This is a peer-reviewed, post-print (final draft post-refereeing) version of the following published document:

Watson, Nick J and Parker, Andrew (2015) The Mystical and Sublime in
Extreme Sports: Experiences of Psychological Well-Being or Christian
Revelation? Studies in World Christianity, 21 (3). pp. 260-281. ISSN 1354-
9901

Official URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/swc.2015.0127

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/swc.2015.0127
EPrint URI: http://eprints.glos.ac.uk/id/eprint/2985

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PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR TEXT.

This is a peer-reviewed, post-print (final draft post-refereeing) version of the following
published document:

Watson, Nick J and Parker, Andrew (2015). The

Mystical and Sublime in Extreme Sports:
Experiences of Psychological Well-Being or
Christian Revelation? Studies in World Christianity,
21 (3), 260-281. ISSN 1354-9901

Published in Studies in World Christianity, and available online at:

http://www.euppublishing.com/doi/10.3366/swc.2015.0127

We recommend you cite the published (post-print) version.

The URL for the published version is http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/swc.2015.0127

Disclaimer

The University of Gloucestershire has obtained warranties from all depositors as to their title
in the material deposited and as to their right to deposit such material.

The University of Gloucestershire makes no representation or warranties of commercial

utility, title, or fitness for a particular purpose or any other warranty, express or implied in
respect of any material deposited.

The University of Gloucestershire makes no representation that the use of the materials will
not infringe any patent, copyright, trademark or other property or proprietary rights.

The University of Gloucestershire accepts no liability for any infringement of intellectual

property rights in any material deposited but will remove such material from public view
pending investigation in the event of an allegation of any such infringement.

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR TEXT

 The Mystical and Sublime in Extreme Sports: Experiences of
‘Psychological Well-Being’ or ‘Christian Revelation’?

Nick Watson and Andrew Parker

Citation: Watson, N.J. and Parker, A. (2015) The Mystical and Sublime in Extreme Sports:
Experiences of ‘Psychological Well-Being’ or Christian Revelation, Studies in World
Christianity, 21(3) pp: 260-281.

Pre-Proof Copy.

1
 ABSTRACT

The aim of this article is to examine the legitimacy of claims that athletes in

extreme sports may encounter the mystical and sublime, when examined though a

Christian theological lens. Drawing on the works of theologians and religious studies

scholars, in particular, that of Richard Zaehner (1961), and social scientists that have

written on the topic of the mystical and sublime in sporting experience, the two major

themes explored are: (i) the differences and similarities between positive

psychological states commonly reported in extreme sport, for example, the ‘flow’

experience and theistic mystical experiences articulated in the bible and in Christian

theology, and (ii) the possibility of experiencing the sublime through the nature-

person interaction in wilderness settings. As to whether extreme sport experience

provides access the mystical realms of the Holy that Rudolph Otto, St Paul, Jonathan

Edwards and St. John of the Cross refer to, our answer is an emphatic no. That said,

we wish to clearly articulate our endorsement of sports such as mountaineering,

surfing and snowboarding. Within a balanced theology of leisure, they can be seen as

forms of deep play, an avenue to well-being and growth, even spiritual expression in

an aesthetic, creative sense that provides opportunities for meaningful, therapeutic and

exhilarating wilderness activities. It is hoped that for those readers wishing to delve

further into this challenging and complicated field of study, our argument has

provided a ‘position statement’ that will provoke further scholarship and empirical

research.

Keywords: extreme sports, mystical, sublime, well-being, wilderness

2
 INTRODUCTION

Over the past thirty years there has been a marked increase in writings that

have identified the potential of sport to act as a vehicle for experiencing the religious

and mystical dimension of life and in turn, a sense of psychological well-being. Ex-

athlete and philosopher of sport, Howard Slusher (1967: 127) was one of the first to

suggest that '… within the movements of the athlete a wonderful mystery of life is

present, a mystical experience that is too close to the religious to call it anything else'.

Indeed, modern athletes often describe self-transcendent experiences using ‘religious

and spiritual metaphors’ that seem to point to a supernatural origin. There are

numerous documented testimonies by athletes from both 'mainstream'—for example,

football, hockey, golf and tennis—and so-called 'extreme sports', with no religious

affiliation that have had experiences, which were interpreted as mystical, occult, or

religious (Murphy & White, 1995). As Higgs and Braswell (2004: 195) suggest 'the

language of athletes "in the zone" or maybe even transcending the zone is convincing

and often extremely spiritual in tone, almost evangelical'.

Psychologists and sport theorists have conceptualised athletes’ experiences of

the mystical and being-in-the-zone, as: peak experiences (Ravizza, 1984), states of

flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975), moments of deep play (Ackerman, 1997) and in the

eastern tradition, Zen states (Herrigel, 1971/1999). These positive psychological states

can be legitimately grouped together with mystical and religious experiences and

broadly understood as altered states of consciousness (ASC). Psychologists of religion,

Ralph Hood et al. (1996: 198) have defined an ASC as an 'introspective awareness of

a different mode of experiencing the world'. Following this, it is clear that an ASC

does not require a religious (supernatural) source and may be derived entirely from

the psyche of an individual. Nevertheless, taking at face value athletes' ASC that are

3
frequently rich in religious and mystical language, a number of contemporary authors

have made the questionable leap of suggesting that sports can provide an avenue to

mystical and religious experience per se.

