug-in
parallel connection for redundancy. power modules improves
Configurations, see “Types of dependability, in particular
possible configurations”. maintainability and availability,
as well the upgradeability of the
Types of parallel configurations
installation.
There are two types of parallel
configurations. Redundancy
Redundancy in parallel configurations
• Integrated parallel UPS units
can be N + 1, N + 2, etc.
This upgradeable configuration
This means that N UPS units are
can be started using a single UPS
required to supply the load, but N + 1
unit with an integrated static
or N + 2 are installed and they all
bypass and manual maintenance
share the load.
bypass. For configurations with
more than two UPS units, a See the following example.
common maintenance bypass is Example
housed in an external cubicle • Consider a critical load with
(see figure 78). a 100 kVA rating,
• Parallel UPS units with a • 2+1 redundancy:
centralised static-switch cubicle - 2 UPS units must be capable
(SSC) of fully supplying the load if
The static-switch cubicle redundancy is lost,
comprises an automatic bypass - each UPS unit must therefore
and a maintenance bypass that have a 50 kVA rating,
are common for a number of - 3 UPS units normally share the
UPS units without a bypass 100 kVA load, i.e. each supplies
(see figure 79). 33.3 kVA,
- the 3 UPS units normally
This configuration, less
operate at a percent load of
upgradeable than the previous
33.3 / 50 = 66.6%,
due to the rating of the bypass,
- integrated parallel UPS units
offers greater reliability (SSC and
are each equipped with a static
UPS units are independent).
bypass. Transfer is managed
such that the three UPS units
transfer to the bypass
simultaneously, if necessary.
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 78: Integrated parallel UPS units with common maintenance bypass.
and 2+1 redundancy. Operation with all units OK (redundancy available).
• Loss of redundancy:
- one UPS unit shuts down, the two
remaining units operate at 100%,
- the faulty UPS unit can be serviced
due to the maintenance bypass.
Figure 79: Integrated parallel UPS units with common maintenance bypass.
and 2 + 1 redundancy. Operation following loss of redundancy.
©2010 Caterpillar
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

Electromagnetic Examples
disturbances Sources
Electromagnetic disturbances In low-voltage installations, sources
include suddenly varying currents
All electromagnetic disturbances
resulting from:
involve three elements.
A source • Faults or short-circuits,
A natural source (atmosphere, earth, • Electronic switching,
sun, etc.) or, more often, an industrial • High-order harmonics,
source (electrical and electronic
devices). • Lightning or transformer
breakdown.
The source generates disturbances
through sudden (pulse) variations in Frequencies may be low (< 1 MHz)
electrical values (voltage or current), for power frequencies and their
defined by: harmonics or high (> 1 MHz) for
lightning.
• A wave form,
Coupling
• A wave amplitude (peak value), • Capacitive: transmission of a
• A spectrum of frequencies, lightning wave via a transformer.
• A level of energy. • Inductive: radiation of a
A coupling mode magnetic field created by one
Coupling enables transmission of of the previously mentioned
disturbances and may be: currents. Radiation creates an
induced electromotive force, that
• Capacitive (or galvanic), for is an induced disturbing current,
example via transformer in the loops of conductors made
windings, up of the cables supplying
• Inductive, by a radiating devices and the earthing
magnetic field, conductors of the devices.
• Conducted, by a common As in indication, a radiation of 0.7 A/m
impedance, via an earthing can disturb a video monitor.
connection. That corresponds to the field created
A victim 2.2 m around a conductor carrying a
This is any device likely to be current of 10 A.
disturbed, and which malfunctions • Conducted (common
due to the presence of the impedance): increase in the
disturbances. potential of an earthing
connection.
©2010 Caterpillar
EMC standards and - Sources, limits (emission

levels) must be set for
recommendations
disturbances emitted by
Disturbances
devices to avoid reaching
Emission, immunity, susceptibility compatibility levels,
An electric device is installed in an
environment that may be more or less - Victims, they must also
disturbed electromagnetically. It must withstand disturbance levels
be seen as both a source and possible higher than the compatibility
victim of electromagnetic levels, if they are exceeded,
disturbances. which is permissible on a
transient basis. These higher
Depending on the point of view, on levels are the immunity levels.
may speak of:
EMC standards set these levels.
• The emission level for a source,
List of EMC standards, see the
• The compatibility level for an section on page 146 on EMC
environment, standards.
• The immunity and susceptibility
levels for a victim.
These notions are discussed on
the next page in the section on
disturbance levels defined by the
standards.
Disturbance levels
Standard IEC 6100-2-4 defines a
number of disturbance levels for EMC:
• Level 0: no disturbance,
• Emission level: maximum level Figure 80: EMC disturbance levels for.
authorised for a user on a public
disturbing/disturbed devices.
utility or for a device, Measured values
• Compatibility level: maximum Devices are subjected to tests.
disturbance level expected in a Five major values are measured:
given environment, • CE - conducted emissions,
• Immunity level: level of • RE - radiated emissions,
disturbance that a device can • ESD - electrostatic discharges,
withstand, • CS - conducted susceptibility,
• RS - radiated susceptibility.
• Susceptibility level: level starting
at which a device or system
malfunctions. Consequently, for
devices and equipment that are
considered:
©2010 Caterpillar
The tests require major resources,

namely a Faraday cage for conducted
emissions and susceptibility and an
anechoic chamber for radiated
emissions.
Figure 81: Five major measurement values..
©2010 Caterpillar
UPS standards
Scope and observance It is mandatory for free circulation
of goods in the EU.
of standards
Scope of standards Its purpose is to guarantee, through
Standards cover the following respect of the corresponding
aspects: European directives:
• UPS design, • That the product is not

dangerous (Low-voltage
• Safety of persons,
Directive),
• Performance levels,
• That it does not pollute
• Electrical environment (notably (Environment Directive) and its
harmonic disturbances and electromagnetic compatibility
EMC), (EMC Directive).
• Ecological environment. Before placing the CE marking on a
Standards on UPS have become much product, the manufacturer must run
more precise, notably with the or have run checks and tests which
creation of the European EN standards ensure conformity of the product with
and their harmonisation with a part of the requirements in the applicable
the previously existing IEC standards. directive(s).
Observance of standards and It is NOT a certification standard or

certification mark of conformity.
Observance of standards guarantees It does not signify that the product
the reliability and the quality of a complies with national or international
UPS, its compatibility with the loads standards.
supplied as well as with the technical, It is not a certification as defined by
human and natural environment. French law (law dated 3 June 1994).
Statement by a manufacturer of What is more, the CE marking is
conformity with standards is not, in placed on a product under the
itself, a sufficient indication of quality. exclusive responsibility of the
Only certification by recognised manufacturer or the importer. It does
organisations is a true guarantee of not imply inspection by a certified
conformity. external organisation.
To that end, performance levels of Not all labels carry the same
UPSs from Caterpillar with respect implications for manufacturers.
to standards are certified by
organisations such as TÜV and Veritas. Conformity with standards and
specified levels of performance must
CE marking be certifiable by an organisation. This
CE marking was created by European is not the case for CE marking which
legislation. authorises selfcertification.
©2010 Caterpillar
Main standards governing • IEC 61000-3-5 / EN 61000-3-5

