College of Criminal Justice Education: Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology - Forensic 3
College of Criminal Justice Education: Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology - Forensic 3
College of Criminal Justice Education: Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology - Forensic 3
CHAPTER I
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
DEFINITION OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY - Forensic chemistry is defined as that branch of chemistry which deals with the application of
chemical principles in the solution of problems that arise in connection with the administration of justice. It is chemistry applied in
the elucidation of legal problems.
SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY - Forensic chemistry embraces a large and diversified field. It includes not only the chemical side of
criminal investigation with which it is generally associated with the public mind but also the analysis of any material the quality of
which may give rise to legal proceedings. Forensic chemistry is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in legal
proceedings. It has invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably legal medicine, ballistics, questioned documents,
dactyloscopy, and photography.
Present Chemist –
Every chemist is
schooled in general,
organic, and analytical chemistry, but forensic chemists also specialize in specific areas of expertise. For example, an inorganic
chemist may examine traces of dust by using microchemistry to identify the chemical composition of tiny particles. Another chemist
might employ thin-layer chromatography during the analysis of Forensic scientists examine evidence from crime scenes in an effort
to solve crimes. This scientist is removing a piece of blood-stained material gathered at a crime scene for DNA testing.
ROLE OF CHEMIST IN SCIENTIFIC CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION - Forensic chemistry encompasses organic and inorganic analysis,
toxicology , arson investigation, and serology .
Each method of analysis uses specialized techniques and instrumentation. The process may be as simple as setting up a density
gradient column to compare soil samples or as complicated as using a mass spectrometer or neutron activation analysis to
characterize an unknown substance.
Forensic chemistry encompasses organic and inorganic analysis, toxicology , arson investigation, and serology . Each method of
analysis uses specialized techniques and instrumentation. The process may be as simple as setting up a density gradient column to
compare soil samples or as complicated as using a mass spectrometer or neutron activation analysis to characterize an unknown
substance.
A wide array of laboratory techniques and instrumentation is used in forensic studies. This includes ultraviolet, infrared, and visible
spectrophotometry; neutron activation analysis; gas chromatography and mass spectrophotometry; high pressure liquid
chromatography; and atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The techniques and instrumentation chosen depend on the type of
sample or substance to be examined.
The fact that most samples examined are not pure substances, but are often mixed with dirt or debris, presents a major challenge to
the forensic chemist. This may also be an advantage, as every substance collected at a crime scene is a unique mixture of chemical
compounds that can ultimately be identified. Arsonists, for example, often use accelerants such as gasoline or kerosene to speed
combustion and spread flames in the interior of a building. A forensic chemist may collect samples of burned and unburned
materials, extract the volatile hydrocarbons, and separate the components for analysis by gas chromatography.
This includes the analysis of plant and fungal parts, such as leaves, flowers, pollen, seeds, wood, fruit, spores and
microbiology, plus plant environments and ecology.
The aim is to link plant evidence with a crime, such as placing a suspect at a crime scene through analysis of pollen or seed
particles found on their clothing), forensic entomology (Forensic entomology is the use of the insects, and their arthropod
relatives that inhabit decomposing remains to aid legal investigations) , forensic odontology (Forensic odontology is the
application of dental science to legal investigations, primarily involving the identification of the offender by comparing
dental records to a bite mark left on the victim or at the scene, or identification of human remains based on dental records)
and various DNA or protein based techniques.
- Forensic Pathology (orensic pathology is pathology that focuses on determining the cause of death by examining a corpse.
A post mortem is performed by a medical examiner)
- Forensic Toxicology (Forensic toxicology is the use of toxicology and disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology
and clinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use)
- Forensic Chemistry (is the application of chemistry and its subfield, forensic toxicology, in a legal setting. A forensic
chemist can assist in the identification of unknown materials found at a crime scene.[1] Specialists in this field have a wide
array of methods and instruments to help identify unknown substances).
FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY
Toxicology plays a part in forensics at three levels:
1. A criminalist may be asked to see if a person’s behavior has been influence by a drug.
2. A forensic team may examine evidence to see whether a suspect has been manufacturing illicit compounds.
3. Forensic experts will look for evidence that a toxic substance has killed a person.
Alcohol Facts
The most commonly abused drug
Blood-alcohol levels are directly proportional to the degree of intoxication and are expressed in grams percent (# of
grams of alcohol/100 ml blood).
Acts on the Central Nervous System favoring the brain
Blood carries alcohol all cells of your body but mostly to the watery areas of your body.
Alcohol Absorption
Alcohol is absorbed through the stomach and the small intestines
The rate of absorption depends on:
Total time taken to consume
Alcohol content
Amount consumed
Body weight
Stomach contents
Most common poisons
Cyanide- one of the most lethal chemicals known used for executions causes a bright cherry red blood.
Strychnine- rat poisons causes so much pain that it is rarely used in suicide.
Ethylene glycol- antifreeze a favorite (deadly) beverage among alcoholics when they can’t get ethanol.
Heavy metals- arsenic, mercury and lead
Insulin- lifesaving for diabetics but deadly overdoses
Corrosive chemicals- strong alkalis that burn the mouth, esophagus and stomach.
Evidence is proof of allegation. It is a means sanction by law, of ascertaining in judicial proceedings the truth respecting a
matter of fact. (Sec. 1. Rule 128, Rules of Court). Scientific evidence, therefore, may be defined as the means sanction by law, of
ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact wherein scientific knowledge is necessary. Such scientific
evidence must be relevant and correspond to the substance of the issue and must not be excluded by the Rules of Court. Scientific
evidence should not be mere collateral matters except when they tend in any reasonable degree to establish the probability or
improbability of a fact in issue.
Evidence may be (a) direct, (b) indirect, which Includes circumstantial evidence, and (c) hearsay.
a. Direct evidence - is simply that which the senses perceive, Any fact. To which the witness testifies based on what he saw, heard,
smelled. touched or tasted, is direct evidence. It frequently happens that no witness was present at the commission of the crime, or
even if there are witnesses, they are not willing to testify. The necessity of resorting to other means of proof is obvious, crime are
secrets. Most persons engaged in criminal activities seek the security of seclusion, darkness, and remoteness to cover their
misdeeds. It becomes necessary to use all other available model of evidence to establish and prove a case in court.
To illustrate this kind of evidence, let us assume that while a policeman was walking in his beat, he heard a scream come
from a house. He ran to the house and almost immediately he saw a man coming out of the house holding a bloody knife. The
policeman placed the man under arrest and entered the house. There he found a woman slumped to the floor in a pool of blood
with a stab wound on the breast. In this case, the only direct evidence to which the policeman can testify would be that he saw the
man come out of the house holding a bloody knife. He cannot testify positively that the man killed the woman yet the fiscal may
seek to establish the conclusion that the man with the knife is the killer by inference from the proved facts testified to by the
policeman.
Circumstantial evidence is sufficient to produce conviction if there is more than one circumstance; the facts from which the
inferences are derived are proven: and the combination of all the circumstances is such as to produce conviction beyond reasonable
doubt.
c. Hearsay evidence
it is a statement made by a witness on the authority of another and not from his own personal knowledge or observation.
Hearsay evidence is inadmissible except with certain well-defined exceptions. Some of more common exceptions to the rules of
exclusion generally applicable to hearsay evidence are declaration against interest, dying declaration, res gestae, reputation, public
records and statements made at a prior time.
WITNESS - A witness in court may be an ordinary or expert witness. As ordinary witness, the Rules of
Court requires that the person must have the following qualifications:
Such a nature that a layman can have no knowledge thereof, as for example, the determination of percentage by blood
test, the court must be dependent on expert evidence.
In weighting the testimony of an expert, all the circumstances of the case must be taken into consideration, among them
are: a) the degree of learning of the witness; b) the basic and logic of his conclusion and 3) the other proof of case (U.S. v. Trono 3
Phil: Samson v. Corrales Tan Quintin, 44 Phil 573).
