(GIAO TIẾP GIAO VĂN HÓA)

NGUYEN HUU QUYET - TRAN BA TIEN

COURSEBOOK

Page 300
MS: 57-KHXH-2017
GIÁO TRÌNH
NGUYEN HUU QUYET - TRAN BA TIEN C RO S S - C U LT U RA L C O M M U N IC A T IO N
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Unit 5: Subordinate categorical dimensions

Unit objectives:
Upon the completion of this Unit, students should be able to
• master major differences between small power and
large power distance, between high context and low context
communication, and between feminine and masculine cultures.
• acquire major differences between self-enhancement and
self-effacement verbal styles, and between person-oriented and
status-oriented verbal styles.
• acquire what factors help make such differences in the
cultural values of individualistic and collectivistic nations.
• recognize and address misunderstanding/communication
obstruction while learning from success stories, based on the given
situations of the already-learned categorical dimensions.
Requirements
To assist students in reaching the Unit objectives, they are
asked to
• do prior-to-class reading assignments given by the instructor,
apart from the assigned pages of this course book.
• actively engage in in-class activities in the form of individual,
pair, and group work.

54

Page 354
PART II: KEY CATEGORICAL DIMENSIONS IN CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

5.1. Power distance

Power distance refers to “the extent to which less powerful
members of organizations and institutions (including the
family) accept that power is distributed unequally” (Hofstede
and Bond, 1984: 419). This dimension is measured not only
from the perspective of the leaders, who hold power, but from
the followers as well. In regard to power distribution, Hofstede
notes, “all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than
others.” This is categorized into small power distance versus large
power distance. People in small power distance cultures tend to
value equal power distributions, equal rights and relations, and
equitable rewards and punishments based on performance. In
contrast, people in large power distance cultures tend to accept
unequal power distributions, hierarchical rights, asymmetrical
role and relations, and rewards and punishments based on age,
rank, status, title, and seniority. For small power cultures, equality
of personal rights represents an ideal to strive toward in a system.
For large power cultures, however, respect for power hierarchy in
any system is a fundamental way of life.
In respect of the cultural values of individualism and
collectivism discussed in the previous unit, it can be said that
societies where distribution of power is equal are found in
individualistic cultures, such as Austria, Israel, New Zealand,
Ireland, the Scandinavian countries (Norway, Sweden, Finland,
Denmark), and so on. In small power distance work situations,
power is evenly distributed. Subordinates expect to be consulted,
and the ideal boss is a resourceful democrat. Thus, without taking
power distance factor into consideration, individuals can more
openly express agreement and disagreement with clinician advice
and suggestions, ask questions, expect to be involved in the
development of intervention plans, and so on. Similarly, in small
power distance cultural situations, children can contract their
55

Page 355
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

parents and speak their own minds. They are expected to show
self-initiative and learn verbal articulateness and persuasion.
Parents and children work toward achieving a democratic family
decision-making process. In contrast, large power index values
are found in collectivistic cultures, such as East Asian countries
(i.e., Japan, China, Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and
Vietnam), Guatemala, Panama, Mexico, Venezuela, and Arab
countries. This is because in hierarchical societies which attach
much importance to age, rank, social status, title, and seniority,
people tend to accept and expect unequal distribution of power.
As a result, in large power work situations, the power of the
organization or institution is centralized at the upper management
level. Subordinates expect to be told what to do, and the ideal boss/
manager plays the benevolent autocratic role. Thus, individuals
may refrain from expressing disagreement with goals and/or
therapy activities, even if they don’t plan to implement suggested
goals in the long term. In similar fashion, in large power distance
cultural situations, children are expected to obey their parents.
The value of “respect” between unequal status members in the
family is taught at a young age. Parents and grandparents assume
the authority roles in the family decision-making process. This
cultural value is also closely related to the saving of face.

Major differences between Small Power Distance and Large

Power Distance cultures

Small power distance cultures Large power distance cultures

• Emphasize equal distance • Emphasize power distance
o Individual credibility o Seniority, age, rank, title
o Symmetrical interaction o Asymmetrical interaction
o Emphasize informality o Emphasize formality
o Subordinates expect consultation o Expect directions

56

Page 356
PART II: KEY CATEGORICAL DIMENSIONS IN CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Examples Examples
- Austria - East Asian countries
- Israel - Guatemala
- Denmark/Finland - Panama
- Sweden/Norway - Arab countries
- New Zealand - India
- Republic of Ireland - West African countries
- Germany
- Canada/US

Data from Hofstede (1991: 68). The cultures listed are based on
the predominant tendencies in the cultures.
Hofstede (1991: 70) explains that there are three factors that
affect the power distance dimension. That is, (1) the country’s
geographical latitude (higher latitudes being associated with a
small power distance index), (2) its population size (larger size being
associated with a large power distance index its, and (3) its wealth
(richer countries being associated with a small power distance
index). Specific factors that are associated with national wealth and
less dependence on others (thus producing small power distance)
include less traditional culture, more modern technology, more
urban living, more social mobility, a better educational system, and
a larger middle class.