Limitation of voltage fluctuations
UPS
and flicker.
UPS from Caterpillar comply (certified
by TÜV and Veritas) with the main • EN 50160
applicable international standards. Voltage characteristics of public
networks (see table 23).
Safety
• IEEE 519
• IEC 60950-1 / EN 60950-1
Recommended practices and
Information technology
requirements for harmonic
equipment - Safety - Part:
control in electrical power
General requirements
systems.
• IEC 62040-1/ EN 62040-1
EMC
Uninterruptible power systems
• EN 50091-2
(UPS) - General and safety
UPS - EMC.
requirements for UPS.
• IEC 62040-2/ EN 62040-2
• IEC 62040-3 / EN 1000-3
(UPS) - Electromagnetic
(UPS) - Method of specifying the
compatibility (EMC)
test and performance
requirements.
requirements.
• EMC Directive 2004/108/EC
• IEC 60439
For equipment liable to cause or
Low-voltage switchgear and
be affected by electromagnetic
controlgear assemblies.
disturbances.
• LV directive: 2006/95/EC
Quality
Electrical environment, • Design , production and servicing
harmonics and electromagnetic in compliance with standard ISO
compatibility (EMC) 9001 - quality organisation.
Harmonics
Ecological environment
• IEC 61000-2-2 / EN 61000-2-2
• Manufacturing in compliance
Compatibility levels for low-
with standard ISO 14001.
frequency conducted disturbances
and signalling in public low- Acoustic noise
voltage power supply systems. • ISO 3746
(see table 22) Sound power levels.
• IEC 61000-3-2 / EN 61000-3-2 • ISO 7779 / EN 27779
Limits for harmonic current Measurement of airborne noise
emissions (equipment input emitted by computer and
current ≤ 16 A/ph). business equipment.
• IEC 61000-3-4 / EN 61000-3-4
Limits for harmonic current
emissions (equipment input
current > 16 A/ph).
©2010 Caterpillar
Tables on harmonic-
compatibility levels
Compatibility levels for individual harmonic voltages in low voltage networks
as indicated in standard IEC 61000-2-2 / EN 61000-2-2.
Odd harmonics Odd harmonics
Even harmonics
non-multiple of 3 multiple of 3
Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
Harmonic order Harmonic order Harmonic order
voltage as a % voltage as a % voltage as a %
n n n
of fundamental of fundamental of fundamental
5 6 3 5 2 2
7 5 9 1.5 4 1
11 3.5 15 0.3 6 0.5
13 3 21 0.2 8 0.5
17 2 >21 0.2 10 0.5
19 1.5 12 0.5
23 1.5 >12 0.2
25 1.5 0.2
>25 0.2 + 0.5 x 25/n
Resulting THDU < 8% (for all harmonics encountered among those indicated)
Table 22..
Compatibility levels for harmonic voltages according to the type of equipment

as indicated in standard EN 50160.
Class 1 Class 2 (1) Class 1
Order of the voltage (sensitive systems and (industrial and public (for connection of
harmonic generated equipment) % of networks) % of major polluters) % of
fundamental fundamental fundamental
2 2 2 3
3 3 5 6
4 1 1 1.5
5 3 6 8
6 0.5 0.5 1
7 3 5 7
8 0.5 0.5 1
9 1.5 1.5 2.5
10 0.5 0.5 1
11 3 3.5 5
12 0.2 0.2 1
13 3 3 4.5
TDHU 5% 8% 10%
(1) Class 2 corresponds to the limits of Table A of standard IEC 61000-2-2 / EN 61000-2-2
Table 23..
©2010 Caterpillar
Energy storage
Possible technologies Batteries
Energy storage in UPS The battery solution
The energy-storage systems used by Batteries are by far the most commonly
UPSs to backup the primary source employed solution today for energy
must have the following storage in UPSs. They are the dominant
characteristics: solution due to low cost, proven
effectiveness and storage capacity,
• Immediate availability of
but nonetheless have a number of
electrical power,
disadvantages in terms of size,
• Sufficient power rating to supply maintenance and the environment. At
the load, the power ratings under consideration,
• Sufficient backup time and/or they offer backup times in the ten-
compatibility with systems minute range, enough to ride through
providing long backup times long outages and wait for start-up of an
(e.g. an engine generator set engine generator set for extended
or fuel cells). runtime.
Electrochemical energy storage
using batteries, where applicable
backed up by a thermal engine
generator set, is the commonly
used solution to protect critical
loads using a UPS.
Figure 82: Energy storage using a battery and an engine generator set for long backup times..
©2010 Caterpillar
Types of industrial batteries • Vented nickel-cadmium batteries.

Battery families Vented batteries impose greater
A battery is a set of interconnected cells. constraints in terms of
maintenance (checks on the
Depending on the type of cell, there
electrolyte level) and their
are two main families of batteries:
position (only in the vertical
• Lead-acid batteries, position).
• Nickel cadmium batteries. Lithium-polymer batteries are currently
Cells may also be of the: being studied for use in UPSs.
• Recombination type sealed Battery selection, see page 54.
batteries. Installation modes
The gas recombination rate is at least Depending on the UPS range, the
95% and they therefore do not require battery capacity and backup time, the
water to be added during service life battery is:
(hence the term “sealed”), • Sealed type and housed in the
• Vented type vented batteries UPS cabinet,
They are equipped with ports to: • Sealed type and housed in one
- release to the atmosphere the to three cabinets,
oxygen and hydrogen produced • Vented or sealed type and rack-
during the different chemical mounted.
reactions,
Cabinet mounting
- top off the electrolyte by adding
This installation method (see figure 83)
distilled or demineralised water.
is suitable for sealed batteries. It is easy
Batteries used in a UPS to implement and offers maximum
The main types of batteries used in safety.
conjunction with UPSs are:
Batteries installed on racks:
• Sealed lead-acid batteries, used • On shelves (figure 84). This install-
95% of the time because they are ation method is possible for
easy to maintain and do not sealed batteries or maintenance-
require a special room, these free vented batteries which do not
batteries can be installed in office require topping up of their
environments and in any position, electrolyte,
• Vented lead-acid batteries, • Tier mounting (figure 85). This
installation method is suitable
for all types of batteries and for
vented batteries in particular, as
level checking and filling are
made easy.
©2010 Caterpillar
Access
Access must be provided for testing
operations.
• Battery installed in UPS cabinet
or other cabinet: comply with the
clearances indicated in the
“Dimensions and weights”.
Figure 83: Cabinet mounting.. • Battery installed on racks: select
an installation method suited to
the type of battery.
• Preliminary work: this aspect is
important as it involves safety.
It is discussed in page 58.
Main battery parameters
Backup time
Figure 84: Mounting on shelves..
For a given battery, the backup time
depends on:
• The power that must be
supplied, a low value increases
the available autonomy,
• The discharge conditions, a high
Figure 85: Tier mounting.. discharge rate makes possible a
lower shutdown voltage and thus
increases the backup time,
Constraints on batteries
Atmospheric constraints • Temperature, within the
The batteries supplied with UPSs are recommended operating limits,
typically designed to operate under the backup time increases with
the following conditions: increasing temperature. Note,
however, that a high temperature
• Optimum temperature range: adversely affects battery service
15°C to 25°C, life,
• Optimum relative humidity • Aging, battery backup time
range: 5% to 95%, decreases with the age of the
• Atmospheric pressure: 700 to battery.
1060 hPa (0.7 to 1.06 bars). Service life
For other operating conditions, please A battery is considered to reach the
consult us. end of its service life when its real
backup time has fallen to 50% of
the specified backup time.
©2010 Caterpillar
The service life of a battery is basically Recharge mode

enhanced by: The charge cycle takes place in two
• Providing protection against steps:
deep discharge, • Step 1, a constant current limited
• Correct charger settings, in to 0.1 C10 (one tenth of the
particular the ripple factor of battery capacity for a ten-hour
the charge or float current, discharge),
• An optimum operating • Step 2, a constant voltage, at the
temperature, maintained maximum permissible value.
between 15°C and 25°C. The charge current regularly
decreases and reaches the
floating value.
Figure 86: Battery charge cycle..
Battery management • Measurement of the real backup

DigibatTM time remaining, taking into
To manage the previously mentioned account the age of the battery, the
parameters, all UPS from Caterpillar temperature and the load level,
come as standard with the • Estimate of remaining battery
microprocessor-based DigibatTM life,
battery-monitoring system (dedicated • Battery test to preventively
DSP for real-time processing). detect battery-function faults,
DigibatTM, an easy-to-use system, offers
advanced and flexible functions as well • Regulation of battery voltage
as physical and computer-aided with respect to the temperature
protection for the battery. It provides a to optimise battery life,
high level of safety, true measurement • Automatic battery-discharge test
of the backup time and optimises at adjustable time intervals.
battery service life. Some functions
included are:
• Automatic entry of battery
parameters,
©2010 Caterpillar
Protection includes:
• Protection against deep discharge
(depending on the discharge rate)
and battery isolation using a
circuit breaker which automati-
cally opens when the backup
time, multiplied by two plus two
hours, has elapsed,
• Limiting of the recharge current in
the battery (0.05 C10 to 0.1 C10),
• Progressive audio alarm
signalling the end of the backup
time,
• Numerous automatic tests.
Figure 87: Digibat TM.
Temperature monitoring Natural ventilation of battery cabinets

UPS can also be equipped with the avoids battery temperature rise.
Temperature Monitoring module used Environment Sensor is also a simple
to: means to monitor temperature and
• Optimise the charger voltage humidity. It can be used to launch
depending on the temperature shutdown when combined with
in the battery room, software running the module.
• Warn the user if preset
permissible temperature limits
are exceeded,
• Refine the estimate on battery
backup time carried out by the
standard system $.
©2010 Caterpillar
UPS / generator-set combination