1. Collection and reception of the specimen to be examined - it is most important that whenever possible the chemist should
personally collect all the specimens necessary for the examination. Unless this is done, something essential to the elucidation of the
problem may be omitted and in some cases questions regarding the collection and transit of the specimen are raised during the trial.
Furthermore, the collection, preservation, and transportation of specimens are very essential in the investigation of crime. If the
chemist will not personally collect the specimen, it is possible that the articles may be taken handled, or packed in such a way as to
render them almost useless for purposes of examination. Sometimes it is necessary that the chemist who examines the specimens
should know not only the condition but even the precise position in which the object was found and this can only be done if he is
called at the commencement of the investigation and before anything is removed or disturbed. The chemist who is assigned to assist
in the investigation of a crime should go to the scene of the crime, make detailed examination, take notes and measurement, make
sketches if possible, and take a photograph of the place. He should equip himself with all necessary containers for the collection of
specimens for laboratory examination. This, however, is not always practicable and even if practicable, the necessity is not
appreciated. The expert must therefore depend upon the intelligent assistance of the investigators who, must in the performance of
this delicate task is guided by the following principles:
b. STANDARD FOR COMPARISON - If the evidence in question is found in the presence of foreign substance, a sample of foreign
substance must be submitted for analysis. For example, if blood is found on linoleum, a sample of the unstained linoleum must be
submitted together with the stained portion. In cases of adulteration or unfair competition, a genuine sample must be submitted for
comparison. In the examination of hair, textile fibers, soil, etc., samples to be used as standard for
comparison must always be submitted.
2. The actual examination of the specimen - The first step in the examination of an article is to scrutinize it carefully and write down
in the laboratory notebook a complete description of its external appearance including the manner in which it is secured and
particulars of the sealing. If possible, take a photograph of the specimen. The specimen is now opened and any Inner wrappings
should be described. Finally, a detail description of the appearance of the contents of the package should be given. All wrappers
should be kept and sealing preserved since questions concerning them may be raised in court during trial.
The second step in the examination is to measure or weigh the object and all measurements and weights should be entered
in the laboratory notebook.
The specimen is then divided into several portions, one to be kept in its original condition for further reference and
production in court. If the specimen is a court exhibit, written permission from the court is necessary before its condition may be
changed.
The third step is the chemical, microscopical or physical testing, whichever is indicated. The detailed procedure of the
analysis will be described in the following chapters for each subject.
Whenever a chemical analysis is made, care should be taken that all the apparatus used are clean, reagents are pure and
that all precautions against possibility of contamination are taken. Blank and control experiments should be made whenever
possible. At every stage of the analysis full notes should be entered in the notebook.
After the examination is finished, the remaining portion of the article or the article itself should be sealed securely and
either kept for production in court or handed over to the requesting party. It is recommended that the chemist should retain the
articles he examined and should he produce them in court.
3. Communication results of the examination - The results of the examination conducted will be communicated to the requesting
party in the form of a written report which must include an enumeration of the articles received for examination with detailed
description of the packing, sealing, and labeling, date of receipt and from whom received, the purpose of the examination, the
findings and conclusion. The findings should include a brief but sufficient record of all the significant facts noted during the
examination. It is not as a rule, necessary to mention how the analysis has been conducted. Reference to some well-known and
established methods may be allowed. If a quantitative analysis was made, it is not necessary to report the results to more than one
decimal point except in cases of poisoning where the results may be given to tenths or even hundredths of a milligram. The
conclusion should be stated definitely and without ambiguity. All opinions should be supported by the evidence on which they are
based. As a rule, the report must be concise and clear, but utility should not be sacrificed for brevity. If the photomicrographs or
photographs of the specimen have been made, copies should be attached to the report stating clearly on the photographs what they
represent.