Whilst this small corpus of writings on mysticism in sport provides interesting

and insightful commentary, one might argue that, at times, it lacks theological rigour

whilst also demonstrating a degree of an etymological naivety. Theological terms,

such as the 'mystical’ and the closely related concept of the ‘numinous’ (Otto,

1968/1929: 1), are frequently applied to sporting experience with a liberality which

may have alarmed their original proponents.

On this note, Higgs and Braswell (2004: 183) observe that 'the extraordinary

things that occur in them [sports] in the flow of performance are admittedly

"uncanny," that is, ‘seeming to have a supernatural character or origin, that is, eerie

and mysterious'. While acknowledging this, the authors, whom we are in agreement

with, are deeply suspicious as to the suggested supernatural root (and validity) of, so-

called mystical sport experiences. A critical analysis of the oft-cited symbiosis

between sport and religious and mystical ideas is then warranted and a clearly defined

philosophical and anthropological start point is necessary. Unfortunately, this

foundation has been lacking in past work that has suffered from 'a general weakness

in the quality of "conceptual tools," especially "definitions" and "distinctions", the

foundation of Higgs and Braswell's (2004: 17) polemic.

What follows, is in no way an attempt at such a broad-ranging and nuanced

analysis, as Higgs and Braswell (2004), who gazing through a Christian theological

lens, 'took to task' a group of scholars they aptly call the 'sport apologists'. While

implicitly also challenging some of the 'sport apologists' overarching assumptions, the

focus of this article is to examine the authenticity and validity of mystical and

4
numinous experiences in sport, specifically extreme sport. As the sports discussed are

conducted in 'wilderness' settings, an additional aim is to explore the possibility of

sublime experience through the nature-person interaction. There is a plethora of

existing research and scholarship concerning spiritual and transcendent aspects of

sport participation, using eastern religious paradigms, especially Zen Buddhism.

Conversely, very little has been written on the mystical in sport from a monotheistic

perspective, in particular adopting a Christian theological framework.

By way of corrective, a mainstream Christian theological worldview and

anthropological understanding of human beings forms the basis for the present

analysis of mysticism in extreme sport. To this end, discussion is predicated on the

biblical position that all human persons are made in the image of God - imago Dei

(Gen. 1: 27) and comprise soul, body and spirit (1 Thess. 5: 23). However, prior to

embarking on our main arguments, we begin with a brief overview of the evolution of

extreme sports and their defining characteristics.

The following section provides the reader with some background information

on the evolution of extreme sports and their defining characteristics.

SETTING THE SCENE

Although having its roots in the 1960s counter-cultural movement, during the

past decade there has been an exponential increase in the popularity of what has been

variously called 'extreme sports', 'lifestyle sports', 'action sports', 'adventure sports'

and 'whizz sports' as an alternative to mainstream sports (Wheaton, 2004: 1). The

launch of The Extreme Sports Channel, with an estimated audience of 20 million in

5
Europe alone and the world-wide proliferation of extreme sports as mainstream

'tourist activities', especially in New Zealand, Australia and South Africa, is evidence

of this challenge to the previous dominance of mainstream sports.

The global nature of this phenomenon is also demonstrated in the evolution of

the X Games, birthed as a parallel event to the Modern Olympic Games. In 1997 the

X-Games had over 500 competitors from 20 different countries (Rinehart, 2000: 504).

Predictably, this new generation of sports and in particular, the term extreme, has

been exploited by media and marketing moguls, who have created a related (and

highly lucrative) sporting sub-culture. This has led to virtually any alternative sport

form being questionably classified (somewhat questionable in our view) as extreme.

Following Russell's (2005: 2) philosophical analysis of The Value of Dangerous

Sports, the term 'extreme' will only be used herein to define sports that may lead to

serious injury or death. In a further attempt to maintain clarity and focus, only those

activities that are undertaken in wilderness environments will be considered.

Specifically, big-wave surfing, mountaineering and back-country skiing and

snowboarding, as the role of the natural environment in triggering mystical

experiences has been shown to be an important variable.

One of the most commonly cited reasons for the shift towards these alternative

sport forms, is the apparent need of those concerned to escape from the increasingly

materialistic, paternalistic and utilitarian western lifestyle. Implicit in this movement

is the 'anti-mainstream [sport]' impulse (Rinehart, 2000: 504). As sport sociologist,

Rebecca Heino (2000: 183) states 'the Zen of snowboarding is far removed from the

competitive nature and bureaucratization of contemporary sport'. This is concurrent

with the wider cultural revolution that has seen a gradual shift away from organised

6
religion towards a much more inclusive and eclectic understanding of ‘spirituality’

and ‘well-being’. Both leisure theorists (see for example, Heintzman, 2003: 28) and

theologians have acknowledged that a distinguishing facet of many new spiritualities,

is the re-emergence of the relationship between religious and spiritual notions, the

wilderness, and recreational activities. As mystical theologian, Bernard McGinn

(2005: 12), argues, 'Today . . . forests, oceans, mountains . . . rivers, deserts and the

wilderness are appreciated as natural cathedrals, sacred places and sanctuaries for

humans to commune with the Holy'.