5.2. Person-oriented and Status-oriented Verbal Styles

The person-oriented verbal style is individual-centered
verbal mode that emphasizes the importance of informality and
role suspension; whereas, the status-oriented verbal style is role-
centered verbal mode that emphasizes formality and large power
distance (Stella Ting-Toomey, 1999: 106).
57

Page 357
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Based on individualism versus collectivism as the core

dimension in cross-cultural communication, major differences
between Person-oriented and Status-oriented verbal style can be
drawn as follows:
Person-oriented verbal style Status-oriented verbal style
- Emphasize the importance of - Emphasize the importance
informality and symmetrical of role suspension, formality,
interaction large power distance, and
- Emphasize the importance of asymmetrical interaction
respecting unique, personal - Tend to use specific vocabularies
identities in the interaction and paralinguistic features to
- Tend to use directness emphasize the status distance
- Prefer first name basis and of the role relationships (M
direct address vs. F; parent-child interaction;
superior-subordinate relations;
teacher-student relations)
- Tend to use indirectness
- Stress proper roles with
proper words (the importance
of honoring power-based
membership identities.
Status
Accorded based on individual Ascribed by virtue of age, family
achievements background, and profession
- Organizations less hierarchical - Organizations more highly
- Titles used only when relevant hierarchical
to competence. - Extensive use of titles.

The major differences above evidently indicate that the person-

oriented verbal style is the value of individualistic cultures and the
status-oriented verbal style is the value of collectivistic cultures.
58

Page 358
PART II: KEY CATEGORICAL DIMENSIONS IN CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

5.3. Self-enhancement and Self-effacement verbal styles

The self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes the importance
of boasting about one’s accomplishments and abilities. The self-
effacement verbal style, on the other hand, emphasizes the
importance of humbling oneself via verbal restraints, hesitations,
modest talk, and the use of self-deprecation concerning one’s effort
or performance.
Self-enhancement verbal style is the value of individualistic
cultures. For example, in the United States, individuals are
encouraged to “sell and boast about themselves,” such as in
performance review or job interview sessions, or else no one would
notice their accomplishments. This is because, from the Western
cultural standpoint, if individuals’ performance is good, they
should document or boast about it so that their supervisor will be
sure to take notice. Similarly, in social situations, it is not surprising
to read advertisement in some corner “dating” of US magazines,
saying “A handsome, athletic male with a good sense of humor
seeks a fun-loving partner...”
Self-effacement verbal style is the value of collectivistic cultures.
In many Asian cultures, self-effacement talk is expected to signal
modesty or humility. For example, Japanese, where serving tea,
tend to say, “Socha desuga...,” which means “This is not very delicious,
but...” In Japan, when one offers something to another person, such
as a gift or a meal that one has prepared, verbal self-deprecation
is expected. There are set expressions for verbal humility such as
“It’s not very tasty” and “It’s nothing special.” The hostess who
apologizes to her guests that “There is nothing special to offer
you” has probably “spent the better part of two days planning
and preparing the meal. Of course the guest should protest such
[a] disclaimer” (Condon, 1984: 52) and reemphasize her or his
gratitude. Similarly, In Vietnamese culture, when serving food to
guests, people often say, “Today I invite you a simple meal” (but in fact
59

Page 359
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

very good food). In working situations, individuals in many Asian

cultures believe that if their performance is good, their behavior
will be noticed, for example, by their supervisor during promotion
review situations, so it could be counterproductive if he/she is
boastful about his/her achievements/accomplishments as taking
into account the collectivistic cultural norms and values.
Overall, for many Asian cultures that have a collectivistic
outlook, humbling oneself through deferential speech is a
preferred mode of ritualized politeness. It signals a willingness
to be sensitive to the feelings of other in-group members. It also
signals humility or modesty concerning one’s self-identity. While
a moderate self-enhancement verbal style is reflective of many
Western individualistic cultures, a self-effacement verbal style is
reflective of many Asian collectivistic cultures.
Major differences between Self-enhancement and Self-effacement

Self-enhancement verbal style Self-effacement verbal style

 Emphasize Boastfulness Emphasize humility

about accomplishments and Modest talk

abilities Verbal restraints

• Found in Western Hesitations

individualistic cultures.
Self-deprecation

• Found in Asian
collectivistic cultures.