Use of a generator Though there is no general rule in the
Long backup times matter, a generator is often used for
An engine generator set is made up backup times exceeding 30 minutes.
of an internal-combustion engine Critical installations requiring very
driving a generator that supplies the high availability levels and with high
distribution system. The backup time down-time costs (e.g. data centres)
of an enginegenerator set depends on systematically combine UPS and
the quantity of fuel available. engine generator sets.
In some installations, the required The battery backup time of the UPS
backup time in the event of a utility must be sufficient for generator start-
outage is such that it is preferable to up and connection to the electrical
use an engine generator set to back installation. Connection is generally
up utility power (figure 88). carried out on the main LV
switchboard using an automatic
This solution avoids using large source-changeover system. The time
batteries with very long backup times. required for changeover depends on
the specific characteristics of each
installation, notably the start-up
sequence, load shedding, etc.
Figure 88: UPS / generator-set combination..
©2010 Caterpillar
UPS / generator-set To avoid such phenomena, UPSs from

compatibility Caterpillar are equipped with a system
A number of factors must be taken ensuring gradual start-up of the charger.
into account when using an engine The walk-in lasts approximately ten
generator set to provide long backup- seconds. What is more, when utility
time power to a UPS. power returns, the charger may be
stopped gradually via an auxiliary
Load step changes
switch in order to avoid disturbing
In the event of emergency conditions
the other loads.
requiring connection of the
installation to the generator set,
heavy loads can result in high inrush
currents which can cause serious
generator-set operating problems.
Figure 89: Gradual start of the UPS rectifier during operation on generator power..
Capacitive currents Respective UPS and generator power

The generator can supply only ratings
relatively low capacitive currents A UPS equipped with a PFC rectifier
(10 to 30 % of In). When an LC filter is has a high input power factor (greater
installed, the main difficulty lies in the than 0.9).
gradual start-up of the rectifier on The engine generator set can therefore
generator power, when active power be used to maximum effectiveness.
is equal to zero and the generator
supplies only the capacitive current for For LC filters, compensated filters
the filter. Consequently, the use of LC with a contactor solve the problem
filters must be correctly analysed to concerning capacitive currents.
ensure that operation complies with Compatibility of power ratings
manufacturer specifications. between modern UPSs and
Use of compensated LC filters with a engine generator sets avoids
contactor solves this problem. For all problems of derating.
UPSs with a PFC rectifier, compatibility
is total.
LC filters and generators, see
page 26.
©2010 Caterpillar
Stability of generator frequency the upstream busbars. With PFC

During operation on engine generator rectifier technology, the absence of
set power, fluctuation in the generator upstream harmonics avoids this
frequency may occur due to variations problem.
in the speed of the thermal motor for Review of inrush currents
which the regulation functions are not
On start-up, a number of loads cause
instantaneous. These variations are
major inrush currents (switching
due to changes in the load. Examples
surges, startup peaks), which last
are start-up of the engine generator
a certain time.
set itself (until it reaches its rated
speed), start-up of other loads For the UPS, these currents represent
supplied by the engine generator set an apparent load Sa (kVA) that is
(elevators, air-conditioning systems), greater than Sn (kVA), which can
or shedding of loads. be supplied under steady-state
conditions.
This may create problems with a line-
interactive UPS whose output The value of Sa to be taken into
frequency is identical to that of the account in sizing UPS power is
input. Generator frequency variations calculated on the basis of these
may lead to multiple transfers to the inrush currents.
energy storage (frequency outside Below are indications on these
tolerances) and returns to input power currents caused by common load
(when the inverter has stabilised the devices.
frequency, but the generator itself has
Motors
not yet stabilised), resulting in
Motors are generally of the three-
“hunting” phenomena (instability
phase asynchronous type (95% of all
around the frequency setpoint).
motors). The additional power
With a double-conversion UPS, the requirement corresponds to the start-
regulation of the output power by the up current defined by (figure 90):
inverter avoids this problem.
• Id (5 to 8 In, rated rms value) for
Double-conversion UPS are totally a time td (1 to 10 seconds),
compatible with the frequency
• Imax = 8 to 12 In, for 20 to 30
fluctuations of engine generator
milliseconds.
sets. This is lesser so with line-
interactive UPS. The power drawn that must be taken
Harmonics into account (neglecting the peak
The subtransient reactance X"d of a effect of Imax) is:
generator is generally higher than the Sa (kVA) = Un Id √3 during td.
short-circuit voltage Uscx of a LV/LV transformers
transformer (two to four times higher).
Transformer switching produces current
Any harmonic currents drawn by the
peaks with amplitudes that are damped
UPS rectifier may have greater impact
on the voltage harmonic distortion on
©2010 Caterpillar
according to an exponential decay half wave of approximately 2 In.

with a time constant (see figure 91). However, it is generally much lower
• i = I1st peak exp -t/τ where τ is a than this and can be neglected.
few cycles (30 to 300 ms),
• I1st peak = k In (where k is given,
generally 10 to 20).
Indications generally include the
number of cycles the phenomenon
lasts and the value of the various
peaks as a percentage of I1st peak.
The corresponding inrush current is Figure 90: Curve for direct online starting.
generally calculated on the basis of of a three-phase asynchronous motor.
(see example):
• Sa (kVA) = Un I1st peak √3 , i.e.
Sa (kVA) = k Un In √3 during the
number of cycles,
• Example of an inrush current
damped in four cycles with:
- 1st peak (100%): k In (k from
10 to 20),
Figure 91: LV/LV transformer..
- 2nd peak 30 %: 0.3 k In,
switching current.
- 3rd peak 15 %: 0.15 k In.
The total of the rms values of the
currents corresponding to the various
peaks (Ipeak / √2) (1) is:
k ln (1 + 0,3 + 0,15) = K ln 1,45
≈ k ln
√2 √2
This is roughly equivalent to the value Figure 92: Computer load starting current...
of the first peak alone.
(1) Considering the current peaks
as sine waves; note that some
manufacturers indicate an rms value
of Ipeak / 2.
Computer loads
Switch-mode power supplies are
non-linear loads. The current for a
single-phase load has a wave form
similar to that shown in figure 95.
There can be a peak during the first
©2010 Caterpillar
Harmonics
Harmonics These applications require switch-
Origin of harmonics mode power supplies which transform
The increasing use of computing, the voltage sine wave into periodic
telecommunications and power- signals of different wave forms. All
electronics devices have multiplied these periodic signals of frequency f
the number of non-linear loads are the product of superimposed
connected to power systems. sinusoidal signals with frequencies
that are multiples of f, known as
harmonics (see the section
“Characteristic harmonic values”
dealing with the Fourier theorem on
page 159). Figure 93 illustrates this
showing the initial current (the
fundamental) and the third-order
harmonic.
Figure 93: Example of harmonics...

The increased presence of harmonics Consequences of harmonics
is a phenomenon that concerns all Harmonics disturb, increasingly
electrical installations, commercial severely, all sorts of activities, ranging
and industrial, as well as residential. from factories producing electronic
No modern electrical environment is components and data-processing
exempt from these disturbances systems to pumping stations,
caused by devices such as PCs, telecommunications systems,
servers, fluorescent tubes, air- television studios, etc., because they
conditioners, variable-speed drives, represent a significant part of the
discharge lamps, rectifiers, static current drawn.
power supplies, microwave ovens,
televisions, halogen lamps, etc. All
these loads are termed “non-linear”.
©2010 Caterpillar
There are three types of negative Impact on the available electrical power
consequences for users: Harmonics represent an outright loss
Impact on the electrical installation of current (up to 30% more current
Harmonics increase the value of the consumed). The user must pay more
rms current with respect to that of for less available power.
the rated sinusoidal current. The Precautions
result is temperature rise (sometimes General
significant) in lines, transformers, There are a number of traditional
generators, capacitors, cables, etc. solutions to limit harmonics:
The hidden costs of accelerated aging
• Installation of tuned passive filters,
in such devices can be very high.
• Installation in parallel of several
Impact on applications
cables with medium-sized cross
Harmonic currents circulate in the
sections,
source and line impedances, thus
generating voltage harmonics which • Separation of non-linear loads
lead to voltage distortion on the and sensitive loads behind
busbars upstream of the non-linear isolating transformers.
loads (figure 94). However, these solutions have two
The distortion of the supply voltage major disadvantages:
(upstream THDU - Total harmonic • Limitation of harmonics is effective
distortion in voltage) may disturb the only in the existing installation (the
operation of certain sensitive devices addition or removal of loads can
connected to the these busbars. render it ineffective),
What is more, for TNC systems where • Implementation is difficult in
N and PE conductors are combined existing installations.
to form a PEN conductor, the zero-
Active harmonic conditioners (see
sequence third-order harmonics
page 98) avoid these disadvantages.
cumulate in the neutral conductor.
Much more effective than other
This unbalance current in the neutral
solutions, they may be used with all
can disturb circuits interconnecting
types of loads and can selectively
low-current devices and may require
eliminate harmonics ranging from the
oversizing of the neutral.
2nd to the 25th order.
UPS
• Due to the rectifier/charger, a UPS
is a non-linear load for its power
source. UPS from Caterpillar offer
perfect control over upstream
harmonics by using “clean” PFC
rectifiers or filters.
Figure 94: Voltage distortion due to reinjection