Besides the well-documented role of the wilderness, there are a number of

other distinguishing features of extreme sports. Risk-taking and thrill seeking, a

generally non-competitive ethic, periods of isolation that lead to opportunity for

contemplation and varying degrees of suffering and discomfort, have all been cited as

catalysts for encountering the spiritual and mystical (Lester, 1983; 2004). after

Having experienced a mystical state of transcendence during a life-threatening

encounter alone on a mountain, extreme sport enthusiast and writer Rob Schultheis

(1996: 50), has argued that there are clear parallels between extreme sports and

Shamanistic and Zen Buddhist rituals and initiations. 'Many of the Shamanistic

training rituals were really nothing more than extreme games, like mountaineering,

distance running, trekking, engineered to deliberately induce the kind of power and

ecstasy I had accidentally stumbled upon on Mount Neva'. Differentiating between

'nature mysticism' (natural) and 'theistic mysticism' (supernatural), will then be a key

aspect in attempting to clarify the source and authenticity of the 'power and ecstasy'

experienced in such circumstances. In the next section we consider theories of

7
mysticism and offer a foundational understanding of the topic and how it may be

applied to extreme sport.

TOWARDS UNDERSTANDING MYSTICISM IN EXTREME SPORT

Overview

Scholars from the psychology of religion have studied about mysticism in a

number of different contexts. Music, art, significant life events - birth and death,

religious worship, mind-altering drugs, psychosis, artificial stimulation of the right

temporal lobe, solitary nature situations, the practice of meditation and prayer, sex

and stressful situations are some of the activities and states that have being shown to

trigger mystical states. A review of the ‘psychology of religion’ literature reveals only

one text, that of Fontana (2003: 127-129) that makes a passing, and uncritical,

reference to sport as a potential medium for mystical experiences. Our first task then

is to analyse the legitimacy of claims by scholars, as to the spiritual and mystical

nature of positive psychological states often experienced in sport.

Accounts of psychological states, such as peak experiences and ‘flow’ in sport

(a positive and transcendent type psychological state) are often tinged with mystical

or religious undertone. Hence, boundaries between the operational definitions of peak

experiences and flow and theological concepts, such as the mystical and numinous,

are easily confused. Maslow's (1962: appendix) 19-point characterisation of peak

experiences, for example, contains a number of dimensions that clearly allude to

religious and mystical concepts, such as awe and reverence, feeling God-like and ego-

transcendence. In relation to the experience of flow-states, Csikszentmihalyi (1990: 1-

5) does not attempt to equate flow experience with mysticism or the Holy Spirit.

8
Others, however, have done so liberally, but with little accurate theological exposition

or reference to primary sources. Whilst there is arguably a historical connection

between 'flow' and the 'Holy Spirit' (if only at a conceptual and in-part experiential

level), the important distinction to make here is that flow in sports can be more

closely aligned, at the ontological level, to the experience of 'nature mysticism' that

emerges from the psyche. Indeed, this theme is central to our overall thesis and will

be examined in more depth in due course. First, however, some definitions and

explanation of key concepts is required and a brief historical background to the study

of mysticism.

Mysticism is to some degree inseparable from the related concepts of religion

and spirituality and the fact that the terms are often used interchangeably further

clouds conceptual boundaries between them. Religion has been defined as 'a system

of beliefs in divine or superhuman power, and practices of worship or other rituals

directed toward such a power' (Argyle & Beit-Hallahmi, 1975: 1). Examples are

Christianity, Judaism, Islam and Buddhism. Spirituality is a term that Spilka (1993: 1)

suggests is a 'fuzzy' concept that now 'embraces obscurity with passion'. It can be

defined from a religious or humanist perspective, where personal meaning is derived

from whatever people deem to be ultimate, and valued in and of itself. This has led to

wide-spread 'semantic abuse' (Higgs & Braswell, 2004: 185), in the world at large and

in modern sport, with very questionable parallels being drawn between popular terms

such as 'sporting spirit' and 'team spirit' and the biblical understanding of the Holy

spirit and Christian spirituality and mysticism.

Mysticism is not to be regarded as a religion itself, but the highest expression

of all true religions and a means of directly experiencing the supernatural. 'The

immediate feeling of the unity of self with God . . . in which the self and the world are

9
alike forgotten, the subject knows himself to be in the possession of the highest and

fullest truth' (Woods, 1980: 20), is one amongst twenty-five definitions that have been

proffered down the ages. Any worthwhile discussion of mysticism must then begin

with clear definitions of terms and concepts.

Theologians suggest that all authentic Christian mysticism flows from 'Jesus

Christ as the mediator, the God-man as we call him, the person in whom the

incomprehensible Deity is communicated to us; translated so to speak, into a form

accessible to our minds'. Macquarrie (2004: 243), has suggested ten characteristics of

Christian mystical experience which include a direct relation to God, enhanced self-

knowledge through cognitive elements of the encounter, a sense of awe, states of

ecstasy or rapture, and perhaps most characteristic, and important here, a feeling of

unity with God. For Spanish mystic, St. John of the Cross (1542-1591), this 'state of

divine union consisted in the total transformation of the will into the will of God' (St.

John of the Cross, 1922: 2).