4. Court Appearance -The written report of the chemist is usually supplemented at a later date by oral evidence if the case is
brought to court or fiscals office. Since the oral evidence may be given weeks, months, or even years after the work has been made
and the report written, it is not only permissible but necessary that the chemist should refresh his memory by reference to his
laboratory notebook before presenting himself in court. It is not to court or while waiting to be called, but they should be studied
well of the collateral matters relating to it. He must anticipate and prepare himself to sufficient that these should be consulted for a
few minutes immediately before going before hand. The chemist should have a thorough knowledge of his subject and answer likely
questions having reference to the case and should be prepared to state the degree of accuracy attained. He should also know the
weakness, any, inherent in the methods employed and be ready to meet adverse criticism if directed against him. All answers to
questions and all opinions should be definite and free from ambiguity and should be given in simple language. Lengthy explanation
should be avoided as this may weaken the evidence and raise points that can be used by the opposite party to cast doubts upon it.
The witness must be composed and as much as possible avoid being Irritated by upbraiding of the opposite counsel. He must not be
swayed by passion. He should avoid allowing his interest in a case or his belief in the correctness of his own conclusions to make him
an advocate or partisan. He appears in order to present any facts he may have discovered, to interpret these and other facts and to
help the court with his opinions and his evidence should be given without a biased to either side. As Brouardel said: "If the law has
made you a witness, remain a man of science. You have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to ruin or save. You must
bear witness within the limits of science."
2. Be thorough - make a careful and minute examination of everything and do not be satisfied with a qualitative analysis if a
quantitative one be possible, it always pays to do too much than too little and it is difficult to foresee what will or will not be
required in court.
3. Take notes - keep a full, neat and clear record of everything seen and done.
4. Consult others - many cases will lead the expert into paths with which he is not familiar, and when this happens he should consult
those who are mostly likely to know. Unless an expert knows his subject thoroughly, or unless he consult others., he may go astray
seriously, thus a doctor, who found salt in an Egyptian mummy, reported it to be that of a person who had been ignorance of the
readily ascertained drowned in salt water, apparently in facts that crude natron, which contains a large proportion of salt, and at a
later date, salt itself, were commonly used in connection with mummification. The chemist too who thought that the ancient
Egyptians used quick lime as a body preservative, because he found a small amount of calcium carbonate in a mummy, was evidently
unaware of the extent to which limestone and limestone dust occur in Egypt; that burial tombs cut in the limestone rock was very
common and that the natron used in the desiccation of the body might have contained calcium carbonate. Another expert, who had
not made himself familiar with the methods of using liquid fuel under a boiler, but who evidently, had heard of the use of
compressed air in that connection, thought that this was forced into the oil in the feed tank.
5. Use imagination - this is somewhat hazardous advice, since an expert with a vivid and uncontrolled imagination is a most
dangerous person: a disciplined imagination, however, which enables inferences and deductions to be made from slender and
incomplete premise is often very useful. The imagination, however, must be kept well in hand in writing the report and the expert
should remember that what to him may be merely a helpful working hypothesis is liable to be taken by others for more than its true
worth and to be adopted by them as a final explanation.
6. Avoid complicated theories - the simplest explanation is usually the right one. The interpretation of results is often the most
difficult part of the expert's work, and a precise knowledge of miscellaneous facts, a sound judgments, good reasoning powers and
what has already been described as "a disciplined imagination" are all essential to success.
CHAPTER II
BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS
The significance of blood and blood stains as evidence in crimes of
violence is obvious enough to need no emphasis. The testing of blood is largely
chemical, more particularly since the anti-sera require for the biochemical test
need no longer prepared by the expert but may be purchased ready for use and
there is no doubt the chemist, by reason of his training and experience in
manipulation and his skill in testing and in general laboratory practice, is well
qualified to undertake this work than an ordinary medical practitioner. Blood
testing and legal cases, however, should only be under taken by those having
considerable experience in such work since issues of life and death may be
involved.
Blood Basics
Blood is a specialized body fluid. It has four main components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Blood has
many different functions, including:
The blood that runs through the veins, arteries, and capillaries is known as whole blood, a mixture of about 55 percent plasma and
45 percent blood cells. About 7 to 8 percent of your total body weight is blood. An average-sized man has about 12 pints of blood in
his body, and an average-sized woman has about nine pints.