of harmonic currents by non-linear loads.
©2010 Caterpillar
Upstream of the UPS, the total voltage • IHn is the rms value of the nth
distortion remains within limits that harmonic, at frequency nf,
are acceptable for the other devices • φn is the phase displacement
connected to the same busbars. between the nth harmonic current
Characteristic harmonic and the voltage.
values It is important to evaluate the
Current values harmonics (n ≥ 2) with regards to the
fundamental (n = 1) to determine to
Harmonic expansion of a periodic
current what degree the function differs from
The Fourier theorem indicates that the fundamental.
any periodic function with a frequency To that end, the values shown next are
f may be represented as the sum of taken into account.
terms (series) composed of: Current individual harmonic content
• A sinusoidal term with frequency This value expresses the ratio in
f, called the fundamental percent between of the rms value of
frequency, the given harmonic and that of the
fundamental.
• Sinusoidal terms with frequencies
that are whole multiples of the IHn
Ihn% = 100
fundamental frequency, i.e. the IH1
harmonics,
All the harmonics present in a given
• A DC component, where current with the indication of their
applicable. relative importance (Ihn values)
Application of the Fourier theorem to constitute the harmonic spectrum of
the currents of non-linear loads the current. Generally speaking, the
indicates that a periodic current I(t), of influence of the orders above the 25th
whatever form at frequency f (50 or 60 is negligible.
Hz), is the sum of harmonic sinusoidal
currents defined by:
∞
I(t) = IH1√2 sin(ωt + φ1) + Σ IHn√2 sin(nωt+φn)
n=2
where
• IH1 is the rms value of the
fundamental current at frequency
f (50 or 60 Hz),
• ω = 2 π f is the angular frequency
of the fundamental,
• φ1 is the phase displacement
between the fundamental current
and the voltage,
©2010 Caterpillar
Current total harmonic distortion

This distortion is called THDI (Total
Harmonic Distortion where I is for the
current). It expresses the ratio between
the rms value of all harmonics (n ≥ 2)
and that of the fundamental. The THDI
is also expressed in terms of the
individual harmonics.
∞
THDI%=100
√ Σ IH
n=2
n
2
=100
∞
IHn 2 =
∞
IH1
√Σ
n=2 IH1 √Σ
n=2
(Ihn%)2
Note. Harmonic contents are The rms value is also expressed as:
sometimes expressed with respect to
∞
the complete signal Irms, and not the
fundamental (IEC documents). Here,
we use the definition of the CIGREE,
Irms =
√ IH12 + Σ IHn2 or:
n=2
√
2
which uses the fundamental. Ieff = IH1 1+ Σ IHn hence:
n=2 IH1
For the low harmonic contents
analysed in the following pages, ∞
the two definitions produce virtually
identical results.
Irms = IH1
√ 1+ Σ Ihn2 = IH1 √ 1+THDI2
n=2
Rms value of a current with harmonics • Ihn = Ihn% / 100 (individual level
The rms value of an alternating expressed as a value and not as
current with a period T is: a percentage),
• THDI = THDI% / 100 (distortion
1 T l(t)2dt
Irms =
√T O ∫ expressed as a value and not as
a percentage).
After calculation and using harmonic
The rms value of the current is that of
representation, this can be expressed
the fundamental, multiplied by a
as:
coefficient which is due to the

harmonics and is a function of the
√Σ
∞
Irms = IHn2 distortion.
n=1 One effect of harmonics is
where IHn = rms value of the nth therefore to increase the rms
harmonic. value of the current, which can
lead to temperature rise and
therefore require oversizing of
conductors.
The lower the distortion, the less need
for oversizing.
©2010 Caterpillar
Example
Input current of a three-phase rectifier.
Figure 95: Example of the spectrum of a harmonic current..

∞ Voltage values
THDI%=
√ Σ (Ihn%)2
n=2
At the terminals of a non-linear load,
through which a distorted periodic AC
The value under the square root sign current flows, the voltage is also
is: periodic with a frequency f and it is
332 + 2.72 + 7.32 + 1.62 + 2.62 + 1.12 + also distorted with respect to the
1.52 + 1.32 = 1164 theoretical sinusoidal wave. The
consequently THDI% ≈ 34% and THDI = relation between voltage and current
0.34. is no longer governed by Ohm's linear
law, because it is applicable only for
Ieff = IH1√1 + THDI2 = IH1 √1 + 0.342 = sinusoidal voltage and current. It is
1.056 x I1 possible, however, to use a Fourier
The rms value of this current is expansion for the voltage and to
therefore 5.6% higher than the rms define, similar to the current and with
value of the fundamental, i.e. than the same results, the following values:
the rated current containing no Voltage individual harmonic content
harmonics, with a corresponding
temperature rise. 100UHn
UHn% =
Uh1
The harmonic spectrum can also be

calculated for the voltage.
©2010 Caterpillar
Voltage total harmonic distortion

∞
THDU%=100
√ Σ UH
n=2
n
2
=100
∞
UHn 2 =
∞
IH1 √ Σ
n=2 UH1 √ Σ (Uh )
n=2
n
2
THDU for Total Harmonic Distortion, where P1 and S1 are the active
where U is for the voltage. and reactive power, respectively,
Rms value of a voltage with harmonics corresponding to the fundamentals.
∞ Standard IEC 146-1 defines the
Irms =
√ ΣIHn2
n=1
distortion factor:
λ
Which, similar to the current, can also ν=
cos φ1
be expressed as:
∞
When there are no harmonics, this
Urms =UH1
√ 1+ΣUh = IH1√ 1+THDU
n=2
n
2 2 factor is equal to 1 and the power
factor is simply the cos φ.
Power in the presence of harmonics
The rms value of the voltage • Across the terminals of a
is that of the fundamental, balanced, three-phase linear
multiplied by a coefficient load, supplied with a phase-to-
which is due to the harmonics. phase voltage u(t) and a current
Power values I(t), where the displacement
Power factor in the presence of between u and i is φ, the apparent
harmonics power in kVA, depending on the
On the basis of the active power at the rms values U and I, is:
terminals of a non-linear load P (kW) S = UI√3
and the apparent power supplied S
(kVA), the power factor is defined by: The active power in kW is: P = S cos φ
P(kW) The reactive power in kvar is: Q = S

λ= sin φ
S(kVA)
Where:
This power factor does not express
the phase displacement between the S = √P2 + Q2
voltage and the current because they • At the terminals of a non-linear
are not sinusoidal. However, it is load, the mathematical definition
possible to define the displacement of P is much more complex
between the voltage fundamental because U and I contain
and the current fundamental (both harmonics. It can however
sinusoidal), by: be expressed simply as:
P1(kW) P = S λ (λ = power factor)
cos φ1 =
S1(kVA)
©2010 Caterpillar
If U1 and I1 are the fundamentals

displaced by φ1, it is possible to
calculate the corresponding apparent,
active and reactive power by:
S1 = U1I1√3 P1 = S1 cos φ1 and Q1 =
S1 sin φ1. The total apparent power is:
S = √P12 + Q12 + D2
where D is the distortion power, due
to the harmonics.
©2010 Caterpillar
Non-linear loads and PWM technology

Non-linear load
performance of UPS using
PWM technology
Importance of the UPS output
impedance
Equivalent diagram of an inverter
output
With respect to the load, an inverter is
a perfect source of sinusoidal voltage
V0 in series with an output impedance
Zs. Figure 96 shows the equivalent
diagram of the inverter output when
a load is present.
Figure 96: Equivalent diagram of an inverter output..