Accordingly, the Christian tradition has always taught that the only way to

authenticate the claims of mystics is through evidence of inner transformation and the

fruit shown in their lives (Gal. 5:22-26). Christian mystic, German Dominican Meister

Eckhart (1260-1327) stresses this point in stating that, 'those who are out for

"feelings" or for "great experiences" and only wish to have the pleasant side: that is

self-will and nothing else' and 'what a man takes in contemplation he must pour out in

love'. Do so-called mystical athletes undergo anything remotely resembling 'the soul's

purification from vices' that has been the benchmark of Christian mysticism for the

past two millennia? Do extreme athletes come away from these experiences with a

conviction of the consequences of the encounter and ‘a new commitment to humility’,

the essence of Christian discipleship? We suspect not. More likely, as McGinn (2005;

10
19) indicates in the introduction to his encyclopaedic commentary on mysticism, 'in

common parlance, the word is often taken to refer to anything that is strange or

mysterious', including it seems, 'uncanny' and 'meta-normal' sport experiences

described by Murphy and White (1995: 1-5).

This eclecticism in the sports-mysticism literature generally stems from a

pluralistic understanding of mysticism. For example, William James’ and Abraham

Maslow’s psychological theories of religion and mysticism and the psychical research

of Fredrick Meyers, provide the bedrock of much of Murphy and White's work.

Because mysticism is a form of spirituality 'ideally suited to the post-modern age:

experiential, individualistic and progressive' (Barnes, 2003: 278), it is not difficult to

see why some authors have tried to 'mystify' and even 'deify' sport experience. One

aspect of this has been a resurgence of interest in Jamesian thought in both academic

and popular writings.

William James' (1842-1910), in his classic, The Varieties of Religious

Experience (1902) was the first to seriously examine the phenomenology of religious

and mystical experience and to consistently use the term. However, often overlooked

is that this theme was implicit in the Protestant liberal theology of Fredrich

Schleiermacher. (1768-1834). Having been heavily influenced by German

romanticism, Schleiermacher constructed an experience based theology that had 'all

the ingredients of the theory of a mystical core of religion in its primary sense'

(Jantzen, 1990: 60). In his magnum opus The Christian Faith (1928/1830),

Schleiermacher contends that religion is not to be found in doctrines, moral codes, or

institutions, but in humans’ immediate ‘feeling of absolute dependence’ on God.

Following in part, James (1902: 401) advocated that 'personal religious experience

has its root and centre in mystical states of consciousness'.

11
 Through his research (that is oft-cited by those advocating sports mysticism),

James (1902) identified four defining factors of mystical experience: Ineffability – the

experience is inexpressible, and it cannot be transferred to others; Noetic Quality – the

experience offers insight or knowledge beyond the intellect; Transiency – mystical

states cannot be sustained for long; and Passivity – a sense of being acted upon by an

outside force (402-404). Talk of an outside force and absence of reference to a

transcendent object, that is, God, indicates that James clearly could not swallow the

core message of Schleiermacher theology, however liberal his interpretation of the

Christian story. His definition of religious experience as 'the feelings, acts and

experiences of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to

stand in relation to whatever they may consider divine' (53), clearly reflects his lack

of sympathy for monotheism. Despite this, James’ classic work has been foundational

to the phenomenological study of mysticism, in both western and eastern religious

traditions. Further clarification of the yawning abyss that exists between the

experiences of religious pilgrims and modern sporting mystics, can be found in

Rudolf Otto's (1869-1937) landmark work on religious experience, The Idea of the

Holy.

Otto’s (1968/1923) phenomenological analysis of religious experience, in

which he coined the term the ‘numinous’, describes the primal form of religious

experience which is characterised by non-rational and ineffable feelings of

‘awe’, ’mystery’, and ‘fear’. Numerous scholars have drawn comparisons between the

‘numinous’ and the ‘mystical’, and have noted that they are two poles of religious

experience that are ultimately united (Spilka et al., 2003). There are conceptual

differences, however. The numinous is based upon an awareness of the “holy other”

beyond nature that the subject feels in communion with, while mystical experiences

12
tend to engender a sense of unity or oneness with God, and/or with self, objects in the

environment and/or the world.

The word ‘numinous’ is a derivative of the Latin term numen, describing the

power within the sacred and transcendent object (God, Allah or Yahweh) that evokes

the response from the subject. The transcendent object is what Hood (1995) calls the

'foundational reality' of a faith tradition. Often overlooked is that Otto recognised the

holy as both a rational and non-rational (not irrational) aspect of human nature, but

clearly sees the numinous as the 'innermost essence of religion'. He richly described

the complete experience of a human-divine encounter as the mysterium tremendum et

fascinas (the awe-inspiring and fascinating mystery), drawing on powerful extracts

from the Old Testament (e.g., Gen. 18:27; Ex. 23:27; Job. 9:34; 13:21), to illustrate

the fear and ‘ontological nothingness’ that is felt when confronted by the transcendent

God - the numinous object. This fear is not negative, as the well-known Proverb (9:10)

communicates, 'The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom'. 'Awe' is perhaps a

better word to express this Godly fear, a 'realisation of one's own littleness and

apparent insignificance in the face of that which is truly great' (Maquarrie, 2004: 242).

American theologian and revivalist leader of the 'Great Awakening', Jonathan

Edwards (1703-1758) describes such an experience (Edwards and Smith, 2008: xxvii):

The person of Christ appeared ineffably excellent . . . which kept me the

greater part of the time in a flood of tears, and weeping aloud. I felt an ardency

of soul to be what I know not otherwise how to express, emptied and

annihilated; to lie in the dust, and to be full of Christ alone: to love him with a

holy and pure love . . . to serve him and follow him; to be perfectly sanctified

and made pure.

