Brain

A
brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and

most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs
for senses such as vision. It is the most complex organ in a vertebrate's body. In a human,
the cerebral cortex contains approximately 14–16 billion neurons,[1] and the estimated number of
neurons in the cerebellum is 55–70 billion.[2] Each neuron is connected by synapses to several
thousand other neurons. These neurons typically communicate with one another by means of
long fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant
parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells.
Physiologically, brains exert centralized control over a body's other organs. They act on the rest
of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of
chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to
changes in the environment. Some basic types of responsiveness such as reflexes can be
mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral ganglia, but sophisticated purposeful control of
behavior based on complex sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a
centralized brain.
The operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way
they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved.[3] Recent models in modern
neuroscience treat the brain as a biological computer, very different in mechanism from an
electronic computer, but similar in the sense that it acquires information from the surrounding
world, stores it, and processes it in a variety of ways.
This article compares the properties of brains across the entire range of animal species, with the
greatest attention to vertebrates. It deals with the human brain insofar as it shares the properties
of other brains. The ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the
human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there
because much more can be said about them in a human context. The most important is brain
disease and the effects of brain damage, that are covered in the human brain article.
Contents
 1Anatomy
o 1.1Cellular structure
o 1.2Evolution
 2Development
 3Physiology
o 3.1Neurotransmitters and receptors
o 3.2Electrical activity
o 3.3Metabolism
 4Function
o 4.1Perception
o 4.2Motor control
o 4.3Sleep
o 4.4Homeostasis
o 4.5Motivation
o 4.6Learning and memory
 5Research
o 5.1History
 6Society and culture
o 6.1As food
o 6.2In rituals
 7See also
 8References
 9External links
Anatomy
Cross section of the olfactory bulb of a rat, stained in two different ways at the same time: one stain shows
neuron cell bodies, the other shows receptors for the neurotransmitter GABA.
The shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species, and identifying common features
is often difficult.[4] Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of brain architecture that apply
across a wide range of species.[5] Some aspects of brain structure are common to almost the
entire range of animal species;[6] others distinguish "advanced" brains from more primitive ones,
or distinguish vertebrates from invertebrates.[4]
The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, but many more
sophisticated techniques have been developed. Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work
with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives, and then sliced apart for
examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the brain consists of areas of so-called grey
matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter, with a lighter color. Further
information can be gained by staining slices of brain tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring
out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible
to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope, and to trace the pattern of
connections from one brain area to another.[7]
Cellular structure
Neurons generate electrical signals that travel along their axons. When a pulse of electricity reaches a
junction called a synapse, it causes a neurotransmitter chemical to be released, which binds to receptors
on other cells and thereby alters their electrical activity.
The brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells: neurons and glial
cells. Glial cells (also known as glia or neuroglia) come in several types, and perform a number
of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation, and guidance of
development. Neurons, however, are usually considered the most important cells in the brain.
[8]
The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to specific target cells
over long distances.[8] They send these signals by means of an axon, which is a thin protoplasmic
fiber that extends from the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other
areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body. The length of an axon
can be extraordinary: for example, if a pyramidal cell (an excitatory neuron) of the cerebral cor

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brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and

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