Effects of different load types • For a non-linear load, the
• For a linear load, the impedances harmonic currents drawn by the
Zs, ZL, Zc are considered at the load flow through the
angular frequency ω = 2 π f impedances. For the fundamental
corresponding to the distribution and each individual harmonic, the
frequency (f = 50 or 60 Hz), rms values of the current and the
giving V0 = (Zs + ZL + Zc) I, voltage are related similarly and
can be expressed as:
- for the fundamental:
U1 = (Zs + ZL + Zc) I1
- for each harmonic order k:
UK = [Zs(kf) + ZL(kf) + Zc(kf)] IK
©2010 Caterpillar
The impedance values are considered Good behaviour on the part of a

at the frequency kf of the given order. UPS supplying non-linear loads
Voltage distortion decreases with the requires a low output impedance at
individual levels of the voltage the various harmonic frequencies.
harmonics UK / U1. Below is a presentation of the
These levels are related to those of the advantages of the PWM (pulse width
harmonic currents IK/ I1 by the equation: modulation) chopping technique in this
respect.
[Zs(kf) + ZL(kf) + Zc(kf)] / (Zs + ZL + Zc).
UPS operating principle
Consequently, for a given load
Chopping of the DC voltage by the
current spectrum, the individual
inverter with filtering
voltage harmonic levels and the
An inverter is made up of a converter
total distortion (THDU) decrease
that transforms the DC power supplied
with the impedance of the source
by the rectifier/charger or the battery
and the cables at the given
into AC power. For example, on a
frequencies.
single-phase UPS, there are two ways
Consequences of non-linear loads to convert the DC power, using either
To reduce the effects of the harmonic a half bridge (see figure 97) or a full
currents (THDU at B and C), it is bridge (see figure 98).
necessary, to the greatest extent
The square-wave voltage obtained
possible, to:
between A and B is then filtered to
• reduce the line impedance, produce a sinusoidal voltage with a
• ensure a low source impedance at low level of distortion at the output.
the various harmonic frequencies.
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 97: Half-bridge DC/AC converter. Figure 98: Full-bridge DC/AC converter..
Practically speaking, the switches The higher the chopping frequency

shown in figures 97 and 98 are IGBTs (the higher the number of square-
for which it is possible to control the wave pulses), the better the regulation
relative on and off times. with respect to the reference wave.
By controlling the on and off times, it Chopping also reduces the size of the
is possible to “distribute” the voltage internal filter required on the LC
over the reference sinusoidal wave. output (see figure 100).
This principle is known as PWM (pulse
width modulation). It is shown in a
simplified manner, with five square-
wave pulses, in figure 99. The area of
the voltage sinusoidal wave is equal
to that of the square-wave pulses used
to generate it. These areas represent
the power supplied by the inverter to
the load Figure 99: DC/AC converter output voltage with.
five square-wave pulses per half-wave.
T
over a given time, i.e.
∫ 0
VIdt
©2010 Caterpillar
Comparison with the reference

voltage wave makes it possible
to maintain the inverter output
voltage within strict distortion
tolerances, even for highly
distorted currents.
Functional diagram of a PWM inverter
Figure 100: Inverter output filter..
Figure 101 shows the functional
PWM inverters diagram of a PWM inverter.
PWM chopping The output voltage is continuously
The PWM (pulse width modulation) compared to the reference voltage
chopping technique combines high- Vref which is a sinusoidal wave with
frequency chopping (a few kHz) of a very low level of distortion (< 1%).
the DC voltage by the inverter and
The difference in the voltage ε is
regulation of the pulse width for the
processed by a corrector, according
inverter output, to comply with a
to a transfer function C(p), intended to
reference sinusoidal wave.
ensure the performance and stability
This technique uses IGBTs (insulated of control.
gate bipolar transistors) offering the
The voltage from the corrector is then
advantages of voltage control and
amplified by the DC/AC converter and
very short commutation times. Due
its control system with a gain A. The
to the high frequency, the regulation
Vm voltage supplied by the converter
system can react quickly (e.g. 333
is filtered by the LC filter to supply the
nanoseconds for a frequency of 3 kHz)
output voltage Vs.
to modify the pulse widths within a
given period. Practically speaking, it is necessary
to take into account the impedance of
the output transformer when it exists,
to obtain the total inductance L. Often,
the inductance is built into the trans-
former, which is why it is not included
in diagrams.
Figure 101: Functional diagram of a PWM inverter..
©2010 Caterpillar
Output impedance of a PWM inverter The equivalent diagram (right-hand

It is possible to represent the above side of figure 110) shows:
DC/AC converter and filter as a series
impedance Z1 and a parallel • V'm = voltage measured under
impedance Z2 (see the left-hand no-load conditions, i.e.:
Z2
side of figure 102). V'm = Vm
Z1 + Z2
The diagram can be modified to
display the output impedance Zs. • Zs = impedance measured at the
output with V'm short-circuited, i.e.:
ZZ
Zs = 1 2
Z1 + Z2
Figure 102: Equivalent diagram of an inverter as seen from the output..
Z2
The ratio is the transfer
Z1 + Z2
function of the filter, noted H(p).

To simplify, C(p) x A is replaced by
μ(p) which represents the transfer
function of the correction and
amplification.
Figure 103: Transformed functional diagram of a PWM-chopping inverter equipped.

with an output-voltage regulation system with modulated chopping frequency.
©2010 Caterpillar
It is possible to show that the inverter • Transformers and generators -

output impedance Zs in this case is the curve is a straight line
equal to: corresponding to the effect of
the inductance L (the term which
Z1 rapidly becomes dominant in the
Z' s ≈
μ (p) reactance with respect to the
resistance and which increases
This means that in the regulation pass linearly as a function of the
band, the inverter output impedance is frequency).
equal to the filter series impedance • Modern inverters implementing
divided by the correction and the PWM chopping technique
amplification gain. with modulated chopping
Given the high gain in the regulation frequency - at all harmonic
pass band, the output impedance is frequencies, the Zs/Zc ratio is:
significantly reduced compared to - less than that noted for other
impedance Z1 of an inverter without sources,
this type of regulation. - low and virtually constant.
Outside the regulation pass band, the Conclusion
inverter output impedance is equal to The PWM inverter is the source
that of the filter, but remains low offering by far the lowest output
because it corresponds to the impedance in the presence of
impedance of a highfrequency harmonics. It is clearly the best source
capacitor. on the market in terms of its aptitude
Consequently, the output impedance to minimise the voltage distortion
is a function of the frequency (see caused by non-linear loads. It is five
figure 104). to six times better than a transformer
with an identical power rating.
The free-frequency PWM (pulse
width modulation) technique The new generation of UPS
considerably limits the output implementing IGBTs and the
impedance. PWM chopping technique with
frequency modulation are the best
Comparison of different sources of sinusoidal voltage,
sources whatever the type of current
Output impedance of various drawn by the load.
sources
The curves in figure 104 show the
output impedances for various
sources with equal output ratings as
a function of the AC frequency. The
impedances are plotted as a percent
of the load impedance Zc.
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 104: Output impedance of different sources depending on the frequency..
Free-frequency chopping Free-frequency chopping

Free-frequency chopping The chopping fronts do not necessarily
Free frequency is an improvement to occur at fixed intervals. Chopping
the PWM technique. adapts to the requirements of the
regulation, i.e. the rate of change of
PWM chopping can use either of two the reference. The width of the
techniques (figure 105). commutation fronts decreases (the
Fixed-frequency chopping chopping frequency increases) as the
The chopping fronts occur at fixed, rate of change of the reference sine
regular intervals corresponding to the wave increases. Conversely, the width
choppingfrequency over one period. of the commutation fronts increases
The width of the pulses (square-wave (the chopping frequency decreases)
pulses) can be modulated to conform as the rate of change of the reference
to the reference within the fixed time decreases. On the whole, the average
interval. chopping frequency is the same as
that for the fixed-frequency technique
The two sine waves shown in the (approximately 3 kHz). But regulation
diagram correspond to the tolerance is better because the commutation
(< 1%) around the reference sine wave. accelerates in the zones where the rate
of change is high (see figure 106).
©2010 Caterpillar
It can reach eight commutations per