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 Reflecting on Edward’s vivid encounter with the Holy, biblical revelation and

the abundance of ancient and modern mystical writings, it is legitimate to ask whether

the scores of anecdotal accounts from athletes reported as having a ‘numinous

dimension' bear any resemblance, to Otto’s monotheistic model? After selectively

presenting elements of Otto’s thesis, Murphy and White (1995: 29) state that:

The athlete knows that being in perfect control of the football, or the puck, or

the bat may be a matter more of grace than of will, and that one can only “do

it” by letting it happen, by letting something else take over. And it is the

awareness and the closeness to that “something else” that can lead to terror.

Similarly, professor of comparative religion, Tom Faulkner (2001: 186),

seems to teach his students that in attending an ice-hockey game they can experience

'fandom as a way of being religious' and even encounter the mysterium tremendum.

Presumably, because of the 'fear and terror' that may ensue in the combative sport of

ice hockey? In his chapter Training into Transcendence, Buddhist scholar, Charles

Prebish (1993: 223), suggests in a similar fashion that 'in the religious breakthrough in

running, in which ultimate reality is truly manifest, time is transcended altogether . By

that I mean to say that time has no function whatsoever for the duration of the

apprehension of what Rudolph Otto has called the “wholly other”’.

We find it perplexing after reading Otto and the Old Testament narratives of

Abraham, Moses and Job that he points to, how these authors find these parallels. We

would agree with Maquarrie (2004: 243), who remarks that for 'over-enthusiastic

believers in the spiritual marriage, Otto's stress on the tremendum is a justifiable

14
corrective'. The experiences of athletes and fans therefore, although highly valuable in

themselves, when accurately interpreted seem to be far from an experience of Otto’s

'wholly other' transcendent object (God, Allah, or Yahweh).

Building on the work of Schleiermacher, James and Otto, a number of

twentieth century thinkers such as Huxley (1954), Stace (1960), Zaehner (1961) and

Underhill (1955/1911), have provided reflection on mystical experience across the

world’s religions. Predictably numerous models for mysticism have been developed.

The typology of Richard Zaehner is useful here, as it provides a degree of clarity in

the distinction between natural and supernatural mystical experience in sport and it is

to this that we now turn.

Nature Mysticism and Supernatural Mysticism in Extreme Sport

In his well-respected study, Zaehner (1961) notes that only theistic based

mysticisms are recognised as including union or oneness with a monotheistic God (as

with Otto’s numinous). Monistic mysticisms are those that involve feelings of union

or oneness with ‘self’, objects in the experients’ perceptual field, for example, in

extreme sport, with the mountains or the ocean, and/or with God. For example, nine

rock climbers in Csikszentmihalyi's (1975: 88) seminal study of flow categorised their

experiences as a state of deep-flow, describing them as 'transcendent, religious,

visionary, or ecstatic'. One participant reported, 'you don't feel like you're doing

something as a conscious being; you're adapting to the rock and becoming part of it'

(86). Another experienced, 'the Zen feeling, like meditation or concentration. One

thing you're after is the one-pointedness of mind . . . somehow the right thing is done

without ever thinking about it' (87).

15
 Similarly, in other extreme sports such as big-wave surfing, participants often

attest to their 'communion with nature' during participation, reporting feelings of

'oneness with the environment' and 'loss of self in the activity'. This is commonly

experienced through the 'Holy Grail of surfing', that is, the surfer getting 'barrelled'

inside a cylindrical shaped wave. For example, one 'soul surfer' suggests that this is a

time when 'man and board are as centaur riding the waves, so that for a short spell

they are indistinguishable, and all three unite with that sense of oneness and

identification' and that it is a '… complete integration of man’s natural body and spirit

with the violent forces of nature in the most total and satisfying way possible'

(Muirhead, 1962: 52). Surfers often use this type of language to capture the beauty of

the activity (Farmer, 1992: 241), which can be traced back to the anti-establishment,

counterculture of 'soul surfing' in the 1960s (Booth, 2004: 94). Arguably, this

informal 'folk speech' that characterises the sporting sub-cultures of surfing,

snowboarding and perhaps to a lesser degree mountaineering, is one of the main

reasons behind the trend to describe sporting experience in a spiritual or mystical way

(Segrave, 1997: 211). This characteristic aside, we should not entirely discredit the

idea of mystical experience (in its broadest sense) in extreme sport, as 'nature

mysticism exists and as is widely attested is not open to serious doubt' (Zaehner, 1960:

199).

The crux of Zaehner's comparative model, which seeks to differentiate theistic

and nature mysticism as clearly as possible, is his critique of Aldous Huxley's famous

book, The Doors of Perception (1954). Huxley, a novelist and social critic had in his

later years personally experimented with the hallucinogenic Mescalin, a clinical drug

capable of evoking a state similar to schizophrenia, or more accurately the manic state

of manic-depressive psychosis. Huxley's superficial interpretation, that his ecstatic

16
experiences were equitable with those of religious mystics of all religions, was the

chief reason for Zaehner embarking on his comparative study of mysticism.

Unfortunately, like others who have stepped outside of their field of expertise (of

whom William James and Freud are noteworthy examples), Huxley's suggestions

were ironically utilised by Zaehner to buttress his argument for theistic mysticism.