Plasma
The liquid component of blood is called plasma, a mixture of water, sugar, fat, protein, and salts. The main job of the plasma is to
transport blood cells throughout your body along with nutrients, waste products, antibodies, clotting proteins, chemical messengers
such as hormones, and proteins that help maintain the body's fluid balance.
Production of red blood cells is controlled by erythropoietin, a hormone produced primarily by the kidneys. Red blood cells start as
immature cells in the bone marrow and after approximately seven days of maturation are released into the bloodstream. Unlike
many other cells, red blood cells have no nucleus and can easily change shape, helping them fit through the various blood vessels in
your body. However, while the lack of a nucleus makes a red blood cell more flexible, it also limits the life of the cell as it travels
through the smallest blood vessels, damaging the cell's membranes and depleting its energy supplies. The red blood cell survives on
average only 120 days.
Red cells contain a special protein called hemoglobin, which helps carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body and then
returns carbon dioxide from the body to the lungs so it can be exhaled. Blood appears red because of the large number of red blood
cells, which get their color from the hemoglobin. The percentage of whole blood volume that is made up of red blood cells is called
the hematocrit and is a common measure of red blood cell levels.
The most common type of white blood cell is the neutrophil, which is the "immediate response" cell and accounts for 55 to 70
percent of the total white blood cell count. Each neutrophil lives less than a day, so your bone marrow must constantly make new
neutrophils to maintain protection against infection. Transfusion of neutrophils is generally not effective since they do not remain in
the body for very long.
The other major type of white blood cell is a lymphocyte. There are two main populations of these cells. T lymphocytes help regulate
the function of other immune cells and directly attack various infected cells and tumors. B lymphocytes make antibodies, which are
proteins that specifically target bacteria, viruses, and other foreign materials.
A higher than normal number of platelets can cause unnecessary clotting, which can lead to strokes and heart attacks; however,
thanks to advances made in antiplatelet therapies, there are treatments available to help prevent these potentially fatal events.
Conversely, lower than normal counts can lead to extensive bleeding.
Your doctor may also perform a blood smear, which is a way of looking at your blood cells under the microscope. In a normal blood
smear, red blood cells will appear as regular, round cells with a pale center. Variations in the size or shape of these cells may suggest
a blood disorder.
Example: (Against the suspect) "A" was seen coming out from the house with a bloody knife on hand. Inside the house of a woman,
"B" was found dead with a stab wound at the back. Examination of the knife showed that the stain is of human blood and of the
same group as that of "B". With the foregoing result. there is a strong presumption that "A" stabbed "B".
(In favor of the suspect) "A" was accused for serious physical injuries. The evidence presented by the complainant is a blood stained
cloth allegedly worn by him when he was stabbed. Examination of the stain showed that it is not human blood. The evidence was
planted.
From the foregoing results, it is very clear that "C" cannot be the child of spouses "A" and "B" since group O parents cannot
have a group "B child, It is possible, however, for spouses "D" and "E" to be the parents.
3. Determination of the cause of death and the length of time that the victims survived the attack - The amount of blood or blood
stains in the scene of the crime or found on the clothes of the victim or inside the body of the deceased outside the blood vessels
may imply that the cause of death is severe hemorrhage. Sometimes the amount of blood on the clothing of the deceased may also
indicate which of the several wounds, if there are multiple wounds, was inflicted first.
When a person is dead, the blood pressure falls to zero and bleeding ceases so that dead bodies do not bleed. Therefore, the
amount of blood present around a dead body may give considerable indication as to how long life existed after the assault. The only
exception to this is where there is a large wound in such a position on the body that there will be drainage due to gravity.
This seepage is a mixture of blood, serum and frequently other materials. It is generally quit dark in color and may
accumulate in considerable quantity if the wound is large and ragged. If a body is found in which there has been a large pool of
blood which collected from comparatively small wounds, it indicates that person lived for a considerable length of time after the
attack and in many cases the actual cause of death is simply loss of blood. A body has a defense mechanism against excessive
bleeding in that as soon as bleeding starts in any considerable quantity, the blood pressure is automatically dropped, and this
consequently slows the rate of bleeding. In cases where death follows immediately from such sudden causes as a gunshot through
the heart, there is usually very little blood on or around the body.
4. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant – The shape of the blood or blood stains will give the
investigator an idea of the direction of the source of the blood, When the blood strikes a smooth surface, it will often leave a Large
blot with one or two smaller ones trailing off in a straight line. This condition is caused by the blood coming from the direction of the
large to the small blots. In other words, the largest blot is made first and then the smaller ones afterwards. If a person was stabbed
in the neck he may stagger away leaving a trail of blood on the ground in the form of large drops. On the other hand, the deceased
may collapse at the place where he was stabbed and shed a large of blood around him. If a small artery is cut, the blood will spurt in
such a way that may form definite patterns. If the drop strikes at right angles, an irregularly circular stain with serrated edges is
produced; if it strikes obliquely, the stain will assume a shape similar to a bowling pin with the head of the pin in the direction of the
flight of the drop. Drops of spattered blood will form similar figures. In many instances it is possible to locate the source of these
flying drops by the patterns which they form on surfaces. If a person has been bleeding profusely and a struggle has taken place,
stains and smears of blood will be present over the floor, walls, and furniture.
5. Determination of the pain of the flow of blood - If a crime of violence has been committed and a suspect is apprehended with
blood stains on his body or clothing. he will often try to explain the presence of such blood by telling a tale about the blood
originating from nose, or from a wound caused color due the action of the acid gastric Juice. In the case of blood due to rape, semen
or hairs from the genitals may be found. Blood due to menstruation will show plenty of epithelial cells from the vagina. The presence
of such elements or foreign particles in blood may lead to a by accident or in case the suspect is a woman, from her menstruation.
blood groupings will not give results, it is Important to verify such a tale. It may be verified If the form and position of the stain
correspond with the tale, It will difficult to believe that blood stains on the rear of the coat or under an apron come from nose.
Likewise, blood from vagina or rectal region will usually stain the inside garments. A microscopic examination of the stain or of the
blood, If still fresh, may sometimes disclose the origin of the blood due to the presence of foreign particles. If the blood comes from
the nose, mucus or hairs from the nostrils may be present. Blood from the lungs will show numerous bubbles and If it comes from
6. Determination of the approximate time the crime was committed - The age of the blood will indicate the approximate time the
crime was committed. Although there are some variations, the amount of coagulation, drying and change in color which has taken
place will determine the age of a blood stain. Blood from the arteries is bright red while blood from the veins is considerably darker
in color. However due to the fact that the blood pressure is much greater in the arteries than in the veins, if there is a wound of any
size, it is largely the bright red arterial blood which leaks out. If the amount of blood is very small the clot dries very rapidly and the
different changes are not easy to distinguish, but, If there is enough of it to make a small paddle, then after three to five minutes, the
blood will begin to clot and, after the clot is formed. It becomes a solid to such extent that a stick or pencil drawn to It will have a
definite mark in it. This period of drying will usually take from 12 to 36 hours depending upon the size of the cloth and external
conditions. As it continues to dry, the stains become darker in color, until, at the time it is completely dried it will have a dark brown
appearance. At this stage of the color changes the stains is about 10 to 12 days old. Beyond that the color will not change very
much. The change in color of the blood is due to the conversion of the red blood pigment hemoglobin into methemoglobin and
haematin.
Attention is, however, called to the fact that the above basis for the estimation of the age of blood is far from being accurate. The
clotting time, for example, is altered by many circumstances or influences. Cold retards it and heat accelerates it. It is more rapid on
a rough surface and slower on a smooth one. Oily substances may not only increase the clotting time, but may alter the appearance
of the blood. The change in color of the blood is also affected by some factors such as exposure to sunlight and chemical fumes.
CONSTITUTION OF BLOOD
Blood has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is perhaps difficult to think of blood as a tissue, but in view of the
fact that in a cubic millimeter of a normal blood there are in the neighborhood of 5,000,000 red cells, this designation seems not
unreasonable. There are about 6 quarts of blood in a man of average size. It is made up of formed elements suspended in liquid
called plasma. The formed elements are the red cells (erythrocytes) or white blood cells (leucocytes), and the blood platelets. If
blood to which an oxalate has been added to prevent clotting is allowed to stand, the formed elements settle out leaving the plasma,
a straw- yellow colored liquid at the top.