millisecond, i.e. a regulation time as
low as 125 nanoseconds (compared
to 300 ns for the fixed-frequency
technique).
The free-frequency technique
increases the precision of the
voltage regulation in PWM
inverters compared to the fixed-
frequency technique.
Figure 105: PWM chopping with fixed-frequency and free-frequency regulation..
Figure 106: Regulation employing free-frequency commutation..
©2010 Caterpillar
PFC Rectifiers
Standard and PFC rectifiers PFC rectifiers
UPS units draw power from Operating principle
the AC distribution system via a The principle behind PFC rectifiers
rectifier/charger. With respect to the consists in forcing the current drawn
upstream system, the rectifier is a to remain sinusoidal. To that end, they
non-linear load drawing harmonics. use the PWM technique presented
In terms of harmonics, there are two earlier.
types of rectifiers. The principle is that of a “voltage
Standard rectifiers source” converter (see figure 107),
These are three-phase rectifiers whereas the active harmonic
incorporating SCRs and using a six- conditioner uses a “current source”
phase bridge with standard chopping converter.
of the current. The converter acts as a back-
This type of bridge draws harmonic electromotive force (a “sinusoidal
currents with orders of n = 6 k ± 1 voltage generator”) on the distribution
(where k is a whole number), mainly system and the sinusoidal current is
H5 and H7, and to a lesser degree H11 obtained by inserting an inductor
and H13. between the utility power and the
voltage source.
Harmonics are controlled by using
a filter. Even if other non-linear loads
increase the voltage distortion on the
“Clean” PFC (Power Factor distribution system, the regulation can
Correction) rectifier adapt to draw a sinusoidal current.
This type of rectifier comprises built-in
IGBTs and a regulation system that The frequency of low residual
adjusts the input voltage and current harmonic currents is the frequency of
to a reference sine wave. This the modulation and of its multiples.
technique ensures an input voltage Frequency depends on the
and current that are: possibilities of the semiconductors
used.
• Perfectly sinusoidal, i.e. free of
harmonics,
• In phase, i.e. an input power
factor close to 1.
With this type of rectifier, no filters
are required.
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 107: Operating principle of a clean “voltage generator” converter..

Implementation When transistor T is off, the current
Single-phase rectifier in L decreases, provided that Vs is
greater than V, so that:
Figure 108 shows the operation of
a single-phase rectifier. di=e-VS>0
Voltage modulation is obtained by a dt L
controller that forces the current to For this condition to be fulfilled,
follow a sinusoidal current reference. voltage Vs must be greater than the
Transistor T and diode D make up the peak voltage of V, i.e. the rms value of
voltage modulator. The voltage u thus the AC voltage multiplied by √2.
changes between 0 and Vs according If this condition is fulfilled, the current
to whether transistor T is in the on or in L can be increased or decreased at
off state. When transistor T conducts, any time. The variation of the current
the current in inductor L can only in L with time can be forced by
increase as the voltage is positive and monitoring the respective on and off
u = 0. times of transistor T. Figure 109 shows
Therefore: the evolution of current IL with respect
to a reference value.
di e 0
= >
dt L
©2010 Caterpillar
Figure 108: Diagram of a clean, single-phase rectifier drawing a sinusoidal signal..
Figure 109: Evolution of current IL with respect to the reference..
©2010 Caterpillar
Three-phase rectifier/charger
The basic circuit arrangement is
shown in figure 110. It is similar to that
in figure 108, with the inductor placed
upstream of the rectifiers; the
operating principle is also the same.
The monitoring system controls each
power leg and forces the current
drawn on each phase to follow the
sinusoidal reference.
Figure 110: Diagram of a clean, three-phase rectifier drawing a sinusoidal signal..
©2010 Caterpillar
Glossary and bibliography

Glossary
Active harmonic conditioner Backup time
Active harmonic conditioners (AHC) Time during which the UPS can
are used to eliminate the harmonic supply the rated load with power from
currents flowing in an electrical its energy storage under nominal
installation and consequently limit conditions when the normal AC
voltage and current distortion (THDU source fails. This time depends on the
and THDI respectively) to a given battery. Typical backup times are 6, 8,
percentage. The conditioner 10, 15 or 30 minutes.
continuously analyses the harmonic
Battery circuit breaker
current drawn by the load and injects,
DC circuit breaker that protects the
on a realtime basis, an identical
battery circuit of a UPS.
current with the appropriate phase.
The current supplied by the source Battery, recombination
remains virtually sinusoidal, whatever Battery with a gas recombination rate
the operating conditions. The at least equal to 95%. No water need
conditioner automatically adapts to be added over battery life, which is
changes in the installation and covers why such batteries are commonly
the entire low-frequency harmonic referred to as “maintenance free”
spectrum (H2 through to H25). Active batteries.
harmonic conditioners are also called BMS (Building Management System)
active filters. System used to control and monitor
ANSI (American National Standards all building utilities and systems from
Institute) a central location. It is generally
U.S. organisation in charge of composed of sensors, actuators and
standardisation. Traditionally, it is programmable controllers connected
assisted in this task by scientific to a central computer (or several
organisations such as the IEEE (Institute computers) equipped with specific
of Electronics and Electrical Engineers). software.
Availability of an electrical installation Charger
Availability is the probability that Device associated with the rectifier
the installation will be capable of and used to supply the battery with
supplying energy with the level of the electrical power (DC current)
quality required by the supplied loads. required to recharge and/or float
MTTR charge the battery, thus ensuring the
Availability (%) = (1- ) x 100 availability of backup power.
MTBF
Cos φ
Practically speaking, the lower the
A measure of the phase displacement
MTTR (fast repair) and the higher the
between the current wave and the
MTBF (time without failure), the
voltage wave observed at the
higher the availability.
terminals of a linear load.
©2010 Caterpillar
Cos φ1 Fault tolerance

A measure of the phase displacement A fault-tolerant system can continue
between the fundamental current to operate following a fault, but in a
wave and the fundamental voltage down-graded mode.
wave observed at the terminals of a Down-graded operation is generally
non-linear load. accompanied by an alarm to signal
Crest factor (Fc) the fault(s). It is generally possible to
The ratio between the peak value of a repair the system rapidly and return to
current and its rms value. normal operation, without shutting
Ipeak down the system. UPS operation on
Fc = the static bypass is a type of fault-
Irms
tolerant operation.
Discrimination Float current
System whereby a fault trips the DC current that maintains the battery
protection device of the faulty load at nominal charge, corresponding to
circuit only. Protection devices on the float voltage. This current
neighbouring circuits and upstream compensates for open-circuit losses.
are not tripped.
Float voltage
Distortion factor (ν) DC voltage applied to the battery to
Factor measuring the effect of maintain its charge level. This voltage
harmonics on the power factor at the depends on the type of battery, the
terminals of a load supplied with AC number of cells and the
power. manufacturer’s recommendations.
λ
ν= Fourier theorem
cosφ1 Theorem stating that any non-
sinusoidal periodic function (of
λ : power factor
frequency f) may be represented as a
cos φ1 : cos φ of the fundamental
sum of terms (series) made up of:
EMC (Electromagnetic compatibility)
• A sinusoidal term with frequency
Possibility of a device to operate
f, called the fundamental
normally when installed near other
frequency,
devices, given the disturbances
emitted by each device and their • Sinusoidal terms with
mutual sensitivities. frequencies that are whole-
number multiples of the
EN (European Normalisation)
fundamental frequency, i.e.
Label used for European standards.
the harmonics,
These standards are issued by
CENELEC. Following acceptance by • A DC component, where
the member countries, these applicable.
standards enter into force and replace
the national standards.
©2010 Caterpillar
The series may be expressed, where n Harmonic distortion, individual

is a whole number, as: Ratio between the rms value of an nth
∞ order harmonic and the rms value of
Y(t)=Y0 + Σ Yn √2 sin (nωt + φn) the fundamental.
n=1
Yn
n = 1 corresponds to the fundamental, Hn% = 100
Y1
n > 1 corresponds to the nth harmonic.
Harmonic distortion, total (THD)
Free-frequency chopping
Chopping technique where the Ratio between the rms value of all
frequency increases or decreases harmonics of a non-sinusoidal
depending on the variation of a alternating periodic value and that
reference value. Contrary to fixed- of the fundamental.
frequency chopping, this technique ∞
∞
increases regulation during major
variations and reduces it when D%=100
√ ΣY
n=2
Y1
n
2
variation is low. This improves

regulation with respect to the
reference value. This value may also be expressed as a
function of the individual distortion of
Harmonic each harmonic Hn = Yn /Y1 by:
Sinusoidal term of the Fourier series
∞
expansion of a periodic function. ∞
The harmonic (or harmonic

component) of the nth order is
D%=100
√ ΣH
n=2
n
2
characterised by: For current and voltage, these values

Hn(t) = Hn√2 sin(nωt + φn) are called THDI and THDU respectively.
Hn is the rms value of the given Harmonics, current and voltage

harmonic component, Any periodic current (frequency f) that
is not sinusoidal is made up of a set of
• ω is the angular frequency of the sinusoidal currents (see Fourier),
fundamental, related to the including a fundamental (frequency f)
fundamental frequency by ω = 2 and harmonics at various frequencies nf
π f, (where n is a whole number). A voltage
• φn is the phase displacement of harmonic corresponds to each current
the given harmonic component harmonic. The instantaneous and rms
at t = 0. values are related by Ohm's law, where
the terms are both sinusoidal.
If Zsn is the voltage source output
impedance at frequency nf (angular
frequency nω), then Un = Zsn x In.
Consequently, for each current
harmonic, there is a voltage harmonic
that depends on the source output
impedance at the corresponding
frequency.
©2010 Caterpillar
HF interference IP (International Protection)