Proposing that nature mysticism is merely an 'expansion of the personality' Zaehner

(1960: 200) concludes that:

By making the confusion one is forced into the position that God is simply

another term for Nature; and it is an observable fact that in Nature there is

neither morality nor charity nor even common decency. God then is reduced in

sum-total of natural impulses on which the terms of 'good' and 'evil' have no

meaning. Such a god is sub-human, a god for animals, not for rational

creatures; and to experience such a god has rightly been termed 'downward

transcendence' by Mr. Huxley .

Taking into consideration the 'moral relativism' that may ensue from Huxley's

philosophical position, it is interesting to note that his ingestion of Mescalin was

generally ‘washed down with bourbon’ and that he was a pioneer of recreational drug

use in the 1960s. There are, of course, links here to the drug taking that was a 'source

of counter-culture enlightenment' in the 1960s surf scene, a sub-culture that was

deeply wedded to 'philosophical environmentalism and eastern mysticism' (Booth.

2004: 97). Hence, surfers anecdotal accounts such as, 'when I surf, I dance for

Krishna', and 'claimed journeys to "inner truth"' often 'degenerate, on inspection, into

puddles of vomit' (Caute, 1988: 40). Warning that 'though sports and play may

17
provide aesthetic pleasure, natural delight, and rest for the mind and soul, they are not

inherently divine and should be watched over very carefully lest they show signs of

corruption', Higgs (1992: 101), would then seem to have a valid point.

We would like to venture the thesis, that these seemingly very positive

experiences in extreme sport are more likely a form of 'nature mysticism', or what

Zaehner (1961) termed 'pan-en-henism', that is, they occur in the psyche of the athlete

and are more accurately understood as flow-states, peak experiences or Zen-states,

which often leads to the well-being of the athlete. Zaehner defines such mind-states as

'a unifying experience in which the sense of individuality is lost and merged in a

blissful sense of unity of all nature' (180). In this view, Prebish's (1993: 69)

observation that 'very often the mystical [in sport] is described in terms consistent

with Asian religion', as are modern renderings of the peak experience in sport, brings

to the fore one of the key aspects of our argument, the doctrine of 'pantheism'; a belief

that still haunts the Christian mystics' doctrine of God.

Nature mysticism is intimately linked to the theological idea of pantheism.

Pantheism states that God infuses the entire Universe, therefore 'all things', including

humans and nature are inseparable (as in Hinduism and Buddhism). This theme is

clearly evident in the results of Lester‘s (1983: 38) qualitative investigation of the

psychological dynamics of high-altitude mountain climbing on a Mount Everest

expedition. One climber shared that he 'always felt a very close spiritual association

with the mountains. I love to be free completely free. I firmly believe that God

exists . . . as I climb I begin losing contact, in a physical sense, with the world

below . . . I feel an extremely intimate oneness with the universe'. Distinguished

Christian mystics, such as German Dominican Meister Eckhart (1260-1327),

advocated a creation-centred pantheistic theology, of sorts. Some 20th century

18
theologies, such as that of existentialist Paul Tillich, have also been in part at least,

accommodating to pantheistic ideas, which considering the long history of theological

debate around this issue may hold some credence. This said, this should not lead us to

make the common mistake evident in many pantheistic writings, that theism proposes

God's transcendence as distance between God and the world, whereas the true

meaning of transcendence is difference between God and the world (Bauckham, 2003:

182). Whether legitimately so or not, pantheism in all its guises, is widely accepted as

a dissent from Christian theological orthodoxy.

The reason for this is because it eradicates the qualitative distinction between

creature (human persons) and the creator (God). The creature-creator distinction that

Otto and others, such as the Protestant theologian, Karl Barth (1969/1933), were keen

to emphasise as fundamental in appreciating the 'Otherness' and majesty of God.

Heavily influenced by Hasidic mysticism and that of Nicholas of Cusa and Jacob

Böhme, the topic of his doctoral dissertation, the great Jewish philosopher Martin

Buber (1952), was not convinced by Barth and others of a similar ilk. He argued that

they had overplayed divine transcendence (a sovereign God 'out there') at the cost of

divine immanence (opportunity for 'intimacy' and mystical encounter with God) in

their quest to put Christ back at the centre of the theological project, following the

liberal theology of the 19th century. Buber's moderate voice is perhaps wise in 'so

difficult a field', where Stace (1960: 7) cautions, 'we cannot expect "proofs",

"disproofs", "refutations", or "certainties"'.

On this theme, Smart (1978) reminds us that a natural mystical experience

may also include a supernatural dimension. Indeed, many of the most notable

Christian mystics, such as St. Theresa of Avila, were never completely certain

whether their mystical experiences originated from God or Satan. What then, are we

19
to make of sporting mystics who suggest that 'I sought God and found him there

easily, there in the waves and people of surfing' (Quinn, 1965: 82). Following Higgs

and Baswell (2004: 219), we doubt that mystical experience with the 'other' 'is as

uniform and handy as Prebish and other sport apologists make it appear'.

While this is so, it is important to note that within a Christian world-view all

persons (Gen. 2:7) have the potential of spiritual awareness as they are made in the

image of God. And through active contemplation on, and interaction with, the

beauties of creation can undoubtedly glean something of the spiritual. Paul writes in

his letter to the Romans (1:20), his most noted theological treatise, 'for since the

creation of the world God’s invisible qualities-his eternal power and divine nature-

have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that men are

without excuse'. There is something of the recognition of the 'sublime' in this verse

from Paul’s letter to the Romans, which is preceded of course by many poetic

accounts of the majesty and mystery of creation in the Psalms and Job.