5.4. Masculinity-Femininity
Cultures differ in the sharpness of their sex role distinctions.
Masculinity pertains to “societies in which social gender roles are
clearly distinct (namely, men are supposed to be assertive, tough,
and focused on material success whereas women are supposed to
be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life”
60

Page 360
PART II: KEY CATEGORICAL DIMENSIONS IN CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

(Hofstede, 1991: 82). Femininity pertains to “societies in which social

gender roles overlap, i.e., both men and women are supposed to be
modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life” (Hofstede,
1991: 82-83).
According to Everett and Thomas (1999), in masculine societies,
sex roles are sharply distinct, not just limited to the distinguishing
values as Hofstede observes. Following is the list of sharp differences
in masculinity sex roles.
Men Women
o Instrumental o Expressive
o Strong o Soft
o Tough/hard o Empathetic
o Aggressive o Gentle
o Ambitious/ provider o Nurturing
o Dominant o Submissive
o Rational o Emotional
o Discerning o Talkative
o Heroic/ Brave o Anxiety/prone

Source: Everett and Thomas. (1999: 108).

According to the survey conducted by Hofstede (1991: 83),

Japan, Austria, Venezuela, Italy, Switzerland, Mexico, and Ireland,
for example, have high masculinity value indexes. The United States
ranks 15th on the masculinity continuum out of the 50 countries and
3 regions studied. Sweden, Norway, Netherland, Denmark, Costa
Rica, Yugoslavia, and Finland, for example, have low masculinity
value indexes, which imply a high femininity continuum. While
feminine cultures emphasize flexible sex role behaviors, masculine
cultures emphasize complementary sex role domains.
Historical roots and family socialization processes concerning
61

Page 361
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

gender roles shape the development of the masculine-feminine

dimension. In masculine families, boys learn to be assertive,
tough, and ambitious, and girls learn to be modest, nurturing, and
rational-oriented. In feminine families, both boys and girls learn to
be caring and concerned with both facts and feelings. Masculine
families are achievement- and success-oriented while feminine
families are consensus- oriented and emphasize the importance
of quality-of-life issues. A masculine workplace differentiates
male and female roles clearly while a feminine workplace merges
male and female roles fluidly. Similarly, a masculine organization
tends to emphasize business performance; whereas, a feminine
organization tends to stress environmental issues beyond business
performance.
Major differences between Feminine and Masculine cultures
Feminine cultures Masculine cultures
- Flexible sex roles - Complementary sex roles
- Emphasize nurturance - Emphasize achievements
- Quality of work life - Economic growth
- Work in order to live - Live in order to work
- Environmental issues - Business performance
Examples Examples
Sweden Japan
Norway Austria
Netherlands Venezuela
Denmark Italy
Costa Rica Mexico
Finland Philippines

Data from Hofstede (1991). The cultures listed are based on the
predominant tendencies in the cultures.
62

Page 362
PART II: KEY CATEGORICAL DIMENSIONS IN CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

5.5. High-context vs. Low-context communication

Low context communication refers to communication patterns
of direct verbal mode: Straight talk (intention or meaning is best
expressed through explicit verbal messages), nonverbal immediacy,
and sender-oriented values (i.e., the sender assumes the responsibility
to communicate clearly). In low-context communication, the speaker
is expected to be responsible for constructing a clear, persuasive
message that the listener can decode easily.
In contrast, high-context communication refers to communication
patterns of indirect verbal mode: Self-effacing talk (verbal-based
humbling oneself), nonverbal subtleties (indirect hints, nonverbal
signals to preserve face and relationship), and interpreter-sensitive
values (i.e., the receiver or interpreter of the message assumes the
responsibility to infer the hidden or contextual meanings of the
message) (Ting-Toomey, 1999: 101). In high-context communication,
the listener or interpreter of the message is expected to “read
between the lines,” to accurately infer the implicit intent of the verbal
message and to observe the nonverbal nuances and subtleties that
accompany and enhance the verbal message as indicated below:
The Low-Context Communication (LCC) and High-Context
Communication (HCC) Framework
LCC characteristics HCC characteristic
o Individualistic values o Group-oriented values
o Self-face concern o Mutual-face concern
o Linear logic o Spiral logic
o Direct style o Indirect style
o Person-oriented verbal style o Status-oriented verbal style
o Self-enhancement style o Self-effacement style
o Speaker-oriented style o Listener-oriented style
o Verbal-based understanding o Context-based understanding

Source: Stella Ting Toomey (1999: 101).