High-frequency parasitic current that A protection index defining the ability
is either conducted (electrostatic of electrical equipment to withstand
origin) or radiated (electromagnetic certain environmental conditions. It is
origin) by a device. composed of two digits (e.g. IP 20)
(IEEE) Institute of Electrical and defined by standard IEC 529 and
Electronic Engineers included in standard EN60529. Each
Assists ANSI (American National digit corresponds to a certain degree
Standards Institute) in defining of protection with respect to a given
standards for electric and electronic external influence.
equipment. • First digit (0 to 6): degree of
IIK protection against penetration
A protection index indicating the of solid bodies,
degree of protection against • Second digit (0 to 7): degree of
mechanical shocks as defined by protection against penetration of
European standard EN 50102. The liquids,
IK code includes 11 values from IK01 • Additional letter (A to D): safety
to IK10, corresponding to different of persons.
energy levels expressed in Joules.
This code is complementary to the The IP code may receive an additional
IP code. letter (A to D) when the protection
provided persons against dangerous
Inrush current parts is better than that indicated by
Transient currents observed in an the first digit. A - protection against
electrical installation when devices access by the back of the hand, B -
are energised. These currents are protection against access using a
generally due to the magnetic circuits finger, C - using a tool with a diameter
of the devices. The effect is measured of 2.5 mm, D - using a tool with a
by the current’s maximum peak value diameter of 1 mm. When the
and the rms current value it generates protection of persons is the only
during the time it lasts. relevant factor, the two IP digits may
Inverter be replaced by “X” (e.g. IP XXB).
UPS subassembly that recomposes Example. IP 30D
a sine-wave output (regulated and
without breaks) using the DC current 3 = protection against solid bodies
supplied by the rectifier/charger or the larger than 2.5 mm.
battery. The main elements of the 0 = no protection against water.
inverter are the DC/AC converter, a D = protection against access using
regulation system and an output filter. a tool with a diameter of 1 mm.
©2010 Caterpillar
ISO 9000 Load, non-linear

Standard defining procedures Load drawing an input current that is
and systems used to attain an periodical, but not sinusoidal, with a
internationally recognised level harmonic component. For this reason,
of production quality. ISO 9000 the input voltage is also distorted by
certification is recognition that the harmonics. Generally speaking, non-
quality system effectively complies linear loads comprise active electronic
with the standard. Certification is components that vary the load
carried out by an official organisation impedance over each period. The Ohm
(e.g. AFAQ), unaffiliated with either law applies to the instantaneous
clients or suppliers or the company values, but the equivalent impedance
itself. The certificate is valid for a of the load is variable. As a result,
three-year period with yearly audits there is no simple law for the rms
and checks. values, as is the case for linear loads.
IT system Examples of non-linear loads: switch-
System earthing arrangement in mode power supplies for computers,
which the neutral is isolated from the rectifier bridges using SCRs, variable-
earth or connected to the earth via a speed drives, fluorescent lighting.
high impedance and the various Load power
exposed conductive parts are Apparent power Su (kVA) that a UPS
connected to the earth via individual inverter supplies under given load
earthing circuits. An alarm (generally conditions. It is less than or equal to
an insulation-monitoring device IMD) the rated output Sn (kVA).
must signal the appearance of a first The ratio Su/Sn defines the percent
insulation fault. load of the inverter.
The installation must be de-energized Magnetic-susceptibility level
immediately in the event of a second Level of electromagnetic emission
insulation fault. starting at which a nearby device or
Load, linear system malfunctions.
Load for which the input voltage and Management-Pac™ (software)
current are both sinusoidal, with Intended for network administrators,
possible phase displacement this totally SNMP-compatible software
(inductive and/or capacitive loads). can manage and supervise an entire
Linear loads include only resistances, park of UPS.
inductors or capacitors.
Micro-outage
The Ohm law applies to both the Total absence of power for a duration
instantaneous and the rms values. of less than one half cycle (< 10 ms at
U = Z I, where Z is the equivalent 50 Hz).
impedance of the load (constant
during each period). MLVS (Main low-voltage switchboard)
The low-voltage switchgear assembly
Examples of linear loads: lighting used to distribute power immediately
systems, motors, transformers. downstream of the HV/LV transformer.
©2010 Caterpillar
MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures) PFC (Power Factor Correction) (rectifier)
Expected value of the duration PFC is an electronic regulation device
(expressed in hours) of normal for the UPS input rectifier that
operation of a repairable device maintains the input current sinusoidal
between failures. The MTBF is an and in phase with the utility voltage.
indication on the reliability of a device. It avoids drawing harmonic currents
MTTF (Mean Time To Failure) upstream of the rectifier and thus the
Expected value of the duration need for a filter.
(expressed in hours) of normal Power factor (λ)
operation of a non-repairable device Ratio between the active power P (kW)
(i.e. one for which an MTBF cannot be supplied to a load and the apparent
calculated). The MTTF is an indication power S (kVA) supplied to said load
on the reliability of a device. by an AC power supply.
MTTR (Mean Time To Repair) P
λ=
Expected value (or statistical average S
if available) of the time required to
repair a device. This includes the time Power, primary
required to detect the cause of the Power normally continuously
failure, repair it and start the system available which is usually supplied
up again. by an electrical utility company, but
sometimes by the user's own
Noise level generation. Primary power is
Acoustic decibel level (dBA) connected to the normal AC input
representing the sound power of a of the UPS.
source measured according to
standard ISO 3746. Power, rated
Apparent power Sn (kVA) that a UPS
Off-line can deliver under given load
A UPS where the inverter is off during conditions defined for cos φ = 0.8.
normal mode.
Power, standby
On-line Power intended to replace the primary
A UPS where the invert is on in power in the event of primary-power
normal mode. failure. When standby power is
Percent load available, it is connected to the bypass
The ratio Su (kVA) / Sn (kVA) between AC input of the UPS.
the load power Su and the rated PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
power Sn of a UPS. A high-frequency chopping technique
for UPS inverters using a means of
regulation enabling rapid modification
of pulse widths over a single period.
It is thus possible to maintain the
inverter output voltage within
tolerances, even for non-linear loads.
©2010 Caterpillar
Rectifier/charger Short-circuit voltage of a transformer

UPS component that draws utility (Uscx %)
power to supply the inverter and to Relative measurement (%) of the
float charge or recharge the battery. internal impedance of a transformer.
The alternating input current is This short-circuit impedance is
rectified and then distributed to the commonly called the short-circuit
inverter and the battery. voltage because it is measured during
Redundancy, active redundancy a short-circuit test (shorted secondary
N + 1, N + 2, etc. winding subjected to a current set to
Parallel UPS configuration in which In). For most common three-phase
several UPS units (N + 1, N + 2, etc.) transformers, the value ranges
with equal outputs are parallel between 3 and 6%.
connected and share the load. In the Source impedance
event one UPS unit (N + 1 It is possible to consider that a load
redundancy) or more fail (N + 2, N + 3, is supplied by a perfect voltage
etc.), the other units pick up its share generator Uo, in series with an
without any interruption in the supply internal impedance Zs, where:
of power to the load. The remaining • Uo is the voltage measured
units are sufficient to continue across the load terminals, if the
supplying the load as long as there load is equal to zero (load
are at least N units. terminals in an open circuit),
Redundancy, isolated • Zs is the source impedance, i.e.
UPS configuration in which one or the equivalent impedance as
several UPS units operate on stand- seen from the load terminals
by, with no load or only a partial load, (open circuit), obtained by short-
and can immediately back up a faulty circuiting the upstream voltage
UPS unit by no-break transfer of the generator(s).
load, carried out by a static switch.
Static switch
Reliability Power-electronics device that can be
Probability that a device will used to switch from one source to
accomplish a required function under another without interruption in the
given conditions over a given period supply of power. In a UPS, transfer is
of time. from normal AC power to bypass AC
power and back. Transfer without
interruption is possible due to the fact
that there are no mechanical parts and
the ultra-fast switching capabilities of
the electronic components.
©2010 Caterpillar
Static Transfer Switch (STS) THDI