THE BEAUTIFUL AND SUBLIME: SPORTING EXPERIENCES IN THE

WILDERNESS

In his critique of 'sport as religion', Higgs (1992: 94) argues 'sports belong to

the realm of the beautiful, play the natural, and religion to the sublime'. While this

may be so for traditional sports, the beauty and awe inspiring characteristics of the

wilderness may provide opportunity for experiencing something of the religious

sublime in extreme sports. 'Passive appreciation of natural beauty or in the active

merging with the mountain through the dynamics of climbing', is how Mitchell (1983:

147) describes what he sees as the religious and sublime qualities of mountaineering.

20
This human capacity to encounter a deeper reality through the beauty of creation is

something that has long entertained philosophers and theologians alike.

Throughout the twentieth century beauty in all its guises has been a major

theme in the allegories and metaphors of literary giants, such as C.S Lewis and J.R.R

Tolkien, and theologians and spiritual writers, such as Hans Urs von Balthasar and

Thomas Merton. 'Every experience of beauty points to infinity', and ‘the beautiful

brings with it a self-evidence that enlightens without meditation’ Balthasar tell us in

volume I of his magisterial work, The Glory of the Lord (cited in Dubay, 1999: 117).

Empirical studies by psychologists of religion (Hood, 1977, 1978) and data from

Greeley’s (1974: 141) well-known survey study, in which 45% of a national sample

reported the 'beauties of nature' as a trigger of mystical type experience, support these

literary and theological reflections. There are then ‘underground connections between

the mystical and aesthetic’ (Stace, 1960:81), in which one may be confronted by a

mysterious 'otherness'. This provides one potential root of the sublime encounters of

extreme athletes amongst mountain peaks and raging seas.

A small number of sports scholars writing on the sublime in surfing (Stranger,

1999: 265), skydiving (Ilundain, 2002), mountaineering (Mitchell, 1983) and single-

handed sailing (Hutch, 2005, 2006), have also discussed the role of fear and risk-

taking. Enlightenment philosopher Immanuel Kant (1952/1790: 110-121), seems to

expresses something of this in his famous discourse on the sublime: 'The

astonishment amounting almost to terror, the awe and the thrill of devout feeling, that

takes hold of one when gazing upon . . . mountains ascending to heaven', can provoke

a 'a state of joy'. Kant's allusion to the awe and terror evoked by contemplation of

nature identifies what we see as a weakness in the past literature, that is, the confusion

between exciting or even neurotic fear experienced by athletes taking risks of their

21
own volition, for example, climbing the North face of Everest, and Kantian feelings of

astonishment and awe when gazing upon 'boundless oceans rising with rebellious

force' or 'mountains ascending to heaven'. In discussing what he calls states of 'soul-

stirring delight', Kant (1952/1790: 111-112) alludes to this difference:

External nature is not estimated in our aesthetic judgement as sublime

as far as exciting fear, but rather because it challenges our power . . .

therefore nature is here called sublime merely because it raises the

imagination . . . and gives us the courage to be able to measure

ourselves against the seeming omnipotence of nature.

Therefore, traditionally, the sublime has been used in a religious manner to

name objects that inspire awe, feelings of joy and an elevation of the soul, not feelings

evoked through volitional risk-taking. This is derived from eighteenth-century and

Romantic aesthetics, primarily in the philosophy of Kant and Edmund Burke

(1990/1757), although as Flundernik (2001: 2) notes the idea can be traced back to the

'rhetorical sublime' in neo-classical poetics of the seventeenth century. Interestingly, it

was from the poetry of Alpine travellers during this period that the idea of the sublime

gained access into literary theory. This is reflected in the following definition of the

sublime by Flundernik (2):

The sublime . . . is closely linked to the experience of God in nature [not

pantheism], its main effect being an elevation of the soul (the ethical and

aesthetic component) and a feeling of being overwhelmed by the majesty of

divine nature (the ideological component: man is nothing in contrast to God!).

22
 This definition is based upon the Kantian understanding of the sublime, which

comprised two elements (Kant, 1952/1790: 94-121). First, the ‘mathematical sublime'

relates to the overwhelming feelings of the magnitude (size/height/depth) and mere

vastness of an object or thing in nature, that is, the size and power of large waves in

surfing and sailing and the beauty and magnificence of the landscape in

mountaineering. The second element of the Kantian sublime is the terror inducing

‘dynamical sublime', which has an ethical impact upon the subject who is awed by the

power and immensity of the thing in relation to us, that is, experience of fear and risk

in relation to the wave, mountain or ocean. Both these dimensions of the sublime have

been implicitly identified in writings and testimonies in the extreme sports literature.

Although within Kant’s conception of the dynamical sublime there are elements of

awe and reverence, it was Edmund Burke (1990/1757: 53) who explicitly emphasised

the role of fear and terror as one way of experiencing sublimity:

The passion caused by the great and sublime in nature … is Astonishment; and

astonishment is that state of the soul, in which all it's motions are suspended,

with some degree of horror. In this case the mind is so entirely filled with its

object, that it cannot entertain any other, nor by consequence reason on the

object which it employs.