63

Page 363
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

When we use low-context communication, we stress the

importance of explicit verbal messages to convey personal
thoughts, opinions and feelings. However, when we use high-
context communication, we stress the importance of multilayered
context (e.g., historical context, social norms, roles, situational and
relational contexts) that frame the interaction encounter.
Individualistic cultures tend to use low-context language,
which assumes no inside knowledge on the part of the listener.
In principle, everything is explained. In order words, it involves
step-by-step explanations, arranged in some logical order without
extraneous information, but with everything a person could need
to follow it. Whereas, collectivistic cultures show their desire to
maintain harmony and good relations within the group by the high-
context quality of their language, which assumes inside knowledge
on the part of hearer and takes advantage of this knowledge by
leaving many details out of the explanation. In high context
cultures, silence can make understanding possible; however, in low
context cultures, for example, in Western rhetorical model, silence
viewed as empty pauses.

5.6. Discussion

5.6.1. Quiz
Work in pairs. Discuss and choose the best answer (A, B, C, or
D) to each of the following questions.
1. Low-context cultures differ from high-context cultures in
that one of their norms is
A. straight talk and assertiveness 
B. face-saving and social harmony 
C. nonverbal cues 
D. all of the above 
64

Page 364
PART II: KEY CATEGORICAL DIMENSIONS IN CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

2. High-context cultures differ from low-context cultures

because they
A. value and emphasize subtle, often nonverbal cues to
maintain social harmony 
B. value straight talk and assertiveness
C. value verbal cues 
D. none of the above
3. Self-effacement verbal style emphasizes the importance of
A. modesty and humility
B. self-depreciation
C. ability and achievements
D. Both A and B
4. Self-enhancement verbal style emphasizes the importance of
A. boastfulness about ability and achievements
B. humbling about ability and achievements
C. downplaying one’s self
D. None of the above
5. Self-effacement verbal style can be found in collectivist
cultures including
A. East Asian cultures
B. Arab cultures
C. Western cultures
D. All of the above
6. High feminine cultures tend to have
A. sharp distinctions between men and women
B. strong norms and values promoting equality between sexes
C. attachment of more importance of men than women
D. Both A and C
65

Page 365
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

7. The key characteristic of high masculine cultures is to

emphasize the importance of
A. assertiveness of material and power of men
B. harmony and bravery of men
C. Success and heroism
D. Both A and C
8. Suzuki crosses her arms during a meeting when she feels she
is being criticized. This style com communication is ....... and ............
A. nonverbal/low context
B. non-verbal/high context
C. verbal/high context
D. verbal/low context
9. Which of the following would be an interpretation of the
following statement if found in a high context culture?
Jane stated, “I am taking a walk” during a long argument.
A. She needs some exercise
B. She needs to stretch her legs
C. She needs a break from the conflict to cool down
D. She needs some fresh air
10. Nam enters the room wearing his new hat. His American
teacher says, “What a nice hat!” What could be an interpretation of
this situation?
A. An indirect reminder of Nam’s putting off his hat.
B. A direct complement of the teacher for his new hat
C. An indirect criticism over Nam’s wearing his hat when
entering his teacher’s room
D. Both A and B
66

Page 366
PART II: KEY CATEGORICAL DIMENSIONS IN CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