An STS carries out transfer, THD for Total Harmonic Distortion and
automatically or manually, of one I for current. This is the ratio between
or more three-phase loads, from a the rms value of current harmonics
preferred source to an alternate or and the rms value of the fundamental.
reserve source without interruption. ∞
If the preferred source fails, transfer ∞
is automatic.
THDI%=100
√ ΣI
n=2
I1
n
2
Subtransient reactance of a generator

set (Uscx %)
Relative measurement (%) of the This value may also be expressed in
internal impedance of an AC generator terms of the individual harmonics, e.g.
during harmonic phenomena. This Ihn = In / I1 using the equation:
reactance, also called the longitudinal ∞
∞
subtransient reactance of the

generator, is sometimes identified as
THDI%=100
√ Σ Ih
n=2
n
2
X"d. THDU
For most common generators, the THD for Total Harmonic Distortion and
value ranges between 15 and 20%. U for voltage. This is the ratio between
It can drop to 12% for optimised the rms value of the voltage
systems and to 6% for special devices. harmonics and the rms value of the
fundamental.
System earthing arrangements (SEA)
∞
Standardised system for the ∞
interconnection and earthing of

exposed conductive parts and the THDU%=100
√ ΣU
n=2
U1
2
neutral of a low-voltage electrical

installation. There are three This value may also be expressed in
standardised arrangements: terms of the individual harmonics, e.g.
• TN system, with the TN-C and TN- Uhn = Un / U1 using the equation:
S versions (exposed conductive ∞
∞
parts connected to the neutral),
• TT system (earthed neutral),
THDU%=100
√ Σ Uh
n=2
n
2
• IT system (isolated neutral).

Tolerances (%)
Permissible limits to the variation of a
quantity around its nominal or rated
value, expressed as a percentage.
©2010 Caterpillar
TN system It is generally made up of a rectifier/

System earthing arrangement in charger, an inverter, an energy storage
which the exposed conductive parts for backup power in the event of utility
are interconnected and connected to outages, a static bypass and a
the neutral, the latter being connected maintenance bypass. The bypasses
to the earth. The installation must be make it possible to supply the load
de-energized immediately in the event directly with standby power,
of an insulation fault. There are two TN bypassing the rectifier/charger
systems, TN-S in which the neutral (N) and inverter line.
and the protective conductor (PE) are Transfer to the static bypass is
separate, and TN-C in which the two automatic and without a break in
conductors are combined to form a power to the load if the inverter fails
single conductor (PEN). or a downstream overload exceeds
TT system UPS capacity. Transfer to the
System earthing arrangement in maintenance bypass is carried out
which the neutral and the exposed using manual switches.
conductive parts are directly earthed UPS operating in double-conversion
via individual earthing circuits. mode
The installation must be de-energized A UPS in which the inverter is
immediately in the event of an connected in series between the
insulation fault. normal AC source and the load. All
Ultracapacitors power supplied to the load flows
An ultracapacitor (double-layer through the inverter which completely
electrochemical capacitor) is made regenerates the voltage and isolates
up of two porous, metal-carbon the load from disturbances on the
electrodes placed in a non-aqueous utility. This type of UPS can also
organic electrolyte. supply the load with utility power
directly via a static bypass following
This technology offers very high no-break transfer to a separate AC
capacitances (> 1 000 farads). input. This function ensures the
UPS (Uninterruptible Power System) continuity of supply if an internal fault
An electrical device providing an occurs. What is more, this type of UPS
interface between the normal source is systematically equipped with a
of power, usually the utility, and an maintenance bypass.
elec trical installation generally UPS operating in line-interactive mode
including sensitive loads (computers, A UPS in which the inverter is
instrumentation, etc.). connected in parallel to the AC input
The UPS supplies sinusoidal AC and also charges the energy storage
power free of disturbances and within (interactive operation in reversible
strict amplitude and frequency mode).
tolerances.
©2010 Caterpillar
UPS operating in passive-standby mode

The UPS is connected in parallel to the
normal AC source to provide a
standby power source.
This configuration, a cost-saving
compromise, is used only for low
power ratings (≤ 3 kVA) because it
does not isolate the load from the
source and lets through inrush
currents. What is more, it requires a
relatively high transfer time (≈ 10 ms)
to inverter power in the event of a
power outage or a major disturbance
on the utility.
©2010 Caterpillar
Bibliography
Standards • IEC 61000-3-4 / EN 61000-3-4:
• IEC 60529 / EN 60529: Degrees Limits for harmonic current
of protection provided by emissions (equipment input
enclosures (IP index). current > 16 A per phase).
• IEC 60417: Graphical symbols for • IEC 61000-3-5 / EN 61000-3-5:
diagrams. Limitation of voltage fluctuations
and flicker.
• IEC 60742: Isolating transformers
and safety isolating • EN 50091-2: UPS -
transformers. Electromagnetic compatibility.
• IEC 60947: Low-voltage • EN 50160: Voltage characteristics
switchgear and controlgear. of public networks.
• IEC 60950-1 / EN 60950-1: • IEEE 519: Recommended
Information technology practices and requirements for
equipment - Safety - Part 1: harmonic control in electrical
General requirements. power systems.
• IEC 62040-1/ EN 62040-1: • EMC Directive 2004/108/EC: For
Uninterruptible power systems equipment liable to cause or be
(UPS) - Part 1: General and safety affected by electromagnetic
requirements for UPS. disturbances.
• IEC 62040-2/ EN 62040-2: • European LV directive:
Uninterruptible power systems 2006/95/EC,
(UPS) - Part 2: Electromagnetic • ISO 3746: Determination of
compatibility requirements. sound power levels of noise
• IEC 62040-3 / EN 1000-3: sources.
Uninterruptible power systems • ISO 7779 / EN 27779:
(UPS) - Part 3: Method of Measurement of airborne noise
specifying the test and emitted by computer and
performance requirements. business equipment.
• IEC 61000-2-2 / EN 610002-2:
Compatibility levels for low-
frequency conducted disturbances
and signalling in public low-
voltage power supply systems.
• IEC 61000-3-2 / EN 61000-3-2:
Limits for harmonic current
emissions (equipment input
current ≤ 16 A per phase).
©2010 Caterpillar
®
LEBE0004-00 © 2010 Caterpillar Printed in U.S.A.

All rights reserved.

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A P P L I C AT I O N A N D I N S TA L L AT I O N G U I D E

Double Conversion UPS

Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

Key factors in UPS installations

UPS in electrical installations

Figure 1: Functions of the components in installations with UPS..

Sources of information in setting Table 1 indicates:

Choices Purpose See Additional information See

Basic notions on installations with UPS

continue supplying the load if

Figure 2: Double-conversion static UPS..

Power quality of UPS Voltage quality for linear loads

Figure 3: Voltage and current for linear loads..

Voltage quality for non-linear a frequency that is a multiple

Figure 4: The current drawn by non-linear loads is distorted by the harmonics..

Harmonic spectrum of the current

rms value of harmonic k

UPS power availability The availability of the energy supplied

• The computer and commun-

.Figure 6: Evolution in the level of availability required by applications...

How can availability be Key factors to the availability of

Figure 7: The required levels of availability have resulted in the.

This trend has led designers, Upgradeability

Power and type of load • The corresponding rms values

i(t) = i1(t) + ∑ihk(t) total phase current

THDI = √I 12 + I22 + I32 + I42 + .... Current total harmonic distortion

UPS percent load The installation designer must

Ratings of single-UPS Bypass AC input. If transfer is not

2. Rated apparent power of the UPS power required, otherwise

Necessary checks Example

Figure 9: Example of an installation...

Power levels under steady-state

An 80 kVA rating would not be • Computer system - In = 10 /

If the four loads are started comprises an automatic bypass

Power levels in redundant Select in the UPS range the power

• If 2+1 redundancy is used, two • This is the case because 2 x 50 x

Control of upstream harmonics

Figure 11: Input rectifier and harmonics..

Filtering of upstream High power factor at the rectifier input

Harmonic % of H1 (fundamental) Filtering and parallel connection

Selection of a filter Efficiency

Type of filter LC non- LC LC with

Diagram Rectifier Rectifier UPS

Figure A Figure B Figure C Figure D Figure E

Figure F Figure G Figure H Figure I Figure J

Table 6: Comparison of individual harmonic-filtering solutions..

Load Load Load

Figure AA Figure BB Figure CC Figure DD

Table 7: Comparison of overall solutions..

System earthing arrangements

Figure 13: Direct and indirect contacts..

Types of system earthing

First letter Second letter Third letter (for TN)

System earthing arrangements

Figure 14: IT system..

Earthed neutral (TT)

Figure 15: TT system..

Exposed conductive parts connected

Comparison of system earthing arrangements (SEA)