A big-wave surfer in the cult video Metaphysical: Surfing on a Higher Level

(1997) encapsulates both something of the role of terror and fear in the Burkean

sublime and Kant’s mathematical sublime:

23
 When you paddle out and see a [10 meter high wave] staring you in

the face, it’s like ‘Oh my God . . . Being a surfer and being involved with

nature all the time gives you a different understanding of where you

might find God.

It is then plausible that the combination of the awe (dynamical sublime) and

the physical features of the natural environment (mathematical sublime), which are

characteristic of most extreme sports, may engender the religious sublime to some

degree, that is, an awareness of something ‘wholly other’ than oneself (Rom 1. 20).

Some readers may object to the tentative links we are making here between biblical

creation narratives and the two dimensions of the Kantian sublime. However, Kant

(1952/1790: 90-93) himself, although acknowledging distinctions between the

beautiful and the sublime, also recognised that 'in experience' the two are inseparable.

Perhaps, one reason why athletes and recreationalists have repeatedly gone ‘back to

nature' during historical eras of materialism and rationalisation such as the one that we

find ourselves in at present, is this primal 'aching need for the infinite' (Dubay, 1999:

1), whether they are conscious of the fact or not.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The aim of this article has been to examine the legitimacy of claims that

athletes in extreme sports may encounter the mystical and sublime, when examined

though a Christian theological lens. As to whether extreme sporting experience

provides access the realms of the Holy that Otto, St Paul, Jonathan Edwards and St.

John of the Cross refer to, our answer is an emphatic no. We are also quietly confident

24
that Judaic and Islamic scholars, representing the other monotheistic faiths, would be

sympathetic to our thesis. To reiterate, however, the interpretative lenses through

which we scrutinise the experience of others are far from perfect (1 Cor. 13:12-13),

and we do not wish to propose a false dichotomy between the sacred and profane.

According to Christian theology, we are all spiritual creatures (Gen 2:7), made

in the image of God and therefore we have 'a tendency toward mystery and the

infinite' (Berdyaev, 1947: 62). Mountaineers' and surfers' sublime encounters in the

bosom of God's creation may then be what Professor Peter Berger (1970: 52) called

'signals of transcendence . . . within the human condition'. A primal longing for

something infinitely greater than self, a yearning, however, that is oft buried deep in

the caverns of the mind. While this is so, we need to steer clear from any idealistic

pantheism, recognising that all Christian experience of the transcendent, is an inward

spiritual experience that manifests in the depths of the soul. ‘The kingdom of God is

within you’, Jesus told his disciples (Luke. 17: 21) pointing to the crucifixion, the

event in which God through sacrificial love reconciled humanity to himself. As the

German theologian, Jürgen Moltmann, emphasised in the opening sentence of his

classic work, The Crucified God (1974), the inner criterion of any Christian theology

that ‘… deserves to be called Christian’ is the centrality of the cross.

Thus, talk of sport offering 'redemption as well as rebirth into a new type of

reality, separated from ordinary reality by its sense of being permeated with ultimacy

and holiness' (Prebish, 1993: 70) cannot be accommodated in a Christian worldview

(John. 3: 3-8; 1 Peter. 2:24). It is this type of speculation that Prebish himself

acknowledges is 'somewhat fanciful', 'anecdotal' and 'irreverent' (xix). When scholars

suggest that sports can offer 'redemption', 'rebirth' and easy access to God’s throne of

25
grace, it is, at this juncture we feel they have made a number of erroneous

etymological and theological leaps.

Not to be misunderstood, we again wish to clearly articulate our endorsement

of sports such as mountaineering, surfing and snowboarding. Within a balanced

theology of leisure, they can be seen as forms of deep play, an avenue to well-being

and growth, even spiritual expression in an aesthetic, creative sense that provides

opportunities for meaningful, therapeutic and exhilarating activities in the wilderness.

Perhaps St Irenaeus captures something of what extreme athletes’ experience in

famously suggesting ‘the glory of God is man fully alive’.

The pillars of our main argument and our conclusions have been first biblical

revelation, supported by a rich tradition of biographies and scholarly writings on the

mystical. This said, as Nicholas Lash (1988: 234) warns, no amount of

'epistemological ingenuity' can reveal the incomprehensibility and deep simplicity of

divine nature in subjective experience (in extreme sport). At the same time, Lash does

not discourage our attempts to explore religious and mystical experience, suggesting

that it can 'enlarge our understanding of ourselves and the world in which we live'. In

this spirit of scholarship and discovery it is hoped the for those, sports men and

women, students and scholars wishing to delve further into this challenging and

complicated field of study, our argument has both informed and provoked.

Dr Nick J. Watson is Senior Lecturer in Sport, Culture and Religion, York St John

University, UK. He is the Co-Director of the Centre for Sport, Spirituality and

Religion (CSSR) at the University of Gloucestershire, UK.

Andrew Parker is Professor of Sport and Christian Outreach and Co-Director of the

26
Centre for Sport, Spirituality and Religion (CSSR) in the Faculty of Applied Sciences

at the University of Gloucestershire, UK.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Permissions were kindly granted by Routledge to re-publish some sections of

this article from a much longer book chapter, originally published in Parry et al.,

(2007) Sport and Spirituality: An Introduction. London: Routledge.

27
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