About 65% of the blood is plasma and about 90% of the plasma is water. The 10% of solids in plasma is largely protein in
nature and consists of albumen, several globulins and fibrinogen. If clotted blood is allowed to stand for sometime, the clot
contracts, and a straw-yellow colored liquid called serum is squeeze out. Plasma and serum are terms often confused. Serum differs
from plasma in that it contains no fibrinogen since when blood clots, the protein fibrinogen is changed to an insoluble form called
fibrin.
When searching for blood stains attention should be directed not only to clothing and weapons, but also the finger nails,
lining of the pockets, seams and folds of the garments of the suspect. Blood is often found in places which are not directly visible as
for example under the edges of a table where the criminal may have wiped his hands; in the water trap of a sink where the criminal
may have washed his hands and where there still may be blood remaining in the water, on pieces of paper thrown into waste-paper
baskets, stove or toilet. On clothes that have been recently washed the seams should be cut open to ascertain if any blood may be
there. Even on well-rinsed clothing it may possible to detect blood. An absolutely white handkerchief may still contain blood be seen
when viewed although not visible to the naked eye but will readily under an ultra violet light. When searching for possible blood
stains in the scene of the crime, particular note should be taken or if possible, photograph the position, size and shape of any
suspicious stains found as those may furnish a guide to the direction in which the blood was spurting or in which the blood stained
object was moving or was being carried. Spraying from a cut artery causes extremely small stains which, except for the fact that
there are a great number very close together, appears like flea marks. In certain cases it is possible to find blood stain on a scrubbed
floor since blood may still be present on the cracks between floor boards. In cases of stabbing, the blade of the knife, while being
withdrawn is wiped by the edges of the wound and after drying, only a thin film of faint brown, oftentimes with dull luster may
remain. Sometimes the criminal wipes or washes the blood from the knife in which case the search must be directed to the junction
of the blade and handle as blood may run down where the tang fits into the handle, a point normally overlooked by criminals when
cleaning the weapon after the crime. Also wooden handles of weapon may have split or surface cracks which absorb blood and no
amount of cleaning even with the use of sandpaper will thoroughly remove the stain. Same is also true with metal or bone handles
where blood may be found in the crevices and grooves of the handle. The inside surface of the scabbard or leather sheath of a knife,
bolo or dagger must not also be overlooked when searching for blood. It has been experienced in the chemical laboratory of the
In the handling of blood-stained evidence, it must be borne in mind that blood is a perishable substance and should be
treated accordingly. If the blood does not receive proper handling, it may putrefy in transit and arrive at the laboratory in a condition
unsuitable for a conclusive analysis.
In crimes of violence where blood grouping tests are very important, it is advisable, whenever possible, to obtain a liquid
sample of the victim's blood for comparison. The liquid sample, being easy type, will serve as control since too often garments
received In the laboratory are dirty and too soiled for a conclusive blood group determination. The liquid blood sample must be
placed in a sterile container and the stopper sealed with adhesive tape. The container is wrapped with cotton for insulation against
breakage and then placed in a cylindrical cardboard mailing tube or any rigid box of appropriate size. Refrigeration is not necessary
during the transit of the specimen.
If often happens that in the initial stages of the investigation of crimes of violence, the necessity for blood examination is
not apparent since no evidence necessitating blood examination has been found. Under these circumstances the body of the victim
is buried without a sample of blood taken during the autopsy. If the victim has no hospital or military service records and in the
event blood grouping comparison becomes necessary, there will be no means of ascertaining the victim's blood group unless the
stained clothing, if any, has been preserved. To avoid the possibility of such as occurrence, it is advisable to obtain a blood sample of
the victim at the time of the autopsy. The victim's blood group can be determined and make a matter of record for possible future
use.