5.6.2. Group discussion

1. By considering the subordinate categorical dimensions in
cross-cultural communication, discuss in groups of three about
what you need to be mindful of your future working situations
where workmates come from different cultures.
2. Identify which categorical dimension each of the following
examples belongs to and explain in detail why each dialogue fails
or succeeds. Finally, give solutions to making each dialogue more
productive if you were in each situation.
Dialogue 1 (Between two European American neighbors)
JANE (knocks on her neighbor’s open window): Excuse me, it is
11 o’clock already, and your high-pitched opera singing is really disturbing
my sleep. Please stop your gargling noises immediately! I have an important
job interview tomorrow morning, and I want to get a good night’s sleep. I
really need this job to pay my rent!
DIANE (resentfully): Well, this is the only time I can rehearse my
opera! I’ve an important audition coming up tomorrow. You’re not only
one that is starving, you now. I also need to pay my rent. Stop being so
self-centered!
JANE (frustrated): I really think you’re being very unreasonable. If
you don’t stop your singing right now I’m going to file a complaint with
the apartment manager and he could evict you...
DIANE (sarcastically): Ok, be my guest... Do whatever you want. I’m
going to sing as I please.
Dialogue 2 (Between two Japanese housewives)
MRS. AKI: Your daughter has started taking piano lessons, hasn’t
she? I envy you. Because you can be proud of her talent. You must be
looking for-ward to her future as a pianist. I’m really impressed by her
enthusiasm-everyday, she practices so hard, for hours and hours, until late
at night.
67

Page 367
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

MRS. SUGO: Oh, no not at all. She is just a beginner. We don’t know
her future yet. We hadn’t realized that you could hear her playing. I’m so
sorry you have been disturbed by her noise.
Dialogue 3 (Between an American professor and a Vietnamese
student studying in America)
Prof. JONATHAN: Anh, your English is improving. I am pleased
with your work.
ANH: Oh, no, my English is not very good.
(Looking down)
Prof. JONATHAN: Why do you say that, Anh? You’re doing very
well in class.
ANH: No, I am not a good student.
Prof. JONATHAN: Anh, you’re making progress in this class. You
should be proud of your English.
ANH: No, it’s not true. You are a good teacher, but I am not a good
student...
Prof. JONATHAN (somewhat surprising and unsatisfying face).
3. Identify which verbal style the interviewee uses in the
following situation and explain why the interviewee is not chosen.
Mitsubishi, a well-known Japanese corporation is recruiting
a head of Sale Department. There are 30 applicants to the post.
Prior to the interview, John, an American applicant, is a potential
candidate based on his CV and Resume, but after the interview he
is rejected to the post.
INTERVIEWER: John, can you please talk briefly about your working
experience in the field?
JOHN: You know I had been working for a big company in the US for
over three years. I built a great team that has grown from 3 to 14 over the
last three years. Now I’m proud to say that I managed the customer service
68

Page 368
PART II: KEY CATEGORICAL DIMENSIONS IN CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

team at a very large company and that my company has acknowledged me

as the most productive sale manager.
INTERVIEWER: If you are chosen to serve Mitsubishi as head of Sale
Department, what will you do to increase output and to make your team
productive and cohesive?
JOHN: Of course, I will put in many late nights to make the best plan
and ensure that no mistakes will be made in process. I am committed to
striving to make my work a huge success. I am quite confident to say so
as I always know how to get the best out of customer service professionals.
4. Identify which dimension(s) the following pair of “airport
ride request” scenes between two Americans and two Chinese
belong to. Analyze the scenes and state what you learn from them.
Scene 1
AMERICAN 1: We’re going to New Orleans this weekend.
AMERICAN 2: What fun! I wish we were going with you. How long
are you going to be there? [If she wants a ride, she will ask.]
AMERICAN 1: Three days. By the way, we may need a ride to the
airport. Do you think you can take us?
AMERICAN 2: Sure. What time?
AMERICAN 1: 10:30 p.m. this coming Saturday.
Scene 2
CHINESE 1: We’re going to New Orleans this weekend.
CHINESE 2: What fun! I wish we were going with you. How long are
you going to be there?
CHINESE 1: Three days. [I hope she’ll offer me a ride to the airport.]
CHINESE 2: [She may want me to give her a ride.] Do you need
a ride to the airport? I’ll take you.
CHINESE 1: Are you sure it’s not too much trouble?
CHINESE 2: It’s no trouble at all.
69

Page 369
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

5. Look at scene 3 of the “airport ride request” dialogue, this time

between a Chinese speaker and a U.S American hearer. Analyze the
scene and state differences between it and the two scenes above.
Scene 3
CHINESE: We’re going to New Orleans this weekend.
AMERICAN: What fun! I wish we were going with you. How long
are you going to be there?
CHINESE: Three days [I hope she’ll offer me a ride to the airport.]
AMERICAN: [If she wants a ride, she’ll ask me,] Have a great time.
CHINESE: [If she had wanted me to give me a ride, she would
have offered it. I’d better ask somebody else.] Thanks. I’ll see you
when I get back.

70

Page 370