In cases where dried blood stain is located on smooth surfaces such as walls, finished floors, table tops, glass or automobile
fenders, it is suggested that the blood be scrapped off with a clean knife or razor blade, care being taken not to include scrapings of
the surface. The scraping are placed in a pill box and sealed with tape. Envelopes or paper packets may be use as containers
provided precaution is taken to avoid loss of contents as a result of sifting through and unsealed comers. The use of exterior and
interior envelopes will minimize danger of loss by sifting.
In those instances where dried stains suspected to be blood appear on hard surfaces such as axes, hammer, knives, stones,
crowbars, etc., a protective cover is necessary before packing the specimen to prevent scraping of the stain by friction in the event
that the whole object is shipped to the laboratory. If the specimen is too bulky for removal as a whole, as for example, floor boards,
window frames, etc., it may be necessary to cut out the linoleum sheets, doors, blood stained area, but where this is done,
photographs should be made of the stains in situ prior to the collection. The stained portion is placed in clean cardboard box or
wrapped in a clean paper.
All things suspected to contain blood must be dried thoroughly before packing. Unless this is done, putrefaction is likely to
set in and render recognition of the origin of the blood either difficult or impossible. Exposure to the open air for a couple of hours
will be sufficient to dry the specimen. Hastening the drying process by exposure to the heat or sunlight should be avoided since heat
and sunlight may cause chemical changes in the blood which might prevent a complete analysis of the stain. Exposure of the clothing
to a fan for the purpose of expediting the drying is also undesirable. Some of the dried crust of blood adhering to the surface of the
fabric may be blown away by the air stream. After the blood stains on the clothes have been properly dried, they will remain in a
condition satisfactory for analysis for a long period of time. Each article of clothing must be packed separately to avoid possible
contamination. In packing, one should take special care never to place newspaper directly in contact with the stain.
Blood that has been absorbed by the soil at the scene of the crime may be dug up and placed in glass or enameled
container. Another procedure that recommended is to press down an open tin can into the soil over the blood, cleaning the soil
around the tin and inserting a metal plate of sufficient diameter below it. The whole can then is lifted and the tin and contained soil
sample firmly secured to the metal plate by the strips of adhesive tape.
Blood stains may be removed from glazed surface such as tiles, glass, or table tops or body of automobile by moistening a
small one inch square of white, unstarched cotton fabric with distilled water or physiological saline solution (0.9% solution of NaCl
and rubbing the stain off on to this. The fabric used should not be soaked and must be allowed to dry at room temperature before
packing. Certain authors notably Gross and Schneickert recommended that such stains be dissolved in water or saline solution and
then absorbed by blotting paper.
Stains on friable object such as plaster, dried leaves or mud require special packing. Unless this is done, the shaking in
transit causes such materials to crumble and the blood that originally was visible on the surface may also be hopelessly lost in a mass
of powder on arrival in the laboratory. Embedding in a mass of plasticine, stained side uppermost, and packing in a small cardboard
box with dry cotton and then in a larger box is recommended.
In the sealing of the specimen, care should be taken that gum, candle grease or sealing wax does not contaminate the
stains. Many hours are sometimes wasted by the chemist in a fruitless attempt to obtain a test for blood from what eventually
proved to be red sealing wax.
ACTIVITY NO. 1
PRELIM
FORENSIC 3
Directions: Watch the Video and prepare a reaction paper.
SCORE:
ACTIVITY NO. 2
PRELIM
FORENSIC 3
Directions:
Explain each questions, before you begin writing, read the passage carefully and plan what
you will say. Your essay should be as well organized and as carefully written as you can
make it.
1. In your own understanding what are the roles of Chemist in scientific criminal
investigation?
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2. Define the following words for each item
Direct Evidence
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Hearsay Evidence
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SCORE:
ACTIVITY NO. 3
PRELIM
FORENSIC 3
Directions:
Explain each questions, before you begin writing, read the passage carefully and plan what
you will say. Your essay should be as well organized and as carefully written as you can
make it.
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2. Testimonial Evidence
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3. Experimental Evidence
4.Documentary Evidence
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The end. . .